4-Degradation Mechanisms

in Concrete- Cracking

L. Amleh, Ph.D., P.Eng.

1
 Bridge Components
• The bridge is divided into two
main parts, the superstructure
and the substructure .
• All components are carefully
designed to work together as a
unit supporting the anticipated
traffic load while withstanding
all possible environmental.
Loads on the bridge must find a way to
the ground

Live Load Deck Slab Girder

on Bridge Superstructure Superstructure

Superstructure
Bearing
Substructure

Foundation Substructure
Ground
(Footing/ Pile) (Abutment/ Pier)
 Bridge Components
Superstructure Roadway Deck

Substructure
Abutment Abutment

Superstructure
Roadway Deck

Substructure
Pier Abutment
Superstructure
• The portion of a bridge structure which carries the
traffic load and passes that load to the
substructure.
• Wearing surface
• The bridge deck
• Primary members, girders/beams and
• Secondary members, bracing between primary
members, diaphragms, connection plates, lateral
bracing….
Substructure
• A portion of a bridge structure which supports the
superstructure.
1. Abutments: earth-retaining structures which support
the superstructure and overpass roadway at the
beginning and end of a bridge. They are cantilever
type retaining walls.
2. Pier: The vertical part of the substructure used to
support the beam and deck (superstructure) at
intermediate points.
Substructure
3. Bearings: mechanical systems which transmit the
vertical and horizontal loads of the superstructure to
the substructure and accommodate movements
between them.
4. Pedestals: a short column on an abutment or pier
under a bearing which directly supports a
superstructure primary member.
Substructure
5. Back-wall: sometimes called the stem, it is the
primary component of the abutment acting as a
retaining structure at each approach.
6. Wing-wall: is a sidewall to then
abutment back-wall.
7. Footing: Enlarged lower portion of the
substructure that rests directly on the
piles. The footing and the piles bear the
vertical load from the pier.

Abutment stem and wing wall

identification.
Substructure
8. Piles: Long columns driven deep into the ground to
form part of the substructure. They are driven by pile
drivers until they reach solid rock or cannot go down
any further.
9. Sheeting: in cofferdams or shallow excavation, the
vertical planks which are driven into the ground to
act as temporary retaining walls permitting
excavation are known as sheeting.
Types of Usual Bridges

1. Masonry bridges- both in stone and brick

2. Reinforced concrete bridges
3. Steel bridges
4. Composite Construction bridges
5. Prestressed concrete bridges
6. Timber bridges
Forms of Bridges
1. Arches- masonry and concrete (plain and R.C.)
2. Steel bridges composite with concrete deck slab
3. Reinforced concrete slab-type, ‘girders-and-slab’
type, including box girders (simply supported,
continuous, balanced cantilevered etc.)
4. R.C. rigid frame.
Forms of Bridges
5. Prestressed concrete girders with R.C. or P.S.C.
deck slab, as also box-girders (simply supported,
continuous, balanced cantilevered with suspended
spans, etc.)
6. Cable-Stayed for bridges with span lengths from
153 to 853 m.
7. Suspension when presented with spans of
significant lengths over impressive physical
obstacles (e.g. Lions Gate bridge in Vancouver).
Lions' Gate Bridge
Types of Distress Observed in Different
Elements of Bridges
Arch-Bridge Elements
• Changes in profile of the arch (any flattening of
arch can weaken the arch).
• Loosening of mortar (this could be considered as
aging effect).
• Arch ring deformation (may be due to partial failure
of the ring).
• Movement of the abutment or supporting pier
(followed by the arch ring deformation, a hog or a
sag).
Arch-Bridge Elements

• Longitudinal cracks (varying subsidence along the

length of the abutment or pier).
• Lateral and diagonal cracks indicate a dangerous
state.
• Cracks between the arch ring spandrel and parapet
wall.
• Old cracks which are no longer widening (occurred
immediately after the bridge was built).
Un-strengthened Arch Predicted
Mode of Collapse

Strengthened Arch Predicted Mode of Collapse

R.C. Bridge Elements
• Cracking:
• Plastic shrinkage and settlement
• Drying shrinkage
• Support settlement
• Structural deficiency
• Reactive aggregates
• Corrosion of reinforcement
• Early thermal movement and restraint
• Frost damage
• Sulphate attack, etc.
oncrete Deterioration
 PHYSICAL DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE

racking
aling
ost Action (Freezing and Thawing)
osion
brasion
sintegration
urface Deterioration
 Cause of Concrete Cracks

• Concrete is very strong in compression

 28-day compressive strength ranges from
about 3000 psi to over 10,000 psi
• But it is weak in tension
 Tensile capacity is about 10% of its
compressive strength
 Source of Tension in Concrete

• External or “Structural” Sources

 Gravity loads: dead and live loads
 Lateral loads: wind and seismic
 Loads from subgrade settlement or swelling
• “Internal” Mechanisms
 Volume change restraint due to temperature changes
or drying shrinkage
 Expansion due to corrosion of reinforcing steel or
deleterious chemical reactions
 Concrete Cracks

