INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Tunnel plays an importance role in our daily life not only in terms of
transportation, but also in carrying water & sewage. In developing country like
INDIA, due to rapid urbanization & civilization there is scarcity of land, so in
that case tunnel plays vital role as it can be constructed underground. Further for
civic needs in developing country tunnel can be used for shelters, recreations,
traffic, storage for food grain, defense, water conductor system, commercial
activities etc. An increasingly necessary interdependence compels human
being toward the construction of more long tunnels both above ground and
below the sea to advance human unity as one global family exchanging and
sharing agricultural and manufactured products, resources, energy, services, and
knowledge.

Tunnels are constructed using many methods, depending upon the kind of soil
and/or rock through which they will pass, their size, how deep they need to be,
and the obstructions that may been countered along the route. These methods
include cut-and-cover construction, drill and blast, tunnel boring machine
(TBM), immersion of prefabricated tunnels, and sequential excavation methods
(SEM). It is relatively simpler to excavate in hard rock strata which constitutes
formation of lava like basalt and formation like granite, quartzite, schist,
limestone. While excavation in soft soil is tedious and require various
equipment. The invention of the tunnel shield—which supports unlined ground
to reduce the risk of collapse, Sir Marc Isambard Brunel and his son Isambard
Kingdom Brunel were able to excavate a tunnel under the Thames River
(London) between 1825 and 1843.

Different tunneling shielding is used for different types of soft ground. Open
shielding is favored where grounds are free standing. Closed shields are favored
where the ground is very weak, Slurry shields are favored for water saturated
sandy soils and gravel (<10% clay and silt content ; running sand). Earth
pressure balance shield methods are favored for water saturated silty soil (>7%
clay and silt ;< 70% gravel). Tunneling through hard rock strata is obtained by
blasting. tunnel boring machine (TBM), also known as a "mole", is a machine
used to excavate tunnels with a circular cross section through a variety of soil
and rock strata.
In design of tunnel various factors are involved like geological strata, types of
soil, seepage pressure, types of surcharge etc. Also for design purpose we have
to consider the different kind of loads e.g. ground pressure, water pressure, dead
load, surcharge, subgrade reaction etc. If necessary, the following loads should
be considered- loads from inside, loads during construction stage, effects of
earthquake, effects of adjacent tunnels, effects of settlement, and other loads.
The lining of tunnel in rocks require through study of the geology of the rock
mass, the effective cover, results of in-situ test like modulus of elasticity,
poissions ratio and other mechanical properties of soils. The lining is designed
so that the stresses within the permissible limit.

Computational methods such as finite element, finite difference, and discrete

element methods are used to estimate behaviors of soil, rock, or engineered
structures when a sufficient amount of detailed information is available—but
can be useful when there is limited prior experience working under specific
conditions. Behaviors may be predicted using computer software programs. All
computational methods, whether based on discretization (e.g., differential versus
integral) or continuity assumptions (e.g., continuum, discrete rock blocks, or
some hybrid), require knowledge of spatial information and materials properties
(e.g., intact materials, discontinuities, and fluid properties). Different software
tools like FLAC-3D, PLAXIS, ANSYS based on finite element method or finite
difference methods, are used in analyze tunnels and other structures. The main
advantage of using this software is that we can get the exact results and also we
can compare these results with the analytical results.

