In Situ Soil Testing Pogl Chapters 2 4

In-situ
soil
testing
J J M Brouwer
In-situ soil testing
J J M Brouwer
Lankelma Head Office Lankelma–Andrews Ltd
The Old Dairy Salmon Road
Wittersham Road Great Yarmouth
Iden Norfolk
East Sussex NR30 3QS
TN31 7UY United Kingdom
United Kingdom
Tel: 01797 280 050 Tel: 01493 332111

Fax: 01797 280 195 Fax: 01493 332265
E-mail: info@lankelma.co.uk E-mail: info@lankelmaandrews.co.uk
Website: www.lankelma.com Website: www.lankelmaandrews.com
Management
Eric Zon Managing Director ericzon@lankelma.co.uk
Ben Magee Operations Director benmagee@lankelma.co.uk
Andy Barwise Technical Director andybarwise@lankelma.co.uk
Produced by
IHS BRE Press, Willougby Road, Bracknell, RG12 8FB
Tel: 01923 664761
Fax: 01923 662477
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The publisher, Lankelma Limited, and the author make no representation, express or implied, with regard to the
accuracy of the information contained in this guide and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any
errors or omissions that may have been made.
© Copyright Lankelma Limited 2007

First published 2002 (as Guide to cone penetration testing on shore and near shore)
Second edition 2007
Contents
Preface v
Acknowledgements vi
Symbols, abbreviations and engineering units vii
Glossary x
1 Introduction 1
2 CF cone (cone penetration test) 5
2.1 Cone penetrometers 7
2.2 Soil classification 9
2.3 Estimate of basic parameters 10
2.4 Pre-drilling 12
3 Piezocone (cone penetration test with porewater
pressure measurement) 13
3.1 Dissipation test 15
3.2 Saturation of the cone penetrometer 16
3.3 Pre-drilling 17
4: Part 1 Special cones: geotechnical cones 19
4.1 Cone pressuremeter 19
4.2 Gamma cone 21
4.3 Seismic cone 23
4.4 Marchetti dilatometer 25
4.5 Nuclear density probe 27
4.6 Push-in shear vane 29
4.7 Soil moisture probe (SMP) 30
4.8 Flow penetrometers 32
4: Part 2 Special cones: geo-environmental cones 34

4.9 Electric conductivity cone 34
4.10 Environmental cone 36
4.11 Hydrocarbon cone 37
Contents
4: Part 3 Special cones: other cones 40

4.12 Magnetometer (for unexploded ordnance detection) 40
4.13 Lubricating cone 44
4.14 Wing cone 45
4.15 Video cone 46
4.16 Neptune cone penetration test unit 48
5 Sampling probes 49
5.1 Mostap soil sampler 49
5.2 Delft continuous soil sampler 51
5.3 Shelby soil sampler 52
5.4 Wastap water and gas sampler 53
5.5 Delft multi-level groundwater sampling probe 54
6 Instrumentation 57
6.1 Standpipe piezometer 57
6.2 Vibrating wire piezometer 59
6.3 BAT piezometer 60
6.4 Inclinometer system 62
7 Onshore testing 65
7.1 Cone penetration rigs 66
7.2 Fieldwork 72
7.3 Reporting of test results 76
8 Push technology in the rail environment 79
8.1 Introduction 79
8.2 Planning 80
8.3 Investigations 80
8.4 Rail-specific rigs 81
9 Near-shore marine testing 89
9.1 Near-shore marine environment 89
9.2 Jack-up platforms 89
9.3 Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) 93
9.4 Seabed frames 95
9.5 Overwater cantilever frame 97
10 Offshore testing 101
10.1 Introduction 101
10.2 Seabed cone penetration test systems 102
10.3 Seabed soil samplers 107
10.4 Seabed resistivity systems 113
Appendix A Pile design using cone penetration tests
(Dutch Standard) 117
Appendix B Foundation engineering using cone penetration
tests 129
References (including websites) 143
v
Preface
Cone penetration testing (CPT) is the most versatile device for in situ soil
testing. Without disturbing the ground, it provides information about soil
type, geotechnical parameters like shear strength, density, elastic
modulus, rates of consolidation and environmental properties. Further, as
it can be seen as a small scale test pile, it is the best and most cost-
effective device to design piled foundations and sheet piles.
The book describes more than 25 special probes, samplers and

instrumentation devices. Most of them are for use on land, but many can
also be deployed at sea. To name a few; there is a seismic cone, a
chemical sounding probe, a hydrocarbon probe, a video cone, a cone for
bomb detection and many others.
Using CPT rigs makes it possible to take soil samples at a specified

depth. The hydraulic rams push the sampler, with the cutting mouth
closed, into the ground. After opening the mouth at a certain depth and
pushing forward, the sample is taken into a lining stocking and retrieved.
This guide describes the practice of in-situ subsoil testing on land and at
sea. It gives information on land-based rigs, sea-bed platforms, under-
water vehicles and vessels.
The appendices give worked examples for the design of piles and shallow
foundations. Design should be carried out by qualified engineers with
enough experience and local knowledge. The design methods shown in
the appendices must only be used alongside existing practice.
Hans Brouwer
Iden, East Sussex
January 2007
vi
Acknowledgements
There are many manufacturers and suppliers of CPT tools. Some

descriptions and photographs in this book are taken, with their approval,
from their websites. The addresses of the websites are given under
‘References’ at the end of the guide.
The book Cone penetration testing in geotechnical practice* is still the

best guide, in which the many chapters and examples present the
knowledge and experience that have been acquired all over the world. It
tells where to find more detailed information about ‘In-situ soil testing’.
A book like this can only be written with help from the industry. Lankelma
Limited came up with all the inside information needed. Many thanks for
all the advice given by their engineers and operators.
* Lunne T, Robertson P K and Powell J J M, 1997. Cone penetration testing in geotechnical practice.
Spon Press, London
vii
Symbols, abbreviations and

engineering units
Symbols
Only the symbols which are not directly explained in the guide are given here.
a area ratio of the cone = An / Ac
Ac projected area of the cone
An cross-sectional area of load cell or shaft
Bq pore pressure ratio = (u2 – u0) / (q t – mvo)
c coefficient of consolidation
ch horizontal coefficient of consolidation
cv vertical coefficient of consolidation
Cu undrained shear strength
D diameter
E Young's modulus
fs unit sleeve friction resistance
ft sleeve friction corrected for pore pressure effects
Fr normalised friction ratio = fs / (q t – mvo)
G shear modulus
H layer thickness
k coefficient of permeability
L length
mv coefficient of volume change
N number of blows in the SPT
qc measured cone resistance
qca equivalent average cone resistance
qn net cone resistance = q t – mvo
qt corrected cone resistance = qc + (1 – a).u2
qe effective cone resistance = (qc – a.u2) = (qt – u2)
Qc normalised cone resistance = (qc – mvo) / mvvo
Qt normalised cone resistance = (q t – mvo) / mvvo
Rf friction ratio = (fs / (qc ).100%
s settlement
t time
t50 time for 50% dissipation of excess porewater pressure
u porewater pressure
u0 in situ pore pressure
u1 pore pressure measured on the cone
viii Symbols, abbreviations and engineering units
u2 pore pressure measured behind the cone

u3 pore pressure measured behind friction sleeve
ui pore pressure at time t = 0
ut pore pressure at time = t
6u excess porewater pressure = (u – u0)
U normalised excess pore pressure
z depth
mv total vertical stress
mvo total overburden stress
mvv effective vertical stress
mvvo effective overburden stress
qv effective friction angle
Abbreviations
BGL Below ground level
BSP British Standard pipes
CAU anisotropic consolidated undrained triaxial test
CFA continuous flight auger
CIU consolidated isotropic undrained
CPT cone penetration test
CPTU CPT with pore pressure measurement (piezocone test)
FSK Frequency shifting key
GPR ground probing radar
HDPE high density polyethylene
ICRCL Inter Departmental Committee on Redevelopment of
Contaminated Land
ISSMGE International Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering
IRTP international reference test procedure
MC moisture content
NAPL non-aqueous phase liquid
LNAPL light non-aqueous phase liquid
NC normally consolidated
OC over-consolidated
OCR over-consolidation ratio
PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
PC personal computer
PI particle index
PSD particle size distribution
PVC polyvinyl chloride
pH concentration of hydrogen ions (acidity/alkalinity factor)
SO4 total sulphate
SPT standard penetration test
UU unconsolidated undrained
UV ultraviolet
Symbols, abbreviations and engineering units ix
Engineering units
Multiples
micro (µm) 10 –6
milli (m) 10 –3
kilo (k) 10 +3
Mega (M) 10 +6
SI base units
Length metre (m)
Area square metre (m2)
Force newton (N)
Pressure or stress pascal (Pa) (= N/m2)
Multiple units
Length millimetre (mm)
kilometre (km)
Area square millimetre (mm2)
square kilometre (km2)
Force kilonewton (kN)
Pressure or tress kilonewton per square metre (kPa)
Meganewton per square metre (MPa)
Conversion factors
Force 1 kg = 10 N
1 ton = 10 kN
Pressure or stress 1 kg/cm2 = 100 kPa = 100 kN/m2

1 bar = 100 kPa = 100 kN/m2
1 ton/m2 = 10 kPa = 10 kN/m2
(ie 1 m of water = 10 kPa)
Derived values for CPTU

Excess pore pressure 6u = u2 – u0
Corrected cone resistance qt = qc + (1 – a).u2
Net cone resistance qn = qt – mvo
Friction ratio Rf = (fs / qt ) x 100%
Pore pressure ratio Bq = 6u / qn
Normalised excess pore pressure U = (ut – u0) / (ui – u0) where ut is the
pore pressure at time t in a dissipation test
and ui is the pore pressure at the start of
the dissipation test
x
Glossary
This glossary contains the most frequently used terms related to CPT and CPTU.
Cone
The part of the Cone penetrometer on which the end bearing is developed
Cone penetrometer
The assembly containing the cone, friction sleeve, any other sensors and
measuring systems, as well as the connections to the push rods
Cone resistance, qc
The total force acting on the cone, Qc, divided by the projected area of the cone,
Ac; (qc = Qc / Ac)
Corrected cone resistance, qt

The cone resistance, qc, corrected for porewater pressure effects
Corrected sleeve friction, ft

The sleeve friction corrected for porewater pressure effects on the ends of the
friction sleeve
Data acquisition system

The system used to measure and record the measurements made by the cone
penetrometer
Dissipation test
A test when the decay of the porewater pressure is monitored during a pause in
penetration
Filter element
The porous element inserted into the cone penetrometer to allow transmission of
the porewater pressure to the pore pressure sensor, while maintaining the correct
profile of the cone penetrometer
Friction ratio, Rf
The ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the sleeve friction, fs, to the cone
resistance, qc, both measured at the same depth; Rf = (fs / qc).100
Glossary xi
Friction reducer
A local enlargement on the push rod surface, placed at a distance above the cone
penetrometer, and provided to reduce the friction on the push rods
Friction sleeve
The section of the cone penetrometer upon which the sleeve friction is measured
HWY
Size classification for rotary drill casing
Net cone resistance, qn

The corrected cone resistance minus the vertical total stress, qn = qt – mvo
Net pore pressure, 6u

The measured pore pressure less the equilibrium pore pressure, 6u = u – u0
Normalised cone resistance, Qc orQt

The cone resistance expressed in a non-dimensional form and taking account of
stress changes in situ, Qc = (qc – mvo) / mvvo, or when the corrected cone
resistance is used Qt = (qt – mvo) / mvvo. Where mvo and mvvo are the total and
effective vertical stress respectively
Normalised friction ratio, Fr

The sleeve friction normalised by the net cone resistance
Piezocone
A cone penetrometer containing a pore pressure sensor
Pore pressure, u
The pore pressure generated during penetration and measured by a pore
pressure sensor. u1 when measured on the cone, u2 when measured just behind
the cone and u3 when measured just behind the friction sleeve
Pore pressure ratio, Bq

The net pore pressure normalised with respect to the net cone resistance,
Bq = 6u / qn
Push rods
The thick-walled tubes or rods used for advancing the cone penetrometer
Thrust machine (rig)

The equipment, which pushes the cone penetrometer and push rods into the
ground
Sleeve friction, fs
The total frictional force acting on the friction sleeve, Fs, divided by its surface
area, As; (fs = Fs / As)
xii
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
History
The first penetrometer tests were made in the Netherlands in 1932. A
gas pipe of 19 mm inner diameter was used; inside this a 15 mm steel
rod could move freely up and down. A cone tip was attached to the steel
rod. Both the outer pipe and the inner rod with the 10 cm2 cone and a
60° apex angle were pushed down.
In 1935, Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory in the Netherlands designed

the first manually operated 10 tonne cone penetration rig. The cone
was first pushed down 150 mm (maximum stroke) and then the outer
pipe was pushed down until it reached the cone tip. Then the casing and
the inner rods were pushed down together until the next level was
reached and the tip resistance could be measured again.
Later, there was an improvement by adding a conical part just above

the cone (Figure 1a on page 2). The purpose of this new geometry
was to prevent soil from entering the gap between the casing and the
inner rods.
In 1953, there was a significant improvement to the Dutch cone test by

adding a friction sleeve behind the cone (Figure 1b). Using this new
device, the local friction could be measured in addition to the cone
resistance. Measurements were made every 0.2 m. For the first time it
was proposed that the friction ratio (sleeve friction / cone resistance)
could be used to classify soil layers in terms of soil type.
2 Introduction
a b c d e f g h i j
Figure 1 Penetrometers, developed over time (Source: A P van den Berg)

a Mechanical cone with conical mantle (1948)
b Mechanical cone with friction sleeve (1953)
c 2 cm2 electrical friction cone (1998)
d 5 cm2 electrical friction cone (1997)
e 10 cm2 electrical piezo cone for wireless testing (1997)
f 10 cm2 electrical piezo cone (1994)
g 10 cm2 electrical seismic cone (1998)
h 10 cm2 disposable piezo cone (1988)
i 15 cm2 electrical friction cone (1989)
j 25 cm2 electrical friction cone (1986)
Introduction 3
In the 1960s, an electric cone was developed. The shape and

dimensions of this cone formed the basis for the International Test
Procedure (ISSMGE, 2001[1]). The main improvements relative to
mechanical cone penetrometers were:
● the elimination of reading errors due to friction between inner rods

and the outer tubes
● a continuous testing with a continuous rate of penetration but without

the need for alternative movements of different parts of the
penetrometer, therefore influencing the cone resistance
● a continuous reading of the cone resistance and easy recording of

the results.
Figure 1 opposite shows the different stages of development of the

cone penetrometer.
Since 1974, a large number of piezo cones have been developed, with
different shapes and filter positions. Some had filters on the very tip or
midway on the cone tip and some on the cylindrical part just behind the
cone tip. In practice most tests were done with the filter on the cone
face. Gradually the practice has changed so that the recommended
position is close behind the cone. With the measurement of porewater
pressure it became apparent that it was necessary to correct the cone
resistance for porewater pressure effects, especially in clay.
4 Introduction
Current situation
Currently there are a whole range of special cones (Chapter 4) and
other devices. The main groups of probes can be listed as:
● cones
● samplers
● instruments.
The test rigs are greatly improved and are now used to push all kinds of
devices, on land and at sea, into the ground. They consist of a
counterweight in combination with electric thrust ramps. The
counterweights can be:
● dead loads
● trucks
● sea-bed platforms
● underwater vehicles
● sea-bed frames.
Figure 2 shows a truck with integrated tracks.
Figure 2 Track truck

5
Chapter 2
CF cone (cone penetration

test)
The test is performed using a cylindrical penetrometer with a conical tip

(cone) penetrating the ground at a constant rate. During the
penetration, the forces on the cone and the friction sleeve are
measured. The measurements are carried out using electronic transfer
and data logging, with a measurement frequency that can secure
detailed information about the soil conditions. Figure 3 shows an
electrical friction cone with cut-away friction sleeve.
135 mm
Connection with rods Strain gauges Friction sleeve Strain gauges Dirt seal Conical point
Dirt seal
36 mm
Cable Screwed connection

with friction sleeve
Figure 3 Electrical friction cone with cut-away friction sleeve
The results from a cone penetration test can in principle be used to

evaluate:
● stratification
● soil type
● soil density and in-situ stress conditions
● shear strength parameters.

6 CF cone (cone penetration test)
Figure 2 Cone penetration test plots

CF cone (cone penetration test) 7
The results from cone penetration tests may also be used, directly, for
design of piled foundations in sand and gravel. Indirectly, it can be used
(shear strength) for piles in clay.
The test results are presented as shown in Figure 2. From left to right,
the CPT plots show cone (tip) resistance, sleeve friction, friction ratio
and inclination of the cone while pushing the cone into the ground.
The friction ratio, Rf = (fs / qc).100 %, can be used to identify the soil
type shown at the right-hand side of the plot.
2.1 Cone penetrometers

Cone penetrometers can be divided into subtraction cones and
compression cones.
● A subtraction cone measures the total force on the penetrometer

(sleeve + tip) and the tip resistance. The sleeve friction is calculated
by subtracting the tip resistance from the total force
● A compression cone measures the tip resistance and the sleeve

friction separately. This results in a lower max value (1 MPa) for the
sleeve friction.
There is no restriction for the sleeve friction of the subtraction cone.

The only restriction is the total force on the penetrometer. For the UK it
is best to use subtraction cones because a sleeve friction higher than
1 MPa is common, especially in very stiff clay.
There are cone penetrometers with 10 and 15 tonnes capacity.

