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Geotextile Filter
Geotextile Filter
Geotextile Filter
If the larger pores in geotextile filter are smaller than the larger soil particles, the soil will
not pass through.
If the smaller pores in a geotextile filter are large enough for the smaller soil particles to
pass through, the geotextile will not "clog" or "blind".
If there are a large number of pores in a geotextile filter adequate flow will be
maintained, even when some pores become blocked.
These simple concepts and analogies with granular filter design are used to establish design
criteria for geotextile filters.
As with granular filter design, a number of geotextile filter criteria have been proposed. There is
general agreement that retention and permeability criteria should be considered but for a more
complete design it is necessary to consider additional factors. The criteria that should be
considered for the design and selection of geotextile filters can be summarised as:
a retention criterion to ensure the geotextile openings are small enough to prevent
excessive migration of soil particles ("piping"),
The selection and performance of a geotextile filter is influenced by the type and method of
application, ground water conditions and insitu soil properties (Figure 2). To design a geotextile
filter into a specific application the parameters of influence must be defined.
(see diagrams)
In order to quantify the geotextile filter requirements a simple seven step methodology, based on
research and experience, is proposed (Figure 3).
(see diagram)
To determine the soil retention requirements, for mechanical filter stability of geotextiles, a full
grading and hydrometer analysis as well as the plasticity index (PI) of the soil to be filtered are
required. The retention requirements are expressed in terms of the Apparent Opening Size (AOS)
of the geotextile, which will prevent piping, under the conditions considered. The AOS or O95 of
a geotextile indicates the approximate size of the largest particle which will pass through the
geotextile. Flow conditions affect the way in which soil particles interact with one another and
with the filter. As a result retention requirements are determined for unidirectional flow
conditions and multidirectional flow conditions. The retention requirements for unidirectional
flow conditions are based on a geotextile AOS value determined by wet sieving (O95w) while the
retention requirements for multidirectional flow conditions are based on a geotextile AOS value
determined by hydrodynamic sieving (O95 H). In addition soils can be divided into three zones on
the basis of their particle size distribution (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Soil Zones for Determination of Geotextile Filter Requirements
These soils consist of more than 85% clay and silt (particles smaller than 0,075mm) and often
have sufficient cohesion (PI>15 or % clay / % silt >0,5) and low permeability, which allows for a more
open filter dimensioning. If the soil is non-dispersive and cohesion is preserved under long-term
operational conditions, the hydraulic efficiency of the filter is less important. The possibility of
concentrated fissure flow must however be considered.
The retention requirements for mechanical filter stability of geotextiles used with Zone 1 soils
are:
dispersive soils / fissure flow - place 100mm-150mm of sand, compatible with the
geotextile, between it and the soil.
dispersive soils / fissure flow - place 100mm-150mm of sand, compatible with the
geotextile, between it and the soil.
Zone 2 soils consist of coarse silts and fine sands (d85 >0,075mm and d50 <0,6mm). With regard
to geotextiles, many Zone 2 soils are considered to be problem soils. They exhibit an increased
tendency for the movement of fine soil particles (scouring, erosion and silting up). The retention
requirements for the mechanical filter stability of geotextiles used with Zone 2 soils are:
These granular soils (d85 > 2,0mm) can often be drained without additional filter layers but the
d85 of the soil, to be filtered, must be larger than the openings in any drainage pipe used. In
addition the extent to which fine particles may wash out should be considered. This should not be
allowed to occur to such and extent that the soil structure is destroyed. To ensure that a high
mechanical and hydraulic filter efficiency is maintained a geotextile filter should be used which
meets the retention requirements of Zone 2 soils.
It is imperative that the retention criteria are followed WITHOUT applying a safety factor. A
geotextile with openings too big will result in excessive piping of soil particles through the filter.
Conversely a geotextile with openings too small will result in a build-up of fine particles which
may impede flow through the filter. In critical applications, to further minimise the risk of piping,
performance testing should be conducted to evaluate the behaviour of potential geotextile filters
with a given soil. (Section 3.6).
(see diagram)
The permeability of a well designed geotextile filter in severe soil and hydraulic conditions can
reduce by an order of magnitude over its life. The principle of all permeability criteria is that as
long as the permeability of the geotextile (kg) is greater than the permeability of the soil (ks) the
flow of water will not be impeded at the soil / geotextile interface. Although dependant on soil
conditions and hydraulic gradient, the minimum allowable kg is determined by applying a factor
of safety of ten to ks:
kg > 10* ks
In critical applications, to further minimise the risk of the geotextile filter not being sufficiently
permeable, performance testing should be conducted. (Section 3.6)
The success of properly designed granular filters can be attributed to their inherent porosities
which are in the region of 25% to 30%. It is therefore logical that a geotextile filter with plenty
of openings (pores) is preferable to one with few openings. Hence the permeability of a highly
porous geotextile is not significantly impaired if some pores are blocked by soil particles.
For nonwoven geotextiles use the geotextile with the largest porosity (n) available, but
not less than 60%,
For woven geotextiles use the geotextile with the largest percentage open area (POA)
available, but not less than 5%.
If the application requires the geotextile filter to be exposed to sunlight for an extended period
added resistance to ultraviolet degradation is necessary.
All polymers are affected by ultraviolet light, some more so than others. Polypropylene, in
particular, if untreated is very sensitive in this regard. In general exposure to sunlight should be
avoided or at least minimised. If suitable information is unavailable, test method ASTM D4355-
84 can be used to establish the UV stability of geotextiles. Alternatively an assessment can be
made by simply exposing the geotextile to direct sunlight over a period of time.