1.2 TUNNELING METHODS:

There are various methods of construction of tunnel are used, are described as
below-
1.2.1 Cut and Cover Method of Tunnel Construction
Cut and cover method of tunnel construction is generally used to build shallow
tunnels. In this method, a trench is cut in the soil and it is covered by some
support which can be capable of bearing load on it. Diaphragm walls are used as
temporary retaining wall in the site. Then roof is located on the top of the walls
and excavation is carried out. Finally, base slab is constructed. Most of the
Underground metro rail stations are constructed using cut and cover method.
1.2.2 Bored Tunnel Method
Bored tunnel method is modern technology. In this case, tunnel boring machines
are used which automatically work and makes the entire tunneling process
easier. It is also quicker process and good method to build tunnel in high traffic
areas.
Tunnels boring machines (TBM’s) are available in different types suitable for
different ground conditions. These machines can be used in difficult conditions
such as below the water table etc. A special pressurized compartment is
provided for TBM to work in below water table conditions. Care should be
taken while TBM is in working conditions. The only difficulty with this TBM is
its heavy weight. So, transportation is difficult and costlier.
1.2.3 Clay Kicking Method of Tunnel Construction
This method is used for strong clayey soil conditions. This is an old method and
used for small works like sewage pipes installations etc. In this method, a hole
is excavated into the ground and after some depth tunnel is excavated which is
done by the clay kicker which lies 0n a plank at 45o angle. An excavating tool is
provided under clay kicker foot. The excavated using that tool is collected by
other workers. This is well famous because it is the method used by Englishmen
to put mines under the German empire during First World War.
1.2.4 Shaft Method of Tunnel Construction
In this method tunnel is constructed at greater depth from the ground surface.
The shaft is built up to the depth where tunnel is required. Shaft is a permanent
structure which is like well with concrete walls. At required depth, tunnels are
excavated using TBM’s. Shafts are provided at both inlet and outlet of tunnels.
Intermediate shafts are also provided if tunnel is too long. After the construction
process, these shafts can also be used for ventilation purpose as well as
emergency exits.
1.2.5 Drilling and Blasting method
In drilling and blasting method, explosives are used in controlled way to break
rock for excavation. Drill is the tool used which holds the drill bit and rotate it
.to provide axial force to create a hole. The method can be used in all types of
rocks and the initial cost is lower than the mechanical method like TBM.
1.2.6 Pipe Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction
Pipe jacking method is used to construct tunnels under existing structures like
road ways, railways etc. In this method, specially made pipes are driven into
underground using hydraulic jacks. Maximum size of 3.2-meter diameter is
allowed for tunnels.
1.2.7 Box Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction
Box jacking method is similar to pipe jacking, but in this case instead of pipes,
specially made boxes are driven into the soil. A cutting head is provided at the
front side of the box. Excavated matter is collected within the box. Larger size
tunnels can be excavated using box jacks up to 20 meters.
1.2.8 Underwater Tunnel Construction
An underwater tunnel is a structure which is built under water to make a way
through it. If construction of bridge is not possible then under water tunnel is
good choice. Under water tunneling is costly process but have advantages over
bridge or ferry links. Immersed tubes or bored tunnel are two most common
methods which are used to construct under water tunnels.

1.3 LINING OF TUNNEL

Lining is the permanent support system to the periphery of the tunnel, play the
main role for keeping tunnel from collapse and provide safe. It usually consists
of precast concrete segments which form rings. Cast iron linings were
traditionally used in tunnels, while steel liners were sometimes used elsewhere.
Lining in tunnel is technically important factor as it constitutes 30-40 percent of
the total cost of the tunnel. Therefore lining operation requires considerable
study and careful planning.

1.3.1 Factors affecting lining

Selecting the efficient method of lining depend on several factors, they are
broadly classified as Technical factor and Non Technical factors. They are
described as below

1.3.1.1 Technical Factors

1. Tunnel Function:

Tunnel function is an important factor in deciding what will be the tunnel lining.
Tunnels for water transfer need smooth lining. Railway tunnels need strong
lining under the rails to support the high load generated by the trains.

2. Tunnel cross sectional profile:

Tunnel profile affects the constructability of a tunnel lining .The time needed to
construct the final lining is different depending on tunnel profile and lining type.
The objective of this factor is to determine efficient lining methods depending
on tunnel profile.

3. Groundwater conditions:

Groundwater flow into the tunnel is directly relational to the groundwater

pressure around the tunnel. Groundwater pressure on the lining depends on
groundwater table height and relative permeability of the ground. Groundwater
inflow rate represents groundwater pressure and ground permeability, the
amount of groundwater that the lining method will resist should be taken into
consideration during selecting the lining method.

4. Ground conditions
Ground properties have a great influence on the selection of the tunnel lining.
Selection of a lining method should be done carefully and a high degree of
safety must be always in tunnel designer’s mind.
1.3.2 Sequence of lining:
The sequence of concrete placement for tunnel linings depends on shape of
tunnel, its size, and the nature of the rock strata, type of form work and other
plant equipment used. The sequences of lining is generally adopted as follows-
a) Placing concrete to form the kerbs first, followed by side walls and arch and
finally the invert;
b) Placing concrete to form the invert first followed by sides and arch; and
c) Placing concrete for the invert, side walls and arch all at one time.