Tables 1, 2 and 3 give specifications for both cone capacities.
Table 1 Subtraction cones
Capacity
10 tonnes 15 tonnes
Apex angle of cone 60° 60°

Diameter 35.7 mm 43.8 mm
Projected area of cone 1000 mm2 1500 mm2
Length of friction sleeve 134 mm 164 mm
Area of friction sleeve 15 000 mm2 22 500 mm2
Max. force on penetrometer 100 kN 150 kN
Max. cone resistance, qc (if fs = 0) 100 MPa (100 kN) 100 MPa (150 kN)
Max. sleeve friction, fs (if qc = 0) 6.6 MPa (100 kN) 6.6 MPa (150 kN)
Diameter of push rods 36 mm 36 mm
Table 2 Compression cones
Capacity
10 tonnes 15 tonnes
Apex angle of cone 60° 60°

Diameter 35.7 mm 43.8 mm
Projected area of cone 1000 mm2 1500 mm2
Length of friction sleeve 134 mm 164 mm
Area of friction sleeve 15 000 mm2 22 500 mm2
Maximum force on penetrometer 100 kN 150 kN
Maximum cone resistance qc (if fs = 0) 100 MPa (100 kN) 100 MPa (150 kN)
Maximum sleeve friction fs 1 MPa (15 kN) 1 MPa (22.5 kN)
Diameter of push rods 36 mm 36 mm
Subtraction cones are stronger than compression cones because they

have a stronger construction due to there being no strain gauges to
measure the sleeve friction. In practice the cone penetration tests will
be stopped at a maximum sleeve friction of 2 MPa.
Table 3 General information
Rate of penetration 20 mm/sec ± 5 mm/sec

Maximum inclination 15°
Sensors Cone resistance
Sleeve friction
Inclination
Depth
Porewater pressure (only for CPTU) with a maximum reach of 1, 2 or 5 MPa. In the UK,
porewater measurements up to 2 MPa are common, especially in chalk and clay
Position of thrust machine At least 1 m from previous CPT, or at least 20 times the diameter of a previous borehole
Level of thrust machine Vertical ± 2°
Distance between measurements maximum 20 mm
Calibration Every 3 months or 3000 m of sounding
Field checks See Chapter 7, Table 5, ‘Control scheme for recommended maintenance routines’
Maximum wear Angle of cone: 60° ± 5°
Sleeve: 35.7 mm ± 0.4 mm
Symbols used on some cone calibration C10 = 10 tonnes compression cone
certificates C15 = 15 tonnes compression cone
S10 = 10 tonnes subtraction cone
S15 = 15 tonnes subtraction cone
C = measurement of cone (tip) resistance
F = measurement of sleeve friction
P =measurement of porewater pressure
I = inclination
S = seismic cone
Example Cone number S10-CF.038 means 10 tonnes subtraction cone, number 038,
with measurement of tip resistance and sleeve friction
2.2 Soil classification

The friction ratio, Rf = (fs / qc).100 %, can be used to identify the soil
type. Charts have been prepared by several researchers [2]. One of
these charts is shown as Figure 5.
100
40
Sand Silty
Gravel
sand Sandy
Dense clay
20
Coarse sand and gravel
Medium Slightly silty

Clay
10
Cone resistance (MPa)
Very silty
6
Loose Hard
4
Very stiff Organic
clay
Stiff Stiff
2
Firm
Firm
1
Soft Soft Peat
0.6
Firm
Very silty
Firm
soils
Soft
0.2
Soft
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Friction ratio (%)
Figure 5 Chart for soil classification

2.3 Estimate of basic parameters

The CPT has three main applications.
● To determine sub-surface stratigraphy and identify materials present
● To estimate geotechnical parameters
● To provide results for direct geotechnical design.
The interpretation of geotechnical parameters can be divided into:
● fine grained soils as clay: undrained shear strength

coefficient of volume change
● coarse grained soils as sand: relative density
● for all soils: equivalent standard penetration

test values.
Undrained shear strength

The preliminary undrained shear strength (Cu) of a clay can be
estimated from:
Cu = qc / Nk
where: qc = measured cone resistance

Nk = 17 to 18 for normally consolidated (NC) clays
or 20 for over-consolidated (OC) clays, like London Clay.
Coefficient of volume change

For NC and lightly OC clays and silts up to firm in consistency (qc less
than about 1.2 MPa), a first approximation can be obtained by using the
relationship between the cone resistance, qc, and the coefficient of
volume change, mv (Meigh [3]):
s = mv.H.6p ( m = _.q1 )
v
c
where: s = settlement of soil layer H

H = thickness of soil layer
6p = applied load midway soil layer H
mv = coefficient of volume change
_ = coefficient (Meigh [3], Table 3)
qc = cone resistance.
The value of _ depends on soil type and the over-consolidation ratio

(OCR), _ = 2 to 8.
Relative Density
For non-cohesive soils, the relative density is often used as a soil
parameter. Figure 6 shows a chart which gives the relationship between
the measured cone resistance and the relative density (Dr) or density
index (ID).
Dr = ID = (emax – e) / (emax – emin)
where: emax and emin = the maximum and minimum void ratios that
can be determined in the laboratory using appropriate standards
e = the in situ void ratio.
Cone resistance qc (MPa)

0 10 20 30 40 50
0
0.1
Vertical effective stress mvvo (MPa)
0.2
1 Schmertmann,1976[5] 0.3
Hilton Mines sand, high

compressibility
2 Baldi et al,1982[6] Ticino sand,
0.4
moderate compressibility
3 Villet and Mitchell,1981[7] Dr = 40% Dr = 80%
Monterey sand, low
compressibility 0.5
Figure 6 Effect of sand compressibility on qc, mvvo, Dr relationship (based on

Robertson and Campanella, 1983 [4])
Equivalent SPT values

A number of studies have been presented over the years to relate the
SPT N-value to CPT. Figure 7 shows the CPT–SPT correlation with grain
size where: qc = cone resistance (kPa)
pa = atmospheric pressure (100 kPa)
N60 = SPT N-value (energy ratio of about 60%)
D50 = mean particle size (mm).
Clay Clay silts and Sandy silt Silty sand Sand

silty clay and silt
10
Data from 18 sites
6
(qc / pa) / N60
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Mean particle size D50 (mm)
Figure 7 CPT–SPT correlation with grain size (Robertson et al, 1983 [8])
2.4 Pre-drilling
According to the international reference test procedure[1], pre-drilling
may be used in parts of the profile when penetrating coarse materials.
Pre-drilling can be carried out by pushing a dummy rod of 45–50 mm
diameter through the dense layer to provide an opening hole and
reduce the penetration resistance.
13
Chapter 3
Piezocone (cone penetration

test with porewater pressure
measurement )
The piezocone test (CPTU) is a cone penetration test (CPT) with

additional measurement of the porewater pressure at one or more
locations (U1, U2 and U3) on the penetrometer surface (Figure 8).
¬
U3
¬
Pore pressure
filter location Friction
sleeve Cone penetrometer
®
U2
¬
U1 Cone
® ®
Figure 8 Piezocone penetrometer
Cone penetration testing, with porewater pressure measurements,

gives a more reliable determination of stratification and soil type than a
standard CPT. In addition, CPTU provides a better basis for interpreting
the results in terms of mechanical soil properties.
Mechanical properties to be evaluated are:
● shear strength parameters
● deformation and consolidation characteristics.
The results from a CPTU can be used, directly, for the design of piled
foundations in clay.
14 Piezocone (cone penetration test with porewater pressure measurement)
Figure 9 CPTU plots
Test results are presented as shown in Figure 9. The porewater

pressure in the top 11 m of sand is more or less hydrostatic. Then the
porewater pressure increases very quickly in the underlaying clay.
Piezocone (cone penetration test with porewater pressure measurement) 15
3.1 Dissipation test

In a dissipation test the porewater pressure change is obtained
Pore pressure U (MPa)
(a)
by recording the values of the pressure against time during a
pause in pushing and while the cone penetrometer is held
stationary. It is practical to use either a logarithmic or square
root scale for the time factor (Figure 10).
Dissipation tests are often presented with the normalised

excess porewater pressure plotted against the log or square
Log time (minutes)
root of the time (Figure 11).
Rate of consolidation parameters may be assessed from the

Pore pressure U (MPa)
(b) piezocone test using the value t50. In this case, t50 is the time
for 50% dissipation of excess porewater pressure. Figure 12
shows one of many charts available for determining the
consolidation factor, ch.
(x 1.5 for a 15 cm2 cone)

Root time (minutes1/2)
Figure 10 Example of porewater pressure

102
decay, plotted on (a) log and (b) square root
timescales 35.6 mm
(10 cm2)
101
U2
Ut – U0 / Ui – U0
(a)
100
Rigidity index
ch (cm2/minute)
(I r)
10–1
Log time (minutes)
10–2
(b)
Ut – U0 / Ui – U0
10–3
Root time (minutes1/2) 10–4

0.1 1 10 100 1000 10 000
t50 (minutes)
Figure 11 Examples of normalised
porewater pressure decay plotted on (a) log Figure 12 Average laboratory ch values and CPTU results (after
and (b) square root timescales Robertson et al, 1992[9])
16 Piezocone (cone penetration test with porewater pressure measurement)
3.2 Saturation of the cone penetrometer

The pore pressure meter is normally a pressure transducer of the
membrane type. The sensor shows insignificant deformation during
loading. It communicates with a porous filter on the surface of the cone
penetrometer via a liquid chamber. The filter element and other parts of
the pore pressure system are saturated with a liquid before field use.
This saturation should be maintained until the cone penetrometer
reaches the groundwater surface or saturated soil.
De-aired, distilled water can be used in saturated soils. When

performing dissipation tests in unsaturated soils, dry crust and dilative
soils (eg dense sands), the filter should be saturated with de-aired
glycerine, silicone oil or similar which makes it easier to maintain
saturation throughout the test. It is good practice to cover the filter
element with a rubber membrane, which will burst when the
penetrometer comes into contact with the soil.
Porous filters should have a pore size between 2 and 20 µm

corresponding to permeability between 10–4 and 10–5 m/sec. The
following types of material have been used with good performance in
soft, normally consolidated clay, sintered stainless steel or bronze,
carborundum, ceramics, porous PVC and HDPE.
The cone penetrometer is designed in such a way that it is easy to

replace the filter and that the liquid chamber is easy to saturate.
In general, filter elements are saturated in the laboratory

and kept saturated in airtight containers until assembly
in the field. One commonly used procedure to assemble
and saturate the piezocone in the field, when using
glycerine or silicone oil, is to use a plastic funnel
(Figure 13).
The cone penetrometer is turned upside down and the Funnel

cone removed. The funnel is mounted and slowly filled ‘O’ ring
Filter
with glycerine or silicone oil. Using a plastic syringe and Cone
hypodermic needle, the cavities in the penetrometer are
saturated. The filter is carefully transferred from its
container to the funnel and all parts are assembled while
Rubber hose
submerged in the liquid.
Cone
penetrometer
Figure 13 Mounting the filter element when

using glycerine (from Larsson, 1992 [10])
Piezocone (cone penetration test with porewater pressure measurement) 17
3.3 Pre-drilling
When penetrating coarse materials, pre-drilling may be used in parts of
the profile if the penetration stops in dense, coarse or stone-rich layers.
Pre-drilling may be used in coarse top layers, sometimes in
combination with casings to avoid collapse of the borehole. In soft or
loose soils, pre-drilling should be used through the crust down to the
groundwater table. The pre-drilled hole should be filled with water if the
pore pressure will be measured by a water-saturated system. If the
groundwater table is located at great depth, the pore pressure system
should be saturated with glycerine or silicone oil.
An example plot is shown in Figure 14. For constructing a concrete

rafter for the foundation of a new building, the settlement of the soft
clay layer between 3 and 7 m below ground level had to be determined.
Therefore a dissipation test was made in the clay layer. Since the
chosen filter location was U1 (face), pre-drilling of the top layer of dense
sand was necessary. A filter location of U2 (shoulder) is less vulnerable,
but sometimes produces a negative pore pressure at the start of
dissipation and therefore the test takes much longer.
Figure 14 CPT plot showing a soft clay layer between 3 and 7 m below ground level
19
Chapter 4: Part 1
Special cones
Geotechnical cones
Push head
4.1 Cone pressuremeter
Control unit
+ read out
The cone pressuremeter (Figure 15), also known as the full
displacement pressuremeter, combines a conventional
60° cone penetration sounding with the pressuremeter
test. The pressuremeter has the same diameter as a
15 cm2 cone (46 mm) and is mounted on the
Cone rods
penetrometer shaft, a short distance behind the cone. The
Conducting hose expanding part of the pressuremeter module has a length
to diameter ratio of 10 to 1 to ensure a predominantly
Standard cone rod radial expansion of the pressuremeter membrane during
inflation. Figure 16 shows the different parts of the cone
pressuremeter.
Cone rod adaptor
Amplifier housing
645
Contraction ring
705 Pressuremeter module Figure 15 Cone pressuremeter (Source: Setech)
Contraction ring
Connector
Piezocone
625
Figure 16 A cone pressuremeter[2]

43.7 mm
20 Special cones: geotechnical cones
Parameters
The cone pressuremeter is a device well suited to measuring both the
soil strength and stiffness parameters. It allows the rapid and reliable
measurement of the undrained shear strength in clays and relative
density in sands, and the shear modulus in clays and sands.
The test
A cone pressuremeter test is carried out by allowing a pause in the
cone penetration test and then inflating the instrument membrane with
compressed gas using controlled stress and strain rates. During the
test, unload–reload loops are performed to allow an assessment of the
soil shear modulus to be determined.
Figure 17 gives typical tests results. From the pressure strain curves,
the undrained shear strength, the soil shear modulus and the in-situ
horizontal stress can be obtained. For more about interpretation, see
the book Cone penetration testing in geotechnical practice [2].
On completion of a test, the cone is advanced to the next test depth. In

addition the pressuremeter membrane can be inflated to a large radial
strain, approximately 50%, to ensure that the pressuremeter limit
pressure is approached at full inflation.
The speed of cone penetration testing enables the cone pressuremeter

to be an economical alternative to conventional self-boring and Menard-
type pressuremeter tests.
1200
1000
800
Pressure (kPa)
600
400
200
Arm 1
0 Arm 2
Arm 3
–200
0 5 10 15 20 25
Radial extension (mm)
Figure 17 Typical results for a cone pressuremeter test

Special cones: geotechnical cones 21
4.2 Gamma cone

Gamma rays
Gamma-ray measurements detect variations in the natural radioactivity
originating from changes in concentrations of the trace elements
uranium (U) and thorium (Th) as well as changes in concentration of the
major soil-forming element potassium (K).
Since the concentrations of these naturally occurring radioactive

elements vary between different soil types, natural gamma-ray logging
provides an important tool for lithological mapping and stratigraphical
correlation.
Radiation detectors
Most geophysical logging is conducted through open boreholes or
plastics-cased holes using probes that contain detectors that are at
least 25 mm in diameter. These detectors can easily measure changes
in natural radiation with depth, and characterise different soil types and
lithologies in most soil types. The ability of a radiation detector to detect
subtle changes in soil types is proportional to the size of the detector
and the statistical variations in the radiation emitted by the soils.
Gamma cone
In CPT applications, a gamma-reading unit is
mounted inside a specially designed housing
which, in turn, is fixed behind a conventional
CPT cone (Figure 18). This allows both the
geotechnical data from the cone and the
gamma readings to be taken simultaneously.
Test results
Tests conducted in steel-cased holes with small
detectors have found that adequate resolution
Figure 18 Gamma cone (15 cm2) to characterise the soil type can be obtained.
This may not be true in some geographic
locations, but the results indicate that gamma
logging for differentiating soil stratigraphy is
possible with small detectors. This may be due
to the fact the CPT method only slightly
displaces the virgin material so that very little
‘excavation’ takes place, leaving the
undisturbed material in close proximity to the
detector.
Clay or chalk?
Clays are generally derived from ancient geological environments and
have high levels of naturally occurring gamma radiation.
Figure 19 shows a CPT sounding result where it is not clear from the
friction ratio if the stratum below 7 m is a silty sand or chalk stratum.
Gamma radiation in sands and silt are still significant while the amount
of natural gamma radiation in chalk is negligible. The stratum below
9.5 m can therefore be marked as chalk.
Figure 19 Gamma cone plot

4.3 Seismic cone

Ground surface motions
The seismic cone (Figure 20) measures the shear
wave velocity of the soil being investigated. Together
with a knowledge of the soil saturated unit weight, the
shear wave velocity allows an assessment of the
small strain shear modulus (G0) and the constrained
modulus (M0) to be made. The small strain shear
modulus is an essential input for prediction of ground-
surface motions from earthquake excitation,
Figure 20 Seismic cone (Source: A P van den evaluation of foundations for vibrating equipment,
Berg) offshore structures behaviour during wave loading,
and for prediction of deformations around
excavations.
Oscilloscope
Equipment
The seismic cone is available in 10 and 15 cm2 areas.
Trigger The cone usually consists of a piezocone unit –
measuring the geotechnical parameters qc, fs and U2
Static – with a receiver for the seismic measurements
load Hammer above it.
A schematic diagram, with the layout of the standard

Shear wave source technique using a seismic cone, is shown in Figure 21
(perpendicular to cone) The extra equipment needed, in addition to the built in
seismometer, is a memory oscilloscope
and an impulse source with a trigger for
the oscilloscope. The source can consist
of a steel beam for shear (S) wave
generation or a flat plate for
Shear wave compression (P) wave generation.
Seismic cone
penetrometer
Figure 21 Seismic cone

configuration (above), test result
(right) and the equipment set up
on site (far right)
The moduli G0 and M0 can be determined from the following:
G0 = l(Vs)2 (kN/m2)
M0 = l(Vp)2 (kN/m2)
where: l = the soil mass density (kg/m3)

Vs = shear wave velocity (m/sec)
Vp = compression wave velocity (m/sec)
Method
The shear wave source usually consists of a beam pressed against the
ground by the weight of the CPT vehicle and a hammer. Normally the
seismic cone penetrometer is pushed into the ground and penetration
is stopped at 1 m intervals. During the pause in penetration, a shear
wave is generated at the ground surface and the time required for the
shear wave to reach the seismometer in the cone penetrometer is
measured. The shear wave is generated by hitting the beam end
horizontally with the hammer in the direction of the long axis. The
computer in the CPT rig collects and processes all the data from the
CPT or CPTU. The seismic source for offshore testing is a hydraulic
underwater shear wave box.
Sonic cone
Lankelma Ltd is developing a new seismic tool for cone penetration
testing. The sonic cone will allow in-situ testing of primary and shear
waves without a surface source. It combines a standard piezocone with
an acoustic velocity-logging tool. Acoustic velocity logging uses
mechanical energy in the form of pulses or continuous waves of
acoustical frequencies to investigate the surrounding material.
The simplest form of the sonic logging tool involves an acoustic pulse
travelling from the transmitter through the soil, as a compression (P)
wave, to the receiver which is a fixed distance from the transmitter. The
pulse also travels up along the wall of the housing as a boundary wave.
4.4 Marchetti dilatometer

The Marchetti dilatometer (Figure 22), or DMT, is a simple device,
shaped in the form of a flat blade designed to be pushed into the
ground. It was developed to evaluate the soil modulus, Es.
Equipment
Excluding the equipment needed to insert the
blade, the apparatus comprises five main items:
● dilatometer blade
● control unit
● pneumatic-electrical cable
● calibration device
● pressure source
The dilatometer tip consists of a stainless steel

blade with a thin flat circular expandable steel
Figure 22 Marchetti dilatometer membrane on one side. Two different stiffness
membranes are available: one for use in variable
deposits, the other for soft soils. When testing in
homogeneous soft soils where expansion pressures are likely to be
small, it is prudent to use the more flexible membrane so as not to
obscure subtle soil features.
The dilatometer blade can be advanced into the ground by pushing with
a conventional CPT thrust machine. This method of installation will yield
the highest productivity with a production rate of up to 100 m per day.
The test
The pneumatic-electrical cable transmits gas pressure and provides
electrical continuity between the control unit and the dilatometer blade.
The standard control unit is fitted with a 40-bar capacity Bourdon gauge
which is suitable for most soils; however, a more sensitive 16-bar
gauge is recommended for soils between very soft and soft.
Marchetti dilatometer tests are performed every 0.2 m down a profile.

At each test level the driving load is removed and a regulated gas
pressure applied to inflate the membrane. Electrical sensors behind the
membrane indicate the start of movement (‘lift off’) and when a
displacement of 1.0 mm has been reached. The corresponding
pressures at these two displacements are recorded as p0 (lift off) and
p1 at 1.0 mm.
Test results
Three index parameters, the material index,ID, horizontal stress index,
KD, and dilatometer modulus, ED, can be derived from the test. These
are determined from the contact pressure, p0, and the 1.0 mm
expansion pressure, p1, together with knowledge of the porewater
pressure and in-situ effective stress.
The Marchetti dilatometer is particularly suitable for settlement analysis

and for problems requiring accurate soil compressibility data
(Figure 23).
Undrained shear strength Su (kPa) Constrained modulus M (MPa)

0 20 40 60 80 0 2 4 6 8 10
0 0
Soft plastic
DMT 5
Onsoy Clay
Triaxial test (OCR = 1–2)
5 10
Oedometer
15
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
10 20
Dilatometer
25
15 30
35
20 40
Figure 23 Undrained shear strength (left) and constrained modulus (right) profiles
4.5 Nuclear density probe

For many engineering purposes it is essential to obtain accurate
information on the in-situ density and porosity of the soil. This
requirement has resulted in the development of a variety probes that
contain a radioactive source and a detector that can be used in
conjunction with the CPT.
Types of probes
Essentially two types of probe are available.
● A probe that has the radioactive source mounted near the tip of the
probe and which is inserted into the ground by conventional
penetration techniques
● A probe that is inserted into the ground through a pre-formed hole.
In determining the soil density, the gamma radiation emitted by a

suitable source (normally caesium 137) is attenuated by either
absorption or back-scattering.
Compton scatter phenomenon

Most available probes have been designed on the Compton scatter
phenomenon. Compton scattering is proportional to the charge-to-
mass ratio of the atoms of the substance, this being approximately
0.50 for carbon, oxygen and silicon, and approximately 1.0 for
hydrogen.
The amount of back-scattered radiation is related to density with the

rate of radioactive back-scatter increasing linearly with a decrease in
soil density. Readings of radioactive back-scatter are readily converted
to soil density using appropriate calibration curves.
Calibration
Calibration of the instrument can be carried out by lowering the probe
into fluids with known densities of between 1.0 and 2.2 Mg/m3. Typical
calibration fluids used would include water, bentonite and aluminium
oxide.
Alternatively, suitable materials could be compacted to a known density

in layers into rigid calibration chambers. The calibration chambers are
accurately weighed and the materials’ water content determined. This
exercise is repeated at least three times and the probe inserted into the
centre of the calibration chamber and readings taken to enable a
calibration curve to be determined. A calibration chamber diameter of
1.0 m is recommended since this size should ensure that the sides of
the rigid chamber are beyond the normal range of the probe.
With the ever increasing environmental and legislative concerns relating

to nuclear devices, the potential for the penetration probe to suffer
damage – together with a loss of integrity of the source encapsulation
with associated ground contamination – expensive remediation is high.
Consequently these probes have lost favour as a prime method of
investigation.
4.6 Push-in shear vane

The shear vane was developed to measure, in-situ, the undrained
shear strength, Su, of clays generally with a strength consistency
between very soft and firm.
Vane apparatus
Vane apparatus used by Lankelma Ltd is the Geonor penetration
vane manufactured by the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute
(Figure 24). This apparatus incorporates a protection shoe at its
leading edge which protects the vane and cleans it automatically
before each measurement. Therefore there is no need to withdraw
the vane between measurements to check its condition or to clean it.
Figure 24 The ‘Norwegian’ Geonor
penetration shear vane In its simplest form, four blades are arranged in a cruciform and
attached to the end of a rod. The rods are pushed into the soil and
the assembly is rotated. For each test the relationship between the
turning moment, or torque, and the angular rotation is determined.