Where the geotextile will be exposed to chemicals for extended periods, such as in waste
containment, the stability of the geotextile with the chemicals concerned should be evaluated. If
suitable data is unavailable, test method ASTM D5322-92 can be used to assess the chemical
stability of geotextiles.
Geotextile filters will not perform properly if damaged during installation. Site conditions and
construction procedures affect geotextile survivability in the following areas:
trench construction / surface preparation - the trench depth and expected condition of the
trench walls or prepared surface (smooth or rocky) and
A geotextile with good conformability is less susceptible to puncture and damage during
installation and can be placed in intimate contact with the soil. If there is a void behind the
geotextile, excessive fine soil particles will be able to accumulate next to the filter, thus impeding
the flow of ground water.
The most common method of ensuring a geotextile filter will survive the construction process is
to specify minimum index strength properties corresponding to the severity of the installation.
Minimum index strength properties for different geotextiles (I to VII) are listed in Table 1 and an
indication of what installation conditions geotextiles with these minimum strength properties can
survive is given in Table 2. This is adapted from the Tast Force 25 (FHWA, 1990) survivability
specification and is based on the properties of geotextiles known to have performed
satisfactorily.
Test
Geotextile Grade
Property Units Method
I II III IV V VI VIII
ASTM
Trapezoidal
N 175 225 275 325 425 525 725 D4533-
Tear
85
SABS
CBR kN 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 6.0
0221-88
CPA-
Dart Test mm 32 28 24 20 16 14 10
1991
Tensile SABS
kN / m 7 9 11 13 19 25 40
Strength 0221-88
Grade of Geotextile
Installation Condition
I II III IV V VI VII
Trench <2.0m deep with smooth sides and rounded drainage stone
Y
with moderate compaction
Trench <2.0m deep with rough sides or sharp drainage stone with
Y
moderate compaction
Trench <2.0m deep with rough sides and sharp drainage stone with
Y
high compaction
Trench <2.0m deep with smooth sides and rounded drainage stone
Y
with moderate compaction
Trench <2.0m deep with rough sides or sharp drainage stone with
Y
high compaction
Erosion protection with stone hand picked directly onto geotextile
Y
(gabions)
Erosion protection with rock<100kg placed on geotextile protected Y
by 150-300mm sand or "zero drop height"
Erosion protection with rock>100kg placed on geotextile protected
Y
by 150-300mm sand or "zero drop height"
Severe installation and loading conditions, e.g. under railtrack
Y
ballast
A critical application can be defined as where failure of the geotextile filter is unacceptable based
on:
Performance testing provides data relating to the behaviour of a candidate geotextile filter
subjected to boundary, flow and soil conditions closely simulating those anticipated on site.
Filtration performance tests for unidirectional flow conditions include:
In the LTGR test water flows downwards through a vertical column of soil above a candidate
geotextile, in a permeameter fitted with stand-pipes spaced at 50mm intervals. The bottom two
stand-pipes are 25mm above and below the geotextile (Figure 7.) The change in flow rate
through the system as well as the stand-pipe readings are monitored over time. The test is
stopped once the flow rate and the stand-pipe measurements stabilise. The permeability of the
soil / geotextile interface can be calculated according to Darcy's equation using the head loss
measured between stand-pipes. If the permeability of the soil / geotextile can be considered to
have failed.
Figure 7: Long Term Gradient Ratio Permeameter
In the IFC test the soil sample is divided into a coarse and a fine fraction. After the flow through
the uncontaminated geotextile is determined, portions of the fine soil fraction are introduced to
the flow tube and the IFC is recorded for each increment. The same procedure is carried out for
the coarse fraction. The results are then plotted as IFC versus mass of soil added, for both the
fine and coarse fractions. If the reduction in IFC of the fine fraction is greater than the reduction
in IFC of the coarse fraction then the fine fraction is being retained at the soil / geotextile
interface zone. This indicates a risk of excessive clogging. The mass of soil retained is obtained
by weighing the geotextile specimen before and after testing, which gives an indication of the
risk of piping.
A designated liquid flows downwards through a vertical column in which a candidate geotextile
is positioned, with or without soil above it. The flow rate is measured over time in order to
evaluate the degree of biological and / or chemical clogging. Back flushing can be introduced
with or biocides or chemicals and the results assessed accordingly.
There is an ongoing debate regarding the advantages and disadvantages of woven and nonwoven
geotextiles. The design requirements must be considered in order to assess what geotextile is best
for a specific situation. In general, as long as the geotextile meets the filter criteria, whether it is
nonwoven or a woven, it should perform adequately as a filter.
The retention behaviour of a geotextile filter is dependent on the size of the geotextile pore
openings but is influenced by the thickness of the filter. Conceptually, a given soil is less likely
to be retained by a thin geotextile than by a thick geotextile with the same distribution of pore
size openings. Due to their structure and thickness nonwoven geotextiles are generally better
suited to applications requiring more stringent retention performance.
Based on the application requirements, insitu soil properties and the site conditions, the required
properties of the geotextile filter are obtained from Step 1 to Step 5. In critical applications the
suitability of geotextiles should be confirmed by performance testing (Step 6).
The required geotextile property values obtained from the desk top analysis are inserted in the
specification sheet (Table 3). If performance testing is carried out, the property values of the
most suitable, cost effective geotextile are inserted.
Visual
Percentage Open Area 5 %
Measurement
Porosity-Nonwovens 60 % Calculation
1. Minimum average values (in the weaker principle direction) are specified except for the pore size where the
maximum or a range of AOS is specified and the Dart Test where the maximum diameter of the dart hole is
specified.