1.4 Types of lining:

In ancient time generally tunneling was done with timber, brickwork and
masonry. Timber used as building material and has been used as a limited scale
as structural lining. Brick lining may be used for relatively longer tunnel. Now a
day various modern type of lining being used as precast concrete lining, cast
iron and steel lining, cast-in-situ concrete lining, fiber reinforced concrete lining.
The lining can also be classified as below-
1. Temporary ground support
2. Primary lining
3. Secondary lining

Temporary ground support. In rock tunnels where the ground has

insufficient stand-up time to allow the construction of the primary lining
some distance behind the face, then some form of temporary ground support
applied at the- tunnel face is required e.g. rock bolts, shortcrete and steel sets.
Such support is not required in soft ground in conjunction with a shield
driven tunnel as temporary ground support is provided by the body of the
shield itself.

Primary lining. A primary lining is the main structural component of the

tunnel support system which is required to sustain the loads and deformations
that the ground may induce during the tunnel's intended working life. A
further function performed by the primary lining is the control of water
egress (exit) and ingress (entrance).

Secondary lining. Various tunnels require smooth bore profiles for their
intended use, e.g. sewer and water tunnels or aesthetic finishes for public
usage, e.g. highway and pedestrian tunnels. Erosion and corrosion protection
for the primary lining and further waterproofing may also be required, all of
which are provided by secondary linings.
1.5 SELECTION OF SUPPORT SYSTEM
1. Continuous Ribs – This support system can be erected more rapidly than other
types and is generally used in rocks whose bridge action period is long enough
to permit removal of gases and mucking.
2. Rib and Post- this support system is generally used in tunnels whose roof
joins the sidewalls at an angle instead of a smooth curve.
3. Rib and Wall Plate- This support system is generally provided in tunnels with
a large cross section with high straight sides through good rock or in large
circular tunnels, where it is possible to support the wall plate by pins and the
strata below the wall plate does not require support.
4. Rib, Wall Plates and Post- This type of support permits post spacing to be
different from the rib spacing and IS code generally recommended for use in
tunnels with high vertical sides .
5. Full Circle Ribs- This type of support is used in tunnels in squeezing, swelling
and crushed rock, or any rock that imposes considerable side pressure.
6. Shortcreting- Commonly used in conjunction with rock bolts and mesh as a
temporary support system in rock tunnel where a concrete lining cast in situ
used as a primary support. This is generally used to seal off rock surfaces. Steel
fiber additive are used to improve tensile and shear strengths of shortcrete.

1.7 WATER SEEPAGE AND ITS EFFECT ON TUNNEL

Water is tunneler’s enemy. It causes problems during excavation, it introduces
additional expense into the tunnel lining and ground support; it frequently
causes on-going problems during the working life of the tunnel, sometimes
affecting not only the tunnel lining but also the structure and fittings within the
tunnel.
The damaging effect of water tunnels during their working life may be classified
as:
1. External Effects (water affects the surroundings of the tunnels, but not
affecting the structure).
2. Structural Effects (seepage water affecting the structural adequacy of the
tunnel). Such as: Detoriation of mortar internally, Corrosion of
reinforcement, Degradation/Reduction in strength of concrete, Swelling
soil-lifting/damage to invert Erosion of mortar (masonry lining), Loss of
support due to fines transport, Dissolution of bitumen, External layer by
toluene in ground water, Rising water table and lack of tightness.
3. Functional Effects (Seepage water affecting the functional adequacy of
tunnel) e.g. damage due to surface finishes corrosion of internal fittings,
salt deposition, masonry sealing, clogging of drainage due to fines, crack
in road slab, coal tar in flows, etc.
1.7.1 Seepage Control Method:
Seepage in tunnel can be controlled by using different admixtures, grouting and
deep drilling/boring.
1.9 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY
In the hilly region like Jharkhand, surface level is undulated and it is very
difficult to construct canal without elevated section or underground section.