When the vane is rotated, the soil fails along a cylindrical surface
passing through the edges of the vane as well as along the horizontal
surfaces at the top and bottom of the blades. From the dimensions of
the vane and from the measured torque the undrained shear strength of
the soil can be determined.
Standardisation
Experience has shown that the shear strength will vary according to the
time elapsed between installing the vane and the start of shearing. In
general the strength will increase with time and it is therefore important
that the test procedure is standardised. It is recommended that
shearing should commence between three and five minutes after the
vane has been installed. The rate of shearing should be between 0.1°
and 0.2°/sec which usually corresponds to a test duration of between
two and fifteen minutes. Increasing the rate of strain will result in an
overestimate of strength.
Remoulded strength
After quickly rotating the vane twelve times, the remoulded strength
should be measured again between three minutes and a maximum of
five minutes after the peak strength has been reached.
Vane sizes
Two vane sizes are available for testing: 110 x 55 mm which applies to
soils of firm consistency; and 130 x 65 mm for soils whose consistency
is between soft and very soft. The ratio of the initial peak strength and
the remoulded strength is a measure of the sensitivity of the soil.
4.7 Soil moisture probe (SMP)

Composition
The soil moisture probe (SMP) is installed
directly behind the electric cone and
permits the simultaneous acquisition of
resistivity, soil moisture and geotechnical
data (Figure 25). The probe comprises
two ring-shaped and carefully isolated
electrodes, and an application-specific
integrated circuit (ASIC). The ASIC uses
synchronous detection for accurate
measurements free from electric
interference.
Figure 25 Soil moisture probe (Source: Geopoint)
Soil moisture
Dielectric soil properties, capacitance
and electrical conductivity are governed
mainly by the water content of the soil
mass. By measuring these parameters
between two electrodes, with the soil
dielectric in between, the soil moisture
can be determined.
The capacitance of dry soil is determined by its dielectric constant. For

dry soil this constant is of the order of 3 to 6 and for water the constant
is 80; in other words, the capacitance between the two electrodes is
dominated by the volume fraction of water.
Contaminated soils
In polluted soils, non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs, eg oil or
chlorinated solvents) will replace part of the water in the soil matrix. As
they do not dissolve easily in groundwater, they will occur as a film of
pure product, often just above the groundwater table.
Dense NAPLs such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, which are denser than

water, will penetrate the groundwater table and are typically found on
top of impermeable layers. These pollutants affect the dielectric
properties of the soil significantly and are detectable using the soil
moisture probe.
Test results are shown in Figure 26 opposite.

Figure 26 Soil moisture content plot

4.8 Flow penetrometers

Undrained shear strength profiling is an important part of many ground
investigations, especially in soft clay. This is normally achieved by in-
situ vane testing or laboratory strength measurements on undisturbed
soil samples. This approach suffers the disadvantage that such tests
can only be taken at discrete, well spaced depths in the profile and the
presence of stiffer materials can affect the results obtained.
In contrast, the CPT provides a continuous measurement of undrained

shear strength, but, regrettably, the CPT is not very accurate in soft
clay deposits due to the low tip resistances being measured. Also the
deformation mechanism around the cone during penetration is
asymmetric in the vertical plane; consequently a correction for
overburden pressure and porewater pressure is also required. The
empirical and theoretical solutions relating undrained shear strength to
cone tip resistance are difficult to apply objectively and resulting
estimates can therefore be erroneous.
Composition
Many of the limitations outlined above can be overcome by varying the
shape of the penetrometer such that it causes symmetrical flow during
penetration. Two such devices, the T-Bar and the spherical ball are
shown in Figure 27.
The T-bar consists of a short cylindrical bar measuring 250 mm in

length and 40 mm in diameter, while the ball cone is 163 mm in
diameter. Both devices are attached at right angles to penetrometer
rods, just below a calibrated load cell. Also included in the shaft is an
inclinometer to indicate any deviation from the vertical during insertion.
The device can also incorporate porewater pressure transducers.
Figure 27 Flow penetrometers: T-bar (left) and spherical ball (right)

Advantages
Flow penetrometers have two major advantages over the conventional
electric cone.
Firstly, for both flow penetrometers (T-bar and spherical ball), the soil
deformation mechanism is symmetrical in the plane perpendicular to
the axis of the penetrometer, and the load cell measures what is
essentially a differential force (or net pressure) on the bar with no
adjustment being made for the overburden stress and ambient
pressure.
Secondly, the correlation between net pressure on the flow

penetrometer and the shear strength of the soil is made via an exact
plasticity solution; this operates within a potential range of flow
penetrometer factor of less than ± 10% (due to different roughness of
the bar surface) compared with cone factors which may vary from as
low as 7 in sensitive clays to over 15 – that is a range of ± 35%.
Remoulded strength
An additional use of the flow penetrometer is to assess the remoulded
strength of the soil by monitoring the bearing resistance during
extraction along the same path as insertion.
34
Chapter 4: Part 2
Special cones
Geo-environmental cones
4.9 Electric conductivity cone

Subsoil conductivity
In addition to the measured cone tip and sleeve resistances, the
electric conductivity cone (Figure 28) also measures the soil
conductivity with depth. As with the conventional CPT, the basic
penetration parameters, qc and fs, enable the classification of soil.
Contamination
The measurement of conductivity in the subsoil facilitates separation of
zones with differentiated water content including determining the water
table depth and the thickness of the zone of capillary ascent. The most
important application of the conductivity cone, however, is related to
evaluating the degree of contamination of a soil medium containing
electrolytes (the compounds dissociating into ions in water).
Inorganic acids
Since hydrogen and hydroxide ions have the highest conductivity, the
easiest way to detect strong inorganic acids, hydroxides and their salts Figure 28 Electric conductivity
in soil is to use the electric conductivity cone. This method may be cone (Source: A P van den Berg)
applied to identify zones with increased concentrations of nitrites and
nitrates, sulphates, calcium and magnesium compounds and
concentrations of heavy metals. If aromatic amines are found in the
subsoil, compounds dissociating in the water solution which lead to an
increase in conductivity may indicate an excess of N-nitrogen fertilizers.
Hydrocarbons
Oil derivatives do not dissociate into ions, therefore rendering direct
detection of them with the conductivity method impossible. In certain
cases, however, it is possible to estimate indirectly the presence of
hydrocarbons when there are phenols in the subsoil – phenols are
products of the reaction of aromatic compounds which dissociate in
water.
Special cones: geo-environmental cones 35
Levels of pH
The conductivity method also yields information on the aggressiveness
of groundwater towards concrete. If the pH value of the soil changes
from neutral, the conductivity increases. The presence of carbon
dioxide in the water results in formation of carbonic acid – the factor
that increases conductivity.
Inorganic salts
Water hardness related to the presence of magnesium, calcium and
iron ions and the presence of sulphates (inorganic salts) is another
factor which increases subsoil conductivity. Another application of the
method can be the determination of the range of fresh and salt water in
subsoil; the presence of sodium and chlorine ions in salt water
increase conductivity, facilitating discrimination of zones where salt
water occurs.
Drawback
From the perspective of analysis of pollutants, the universality of the
application of this method is a significant drawback. The method
measures the sum of all influences against the background of the soil’s
natural conductivity based upon its structure, water content,
mineralogical composition, and the physical, chemical and biological
processes taking place in the subsoil. It is therefore best to use this
method to monitor zones, range and intensity of contamination of an
area under study.
Execution
Depending on the way in which the problem is formulated, execution of
the studies can take two directions. Firstly, in cases where the
contaminating agent is known but the range and intensity of
contamination is unclear, penetration is carried out in a systematic grid
to facilitate determining isolines (regions with similar concentrations of
the agent). Secondly, where there are several pollutants or the pollutant
is unknown, monitoring is carried out to select investigation points with
the highest and the lowest levels of contamination from which water and
soil samples are taken for special chemical investigation.
36 Special cones: geo-environmental cones
4.10 Environmental cone

Contaminated sites
The environmental cone (Figure 29) is designed for the investigation
of contaminated sites. There are countless examples of areas with
soil polluted with chemicals and oil to such an extent that it
represents a direct danger to health.
Measurements
Normally these probes are combined with a piezocone, measuring
porewater pressure, sleeve friction and tip resistance. The
environmental measurements of the groundwater are the acidity
(pH), the oxygen exchange capacity (redox potential) and
temperature with depth while being pushed into the soil.
Measurement of the electric conductivity can also be incorporated.
The parameters are major variables of chemical equilibrium for
inorganic substances such as oil and chemicals. Figure 29 Environmental cone
(Source: A P van den Berg)
Method
The sensors are mounted inside the cone. A groundwater sample is
drawn into a measuring cell, located a short distance behind the
cone tip.
Measurements are made under a nitrogen atmosphere to reduce the

exchange of atmospheric oxygen with dissolved gases from the
groundwater. A slight excess pressure of nitrogen is used during
penetration of the probe to stop the flow of liquid into the measuring
cell. The nitrogen is supplied from a small nitrogen cylinder in the
probe. The stainless steel porous filter is cleaned by the excess
nitrogen.
A pressure sensor is also included to monitor the flow of liquid into the
measuring cell and to estimate the hydraulic conductivity of the
surrounding soil.
The measurements enable the detection of the magnitude and type of

pollution. In this way the method offers an objective choice of whether
or not further laboratory analysis is needed and is therefore secure,
timesaving and cost efficient.
4.11 Hydrocarbon cone

Hydrocarbons
The hydrocarbon cone (Figure 30) is a
testing instrument for the in-situ detection
of light, non-aqueous phase liquids
(LNAPLs) of hydrocarbons within soils.
Beneath chemical plants, refineries and

petrol stations, hydrocarbons are frequently
encountered within the soil in a pure form,
Figure 30 Hydrocarbon cone (Source: GeoDelft) either as droplets or as a distinct floating
layer. This pure product requires close
attention, particularly where mobility is high
(ie within the zone of rising and falling
groundwater, and within permeable soils).
Mapping and modelling

Where cost effective assessment and remediation is required, the
importance of accurate mapping and modelling of the spatial
distribution and volumes of the contaminants within the soil is high.
The location and presence of hydrocarbons within the soil is particularly

difficult to establish. It is even more difficult to establish the size and
mobility of these layers and the proportions that can be removed by
pumping.
Traditional methods of hydrocarbon identification and assessment

include chemical soil analysis and measuring the thickness of floating
layers within observation wells. Both methods require boreholes, and
are time consuming and costly. This is because aquifer protection
systems are required and the equilibrium time for monitoring wells can
be significant, with durations of one week and longer not uncommon.
Furthermore, the floating layer in a well represents the mobile part of

the LNAPLs in the soil and not its in-situ location.
Detection
The hydrocarbon probe detects, continuously with depth, in-situ, the
presence of total pure product contained within the soil. The system is
pushed into the soil using standard cone penetration testing plant and
equipment.
The detection of hydrocarbons as a pure product is enabled because

the hydrocarbon mixtures produce fluorescence when they are
irradiated with UV light.
38 Special cones: geo-environmental cones
The cone
The hydrocarbon probe has the appearance of a normal CPT cone.
However, it contains a light source as well as the detection system. The
total diameter of the system is 55 mm.
During the penetration process, measurements are carried out by

illuminating the soil from a UV light source placed behind a window. The
fluorescent light emitted by the hydrocarbons is detected by a photo-
multiplier tube in the cone.
Detection limit
The detection limit of the system is set at 50 mg/kg dry weight for a
LNAPL. The intensity of the radiation emitted by the hydrocarbon is an
indication of the concentration of pure product contained within the soil.
The system can also detect other wavelengths for analysis of other
products contained by soils.
Quality
The instrument is calibrated. During the test programme, the
occurrence of ‘smearing’ and ‘displacement’ is examined. In practice
however, it has been demonstrated that soil effectively cleans the
probe from hydrocarbons as it passes through the soil.
Displacement of the LNAPL in front of the penetrating probe tip does

occur to a limited extent. This means that the depth at which the LNAPL
occurs in the soil is slightly less than the depth observed by the
hydrocarbon probe. However, this slight variation is considerably less
than drilling-induced disturbance experienced using traditional cable
tool-boring methods of exploration.
Speed and reliability

The speed and reliability with which the method can establish the
presence and extent of LNAPL contaminants means that cost savings
can be obtained. These savings can be made in the reduction of
chemical sampling required and laboratory testing required. Where
necessary, Mostap samples can be obtained to correlate the results
of the hydrocarbon probe and provide samples for subsequent
laboratory testing.
Significantly more exploratory locations can be achieved in less time, in

comparison with traditional sampling methods. Therefore, improved
and more accurate contamination models through contouring and
volume calculation can be achieved.
Remediation
The system can also be used for the monitoring of in-situ clean-up
operations. The probe can be used to detect petrol, diesel and motor
oils following calibration. It is also possible to establish whether or not
the LNAPLs can be pumped-off, based on the results of the
hydrocarbon probe.
Typical test results are shown in Figure 31.
Figure 31 Example report format

40
Chapter 4: Part 3
Special cones
Other cones
4.12 Magnetometer (for unexploded

ordnance detection)
Unexploded ordnance
When developing a new or existing building site, it
might be necessary to survey the site for
unexploded ordnance (UXO). This depends on the
site’s location and history. Many sites are
contaminated with World War II air-dropped
ordnance. The depth of the survey depends on the
design of the foundation; is it a shallow foundation
or a piled foundation? Also the composition of the
subsoil is important; the penetration of air-
dropped bombs is much deeper in soft soils (eg
peat) than in stiff London Clay.
Figure 32 shows a combined magnetometer and

non-magnetic CPT cone, and a UXO on a London
building site.
Operation
The cone of a magnetometer probe for UXO
detection is hydraulically pushed into the soil while
the magnetometer takes real time readings of the Figure 32 Magnetometer used for detecting unexploded
amplitude of the Earth’s magnetic field. Buried ordnance (above) and an unexploded bomb from World
ferrous items result in localised distortions of the War II in London Clay having been made safe (below)
magnetic field. These local disturbances are (Source: Zetica Ltd)
manifested as anomalies in the data that are
invaluable for locating buried metal objects such
as tanks, drums, pipes or bombs.
Special cones: other cones 43
The caesium vapour magnetometer has a detection radius of 2.0 m for

detecting large items such as a 500 kg bomb. The magnetometer
probe is pushed into the soil using a standard CPT rig. A maximum
pressure of 15 tonnes is normally applied as a refusal criterion. Where
soils comprise made-ground deposits, hard strata or hardcover, it is
necessary to drill each position and line the borehole with a plastic pipe,
before pushing the probe into the soil.
Figure 33 Magnetometer plot indicating a UXO or ferrous item at 3 m below ground level (right side of plot)
As previously noted, when no ferrous items are detected the

magnetometer takes a reading of the amplitude of the Earth’s magnetic
field which gives a strait line. If unexploded ordnance (or other ferrous
items) is detected, the strait line alters sharply, as shown in Figure 33.
Procedures
In the event of discovering unexploded ordnance, there are rigorous
Health and Safety Executive protocols that have to be followed. These
procedures include notifying the emergency services (eg the police)
and the Ministry of Defence.
44 Special cones: other cones
4.13 Lubricating cone

Friction
Bentonite
The friction between the soil and the push-in rods limits the maximum wash
depth of a cone penetration test. Depending on the soil type, friction
can increase rapidly at greater penetration depths. A new type of cone,
the lubricating cone, has therefore been developed to enable
investigations to be taken to greater depths without using more
expensive and time-consuming drilling techniques. The same technique
can be used to grout the probe hole during retraction of rods.
Bentonite wash
During the cone penetration test, a bentonite wash is pumped through
the push-in rods to the outlet opening (Figure 34). The bentonite wash
forms a lubricating layer along the entire length of the penetration rods
so that friction along the rods is considerably reduced. The outlet
opening is located behind the first friction reducer, approximately 0.5 m
above the cone tip. This construction prevents the soil penetration
results being influenced by the introduction of the wash. The pump
pressure used is the same as the hydrostatic pressure acting at a given Bentonite
wash
penetration depth.
Advantages
An advantage of this method is that soil penetration testing can be
carried out at much greater depths or in very stiff clay. Depths of more
than 100 m have been reached using the lubricating cone. Relatively
great depths may also be reached at locations where only small and
light equipment can be used. The system can be linked to any type of
Figure 34 Lubricating cone
CPT equipment.
Retraction of rods
During retraction of the push rods, a hardening bentonite mixture (that
is harmless to the environment) is injected at high pressure into the soil.
This mixture stiffens and so seals the hole created by the CPT. A well
sealed soil penetration hole is desirable in the following cases.
● During environmental engineering investigations where the soil

penetration test can cause contamination leakage
● During soil investigations for bored tunnels, where ‘blow-out’ can lead
to costly delays
● During soil investigations on sites where there is a likely existence of

well shafts or on the inner foot of a dike.
4.14 Wing cone

Lime cement columns
Lime cement columns are being increasingly used in the UK
ground improvement industry for stabilising soft soils. The
advantages of this method is that it produces no spoil; and
installation is relatively quiet and vibration free.
Verification
Once the columns have been created there needs to be some
kind of verification to prove that the proposed level of ground
Figure 35 Wing cone improvement has been reached. This is done by one of two
methods outlined in the Swedish Geotechnical Society report,
SGF Report 4:95E[11].
Push-in wing cone

This method uses a wing cone (Figure 35)
of varying diameter depending on the
diameter of the column. The wing cone is
then pushed through the column and the
total force required for penetration is
measured.
Pull-out wing cone

With this method a winged probe is
installed at the base of the column when
the column is being constructed. A cable
is attached to the probe, which comes up
the centre of the column and is attached
to the rams of a CPT rig. The force
required to pull the the winged cone is
then recorded.
Figure 36 shows the derived shear

strength values, Su, using a wing cone.
The Su values are used to verify that the
lime cement column has reached the
required design strength. The original
output of the test is a total pushing or
pulling force (kN) which is then converted
into Su values as described in the SGF
Report 4:95E.
Figure 36 Plot with derived Su values using a wing cone

4.15 Video cone

The video cone (Figure 37) – in appearance,
identical to the hydrocarbon cone described
in Section 4.11 on page 37 – is a new and
innovative soil investigation technique to
provide images of subsoil. The cone is
pushed into the ground with standard cone
penetration equipment. The video cone,
developed by GeoDelft in 1998, consists of
a stainless steel cone, measuring 60 mm in
diameter and 1 m in length. Figure 37 Video cone (Source: GeoDelft)
The camera window of sapphire glass is

located some 30 cm behind the cone tip.
The viewing glass is small, measuring 5 x
7 mm. A lamp, mirror and video camera are
fitted behind the glass. The camera is
connected via an electronic signal cable to a
video recorder and monitor in the test truck.
Video recording
The video cone is pushed through the soil, ideally at a speed of
5 mm/sec, using extension tubes with a diameter of 55 mm.
Continuous, and simultaneous video recordings of the subsoil are
made. Online viewing is also possible on a monitor.
A microphone can be connected to the sound channel of the video to

provide a commentary. During soil penetration, a light beam shines
through the viewing glass directly onto the adjacent soil, enabling the
camera to record an image.
Images
The images (exemplified by Figures 38, 39 and 40, on the opposite
page, of clay, sand and chalk) show the soil with a resolution of 752 x
582 pixels. Presentation of the images from the surface of the viewing
glass to the monitor substantially magnifies the soil grains and
particles. Magnification can be up to 100-fold, depending on the type of
monitor.
This method provides information which is not directly visible to the

naked eye. For example, mineral particles such as shells can be easily
distinguished from other mineral particles. Small voids, gas bubbles
and contaminants are also readily visible.
Figure 38 Clay Figure 39 Sand Figure 40 Chalk
If used in combination with other soil penetration techniques, the video

cone has the potential to further optimise the subsoil model. In the case
of soil contamination, material transport models can be established
with greater reliability.
Possible uses for the video cone which are presently envisaged are:
● detailed description of subsoil (subsoil modelling)
● mapping of floating layers (eg petrol or diesel oil)
● mapping of sinking layers (eg creosote oil)
● mapping of contamination (eg by using PAHs).

4.16 Neptune cone penetration test unit

For offshore geotechnical investigations, the penetration
test is undertaken, remotely, on the sea bed. The Neptune
CPT unit (Figure 41) uses a coiled rod. The unit contains a
2 or 5 cm2 detachable cone with a 50 MPa push capability.
Up to 10 m penetration from a compact and easily
deployed seabed frame is possible. Furthermore, the
Neptune CPT unit can be mounted on a remotely operated
vehicle (ROV). See also Chapter 9.
Technical specification
Dimensions 1.8 m (L) x 1.8 m (W) x 2 m (H)
Weight in air 1500 kg approx
Weight in sea water 1200 kg approx
Thrust capacity 1000 kg (approx 10 kN,
50 MPa)
Max penetration 10 m
Depth rating 3000 m Figure 41 Neptune CPT unit
Cone type Detachable, analogue
subtraction
Cone sensors Tip, sleeve friction and inclination
Optional sensors Piezo – ranges to suit
Cone tip area 2 cm2
Cone sleeve area 30 cm2
Penetration speed 2 cm/sec ± 10%
Retract speed 5 cm/sec approx
Power requirement 240V AC single phase, 50/60Hz
Umbilical voltage 600V AC
Telemetry link FSK
Tip accuracy > 100 kPa
Sleeve accuracy > 10 kPa
Inclination accuracy > 1°
Cone data rate 20 Hz
Frame sensors Altimeters, tilt, pressure
Frame sensor data rate 1 Hz
Operating system Windows™ 98 and NT compatible
49
Chapter 5
Sampling probes
5.1 Mostap soil sampler

General principles
The Mostap sampler (Figure 42) enables undisturbed soil samples to be
recovered at at chosen depths at a test location. The available sample
diameters are 35 and 65 mm, with sample lengths of 1, 1.5 and 2 m.
The advantage of the Mostap sampler, compared with conventional

open-tube sampling systems, is that you can take samples at different
depths without the need to pre-drill.
Operation
A Mostap sampler consists of a cone plus a cutting mouth at the base,
connected to a sample tube, plastic liner and woven stocking. This is
Figure 42 Mostap soil sampler connected to standard CPT rods and pushed, using the hydraulic rams,
(Source: A P van den Berg) either directly from surface or to a predetermined depth.
A fishing tool (ie a line with a hook) is lowered through the hollow rods to
release the cone face. The apparatus is then pushed to the required
depth, with the sample being wrapped by the woven stocking while
being drawn-up inside the plastic liner. During sample recovery the
released cone stays in the top part of the sample tube. The sampler is
fitted out with a core catcher. Upon withdrawing the probe, the
equipment is dismantled allowing the sample to be retrieved, including
the 200 mm section in the cutting head. The tube sample is capped and
sealed at both ends, with the cutting shoe sample being retained in an
airtight container. Both of these are labelled to identify location, depth,
orientation (top and bottom) and details as to whether the sample may
be contaminated. The equipment is thoroughly cleaned, reassembled
and is ready for the next sample to be taken.
50 Sampling probes
Specifications
35 mm diameter Pushed in using 36 mm CPT rods. This is mainly
used solely for visual identification purposes, plus confirmation of soil
types. It is not suitable for many geotechnical tests, but can be used for
classification tests: particle index (PI), moisture content (MC) and
particle size distribution (PSD). It is also possible to perform pH and
total sulphate (SO4) tests, and ICRCL contamination suites.
65 mm diameter Pushed in with 55 mm CPT rods. This enables

visual identification and the above mentioned contamination tests to be
carried out, together with the following laboratory tests: MC, Atterberg
limits, bulk density, oedometer, unconsolidated undrained (UU),
consolidated isotropic undrained (CIU) and anisotropic consolidated
undrained triaxial (CAU).
Advantages
The main advantages of the Mostap sampling system are as follows.
● Samples can be collected at selected depths – no pre-drilling is

required
● Samples are of high quality
● No soil arisings are generated – soil is either within the sample tube
or pushed aside as the sampler is advanced
● The system is virtually self-sealed – minimal contact between the

operator and the soil (excellent for preventing contamination of soil
samples)
● Samples can be recovered from both loose-to-dense granular soils

and very soft-to-very stiff cohesive soils.
Sampling probes 51
5.2 Delft continuous soil sampler

General principles
Steel outer tube
The Delft continuous sampler, developed by GeoDelft, is used
Supporting fluid essentially for obtaining high quality samples within very soft
cohesive soils.
20
mm
per
The sampling system is available in two sizes to take continuous
sec samples, 29 or 66 mm in diameter. Both the 29 mm sampler and
Nylon sleeve
the 66 mm sampler (Figure 43) are pushed into the ground using
Inner tube standard CPT equipment.
Nylon sleeve
The sampler is advanced by pushing on the steel outer tubes with
Top cap of the the sample being fed automatically into an impervious nylon
sample (fixed) sleeve. The sample within the sleeve is fed into a thin-walled
Soil sample plastic inner tube filled with a supporting fluid of bentonite. The
upper end of the nylon sleeve is fixed to the top cap of the sample
Nylon sleeve
which is connected through a tension cable to a fixed point at
ground surface.
29 mm
or 66 mm Extension tubes
Extension tubes 1 m in length are added as the sampler is advanced
Figure 43 The Delft continuous into the ground. The 66 mm sampler normally has a maximum
soil sampler penetration of about 18 m, but, in suitable strata with a modified
magazine and increased thrust, samples up to 30 m in length have been
obtained. The 29 mm sampler is of similar design and requires less
thrust.
Laboratory tests and visual examination

The samples are cut into 1 m lengths and placed in purpose-made
cases, being retained in the plastic tubes. The 66 mm samples are
suitable for a range of routine index and advanced effective stress
laboratory tests. The 29 mm samples are used for visual examination
and for determining bulk density and index properties.
After the samples have been extruded, they are split in half over their
lengths, described and photographed in a semi-dried state when the
soil fabric can be identified more readily.
52 Sampling probes
Connection to
5.3 Shelby soil sampler push rods
General principles ●
Drive head
Valve to allow connected to
The Shelby sampler (Figure 44) is a thin-walled soil sampling exit of free sampler tube
system. The system is used to sample soils that are particularly water and air with screws
above sample
sensitive to sampling disturbance as it has a very low wall
thickness-to-sample area ratio. The sampler consists of a thin-
walled steel tube whose lower end is shaped to form a cutting
edge. It is pushed into the soil by continuous static thrust from a
hydraulic jack. Thin-walled
sampler tube
This sampler is usually only suitable for cohesive soils up to a

firm-to-stiff consistency and free from large particles. It normally
gives Class 1 samples of fine cohesive soils, including sensitive
clays. Samples of 75, 100 or 150 mm in diameter can be
obtained. The thin-walled Shelby sampler is not fitted out with a
core catcher. However, a thicker-walled sampler with a core
catcher is available.
Figure 44 Shelby soil sampler
Disturbance
It should be noted that disturbance occurs at the base of the borehole in
weak soil below a certain depth due to stress relief resulting from
reduced over-burden pressure. Therefore, pushing the Shelby sampler
in using CPT equipment can overcome this to some degree.
At the end of the sampling process the thin steel tube containing the
sample is removed from the sampler head, waxed, capped at both ends
and labelled. The steel tube is used as a container to transport the
sample to the laboratory thus avoiding any damage to the sample.
Cohesive soils
The Shelby sampler is ideally used for normally-consolidated and over-
consolidated cohesive soils such as London Clay. It is not suitable for
granular non-cohesive soils. The disadvantage of the Shelby sampler –
in comparison to the Mostap sampler which can take samples at
preselected depths – is that it has an open end (no cutting mouth) so it
is necessary to start from ground level or pre-drill a borehole. Further
problems are encountered where the sample hole does not remain
open. In these situations the hole must be cased to prevent sampling of
‘fall-in’ materials.
Sampling probes 53
5.4 Wastap water and gas sampler

General principle
The Wastap sampling system (Figure 45) is used
for obtaining samples of both water and gas at
certain depths, without the problems of cross-
contamination.
Operation
The Wastap is pushed to the desired test level
using standard 36 mm diameter CPT rods or
55 mm diameter casing rods. At the test level the
Wastap is pulled back enabling the filter to be
Figure 45 Wastap water and gas sampler (Source: A P
opened. Then sampling can commence.
van den Berg)
Groundwater sampling
The Wastap system provides two methods for
water sampling. One where the sample is pumped
up to the surface; the other where the sample is
collected in a container within the sampler.
● In the first method an electrical or hand-operated vacuum pump is

used to pump the water up to the surface from the test depth through
a silicone hose. The maximum test depth is restricted to about 8 m
below groundwater level
● In the second method a 0.5 litre container is used. At the desired test
depth the container is lowered into the Wastap and locked into
position. Then the filter is opened and sampling can commence.
There is no restriction for the test depth.
Gas sampling
In unsaturated soils, gas can be sampled, either by pumping it up the
same way as water, or by letting it escape under natural pressure. The
samples are recovered in membrane-sealed containers for subsequent
laboratory testing.
54 Sampling probes
5.5 Delft multi-level groundwater sampling probe

General principle
Most of the various groundwater samplers share the disadvantage that
the level where the sample is taken must be pre-determined. Only after
a sample has been taken and analysed will it be become apparent that
the chosen sampling depth was correct and useful.
To overcome this problem GeoDelft has developed the multi-level

groundwater sampling probe (Figure 46). With this method,
groundwater samples can be retrieved from multiple sampling depths
during a single CPT operation. This sampling probe has been tested
and validated thoroughly, taking into account all possible cross-
contamination processes.
Demineralised
water
PE/Teflon®
tube
N2 Flask
On-site online
screening
MS/GCMS
Bentonite
Multiple sampling
depths Pump
Ground
water Stainless steel
filter
Figure 46 Main elements in the multi-level groundwater sampling probe (Source:

GeoDelft)
Sampling probes 55
Pressurised nitrogen gas

The Delft groundwater sampler has an externally located filter element.
During penetration of the probe into the soil, pressurised nitrogen gas
is applied to the filter, thereby keeping it free of incoming water and soil
particles. At 1 or 2 m above the desired sampling depth the nitrogen
pressure is bled off as the probe proceeds slowly towards sampling
depth. At the sampling depth groundwater will then enter the sampling
chamber. Subsequently the water is drawn up to the surface by means
of an inbuilt pump.
Sampling
As the pumping continues, the electric conductivity of the groundwater
is monitored and recorded. When this reaches a stable value, and a
volume of at least 1–2 litres has been pre-pumped, the actual sampling
can take place. After sampling is completed, both electric conductivity
and pH are measured as well as the groundwater temperature.
Then the entire sampling device is rinsed with demineralised water

followed by nitrogen gas. This cycle is repeated several times. Finally,
the sampling loop is closed, the nitrogen pressure builds up and the
gas will start to blow out of the filter element. The probe can now
advance towards the next sampling depth. The combination of the pre-
pumping with the rinsing procedure ensures the reliability of the
sampling process and the prevention of cross-contamination between
sampling levels.
Anaerobic flow cells

Alternatively, the groundwater can be fed through a set of anaerobic
flow cells while being pumped up. Within these flow cells, several
physical and chemical parameters can be measured without
introducing oxygen from the open air into the sample. Samples can then
be also used for biological (bacteriological) analysis.
In-situ testing
Another alternative, for example in the case of pollution with volatile
(chlorinated) hydrocarbons, is to analyse the groundwater samples on
site by means of a portable gas chromatograph. Within several minutes
the results of the analysis will become available. This enables accurate
decisions to be made as to whether to proceed towards a next (greater)
sampling depth or to abandon the current CPT operation and proceed
towards another location or site. By using this on-site screening
equipment, analytical detection limits on ppb levels can be reached so
that site characterisation and mapping attains a high level of resolution.
56 Sampling probes
Correct materials
Important for obtaining reliable results is the proper choice of the
materials making up the multi-level groundwater sampling probe. For
example, when sampling for volatile (chlorinated) hydrocarbons, tubing
made of Teflon® material has to be fitted in combination with a stainless
steel filter element.
Lubricating cone
In order to be able to reach greater depths, the multi-level groundwater
sampling probe can be fitted with a lubricating module to reduce the
friction. Using this probe, depths of up to 100 m have been reached and
groundwater has been successfully sampled.
Applications
The multi-level groundwater sampling probe is a thoroughly validated,
high-quality sampling device. Sampling depths to 100 m are possible
when soil conditions are favourable. The probe is also appropriate for
groundwater investigation below rivers, lakes, canals etc. In
combination with on-site online screening techniques, direct site
characterisation and mapping is possible resulting in operations which
are exceptionally cost and time effective.
57
Chapter 6
Instrumentation
Figure 47 Standpipe piezometer (Source: Soil Instruments Ltd)
6.1 Standpipe piezometer

The standpipe piezometer is used to monitor piezometric water levels.
It consists of a filter tip joined to a riser pipe. Readings are obtained
with a water level indicator.
Standpipe piezometers are simple, reliable and relatively inexpensive.

The accuracy depends on the skill of an operator. They can be very slow
to respond to changes in porewater pressure since large fluid volumes
are required to change the level in the standpipe. It is not usually
possible to monitor these instruments remotely.
58 Instrumentation
Applications
Typical applications are for monitoring:
● porewater pressures to evaluate slope stability
● ground improvement techniques (eg vertical drains, sand drains, and
dynamic compaction)
● dewatering schemes for excavations and underground openings
● pore pressures to check the performance of earth-fill dams and
embankments
● pore pressures to check containment systems at landfills and tailings
dams
● water drawdown during pumping tests.
Installation
The standpipe piezometer, which is either installed in a borehole or
pushed into position using CPT equipment, consists of a filter tip joined
to a riser pipe. In a borehole the filter tip is placed in a sand zone and a
bentonite seal is placed above the sand to isolate the porewater
pressure at the tip. The annular space between the riser pipe and the
borehole is backfilled to the surface with a bentonite grout. This is to
prevent unwanted vertical migration of water.
Where the push-in method is used there is usually no need to backfill

around the riser pipe with bentonite grout. The riser pipe is terminated
above ground level with a vented cap.
Operation
Water levels in the standpipe piezometer are measured with a water
level indicator. The water level indicator consists of a probe, a
graduated cable or tape, and a cable reel with built-in electronics. The
probe is lowered down the standpipe until it makes contact with water.
This is signalled by a light and a buzzer built into the cable reel. The
depth-to-water reading is taken from the cable or tape. The water level
indicator features a sensitivity adjustment which helps the user obtain
consistent measurements and eliminates false triggering.
Instrumentation 59
6.2 Vibrating wire piezometer

The vibrating wire piezometer (Figure 48) consists of a vibrating wire
pressure transducer and signal cable. It can be installed in a borehole,
embedded in fill or suspended in a standpipe. Readings are obtained
with a portable readout or a data logger. They are easy to read and very
accurate. The response of the instrument to changes in pore pressure
is good in all soils. As the measurement is obtained in terms of
frequency it can be transmitted over long cable lengths and the
readings can be readily automated. The instruments must be protected
from electrical transients.
Applications
Typical applications are for monitoring:
● porewater pressures to determine safe rates of fill or excavation
● porewater pressures to determine slope stability
● effects of dewatering systems used for excavations
● effects of ground improvement systems (eg vertical and sand drains)
embankments
dams.
Installation
Grout-in method The piezometer is lowered to the specified depth in
the borehole. The borehole is then filled with a bentonite–cement grout.
Figure 48 Vibrating wire
This method is particularly useful when multi-point measurements are
piezometer (Source: Soil
required in a single borehole.
Instruments Ltd)
Sand filter method The borehole is flushed with water and a sand
filter is placed around the piezometer which is positioned at the specified
depth. A bentonite plug is formed at the top of the sand filter. The
remainder of the borehole is then filled with a bentonite–cement grout.
Push-in method The push-in piezometer is generally pushed into soft,

cohesive soil using CPT equipment. The piezometer must be monitored
during installation to ensure that it is not over-pressured as it is pushed in.
Operation
The vibrating wire piezometer converts water pressure to a frequency
signal via a diaphragm, a tensioned steel wire and an electromagnetic
coil. The piezometer is designed so that a change in pressure on the
diaphragm causes a change in tension of the wire. When excited by the
electromagnetic coil, the wire vibrates at its natural frequency. The
vibration of the wire in the proximity of the coil generates a frequency
signal that is transmitted to the readout device. The readout device
processes the signal, applies calibration factors, and displays a reading
in the required engineering unit.
60 Instrumentation
6.3 BAT piezometer

With the BAT system the water pressure in the soil can be measured
accurately and efficiently. With an additional set of attachments the BAT
system also offers the possibility of determining the permeability of the
soil surrounding the piezometer tip and collecting accurate
groundwater samples. Typically the BAT piezometer (Figure 49)
consists of a filter tip and a sensor, both installed via a steel gas pipe.
The BAT system measures the absolute pressure which guarantees

stability, especially during continuous monitoring. The sensor can also
be disconnected at any time to check its proper function and to
determine the exact depth of the filter tip.
Applications
Typical applications for the BAT piezometer are for monitoring:
● porewater pressures to determine safe rates of fill or excavation
● porewater pressures to determine slope stability
● the effects of ground improvement systems (eg vertical drains and
sand drains)
embankments
dams Figure 49 BAT piezometer
● contamination. (Source: Profound BV)
Installation
The BAT system consists of a filter tip and a sensor.
The filter tip is pushed to the desired depth using a
standard gas pipe and a CPT unit. The sensor
component then is simply lowered into position
through the gas pipe. As soon as the BAT sensor has
contacted the filter tip, the pore pressure
measurement will start. After finishing the
measurement, the sensor can be easily retrieved and
used again on another project (Figures 50 and 51).
Operation
The instrument is an intelligent sensor and, as such,
the measurement results are digitally stored in the
internal memory of the BAT sensor and later on
downloaded to a PC for further analysis.
Figure 50 Figure 51 Field unit

Lowering the sensor monitoring device (Source:
component (Source: Profound BV)
Profound BV)
Instrumentation 61
Plots
Figure 52 shows the data recorded from a BAT piezometer installed
using a mobile CPT rig. This data demonstrates the high degree of
accuracy and resolution achievable using these sensors. The data
clearly shows the tidal effect of a nearby river on the porewater
pressure. The term ‘mH2O’ on the vertical scale stands for the
porewater pressure in metres head of water.
mH2O
mH2O above piezometer tip

installed at 6.5 m BGL
Figure 52 Water pressure plot

62 Instrumentation
6.4 Inclinometer system

Inclinometer systems are used to monitor deformation. The system
includes an inclinometer casing, an inclinometer probe and a control
cable, and an inclinometer readout unit.
The plastic inclinometer casing, as shown in Figure 53, is

typically installed in a near-vertical borehole that passes
through a zone of suspected movement. The bottom
of the casing is anchored in stable ground. The
inclinometer probe is used to survey the casing and
establish its initial profile. The inclinometer probe
consists of two servo accelerometers housed in
a stainless steel body, a connector for the control
cable, and two pivoting wheel assemblies.
Applications
Inclinometer systems are used for the
measurement of lateral earth movements which
can occur in the following: Figure 53 Inclinometer (source: Soil Instruments Ltd)
● landslides
● unstable slopes
● dams Figure 53 Inclinometer system
● embankments (Source: Soil Instruments Ltd)
● landfills.
They are also used to measure deflections in the

walls of excavations, shafts, tunnels and in caissons, piles and sheet
piling.
Installation
Casings (Figure 54) can be installed either in a grouted
borehole or, where ground conditions permit, pushed
into position using CPT equipment. The annular space
between the casing and the borehole is backfilled to
the surface with a bentonite cement grout specifically
designed to match the surrounding soil conditions.
Where the push-in method is used there is usually no
need to backfill around the casing with bentonite
cement grout.
Figure 54 Push-in plastics casings
The inclinometer casing is installed so that one set of
grooves is aligned with the expected direction of
movement and the base is securely fixed into position
well beyond the expected zone of movement.
Instrumentation 63
Operation
Ground movement causes the casing to move away from its initial
position. The rate, depth, and magnitude of this movement is
calculated by comparing data from the initial readings to data from
subsequent readings.
In a standard inclinometer survey, the probe is drawn from the bottom

to the top of the casing twice. The inclinometer probe employs two
force balanced servo-accelerometers to measure tilt. One
accelerometer measures tilt in the plane of the inclinometer wheels
while the other accelerometer measures tilt in the plane that is
perpendicular to the wheels.
65
Chapter 7
Onshore testing
A cone penetrometer attached to the end of a series of rods is pushed

into the ground at a constant rate and continuous measurements are
made. The cone penetrometer consists of the cone tip, friction sleeve,
any other sensors and measuring systems, as well as the connections
to the push rods. The most commonly used measuring systems are:
● CPT Tip resistance + sleeve friction
● CPTU Tip resistance + sleeve friction + porewater pressure.
Increasingly, special cones (as described in Chapter 4) are used.
Probing with rods through weak ground to locate a firmer stratum has
been practised since about 1917. It was in the Netherlands in about
1932 that the CPT was introduced in a form recognisable today. In
earlier days the method was referred to as the static penetration test,
quasi-static penetration test and Dutch sounding test.
Existing CPT systems can be divided into three main groups:
● mechanical cone penetrometers (not used in the UK)
● electric cone penetrometers
● piezocone penetrometers.
A cone penetrometer with a 10 cm2 base area cone and an apex angle
of 60° is accepted as the reference and has been specified in the
international reference test procedure[1].
The CPT apparatus consists of a thrust machine and reaction system

(rig), and a penetrometer including measurement and recording
equipment. Machines generally have a thrust capacity in the range
20–200 kN.
66 Onshore testing
7.1 Cone penetration rigs

Truck, 6 wheel drive, 20 tonnes push weight
Suitable for intermediate access sites. Three jacks to set the truck at a
horizontal level.
The truck is equipped with a mobile office enabling operators to send

site investigation results directly to engineers and customers.
Figure 55
Figure 56
Onshore testing 67
Truck with integrated tracks, 21 tonnes push weight

Suitable for the majority of sites. Tracks can be lowered for off-road
travel and are also used to set the truck at a horizontal level.
It can be used as a normal truck on road, ensuring movement from site

to site is fast compared with the low loader moves necessary for other
crawler rigs.
The truck is equipped with a mobile office enabling operators to send

site investigation results directly to engineers and customers.
Figure 57
Figure 58
68 Onshore testing
Crawler, 20 tonnes push weight

Suitable for peat bogs, soft sites and intertidal areas. Three hydraulic
jacks to set the crawler at a horizontal level.
The crawler is mobilised to site on a low loader. It is equipped with a

mobile office enabling operators to send site investigation results
directly to engineers and customers.
Figure 59
5000 mm
Figure 60
Onshore testing 69
Mini crawler, capacity up to 20 tonnes

Capacity 15 tonnes depending on the capacity of ground anchors.
A pushing capacity of 20 tonnes can be achieved by loading it with
reaction weight (kentledge).
Figure 61
auger motor for

ground anchors
Figure 62
70 Onshore testing
Basement rams, capacity up to 20 tonnes

Push capacity typically 5–15 tonnes, depending on fixation.
The system is supported by a portable hydraulic power pack, generator

and data-logging unit.
The most common methods of obtaining reaction are to use either

Acrow props so that reaction is achieved from ceiling beams, or,
preferably, by anchoring the rams to a concrete floor slab. The latter
system uses a least four resin injected expansion bolts.
Set up time is on average 1.5 hours per location, with a typical daily
performance of up to 50 m.
Figure 63
Onshore testing 71
Lightweight CPT unit, capacity 15 tonnes

Push capacity determined by permitted load on the tunnel. Stroke of
500 mm.
This unit is for use within rail tunnels. It is half the size and weight of a
standard set of CPT rams. This allows it to be carried to locations by
two people.
Figure 63
72 Onshore testing
7.2 Fieldwork
Before the cone penetration tests start, the client should define (on
paper) the aim of the tests. Are the tests for stratification, pile design or
settlement prediction of soft layers etc? A clear strategy for executing
the tests should be determined in discussion with the contractor.
Existing data from boreholes or geotechnical maps should be made
available. The locations of the test should be marked, and the
coordinates and altitude of all the test locations should be recorded. If
possible, the groundwater levels should be measured beforehand.
The day rate for a thrust machine exceeds £1000; it is therefore very
important to undertake all the necessary preparations prior to its arrival
on site to ensure maximum production time.
General preparations
Table 4 Required data before start of tests
Accessibility of test location (by road? through fields? If in doubt, ask for a site visit before cone penetration company’s
are there locked farm gates? has permission of the staff arrive
owner of the site been obtained? etc)
Is the test location clearly marked, numbered and the CPT number:
coordinates taken? Coordinates: x=
y=
z=
Grid reference:
Level of groundwater Metres below ground level:
Stratum from borehole: Layer Depth Soil type Unit weight

(if available)
1
Anticipated termination of CPT:
Location of borehole No Coordinates

x=
y=
z=
Grid reference:
Onshore testing 73
CPT tests
To set up tests the following steps are taken.
1 Position rig over test location
2 Level thrust machine using the hydraulic jacks
3 Load the computer with test number, client’s name etc
4 Enter on the computer if there is pre-drilling
5 Connect cone penetrometer to first thrust rod
6 Lower the penetrometer by means of the hydraulic rams to just
above ground level
7 Check the zero readings for loads, inclination and depth
8 Commence the test attaining a rate of 20 mm/sec
9 Stop thrust every metre to connect the next rod
10 Finish test at scheduled depth or refusal (inclination, tip resistance,
sleeve friction too high, or total force too much due to hard rock)
11 In case of cobbles or boulders resulting in a refusal, move rig 1 m
and record new position, before repeating the test
12 Remove the penetrometer, disconnecting and restacking the rods
13 Check the zero readings just above ground level
14 Save test data in computer
15 Enter test details and results on day report
16 Remove rig.
Dissipation tests
● The purpose of a dissipation test is to evaluate the factor of
consolidation (settlement). To do this, the level of the groundwater
table must be known
● Dissipation tests are only useful in clays. It is therefore necessary to

research the stratum, first, by using a CPT or CPTU
● When only one dissipation test will be made at a location, the best
position to do the test is vertically midway in the clay layer
● In soft or loose soils, pre-drilling should be taken down to the

groundwater table. The pre-drilled hole should be filled to ground
level with water if the pore pressure is to be measured using a water-
saturated system. If the groundwater table is located at great depth,
the pore pressure system should be saturated with glycerine or
silicone oil
● The choice of the filter location is between U1 and U2. A filter at U3 is

used only in combination with U2. Both filter locations U1 and U2 have
advantages and disadvantages:
● U1 gives larger positive porewater pressure, even in heavily over-
consolidated clays, but the filter is more prone to damage and wear
● with U2, the filter is much less prone to damage, but in heavily
over-consolidated clays, very low (or even negative) porewater
pressure may be produced
74 Onshore testing
● At present the location of the filter is not standardised. The ISSMGE

reference test procedures[1] refer to the location behind the cone, U2,
as the preferred location
● During the dissipation test the push rods can be locked or unlocked
(in the push/pull clamp). The ISSMGE reference test procedures do
not give a preferred procedure.
For t50, the test can be stopped when the pore pressure is dissipated
until a pressure ut = 0.5(ui + u0) is obtained. Where u0 is the groundwater
pressure and ui is the pore pressure at the start of the test. Where u0 is
unknown, it is safe to stop at 0.5 ui.
Figure 65 shows typical test results for U1 and U2.
Since procedure (locked or not locked) and location of filters U1 and U2

influence the test results, it is important that the client gives written
instructions.
Figure 66 shows an example of how to calculate and where to stop the

dissipation test for t50.
800 Figure 65 Typical dissipation curves

Pore pressure (kPa)
600
U1 U1
400
200
U2
0
0.10 1.00 10 100 1000

Log time (minutes)
Figure 66 Dissipation test (t50)
ui
ui = initial pore water pressure U1 or U2
Porewater pressure (kPa)
t50
u0 = in-situ porewater pressure before penetration
0.5 (ui + u0) When u0 is unknown, test should be stopped at 0.5ui
Example
Lowest possible value ui = 250 kPa u0 = 50 kPa (5 m of water)
u0
Test to be stopped at 0.5 (250 + 50) = 150 kPa
or at 0.5 x 250 = 125 kPa if u0 is unknown
0.01 0.10 1.00 10 100 1000
Time (sec) (log scale)
Onshore testing 75
Maintenance
Table 5 Control scheme for recommended maintenance routines

(from IRTP, 2001[1], Table A1.1)
Checking routine Start of Start of End of Every 3rd
project test test month
Verticality of thrust x
machine
Penetration rate x
Safety functions x x
Push rods x x
Wear x x x
Gaps and seals x x x
Filter x
Zero drift x x
Calibration x x
Function control x x
Performance
CPT and CPTU 100–200 m/day for CPT
Dissipation test, t50 0.5–1.0 hours, depending on
permeability
Mostap soil sampling 0.5–1.0 hours per metre-sample,
depending on depth
76 Onshore testing
7.3 Reporting of test results

Type Time needed to produce
Day report Same day

Factual report Next day
Report with normalised values 2 Days
Interpretative report Depends upon specific requirements
Day report
The following information is normally reported:
1 Project number
2 Address of site
3 Test location reference number
4 Date of test
5 Type of thrust machine used and pushing capacity

6 Use of soil anchors (number and type) if applicable
7 Depth of pre-drilling
8 Depth to the groundwater table (if recorded)
9 Depth at start of penetration
10 Cones used
11 Saturation fluid used in pore pressure system (if piezocone)
12 Area ratio of the cone (if piezocone)
13 Coordinates of the site if available

14 Coordinates of the test locations if available
15 Level of ground at each test at ordinance datum
16 Zero readings of cone resistance, sleeve friction and pore water
pressure before the test and zero drift (in engineering units)
Factual report
The following information is normally reported:
1 Project number
2 Address of site
3 Test location reference number
4 Date of test
Onshore testing 77
5 Type of thrust machine used and pushing capacity

6 Use of soil anchors (number and type) if applicable
7 Depth of pre-drilling
8 Depth to the groundwater table (if recorded)
9 Depth of start of penetration
10 Cones used
11 Saturation fluid used in pore pressure system (if piezocone)
12 Area ratio of the cone (if piezocone)
13 Coordinates of the site if available

14 Coordinates of the test locations if available
15 Level of ground at each test at ordinance datum
16 Cone resistance, sleeve friction and friction ratio

17 Porewater pressure if applicable
18 Zero readings before and after the test
19 Description of the stratum in depth
Report with normalised values

Further processing of the measured data can be carried out based on
the following simple relationships.
● Excess porewater pressure 6u = u2 – u0

● Net cone resistance qn = qt – mvo
● Friction ratio Rf = (fs / qt) x 100%
● Pore pressure ratio Bq = 6u / qn
● Normalised excess pore U = (ut – u0) / (ui – u0) where ut is the
pressure pore pressure at time t in a
dissipation test and ui is the pore
pressure at the start of the
dissipation test
Interpretative report
● Soil parameters
● Design of shallow foundations
● Pile design
● Design of sheet piles
● Settlement parameters
● Contamination
79
Chapter 8
Push technology in the

rail environment
8.1 Introduction
Testing on rail tracks is a challenging and difficult task. The work is
mostly carried out at night and within short periods of time. Access to
the sites and working areas are often difficult.
Until recently, the majority of rail-site investigations have been dynamic

probing and window sampling. The problem with these methods is that
the required depths are not always reached and the information gained
is limited. Cone penetration testing (CPT) offers a better solution for
gaining quality site investigation.
Speed Working on the railways during night requires speed. It will take
about 40 minutes to carry out a 15 m CPT. In a 6-hour night possession,
4 to 5 tests to depths of 15 m can be carried out, including getting on
and off the track (depending on the length between access point and
CPT positions). CPTs are fast, and productivity is higher which
counteracts their extra cost compared to dynamic probing.
Quality CPTs offer high quality data in an environment where it is

difficult to get it from other methods. The CPT takes measurements
every centimetre of the cone resistance, sleeve friction and inclination
of thrust rods; and the method is guaranteed to obtain deeper
penetration than dynamic probing. All of the results are shown instantly
on a computer screen and therefore decisions concerning the
investigation can be taken directly on site.
Versatility There are a number of different CPT rigs for different rail
conditions. These are described later in this chapter, but as long as
there is a reaction force and a power supply, cone penetration tests can
be carried out almost anywhere. A standard CPT rig can use any of the
special cones described in Chapter 4. The rail unit can also install
instrumentation such as piezometers and inclinometers.
80 Push technology in the rail environment
8.2 Planning
For the planning of a rail-site investigation, it is very important to gather
as much information as possible in the time available. Listed below are
a few points to remember when planning.
● Speak to the CPT contractor at an early stage to have their input into
the project. It could save time and money in the long run
● Make sure that the correct rig is chosen for the purpose of the works
● Try and carry out works during the longest possible possession to
get the best productivity
● Carry out all service checks before the works are due to start
● Check for access points as close to the works as possible
● Try to combine works together under one possession where possible
● Provide as much information as possible about the site to the CPT

contractor (eg borehole logs or ground probing radar (GPR) logs).
8.3 Investigations
Investigation in the railway environment can be divided into three
different areas.
Track bed Cone penetration tests can be used to carry out track
bed investigations. A CPT can tell the thickness and quality of the
ballast and sub-grade. It can be used in conjunction with GPR to help
correlate data.
Embankments CPTs are mostly suited to embankment investigation.

Due to the material that embankments are made up of, they are ideal
for CPTs. There is a range of rigs for testing through the 4-foot ballast
on an embankment, on the slope of the embankment or cutting, and at
the toe.
Tunnels Working in tunnels can be difficult depending on the direction

from which the testing is being carried out. The direction of the testing
depends on the thickness of the walls (pre-coring will be needed) and if
there is any drainage in the base of the tunnel. Tests can be carried out
in any direction if a reaction force can be gained.
Push technology in the rail environment 81
8.4 Rail-specific rigs

Crawler
A crawler is a very versatile rig in the rail environment. It can be used
both on and off the rails and at the base of embankments (Figure 67). It
can carry out sampling and CPTs.
Figure 67 Crawler working at the base of a rail embankment
The rig has a high-lift jacking system which allows it to work on steep
inclines. The rig can work at angles of up to 40° (Figure 68).
Figure 68 Crawler working on a steep slope

The crawler can also be mounted on a rail trailer to carry out CPTs in
the 4-foot ballast bed. With its rear jacks, it can lift itself up to allow a
trailer to be positioned beneath it. Once mounted on the trailer, the rig
is pulled by a road railer with the test being made through a hole in the
trailer (Figure 69). It takes approximately 50 minutes to mount the rig
onto the trailer and 30 minutes to take the rig off. A test down to 10 m
will take approximately 30–40 minutes to carry out.
Figure 69 Crawler being loaded onto a rail trailer

Mini-crawler
This rig is specially designed to work on steep embankments and
restricted access areas (Figure 70). This means that there are plenty of
uses for it in the rail environment.
The rig has specially designed rotation rams which allows it to carry out
vertical CPTs on any slope it can negotiate. It can carry out inclined CPTs
through the embankment with the system; and it has a winch system to
help it get up the steeper slopes where traction becomes a problem.
It is also has a screw pick system to allow it to screw itself into the
ground to gain extra reaction. It is reaction that this rig lacks so to use
on jobs that need a deep penetration you either have to increase the
reaction by the screw picks or by putting extra weight on it.
The productivity of this rig is slower compared to the bigger rigs

because of putting on and taking off the extra reaction ballast every
time between tests.
The big advantage of this unit over the other rigs is its size. It is able to
adapt to the cess (the shoulder of the track ballast), and to travel up and
down the cess with ease. It’s also small enough to fit where there are
height restrictions.
An example of this was a job on the Channel Tunnel Rail Link where a
‘normal’ CPT rig could not get access so the mini-crawler was craned
into position. Extra reaction was gained by screwing into the underlying
concrete (Figure 71).
Figure 70 Mini-crawler working on an embankment Figure 71 Mini-crawler working in a restricted area beneath a
railway bridge
Lightweight CPT unit

This rig was specially designed for use within rail tunnels. It was
designed in conjunction with Tube Lines to work on their tunnel
assessment projects.
It is designed to be half the size and weight of a

standard set of CPT rams. This allows it to be
carried by two people to the CPT locations.
The rig gets its reaction force from bolting onto a

surface, either on a tunnel wall, the floor and
specially constructed frames (Figures 72 and 73).
Using this method the CPT unit enables tests to be
carried out horizontally. Due to the light weight
nature of the rig, it can be mounted in any
orientation as long as it can gain a reaction force
from it.
Figure 72 Lightweight CPT unit, working in an
The rig has been used on 12 different sites across underground tunnel
the London Underground system and also in a twin
track rail tunnel in London.
Figure 73 Working on a twin track rail tunnel

Excavator mounted rig

This new purpose-built CPT rig has been designed to overcome many of
the problems found in the rail infrastructure. The CPT rams are fitted to
the end of any excavator.
The rig has been designed to be used on rail

tracks (Figure 74). The rig has a total reaction
force of 10 tonnes, the CPT ram frame weighs
1.5 tonnes and the excavator provides the
other 8.5 tonnes. It can also be used inside
tunnels, pushing horizontally or even vertically
upwards using a swivel hitch.
The rig, when mounted on the rail excavator,

has a maximum reach of 6 m. The 10 tonnes
reaction can be achieved at full reach and at
any angle from the rig (Figure 75).
The CPT rams use the hydraulic system and

electrical power of the rig making it self-
Figure 74 Excavator rig being used on a rail embankment contained when mounted. The rig is fully
assembled before the start of the shift so it is
ready to travel straight to site when on track.
When mounted on the rail bug, the CPT rig is

able to be used on the over-ground sections of
the London Underground. The rail bug is
approved to be used by both Tube Lines and
Metronet.
The rig was designed with the help of Hydrex,

the nationwide road–rail rental specialists. As
Hydrex is based all over the UK, it enables it to
keep down the mobilisation costs of this plant.
The rig is approved to be used in Network Rail.

Figure 75 Excavator rig being used from the toe of an
It is undergoing approval from Tube Lines and
embankment
Metronet for use on the London underground
system.
Rail-truck
One of the biggest innovations in rail-site investigation is a purpose built
road-rail CPT unit. It is called The rail-truck (Figure 76). It has a reaction
force of 19 tonnes which is more than enough for most rail sites.
The unit has a central turntable mechanism which lifts the whole rig in
the air and allows it to be rotated through 360° (Figure 77). This means
that is can easily gain access to rail tracks at most access points.
Figure 76 Rail-truck
The rig is hydraulically driven by its rail wheels so that it can go as fast
backwards as it can forwards. It also has a rear driving position, which
enables it to be driven backwards safely, and is designed to fit inside a
W6a gauge; this allows it to work in all parts of Network Rail and be
isolated from electrical power sources.
Due to the nature and time constraints of rail work, the rig has been
designed to be multifunctional so as to cut down on costs and reduce
the numbers of possessions. The rig will be allowed to carry people in
the main cabin, cutting down the time to get operatives to a location. It
has hydraulic and electric take off points
to allow ballast sampling to be carried
out during testing/CPT.
The rig has provision for a GPR system or

differential global positioning system
(DGPS) to obtain positional data for each
test.
Figure 77 Rail-truck rotating to align itself with the track

Figure 77 opposite shows how the rail-truck is positioned for lowering

onto the rail. The central turntable raises the whole rig, turns it so that
the rail wheels are positioned above the rail, and then lowers it
(Figures 78 and 79).
Figure 78 Rail-truck lowering its rail wheels
Figure 79 ... and being driven on the track

Sognsveien 72, 0855 Oslo, Norway Tel (+47) 22 02 30 00 Fax (+47) 22 23 04 48
websites www.ngi.no, www.ngi.no/english) e-mail ngi@ngi.no
89
Chapter 9
Near-shore marine testing
9.1 Near-shore marine environment

Traditionally, the near-shore marine environment was defined as water
up to 3 km from the coastline and less than 25 m deep. Although still
true, progress in the design of plant and equipment since the mid-
1990s has blurred the distinction between near-shore and offshore,
with offshore equipment now being used in the near-shore environment.
In general, the following environments can be also considered as near-
shore.
● Lakes, canals, rivers and estuaries
● Intertidal mudflats and salt marshes
● Ports and harbours.
The following sections detail the variety of test plant, equipment and
methods that can be used within these environments.
9.2 Jack-up platforms

A jack-up platform (Figure 80) generally consists of a base platform
(either fixed or modular pontoons) with either three or, more commonly,
four legs. The legs run through ‘bearing’ and ‘collar’ mechanisms which
enable the platform to jack against the legs by hydraulic driven pin-and-
ladder, inflatable bladder or rack-and-pinion action, elevating the
platform out of the water.
Most jack-up platforms are modular and container transportable. This

means that the platform components can be easily transported by low-
loader and ship. Moreover, the jack-up platform can be constructed in a
Figure 80 Jack-up platform range of sizes.
(Source: Seacore)
90 Near-shore marine testing
Jack-up platforms are particularly suited to operations in remote

coastal sites, open water and high tidal ranges, particularly where deep
exploratory investigations, long duration (10–72 hours) or a stable
station is required.
Depending upon size and leg length, most geotechnical jack-ups can
operate in water depths of 2–35 m. The main factors include water
depth, leg penetration into the seabed, and prevailing wind and sea-
state conditions. It is important that significant leg penetration into
superficial soils (ie >50% of leg length or leg section) is avoided as
torsional forces resulting from waves and currents exert significant
stresses on legs which may lead to leg or bearing failure. Similarly, leg
toes and spuds must be stable on the seabed to prevent loss of bearing
strength (eg through scour). This is normally achieved by pre-loading
the seabed to twice the point load of each leg, and then jacking on the
legs – in the case of four legs, first one diagonal pair, then the other pair
– once they are in position; obviously this jack-up operation is
performed only with 4-leg platforms. Generally, 3-leg platforms should
not be used in particularly exposed sites or where scour may be
expected; however, some large 3-leg jack-up platforms are designed
specifically to operate in extreme marine environments.
Cone penetration tests: operation

The CPTs are performed using either of the following methods.
● As an integrated CPT system as part of a drill derrick
● As a stand-alone fixed system installed over a moon-pool (a hole in a

platform deck)
● As a cantilever system mounted over the side of the platform.
Once the jack-up rig is on location, the main riser casing is installed from
deck to seabed (or mud line). Usually this will be a drill casing of 300 mm
diameter. Further casings of 150 mm diameter can also be installed to
add rigidity. A final casing (heavy duty HWY drill collar or 55 mm diameter
CPT casing) is then lowered within the drill casing to the seabed; the
final casing has been specially bored out at the joints to enable a 15 cm2
penetrometer, or a 10 cm2 penetrometer and friction reducer, to pass
through it. This provides the required lateral support for applying the
maximum thrust on the CPT rods while reducing significantly the risk of
buckling. It is important, where possible, that the casings remain proud
of the seabed so that the seabed is not disturbed, allowing a continuous
CPT to be performed. This is not always possible, so often the casings
are bedded into the seabed by up to 0.5 m to ensure lateral stability. It
is critical, though, that the final CPT casing sits above and is not pushed
into the seabed since a soil plug could prevent the penetrometer being
pushed out of the casing at the start of testing.
Near-shore marine testing 91
Where the CPT beam is incorporated into a drill derrick and a drag bit is
attached to the leading section of the HWY casing, drill outs and re-
tests of refused CPTs is possible. This enables deep CPTs to be
performed rapidly and with confidence.
After the casings are lowered, the CPT system, placed on the derrick
beam, cantilever or deck clamps, is set in place to enable the CPT test
to be performed.
Typically, top-push systems are used to perform CPTs from jack-up

platforms (Figure 81). The hydraulic rams have a 20 tonne push
capability. The rams are powered directly from the main powerpack of
the platform. An auxiliary powerpack and generator is mobilised as
back-up to ensure 100% reliability of the equipment.
A calibrated electric cone is pushed into the soil using 1 m long

threaded rods inside the CPT casing. The deck-to-mud-line distance and
all relevant casing depths are recorded to enable the processor to
calculate the actual bed level and depth of seabed disturbed by the
casing. The cone penetration test will be
performed in accordance with BS1377-9[12] and
amended to incorporate the international
reference test procedure for the CPT[1].
Unless otherwise dictated by seabed conditions,

it is wise to perform tests using a piezocone
penetrometer (CPTU) as this records the best
parameters for characterising marine superficial
soils, particularly soft alluvial and laminated soils.
The information below summarises the key points

highlighted by these standards.
Cone calibration
● The cones, umbilical cable and recording
equipment will have been calibrated for use in a
wide range of soil types and consistencies.
Copies of all calibration certificates will be
available for inspection at the vehicle. The zero
values are recorded prior to and post each CPT
test.
● Before each test the seals between different

elements of a tip will be cleaned and inspected
to check their integrity.
Figure 81 CPT rams
CPT testing
● The test should be carried out under continuous penetration at the
rate specified in BS1377-9[12]. The penetration rate is maintained at
20 mm/sec ± 5 mm/sec throughout each stroke of the thrust
machine. The readings are recorded at intervals of not more than
20 mm depth
● Each test is terminated at ‘refusal’ or as instructed by the supervising

engineer. Refusal is defined as follows:
● total thrust equals nominal reaction provided
● cone end-load is 90% of the cone capacity
● sleeve friction is > 15% of the cone axial capacity
● with a string of pushrods, deviation from the vertical is > 15°
between the tip of the cone and the top of the hole
● rod deviation is greater than 3° over a length of penetration of 1 m
or less
● the operator feels that further penetration would damage the
equipment
● The engineer has the ability to measure dissipation at specific

locations and depths. In order to do this the test is temporarily
stopped and the decrease in porewater pressure is monitored with
time
● Copies of data can be printed out after each test, or on request, as

preliminary data. After processing and quality assurance (QA)
checking of the data, the final data can be printed out.
The jack-up rig should be equipped with an email facility to enable each
test to be emailed on completion for processing and interpretation.
9.3 Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs)

The successful completion of ground investigations within the marine
environment, especially in the near-shore zone, is difficult both in terms
of the quality of data that must be obtained and the management of the
environment (ie waves, currents, depth of water and wind etc). Good
management, the correct equipment and suitably trained personnel are
all necessary so that the required information can be collected with as
little downtime as possible. Typically, in exposed marine environments,
downtime of conventional geotechnical plant and equipment (drilling
platforms, barges and survey vessels) caused by weather conditions
and sea state can be highly variable, even under the management of
experienced marine contractors. Therefore, durable and versatile
equipment together with high quality recording equipment, and suitably
trained and experienced operators, are required in order to minimise
demurrage yet provide the requisite data needed for design.
Compact track-driven ROV systems have enhanced versatility in that

they can be used as the mounting platforms for subsea and intertidal
CPT operations (Figure 82).
The systems are available as 4.5–40 tonne units (in air) and can be
used to incorporate both light and heavyweight seabed frames (eg
Figure 82 Remotely operated vehicle (ROV)

Neptune and ROSON* systems). The systems can be deployed from a

variety of support platforms (eg landing craft, multicat, jack-up or
barge) or may be operated from the land.
ROVs generally comprised a ROV frame, power plant and tracks with a
full complement of underwater cameras. It is operated and controlled
via an armoured electro-hydraulic umbilical cable from the central
control cabin on the deck of the survey boat. CPTs are performed via
attached seabed frames and operate 2, 5 and 10 cm2 cone
penetrometers with a depth capability of up to 20 m below seabed
level. The systems are proven to operate successfully in 2–2.5 m
waves and swells.
Figure 83 shows the plots of a CPT made from a ROV and a Neptune
CPT unit with coiled rods. On the left, the plot shows the cone
resistance and the sleeve friction, and in the middle is the friction ratio;
these enable estimation of the seabed soil type on the right which is
very loose sand becoming medium dense sand.
* A ROSON is a wheel-driven CPT unit which is described and illustrated on page 96.
Figure 83 Plots of a seabed CPT made with a remotely operated vehicle

9.4 Seabed frames

Neptune CPT unit (Figure 84)
2 cm2 detachable cone, 50 MPa push capability
Up to 10 m penetration from coiled rod
Compact and easily deployed subsea frame
Real-time control and display
Single coaxial connection for power and data
Automatic safety cut-outs
Low maintenance, low consumable use
Easy to operate Windows™ based PC control
Data comparable to 10 cm2 systems
Figure 84 Neptune CPT unit
Technical specification
Dimensions 1.8 m (L) x 1.8 m (W) x 2 m (H)
Weight in air 1500 kg approx
Weight in sea water 1200 kg approx
Thrust capacity 1000 kg (approx 10 kN, 50 MPa)
Max penetration 10 m
Depth rating 3000 m
Cone type Detachable, analogue subtraction
Cone sensors Tip, sleeve friction and inclination
Optional sensors Piezo – ranges to suit
Cone tip area 2 cm2
Cone sleeve area 30 cm2
Penetration speed 2 cm/sec ± 10%
Retract speed 5 cm/sec approx
Power requirement 240V AC single-phase 50/60Hz
Umbilical voltage 600V AC
Telemetry link FSK
Tip accuracy > 100 kPa
Sleeve accuracy > 10 kPa
Inclination accuracy > 1°
Cone data rate 20 Hz
Frame sensors Altimeters, tilt, pressure
Frame sensor data rate 1 Hz
Operating system Windows™ 98 and NT compatible
ROSON seabed CPT system
Lowered to the seabed or river bed from land,

a vessel or a platform, this subsea frame
(Figure 85) is linked to its base by an umbilical
cable or a wireless acoustic data transmission
link.
The CPT string is pushed into the soil by means

of two friction wheels, driven by electrical
motors. The friction wheels are pressed
against each other by means of a hydraulic
cylinder, thus clamping the CPT string between
them. This allows for adjustment of the force
applied to the CPT string. The maximum
penetration is around 20 m, although in
specific conditions greater penetration may be
feasible. The height of the tower on top of the
unit is determined by the length of penetration.
There are two drive units available:

● ROSON 40 kN, suitable for all cone sizes
● ROSON 100 kN, suitable for 5 and 10 cm2
cones.
Total system weights available include 4, 5, 10

and 20 tonne frames.
When using a 10 cm2 cone, the base area and

weight of the unit can be increased to 4 m2 and Figure 85 ROSON CPT unit (Source: A P van den Berg)
5 tonnes respectively.
Using wireless transmission, full data sets are taken during each test in
exactly the same way as with a cable linked unit. Original files of data
are downloaded from the subsea memory module whenever the unit is
returned to its base.
9.5 Overwater cantilever frame

For cone penetration tests in harbours, often a cantilever frame can be
used. This is much cheaper than deploying a platform. The tests must
be carried out using a casing (Figure 86); without a casing, the 36 mm
thrust rods for a CPT will buckle.
Figure 86 Cantilever frame
The standard casing is 55 mm diameter which provides additional

lateral support to the CPT rods. Generally these 55 mm casings are
themselves supported by a drill casing to resist the lateral forces of
tide, current etc.
It is essential that, prior to a marine investigation, the requirements are

properly assessed. If the purpose of the investigation is to assess the
near-surface sediments of the harbour or other bed, then typically the
tests should be performed in two parts. The first test is performed from
the bed surface with no support casing to enable the surface deposits
to be tested without disturbance. The thrust is very limited on this first
push due to the lateral stability of the rods. On completion of the first
push the casing can be set to a depth in the initially tested material;
then once properly supported, the full thrust of the equipment can be
used to advance the test to the required depth.
Figure 87 (on the next page) shows a plot of a typical CPT test in a
harbour.
Figure 87 Plot from a harbour bed CPT made with a cantilever frame
On the left side of the chart (Figure 87), the plot shows the cone
resistance and the sleeve friction. In the middle is the friction ratio
which allows the soil type to be estimated, as shown on the right. The
harbour bed consists of a soft clay layer of approximately 6 m
overlaying silty sand (possibly highly weathered mudstone).
The cantilever platform can be used as a stand-

alone item of equipment (Figure 86) or can be
mounted on a variety of land-based (Figure 88)
or marine equipment thereby providing a very
flexible, cost effective alternative to
conventional equipment.
Figure 88 Cantilever frame mounted on a trailer

101
Chapter 10
Offshore testing
10.1 Introduction
Further offshore, water depths are too great for jack-ups so vessels are
used. Two types of geotechnical investigation can be performed with a
vessel-based system: a seabed system or a drilling based system.
For static operations such as drilling and down-hole CPTs, vessels with
the means to stay stationary have to be used. This can be achieved by
using mooring systems, or (more expensively) vessels with dynamic
positioning capabilities.
Drill ships need a moon-pool (a hole in the ship’s deck) so that the work
can be carried out safely and efficiently. Occasionally a drill system will
be mounted on a cantilever platform over the side. A heave
compensation system is needed as well as a seabed reaction frame
(clamped around the drill pipe) for the CPTs. This heavy compensation
system is designed to keep the drill stationary relative to the seabed,
enabling the vessel to move up and down with the swell. These systems
allow drilling operations to be performed offshore and samples to be
recovered, and down-hole CPT tests to be performed.
However, smaller seabed systems can be deployed

from larger types of vessels. In essence only a barge
or vessel with a suitable crane or A-frame is
necessary. The selected vessel must have the ability
to remain on station throughout the test either by
anchoring or more commonly holding station using its
bow and stern thrusters. Figure 89 shows a typical
portal frame arrangement deploying a seabed
resistivity system.
Figure 89 A-frame
102 Offshore testing
The methods of performing seabed investigations are detailed over the

following pages. These can vary from the simplest form of grab
sampling to new high quality sampling and CPT testing techniques.
The following marine site investigation tools will be described.
● Seabed CPT systems
● Seabed soil samplers
● Seabed resistivity systems.
10.2 Seabed cone penetration test systems

Mini CPT units
The mini CPT (Neptune) unit (Figure 90) has been developed around the
concept of being able to perform CPT testing from a wide variety of
vessels. Testing has been predominantly undertaken from survey
vessels, where the lifting capabilities are quite limited, using lightweight
units which have been developed to make use of 2 or 5cm2 cones and
which incorporate a coiled rod system to minimise the size of the units.
The advantage of these

systems is that they weigh only
around 1.5 tonnes and can
penetrate (subject to ground
conditions) up to 10 m into the
soil. These units can also
perform T-bar testing as
required. The units are designed
to cope with very deep water of
up to 3000 m and, due to their
lightweight construction, can be
deployed on a single combined
lifting and communications
umbilical so that data is seen in
real time on the deck as the test
is performed.
Figure 90 Mini CPT (Neptune) unit

Offshore testing 103
Wheel-drive CPT units

These marine CPT units (Figure 91) are based on a
wheel drive system and the straight rod as used in
conventional land based CPT testing.
The straight rods are clamped between two pairs

of driving wheels which rotate, pushing the rods
into the ground. The units typically come in a
range of sizes from 2 tonnes up to 20 tonnes.
The units are lowered to the seabed from a vessel

by using an auxiliary winch and wire; the CPT
system is linked to base by a separate umbilical
cable or by acoustic modems in deepwater
environments.
The system is typically capable of operating in

water depths of up to 2000 m. It can be
configured to achieve penetration depths of up to
Figure 91 Wheel-driven CPT unit (ROSON) 40 m below seabed level. However, this is
(Source: A P van den Berg) dependent upon the tested soils and available
handling systems. Figure 92 shows the
schematics of these units.
The wheel-drive CPT system consists of a seabed

reaction frame incorporating a wheel-drive
mechanism, and electronic control and data
Maximum acquisition systems. Each drive unit comprises
water
Deployment is carried
out from a survey vessel
depth = four wheels which clamp onto the cone thrust rods
500 m
with a suitable crane or
A-frame – overside or
to push the rods into the ground.
through a moonpool
Power is provided from the support vessel at the

Rod
support
surface and transmitted via an umbilical cable to
Two drive wheels, the unit at the seabed. All data output from the
clamped onto the rods,
push or retract the cone cone is transmitted back up the same cable to the
as required
data logger and laptop on the support vessel.
Seabed
unit A rod support tower is attached to the lift line and
frame unit. This guides and supports the thrust
rods within the water for the depth of test
10 cm2
cone required. As the drive wheels are rotated against
the thrust rod, so the cone is pushed into and
through the seabed soils. As with conventional
Various CPTs, the push rate is 20 mm/sec. The reaction
cone types
available weight for the test is provided by the weight of the
seabed unit itself.
Figure 92 Schematics of CPT unit

Upon completion of the test, once the data acquired has been checked,
the CPT thrust rods and cone is withdrawn inside the frame unit and
support tower. The unit is then lifted back to the support vessel via the
onboard crane or handling system (Figure 93).
Figure 93 CPT unit
Once the unit is back onboard, the vessel then moves to the next test
location. During this time, the data can be downloaded and processed
for subsequent soil-type interpretation. Preliminary field plots and
interpretation are then provided to the Client as the investigation work
proceeds.
Typical applications are:

● pipelines (shallow and deepwater)
● seabed foundation solution
● ports and harbours – dredging and construction projects
● cable route surveys
● offshore wind farms
● environmental surveys
● rapid correlation and integration with hydrographic surveys,
boreholes and vibro-core soil samples.
Down-hole CPT system

The down-hole cone penetration test system enables a CPT
test to be performed in-situ from the base of a borehole,
either offshore or on land, allowing soil parameters to be
measured. The advantage is that in water where a deeper
penetration is required, the wire-line CPT tool can be
deployed down a drill pipe to perform either a 1 or 3 m CPT.
One such wire-line CPT tool is the WISON-APB, manufactured
by A P van den Berg. Figure 94 shows a drill rig with the CPT
tool. On completion of each CPT test the borehole is
advanced. The CPT tool can then be deployed down the drill
pipe again to perform the next CPT test.
The CPT test in combination with a drill pipe allows testing at

great depth.
Equipment
The equipment differs from a conventional CPT in that the
tool is remote from the surface, attached and controlled by
an umbilical winch (Figure 95). The umbilical cable houses a
hydraulic hose which powers the tool and the
communication cable so that the test results can be seen in
Figure 94 Down-hole CPT system real time. Using this method, tests can typically be
performed down to a depth of 600 m.
The tool consists of a down-hole jacking unit with a 3 m stroke and a

thrust capacity of up to 100 kN. This system enables the borehole to be
advanced and CPTs be performed at all depths to obtain information
from below the proposed foundation depths.
Figure 95 Umbilical cable

Testing
The system is used in conjunction with a rotary drilling system and open
bit. After the borehole has been advanced to the required test level, it is
cleaned by mud flushing. The tool is lowered by its self-tensioning winch
to the bit, where it seats and latches under its own weight.
The operator starts the test from the control cabin and the cone
penetrometer is hydraulically pushed into the soil at a constant rate of
20 mm/sec. The movement of a hydraulic ram on the winch, logs the
depth which is proportional to the movement of the cone. Throughout
the test the measurements of cone tip resistance, sleeve friction and
pore water pressure are displayed graphically in the control cabin. The
data is converted to a digital signal prior to transmission up the
umbilical by a down-hole data acquisition unit.
Upon reaching the maximum achievable stroke of 1 or 3 m, or the

limiting thrust capacity of 100 kN, the test is terminated.
Reaction force
During the test, sufficient reaction force is required to balance the
penetration thrust. If this is not available from the drill string alone, the
system may be used in conjunction with a seabed reaction frame which
clamps onto the drill string.
Cone penetrometer type

There is a wide selection of probes that can be used for different
purposes. These are detailed below.
Cone tips and sensors: friction cone

temperature cone
piezocone
seismic piezocone
electrical conductivity cone
10.3 Seabed soil samplers

Grab sampler
The grab sampler (Figure 96) is one of the simplest forms of seabed
sampling. It is a grab bucket very similar to that used on land.
The grab units tend to be either hydraulically or manually operated. The

advantage of the manually operated version is that they are very simple
and not really restricted to any water depth other than length of wire
and winch capacity. These units can work in up to 4000 m of water.
They give a good idea of the index properties of the seabed material.
Figure 96 Grab sampler
The unit is typically deployed from a vessel’s crane or A-frame to
recover the samples back to deck. These units are also useful in
obtaining bulk samples that can be used back in laboratories for model
testing such as soil pipeline interaction.
Box corer
The box corer has become a standard sampling tool for surveys in soft
or deep sediments. The enlarged surface area of the box (0.25 m2)
allows for relatively large sample sizes to be recovered in deep water
where the time required to deploy and recover the instrument is
significant.
The box corer is built within a gimballed hexagonal frame. The

instrument is triggered by a trip as the main coring stem passes
through its frame. The depth of penetration (maximum 50 cm) can be
controlled to prevent over-penetration in softer sediments (Figure 97).
The recovered sample is completely enclosed after retraction, reducing

the loss of finer materials during recovery. Stainless steel doors, kept
open during the deployment to reduce any ‘bow-wave effect’ during
Figure 97 Box corer sampling, are triggered on sampling and remain tightly closed, sealing
the sampled water from the water column.
On recovery, the sample can be processed directly through the large

access doors or via the removal of the box completely, together with its
cutting blade. A spare stainless steel box and galvanised cutting blade
can then be added, ready for an immediate re-deployment. Box corers
are available in different sizes. The largest is the 0.25 m2 type, while
smaller 0.06 m2 mini box corers can also be provided.
Box corers provide a very high quality bulk sample which again, like the
grab sampler, has no electronics fitted, so is only limited in depth of
water for operation by the length of wire and winch.
Gravity and piston corers

The length of a gravity corer ranges from 3–8 m. These tools are
capable of obtaining continuous core samples in any water depth,
subject to the availability of a suitable vessel and installed deployment
system. The gravity corer, which drops in free-fall from a limited height,
penetrates the seabed merely under gravity.
The stationary piston corer is a gravity corer which also drops in free-
fall from a limited height but has the lower end enclosed by a piston,
until penetration into the soil commences (Figure 98). The piston,
connected to the main lift cable by wire which becomes taut when the
coring tube comes into contact with the seabed, remains approximately
stationary as the tube penetrates. The presence of the piston creates a
negative pressure in the coring tube, enabling the frictional forces of
the core on the walls of the tube to be overcome. This generally results
in recovery rates which are better than those obtained with a standard
gravity corer. A piston is particularly suited to soft cohesive soils.
The piston corer comprises basically of:

● main lift cable
● release mechanism
● main weight Figure 98 Piston corer
● counterweight suspended from release system
● core barrel and PVC liner ( 85 mm)
● tulip core catcher and cutting shoe
● piston connected to main lift cable
● special launch and recovery chute
● special trolley for easy core barrel management.
The geotechnical quality of the recovered core depends on the shape of

the corer, the coefficient of penetration, and how it penetrates – a
constant push rate is best. The larger the core diameter the better the
likely core quality. Samples are suitable for geological logging and all
types of index and classification tests. Basic strength and consolidation
tests can also be undertaken although it must be accepted that the
results may not be representative.
Gravity and piston corers can be operated from a large variety of non-
specialised survey vessels, having adequate handling capabilities
(crane, derrick, boom, or portal or A-frame). Each type of system
should be operated in strict accordance with the Safety Procedures for
Deployment of Corers. When using a standard gravity corer, the system
is used with a special launch and recovery chute which ensures that the
corer is operated safely and at no time is it suspended above the deck.
Corers have now been developed into jumbo piston corers (JPCs) which
are able to take cores of up to 30 m length with a stationary piston. The
main obstacles with this are deployment and handling.
Typical applications for these samples are:

● pipeline route surveys
● site assessment surveys
● pre-dredging geotechnical surveys
● shallow penetration sampling
● calibration of near-surface geophysical data
● geochemical sampling surveys
● reclamation quality control
● near-shore site investigations
● microbial hydrocarbon exploration.
Vibro-corer
A variation of the gravity core is the vibro-corer (Figure 99).
This corer uses motors to generate a centrifugal force to
vibrate the sample barrel into the ground. It enables samples
to be taken in granular material and in stiff clays where free-fall
devices, such as a gravity corer, would meet refusal.
The high-powered vibro-corer is powered by an electric twin-

linear vibrator motor delivering over 9000 kg of centrifugal
force.
Standard size vibro-coring equipment will produce 86 mm

diameter core samples to a maximum depth of 6 m. In coarse
aggregates larger diameters up to 150 mm can be obtained.
Figure 99 Vibro-corer To minimise sample disturbance and coring time, the units can
be fitted with an integral penetrometer and data recorder
supplying online information on penetration against time and
penetration rate (m/sec). Data is subsequently used to assist
in the evaluation of actual layer thickness compared with
recovered length. Typical sea bottom vibrating time is up to
ten times less than with a standard vibro-corer, improving
performance rates and minimising core disturbance.
The corer is capable of coring up to 6 m into the seabed in water depths

of up to 120 m. Recovered cores can be retained within their semi-
transparent liners until formal examination onshore. Alternatively, the
samples can be split and logged onboard to enable rapid assessment.
Typical applications involve:

● mineral exploration
● aggregate resource evaluation
● pre-dredging geotechnical surveys
● sand search
● reclamation quality control
● near-shore site investigation
● pipeline route surveys.
Deep water sampler

With the need for higher quality samples in the deepwater environment,
a new deep water sampler has been developed. This is a variation on
the jumbo piston corer but intended to provide higher quality samples.
The deep water sampler was designed in cooperation with the
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute to sample soft soils in deep water.
The aim is that the sample length will be at least 10 m and with a sample
diameter of 110 mm. One of the most important goals is the recovery
ratio of 95% or higher of the soil. This means that the sampler has to
penetrate the soil with minimal disturbance and handle the sample with
care during retraction.
The system uses a ROSON seabed frame. The drive

wheels of the ROSON push the sampler into the soil
at a speed of 20 mm/sec. A piston is linked to a
fixed point and the penetration depth is logged by a
depth encoder. During penetration, data is logged
every 10 mm. On completion of the test, an ASCII file
is generated containing test details in the header
followed by the test data.
The ROSON 100 kN seabed frame is modified to

take a 15 m mast to support the deep water sampler
tube in the vertical position during sampling
(Figure 100).
The deep water sampler is made up of several

component parts.
● Cutting shoe
● Core retainer
● Sample tube Figure 100 ROSON and deep water sampler
● Piston.
Cutting shoe
The cutting shoe (Figure 101) protrudes into the soil and guides a soil
sample into the sample tubes behind the cutting shoe. The shape of the
cutting shoe is designed to obtain the least possible deformation of the
soil. Another function of the cutting shoe is to lock the spring loaded
core retainer during penetration. As soon as the whole sampler is pulled
back, the friction force on the cutting shoe triggers the core retainer.
Figure 101 Cutting shoe
Core retainer
The core retainer (Figure 102) consists
of several fingers made out of spring
steel. The function of the core retainer
is to cut the soil sample and support it,
while lifting the whole sampler. The
core retainer is spring loaded, which
gives it its strength. The retainer is
triggered by the retraction of the
sampler.
Figure 102 Core retainer
Sample tube
The sample tube (Figure 103) consists of an outer tube, a liner and a set
of rings and seals to connect the liners. The outer tube protects the
liner and guides the pushing and retracting forces which are being
imposed upon it. The liner guides the sample and acts as a container
for the retrieved sample.
Figure 103 Sample tube

Piston
The piston (Figure 104) fits closely into the liners. A seal on the piston
can withstand possible pressure differences between the soil and the
inside of the empty liners. This seal is also used as a one-way brake so
that the piston can only move upwards in the liners.
Figure 104 Piston
The piston stays stationary to the soil during penetration. The reaction
force is lead through a load cell and chain to a fixed point above the
sampler. The piston is used to seal the sample and to keep it steady
inside the liner. Pressures are monitored by sensors inside the piston.
If the pressure is too low or too high, a safety valve will open to avoid
damage to the sample and sampler.
10.4 Seabed resistivity systems

Method
An electrical current is injected into the sub-surface by means of two
electrodes. Based on the measured values of current and voltage, the
average resistivity of the sub-surface is calculated for a sub-surface
volume down to a certain penetration depth. The penetration depth
depends on the distance between the electrodes. Larger electrode
distances are associated with increasing penetration depth.
If the measurements are repeated with increasing electrode distances,

information is obtained from progressively deeper geological
structures. As such, a field curve is obtained showing the resistivity as a
function of the (horizontal) distance between the electrodes. After
computer modelling this field curve is transformed into a real
geophysical subsurface section showing the resistivity as a function of
depth (Figure 105).
Caprock Sand Bedrock

W E
> 1.5 ohm-m
–1.5
1.0–1.5 ohm-m
Depth (m)
–2.0 0.7–1.0 ohm-m
0.6–0.7 ohm-m
–2.5
< 0.6 ohm-m
1000 2000 3000
Distance (m)
Figure 105 Profile of seabed sub-surface (Source: Demco NV)
The resistivity of a geological structure depends on its porosity, water

saturation and the pore water resistivity. Gravel usually has a lower
porosity than sand and its resistivity thus is higher. Clay with generally
very high porosities shows very low resistivities. Solid rock, on the
other hand, has a low porosity and shows very high resistivities. Each
geological structure tends to have its own specific resistivity.
Fluvial and marine operations

For water based operations the electrodes are placed on a multi-
channel cable trailing behind the survey vessel (Figure 106). According
to the circumstances the cable may be floating or towed on the
seafloor. A floating cable may be more efficient in shallow water or if
obstacles on the seafloor hamper the use of a bottom towed cable. The
electrode geometry is chosen in such a way that good quality data may
be obtained even for shallower targets.
Figure 106 Marine

resistivity array (Source:
Demco NV)
While the survey vessel is sailing, measurements are carried out and
stored automatically without any intervention from the operator.
Consequently an entire electrical sounding may be obtained every 3 or
4 seconds; and at a speed of 1 m/sec this corresponds to a horizontal
resolution of one sounding every 3–4 m. In applications concerning the
exploration of alluvial diamonds this resolution is needed to detect even
the smaller diamond-bearing potholes and buried channels.
During the field survey, qualitative results are already shown on the
computer screen. The quality of the field data is monitored online so
that the operator can intervene at any moment to adjust and optimise
the survey parameters.
The final result of the survey gives a continuous profile of the sub-
surface of the seabed, as shown in Figure 105.
Applications
Typical applications are:
● dredging reconnaissance
● sand search
● port development
● sand and gravel exploration
● cable and pipe route surveys
● diamond and gold exploration.
117
Appendix A
Pile design using

cone penetration tests
(Dutch Standard)
Contents
A1 Design philosophy
A2 Pile base resistance
A3 Pile shaft resistance
A4 Pile calculations
Bearing capacity
Settlement
A5 Worked examples
General information
Driven pile, 250 x 250 mm
CFA pile, 350 mm
Bored pile, cast in-situ, 450 mm
Summary
A1 Design philosophy
● A cone penetration test can be seen as a small-scale test pile with
ground displacement
● The cone penetrometer measures the tip resistance and the local
friction
Ultimate pile resistance

Fpile = Fbase + Fshaft
Working load
WL = Fpile / Factor of safety
118 Appendix A
Factor of safety
Scale effect: a = 1.33
Statistical chance: a = 1.33
Overload: a = 1.40
Overall factor of safety = 1.33 x 1.33 x 1.40 = 2.5
Note
The Dutch Standard does not work with an overall factor of safety but
uses different partial safety factors for live load, dead load and
resistance.
A2 Pile base resistance

● Take into account a soil layer of 4Dpile below and 8Dpile above the pile
base
● Use the minimum path method and take the arithmetic average of the
tip resistance
● Use correlation coefficients for pile types.
Note
A layer of 4Dpile below the pile base is taken
because:
● the extra vertical stress due to the pile load will
Pile be zero at 4Dpile below the pile base
● of punching
If there is a level between 0.7Dpile and 4Dpile below

the pile base, which gives a lower average value
for qc, then this level must be applied.
Figure A1 Shear lines for failure at pile base

Appendix A 119
Table A1 Correlation coefficients for base resistance
Displacement piles
Driven piles 1.0
Formed in-situ bored piles (similar to vibro piles) 1.0
Screw piles 0.9
Non-displacement piles
CFA piles 0.8
Cast in-situ bored piles 0.5
Cone resistance qc
Depth
Base level
Average tip resistance = [(AC + CD) / 2] + DE

2
Figure A2 Minimum path method
The minimum path method uses three stages.
● Stage I goes down to a level between 0.7D and 4D which gives the
lowest average values of qc for the stages I + II + III
● Stage II goes up, back to the pile base level, using the minimum path
● Stage III goes up, from the pile base level to a level of 8D above it,
using the minimum path.
The final value for the pile base resistance is
qc = 0.5 (I + II) + III

2
which is
[(AC + CD) / 2] + DE
2
120 Appendix A
A3 Pile shaft resistance

● The short term resistance recorded by the cone penetrometer
differs from the long term pile resistance; therefore
● take the shaft friction as a percentage of the tip resistance:

sand 1.0% max value of 150 kPa
clay 3.5% max value of 120 kPa
● Use correlation coefficients for pile types.
Table A2 Correlation coefficients for shaft resistance
Displacement piles
Driven piles 1.0
Formed in-situ bored piles (similar to vibro piles) 1.2
Screw piles 0.6
Non-displacement piles
CFA piles 0.6
Cast in-situ bored piles 0.6
A4 Pile calculation
Bearing capacity of a driven concrete pile, 250 x 250 mm
qc (MPa)
Ground level
Base resistance
[(10 + 10) / 2] + 5
Average tip resistance = = 7.5 MPa
2
Fbase = 0.25 x 0.25 x 7500 = 469 KN
Shaft resistance
Fshaft = 1% x 10,000 kPa x 4 x 0.25 x 1.0 m = 100 kN
Fpile = 469 + 100 = 569 kPa
Working load = 569 / 2.5 = 228 KN
Z (m)
Figure A3 Cone penetration test with calculation of the bearing capacity of a driven concrete pile, 250 x 250 mm
Appendix A 121
Settlement
Settlement
Base Shaft
Load Load
Figure A4 Load–settlement curves
Fu;b = ultimate base resistance derived from CPT

Fu;s = ultimate shaft resistance derived from CPT
* Corrections for scale Fb = corrected base resistance = Fu;b / (1.33 x 1.33)*

effect and statistical chance Fs = corrected shaft resistance = Fu;s / (1.33 x 1.33)*
Known values
Fb; Fs; Fpile = (Fb + Fs) / 1.4 (safe load); s b; ss
Variables
a; b; s; (0 ) a;b ) 1)
Equations
s = sb.f(a); s = ss.f(b); Fpile = a.Fb + b.Fs
Remarks
● Settlement curves are more like an exponential function
● The settlement, just before collapse of the base resistance, is a

percentage of the pile diameter (= 10% for driven piles in dense
sand)
● The settlement, just before collapse of the shaft resistance, is a fixed

value (= 10 mm for driven piles in dense sand)
● The settlements, just before collapse, are for non-displacement

piles, approximately two times the settlement of displacement piles.
122 Appendix A
Example
Pile 250 x 250 mm from CPT
Settlement
Base Shaft
Load (kN) Load (kN)
Figure A5 Load–settlement curves
Fpile = (263 + 56) / 1.4 = 228 kN
(1) s = 25.a3 ¬
b = 1.36.a (4)
(2) s = 10.b3 ®
(3) Fpile = 263.a + 56.b = 228 ¬ a = 0.67

(4) b = 1.36.a ® b = 0.91
s = 8 mm
a.Fb = 177 kN b.Fs = 51 kN Fpile = 228 kN

Appendix A 123
A5 Worked examples
General information
Table A3 gives equations for simplified settlement of piles founded in
dense sand. The formulae are compiled according to the conditions
described earlier in this appendix.
Table A3 Simplified settlement: equations for piles founded in dense sand
Pile type Settlement s (mm)
¨ Fpile ¬3 ¨Fpile – Fs ¬3
Driven 0.1 D or 0.1 D
ªFb + 0.215 3DFs®
3
ª Fb ®
0 < s < 10 mm 10 < s < 0.1 D
¨ Fpile ¬3 ¨Fpile – Fs ¬3
CFA 0.2 D or 0.2 D
ªFb + 0.215 3DFs®
3
ª Fb ®
0 < s < 20 mm 20 < s < 0.2 D
Bored,
0.2 D
¨ Fpile ¬3 or 0.2 D
¨Fpile – Fs ¬3
cast in situ ªFb + 0.1 3DFs®
2
ª Fb ®
0 < s < 20 mm 20 < s < 0.2 D
Fb = corrected base resistance = Fu;b / (1.33 x 1.33)

Fs = corrected shaft resistance = Fu;s / (1.33 x 1.33)
Fu;b and Fu;s are the ultimate values derived from CPT diagram
Fpile = (Fb + Fs) / 1.4 or any lower pile load
D = diameter of pile
Fpile, Fb and Fs in kN. D in mm
Table A4 Correlation coefficients for pile type
Pile type Base Shaft

(_b) (_s)
Precast concrete, 250 x 250 mm 1.0 1.0

CFA, 350 mm 0.8 0.6
Bored, cast in-situ, 450 mm 0.5 0.6
124 Appendix A
The soil profile shown in Figure A6 is more suited for driven piles than
for bored piles. Therefore the exercise is only to be seen as to how piles
can be designed directly from a CPT.
qc (Mpa)
Ground level
Soft
clay
Sand
Z (m)
Figure A6 Cone penetration test used for pile calculations

Appendix A 125
Driven pile, 250 x 250 mm
Note _s and _p are correlation

Table A5 Precast concrete pile
factors for the pile type
Pile
Diameter 0.25 m
Area 0.0625 m2
Circumference 1.0 m
Shaft (_s = 1.0)

Shaft friction in sand 1% x 10,000 kPa = 100 kPa
Ultimate resistance Fu;s 1.0 x 1.0 m x 1.0 m x 100 kPa = 100 kN
Corrected resistance Fs 100 kN / (1.33 x 1.33) = 57 kN
Base (_p = 1.0)

Average tip resistance qc 0.5 [0.5 (10 + 10) + 5]= 7.5 MPa
Ultimate resistance Fu;b 1.0 x 0.0625 m2 x 7500 kPa = 469 kN
Corrected resistance Fb 469 kN / (1.33 x 1.33) = 265 kN
Safe load (100 + 469) / 2.5 = 228 kN
Used load Fpile Used for all pile types 230 kN
Settlement for Fpile 8 mm

126 Appendix A
CFA pile, 350 mm
* The Dutch Standard gives

Table A6 Continuous flight auger (CFA) concrete pile
restrictions for the max qc used
above the pile base (qc ) 2 MPa
Pile
at start of traject III). This is due
Diameter 0.35 m to relaxation of the soil when the
Area 0.0962 m2 auger is lifted and only in sand
Circumference 1.1 m
Shaft (_s = 0.6)
Shaft friction in sand: 1% x 10,000 kPa = 100 kPa
Base (_p = 0.8)

Average tip resistance qc 0.5 [0.5 (10 + 10) + 3.6*]= 6.8 MPa
Safe load (66 + 523) / 2.5 = 236 kN

Appendix A 127
Bored pile, cast in situ, 450 mm
* The Dutch Standard gives

Table A7 Bored, cast in-situ, concrete pile
restrictions for the max qc used
above the pile base (qc ) 2 MPa
Pile
at start of traject III). This is due
to relaxation of the soil when the Diameter 0.45 m
auger is lifted and only in sand Area 0.159 m2
Circumference 1.413 m
Shaft (_s = 0.6)
Shaft friction in sand 1% x 10,000 kPa 100 kPa
Base (_p = 0.5)

Average tip resistance qc 0.5 [0.5 (10 + 10) + 2.8*]= 6.4 MPa
Safe load (85 + 509) / 2.5 = 238 kN

128
Summary
Table A8 Results
Fs Fb Safe load Used load Settlement

(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (mm)
Driven 250 x 250 mm 57 265 228 230 8

CFA 350 mm 37 296 236 230 20
Bored 450 mm 48 288 238 230 23
Remarks
● To conform to the Eurocodes, settlements up to 50 mm are
acceptable for normal buildings
● When soft clay overlays dense sand, a driven pile gives the best
result
● CFA piles are the best solution for piles with high loads in stiff clays
and weathered rocks
● Bored piles, cast in situ, are the cheapest solution for short piles with
low loads in medium stiff to stiff clays.
129
Appendix B
Foundation engineering using

cone penetration tests
Contents
B1 Soil properties derived from CPT
B2 Shallow foundations
Tables
Strip footings in sand
Strip footings in clay
B3 Piled foundations
Piles in sand
Piles in clay
B4 Settlement of embankments
B1 Soil properties derived from CPT

The Dutch Standard, NEN 6740, gives a table with soil properties. The
keys for the table are the soil type and the converted cone resistance
CN.qc. For CN see Figure B1.
Remarks
● CN.qc is the normalised cone resistance for an effective vertical
stress of 100 kPa
● The input is the soil type and CN.qc
● The outputs are the estimated soil properties for the first predictive
calculations
● Take the unfavourable value, if two values are given
● The final calculations must be based on further site investigation

methods (eg sample testing)
130 Appendix B
Table B1 Determination of soil properties using cone penetration testing
Soil type Conservative average values for soil properties

Name Porosity a asat CN.qc E q cv Cu
(kN/m3) (kN/m3) (MPa) (MPa) (°) (kPa) (kPa)
Gravel Slightly silty Loose 17 19 15 75 32.5

or clayey Medium 18 20 25 125 35
Dense 19–20 21–22 30 150–200 37.5–40
Very silty or Loose 18 20 10 50 30
clayey Medium 19 21 15 75 32.5
Dense 20–21 22 25 125–150 35–40
Sand Clean Loose 17 19 5 25 30
Medium 18 20 15 75 32.5
Dense 19–20 21–22 25 125–150 35–40
Slightly silty, clayey 18–19 20–21 12 25–35 27–32.5
Very silty, clayey 18–19 20–21 8 20–30 25–30
Loam Slightly sandy Soft 19 19 1 2 27–30 0 50
Firm 20 20 2 5 27–32.5 2 100
Stiff 21–22 21–22 3 10–20 27–35 5–7.5 200–300
Sandy 19–20 19–20 2 5-10 27.5–35 0–2 50–100
Clay Clean Soft 14 14 0.5 1 17.5 0 25
Firm 17 17 1.0 2 17.5 10 50
Stiff 19–20 19–20 2.0 4–10 17.5–25 25–30 100–200
Slightly sandy Soft 15 15 0.7 1.5 22.5 0 40
Firm 18 18 1.5 3 22.5 10 80
Stiff 20–21 20–21 2.5 5–10 22.5–28 25–30 120–170
Sandy 18–20 18–20 1.0 2–5 27–32.5 0–2 0–10
Organic Soft 13 13 0.2 0.5 15 0–2 10
Firm 15–16 15–16 0.5 1.0–2.0 15 0–2 25–30
Peat NC Soft 10–12 10–12 0.1 0.2–0.5 15 2–5 10–20
OC Firm 12–13 12–13 0.2 0.5–1.0 15 5–10 20–30
Symbols used in Tables B1 and B2

a = unit weight of soil
asat = saturated unit weight of soil
qc = cone resistance
CN = conversion factor
Cvp = coefficient of primary consolidation
Cvs = coefficient of secondary consolidation
E = Young’s modulus
qv = effective friction angle
cv = effective cohesion
Cu = undrained shear strength
Appendix B 131
Table B2 Consolidation coefficients
Soil type Soil properties

Characteristics Porosity CN.qc Cvp Cvs
(MPa)
Gravel Slightly silty Loose 15 500

or clayey Medium 25 1000
Dense 30 1200–1400
Very silty or Loose 10 400
clayey Medium 15 600
Dense 25 1000–1500
Sand Clean Loose 5 200
Medium 15 600
Dense 25 1000–1500
Slightly silty, clayey 12 450–650
Very silty, clayey 8 200–400
Loam Slightly sandy Soft 1 25 650
Firm 2 45 1300
Stiff 3 70–100 1900–2500
Sandy 2 45–70 1300–2000
Clay Clean Soft 0.5 7 80
Firm 1.0 15 160
Stiff 2.0 25–30 320–500
Slightly sandy Soft 0.7 10 110
Firm 1.5 20 240
Stiff 2.5 30–50 400–600
Sandy 1.0 25–140 320–1680
Organic Soft 0.2 7.5 30
Firm 0.5 10–15 40–60
Peat NC Soft 0.1 5–7.5 20–30
OC Firm 0.2 7.5–10 30–40
The consolidation coefficients are for use in the

CN
formula of Terzaghi-Buisman:
¨ 1 + 1 log t ¬ ln p0v + 6p
Effective vertical stress m vv (kPa)
s = Hª
Cvp Cvs ® p 0v
where:
s = settlement of soil layer H
H = thickness of soil layer
p 0v = original effective stress halfway into
the soil layer
6p = extra effective stress halfway into
the soil layer
Figure B1 Conversion factors t = time in days
132 Appendix B
B2 Shallow foundations
Tables
Simplified formulae, using cone resistance (qc) for the first predictive
calculations of the bearing capacity and the settlement of shallow
foundations, are given in the following Tables B3 and B4.
Table B3 Simplified formulae for bearing capacity of strip footings on sands

and clays
Sand Clay
qc
Safe load ) Safe load ) 2 Cu 5 0.1. CN.qc
30 to 40
pu = cv.Nc + aDv.D.Nq + 0.5.B. aBv.Na (drained)
(undrained for clay: pu = 5.14 Cu 5 0.3. CN.qc)
safe load ) pu / 2.5
for Nc, Nq and Na, see Table B5
pu = ultimate bearing pressure
aD or aDv = unit weight of soil above footing

aB or aBv = unit weight of soil under footing
B = width of strip footing

D = depth of footing below ground level
Appendix B 133
Table B4 Simplified formulae for settlement of strip footings on sands and

clays
1.33p.B
s=
_.qc
s = settlement (mm)
p = applied load on footing (kPa)
B = width of footing (mm)
qc = cone resistance (kPa)
_ = 2 to 8, depending on rate of consolidation

_ = 2 for normally consolidated sands and clays
s=H ( 1
Cvp
+
1
Cvs
log t ) ln
p0v + 6p
p 0v
s = settlement (mm)
H = thickness of soil layer (mm) = 4B, with load spreading of 2:1
B = width of strip footing (mm)
p0v = effective vertical stress midway soil layer H

t = days; t' ) 10,000 (log 10,000 = 4)
Table B5 Bearing capacity factors
qv Nc Nq Na
0° 5 1 0
5° 6.5 1.5 0
10° 8.5 2.5 1
15° 11 4 2
20° 15 6.5 4
22.5° 17.5 8 6
25° 20.5 10.5 9
27.5° 25 14 14
30° 30 18 20
32.5° 37 25 30
35° 46 33 46
37.5° 58 46 68
40° 75 64 106
42.5° 99 92 166
134 Appendix B
Strip footings on sand

Worked example (Figure B2)
Ground level
1000
mm
Water level
800
mm
Figure B2 Cross-section of strip footings in sand
For the unit weight of sand, start with a = 20 kN/m3.
Sand Applied load = 100 kN/m2 (80 kN/mv)
At a depth of 0.5B under footing:

mvv 5 (1.0 x 20) + 0.4 (20 – 10) = 24 kN/m2 Effective vertical stress mvv
which is needed for calculating factor CN from Figure B1 mvv = mv– u
In Figure B1: where:
if CN = 2.2 and qc = 5 MPa mv = total vertical stress
CN qc = 11 MPa u = porewater pressure
Tables B1 and B2: Sand, clean, loose to medium loose:

a = 17.5 kN/m3 qv = 31°
asat = 19.5 kN/m3 Cvp = 400
Bearing capacity
qc
(a) safe load 5 = 165 – 125 kN/m2 (> 100 kN/m2)
30 to 40
(b) Nq = 18 Na = 20 Nc = 0
pu = 17.5 x 1.0 x 18 + 0.5 x 0.8 x (19.5 – 10) x 20 = 391 kN/m2
safe load = 391 / 2.5 = 156 kN/m2 (> 100 kN/m2)
Appendix B 135
Settlement
1.33p.B 1.33 x 100 x 800

(a) s= = = 11 mm
2.qc 2 x 5000
1 p0v + 6p 3200 32 + 33
(b) s= H ln = ln = 6 mm
Cvp p 0v 400 32
p0v = 1.0 x 17.5 + 1.6 x (19.5 – 10) = 32 kN/m2

6p = 100 / 3 = 33 kN/m2
According to the Eurocodes, a settlement of 35 mm is acceptable for

normal buildings. Both settlements (a) and (b) are lower than 35 mm.
Ground level
Water level
Figure B3 Load spreading

136 Appendix B
Strip footings on clay

Worked example (Figure B4)
Ground level
1500
mm
Water level
1000
mm
Figure B4 Cross-section of strip footings on clay
For the unit weight of clay start with a = 18 kN/m3.
Clay Applied load = 40 kN/m2 (40 kN/mv)
At a depth of 0.5B under footing:

mvv 5 (1.5 x 18) + 0.5 x (18 – 10) = 31 kN/m2
Effective vertical stress mvv
which is needed for calculating factor CN from Figure B1
mvv = mv– u
In Figure B1: where:
if CN = 2 and qc = 1 MPa mv = total vertical stress
CN qc = 2 MPa u = porewater pressure
Tables B1 and B2: Clay, slightly sandy, firm to stiff:

a = 19 kN/m3 qv = 22.5° Cu = 100 kPa
asat = 19 kN/m3 cv = 17.5 kPa Cvp = 25 Cvs = 320
Bearing capacity
(a) Safe load 5 2.Cu = 200 kN/m2

or 0.1. CN.qc = 0.1 x 2000 = 200 kN/m2 (> 40 kN/m2)
(b) Nq = 8 Na = 6 Nc = 17.5
pu = 17.5 x 17.5 + 19 x 1.5 x 8 + 0.5 x 1.0 x (19 – 10) x 6
= 561 kN/m2 (drained)
Safe load = 561 / 2.5 = 224 kN/m2 (> 40 kN/m2)
(c) pu = 5.14 Cu = 5.14 x 100 = 514 kN/m2 (undrained)
Safe load = 514 / 2.5 = 205 kN/m2 (> 40 kN/m2)

Appendix B 137
Settlement
1.33p.B 1.33 x 40 x 1000

(a) s= = = 27 mm (for NC clay _ = 2)
_.qc 2 x 1000
(b) s= H ( C1v + C1v log t ) ln p vp+v6p

p s
0
0
4000 ( 251 + 320

4
) ln 46 46+ 13 = 40 + 12 = 52 mm
p0v = 1.5 x 19 + 2.0 x (19 – 10) = 46 kN/m2
6p = 40 / 3 = 13 kN/m2
Ground level
Water level
Figure B5 Load spreading

138 Appendix B
B3 Piled foundations
Piles in sand
Piles in sand can safely be designed to conform with the method
described in Appendix A. The method has been tested intensively in the
Netherlands during the past 40 years.
Piles in clay
The standard formula for the calculation of the bearing capacity of piles
in stiff clays can be transformed for the use of CPT results.
Fpile = _.Cu;a.As + Nc.Cu.Ab
where:
_ = adhesion factor
Cu;a = average undrained shear strength over length of shaft
As = pile shaft area
Nc = bearing capacity factor (= 9)
Cu = undrained shear strength near pile base
Ab = base area
Adhesion factor _
Driven piles _ = 0.70
CFA piles _ = 0.60
Bored piles, cast in-situ _ = 0.45
Using a relationship between cone resistance and undrained shear

strength of:
Cu = qc / Nk where Nk = 18–20
the following equations can be written.
Driven piles: Fpile = 3.5%.qc;a.As + 0.5.qc.Ab

CFA piles: Fpile = 3.0%.qc;a.As + 0.5.qc.Ab
Bored piles, cast in situ: Fpile = 2.5%.qc;a.As + 0.5.qc.Ab
where: qc;a = average cone resistance along the pile shaft

qc = cone resistance near pile base
Appendix B 139
Working load
WL = Fpile / 2.5
Note
With the design of piled foundations in clay, the possibility of future
desiccation has to be considered. Potential desiccation of the top 4 m
of ground depth must be taken into account for all but exceptional
circumstances.
The causes of desiccation of shrinkable clay in future years might be:

● climatic changes
● trees planted close to foundations.
For pile diameters < 0.80 m, the settlement under working load will be
less than 50 mm which is acceptable.
Worked example
CFA pile 450 mm diameter, length 16 m (Figure B6)
qc (MPa)
If desiccated
CFA pile
450 mm
Depth (m)
Figure B6 Cone penetration test used for the calculation of the bearing capacity of
a CFA pile
140 Appendix B
Because of the risk of future desiccation, the top 4 m of the pile shaft is
not taken into account for calculating the friction.
Shaft qc;a = 2 MPa

As = / x 0.45 m x 12 m = 17 m2
Base qc = 3 MPa
Ab = 0.25 x / x 0.45 x 0.45 = 0.16 m2
Fpile = 3% x 2000 kPa x 17 m2 + 0.5 x 3000 kPa x 0.16 m2

= 1020 + 240 = 1260 kN
WL = 1260 / 2.5 = 504 kN

Appendix B 141
B4 Settlement of embankments
A first approximation of the settlement of an embankment on soft clays
and silts can be obtained using the relationship between the cone
resistance (qc) and the coefficient of volume change, mv (Meigh [3]).
s = mv.H.6p (m = _.q1 )
v
c
where:
s = settlement of soil layer H
H = thickness of soil layer H
mv = coefficient of volume change
_ = coefficient (Meigh[3])
qc = cone resistance
The value of _ depends on soil type and the rate of over consolidation
(_ = 2 to 8).
Worked example
An embankment of sand is put down on an underlay of soft clay (Figure
B7). For the unit weight of sand start with a = 20 kN/m3 and for clay
with a = 18 kN/m3.
Embankment
1m
Sand: a = 20 kN/m2
1m Water table
4m Clay: a = 18 kN/m2
qc = 1 MPa
Bedrock
Figure B7 Cross-section of a sand embankment on a soft clay underlay
The effective vertical stress midway through the clay layer (without the
embankment) is:
mvv 5 1.0 x 18 + 2.0 x (18 – 10) = 34 kN/m2
Figure B1: CN = 2
qc = 1 MPa CN.qc = 2 MPa
Tables B1 and B2: Clay, slightly sandy, firm to stiff:

a = 19 kN/m3 qv = 22.5° Cu = 100 kPa
asat = 19 kN/m3 cv = 17.5 kPa
CvP = 25 CvS = 320
142 Appendix B
Settlement
(a) For the primary settlement the following formula can be used:
6p.H 21 x 4000
s= = = 42 mm (for normally consolidated clay _ = 2)
_.qc 2 x 1000
(b) The primary and secondary settlement can be calculated with:
s = 4000 ( Cv1 + Cv1 log t ) ln p v p+ v6p

p s
0
= 4000 ( 251 + 320

4
) ln 3737+ 21 = 72 + 22 = 94 mm
p0v = 1.0 x 19 + 2.0 x (19 – 10) = 37 kN/m2
6p = 2 x 20 – 1.0 x 19 = 21 kN/m2
Note
● The settlements are to be used only as a first indicative calculation.
For the final prediction, laboratory tests are necessary
● The primary settlement will be between 40 and 80 mm
● The secondary settlement will be approximately between 20 and

40 mm.
143
References
[1] International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,

2001. International reference test procedure for the cone penetration test (CPT) and the
cone penetration test with pore pressure (CPTU). ISSMGE,London.
[2] Lunne T, Robertson P K and Powell J J M, 1997. Cone penetration testing in

geotechnical practice. Spon Press, London.
[3] Meigh A C. Cone penetration testing: methods and interpretation. Butterworths,

London.
[4] Robertson P K and Campanella R G, 1983. Interpretation of cone penetration

tests. Canadian Geotechnical Journal.
[5] Schmertmann J, 1976. An updated correlation between relative density, Dr, and
Fugro-type electric cone bearing, qc. Contract Report DACW 39-76 M 6646, Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg (MS), 1976.
[6] Baldi G, Bellotti R, Ghionna V, Jamiolkowski M and Pasqualini E, 1982. Design

parameters for sands from CPT. Proceedings of the 2nd European Symposium on
Penetration Testing, ESOPT II, Amsterdam. Balkema Pub, Rotterdam.
[7] Villet W C B and Mitchell J K, 1981. Cone resistance, relative density and friction
angle. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers National Convention: Cone
Penetration Testing and Experience, St Louis, 1981.
[8] Robertson P K, Campanella R G and Wightman A, 1983. SPT–CPT correlations.

Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE.
[9] Robertson P K, Sully J P, Woeller D J, Lunne T, Powell J J M and Gillespie D G,

1992. Estimating coefficient of consolidation from piezocone tests. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal.
144 References
[10] Larsson R, 1992. CPT-sondering, etc (in Swedish). Information 15. Swedish
Geotechnical Institute, Linköping.
[11] Swedish Geotechnical Society (SGF), 1997. Lime and lime cement columns.
Guide for project planning, construction and inspection. SGF Report 4:95E. Swedish
Geotechnical Society, Linköping.
[12] British Standards Institution. Methods of test for soils for civil engineering
purposes. In-situ tests. BS 1377-9:1990. BSI, London.
Websites
A P van den Berg www.apvdberg.nl
BRE www.bre.co.uk
Demco www.demco-surveys.com
Gardline www.gardline.co.uk
GeoDelft www.geodelft.nl
GeoMil www.geomil.nl
GeoPoint www.geopoint.nl
Profound www.profound.nl
Seacore www.seacore.co.uk
Setech www.setech-uk.com
Soil Instruments www.soil.co.uk
Zetica www.zetica.com

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© Copyright Lankelma Limited 2007

4: Part 2 Special cones: geo-environmental cones 34

4: Part 3 Special cones: other cones 40

The book describes more than 25 special probes, samplers and

Using CPT rigs makes it possible to take soil samples at a specified

There are many manufacturers and suppliers of CPT tools. Some

The book Cone penetration testing in geotechnical practice* is still the

Symbols, abbreviations and

u2 pore pressure measured behind the cone

Pressure or stress 1 kg/cm2 = 100 kPa = 100 kN/m2

Derived values for CPTU

Corrected cone resistance, qt

Corrected sleeve friction, ft

Data acquisition system

Net cone resistance, qn

Net pore pressure, 6u

Normalised cone resistance, Qc orQt

Normalised friction ratio, Fr

Pore pressure ratio, Bq

Thrust machine (rig)

In 1935, Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory in the Netherlands designed

Later, there was an improvement by adding a conical part just above

In 1953, there was a significant improvement to the Dutch cone test by

Figure 1 Penetrometers, developed over time (Source: A P van den Berg)

In the 1960s, an electric cone was developed. The shape and

● the elimination of reading errors due to friction between inner rods

● a continuous testing with a continuous rate of penetration but without

● a continuous reading of the cone resistance and easy recording of

Figure 1 opposite shows the different stages of development of the

Figure 2 shows a truck with integrated tracks.

Figure 2 Track truck

CF cone (cone penetration

The test is performed using a cylindrical penetrometer with a conical tip

Cable Screwed connection

Figure 3 Electrical friction cone with cut-away friction sleeve

The results from a cone penetration test can in principle be used to

● soil density and in-situ stress conditions

● shear strength parameters.

Figure 2 Cone penetration test plots

2.1 Cone penetrometers

● A subtraction cone measures the total force on the penetrometer

● A compression cone measures the tip resistance and the sleeve

There is no restriction for the sleeve friction of the subtraction cone.

There are cone penetrometers with 10 and 15 tonnes capacity.

Table 1 Subtraction cones

Apex angle of cone 60° 60°

Table 2 Compression cones

Apex angle of cone 60° 60°

Subtraction cones are stronger than compression cones because they

Table 3 General information

Rate of penetration 20 mm/sec ± 5 mm/sec

2.2 Soil classification

Medium Slightly silty

Figure 5 Chart for soil classification

2.3 Estimate of basic parameters

● To determine sub-surface stratigraphy and identify materials present

● To estimate geotechnical parameters

● To provide results for direct geotechnical design.

The interpretation of geotechnical parameters can be divided into:

● fine grained soils as clay: undrained shear strength

● coarse grained soils as sand: relative density

● for all soils: equivalent standard penetration