• Concrete is designed to crack to be able to fully engage the

reinforcing steel.
• Concerns come up when engineers are unsure of what to look for
or are unaware of the implications of certain cracks.
• Many different causes of cracks.
• Each crack pattern can be associated with a likely cause.
• If the cause is recognized, it can be identified as structurally vital
or non-vital.
• It is of particular interest in discerning between these two so that
the failure and damage can be avoided or at least predetermined
to minimize economic damage, future deterioration, and in severe
cases the loss of human life.
 Mechanism of cracking
• Cracking in reinforced concrete structures is an
unpredictable occurrence.
• Concrete is week in tension and cracking is caused by
excessive tensile stresses.
• Irrespective of structural significance, all types of
cracks are detrimental for the durability and reduce
the service life of concrete members and/or
structure.
• Cracks are considered to originate during design,
construction, and service life of concrete structure.
“Surface cracking is inevitable but,
with proper structural design and
detailing, the cracks are very
narrow and barely perceptible.” -
A.M. Neville
 Concrete could crack during the whole
construction history, shrinkage of fresh laid
concrete, application of extensive prestressing
force to the steel, settlement of foundation due
to consolidation of underneath soil, cracking due
to overloading of bridge and accidental collision
of vehicles to the bridge components etc.

 Cracking may be over viewed in three distinct

phases in the life of structure or building; design
phase, construction phase and the service life
phase, as shown in the following figure.
Note: All types of cracking
expedite the deterioration
process by allowing of
ingress of chemicals
(carbonates and chlorides)
along with moisture and
oxygen to steel and result
in rapid degradation of
steel.
 Shrinkable aggregates
Physical Drying shrinkage
Crazing

Corrosion of reinforcement
Chemical Alkali-aggregate reactions
After Cement carbonation
hardening
Freeze/thaw cycles
Thermal External seasonal temperature variations
Early thermal contraction
Types of External restraint
crack Accidental overload
Internal
Structural Creep temp. gradients
Design load
Early frost damage

Before Plastic shrinkage

hardening Plastic
Plastic settlement

Constructional Formwork movement

movement Sub-grade movement
Chronological aspects of cracking
Cracks in Concrete
• Cracks can be broadly classified as either active or
dormant.
• Active- show some movement in direction, width
or depth over a measured period of time.
• Dormant- remain unchanged.
• Some dormant cracks are of no danger, but if left un-
repaired, cracks provide channels for moisture
penetration, which can lead to future damage.
Cracks in Concrete
• Cracks can be more specifically classified based on
three factors:
• 1) direction,
• 2) width, and
• 3) depth of the crack.
• They may be longitudinal, transverse, vertical,
diagonal or random.
• They may range in size
 Forms of Cracks
• A: Plastic shrinkage
• B: Cracks due to improper
jointing
• C: Cracks due to continuous
external restraint (Example:
Cast-in-place wall restrained
along bottom edge of
footing)
• D: Cracks due to lack of an
isolation joint
• E: D-Cracks from freezing
and thawing
• F: Craze Cracks
• G: Settlement cracks
 Types of Cracks
• Concrete can crack in any or in each of the
following three phases of its life, namely:
• in its plastic-phase while it has still not set (has just been
placed)
• in its hardening-phase while it is still green (first three to
four weeks)
• in its hardened-phase and in service (after first 28 days)
• In its plastic-condition (i.e. before it has set),
the concrete can crack due to
i. Plastic shrinkage
ii. Plastic settlement
iii.Differential settlement of staging 'supports'.
 Types of Cracks
• In its hardening-phase (i.e. during the
first three to four weeks after setting),
the concrete can crack due to:
iv. Constraint to early thermal movement,
v. Constraint to early drying shrinkage,
vi. Differential settlement of 'supports'.
Types of Cracks
• In its hardened-state and in service, the concrete
can crack due to:
vii. Overload,
viii. Under-design,
ix. Inadequate construction,
x. Inadequate detailing,
xi. Differential settlement of 'foundations',
xii. Sulphate attack on cement in concrete,
 Types of Cracks
xiii. Rusting of reinforcement due to
• Chloride attack on reinforcement,
• Carbonation effect on concrete,
• Simple oxidation of reinforcement due to exposure to
moisture.
xiv. 'Alkali - aggregate' reaction,
xv. Fabrication, shipment and handling cracks in
precast, prestressed or reinforced concrete
members,
xvi. Crazing,
xvii. Weathering cracks,
xviii.Long term drying-shrinkage cracks.
Types of Cracks
• Cracks due to effects (i), (ii) (iv),(v) and (xii) - (xviii),
are sometimes loosely referred to as 'Non-
Structural' cracks and the remaining ones as
'Structural' cracks although the former too can lead
to 'structural distress' and therefore are not non-
structural in effect. This is only a loose terminology.
Brief Details of Various Types of Cracks
Brief Details of Various Types of Cracks
Concrete Shrinkage
What is Concrete Shrinkage?
• Decrease in either Length or Volume
• May be restricted to the effects of moisture content or
chemical change (ACI 116)
Types of Shrinkage
• Plastic shrinkage
• Autogenous shrinkage
• Drying shrinkage
• Thermal contraction
• Carbonation shrinkage
Concrete Shrinkage Basics
• Hydraulic cement concrete contains more water
than is necessary for the chemical reactions.
• The additional water is held within a network of
voids and capillary pores.
• At this additional water evaporates, the volume of
concrete reduces
 Plastic Shrinkage
• Very Rapid Loss of Moisture Factors are:
–Concrete and air temperature
–Relative humidity
–Wind velocity
• Results in differential volume change in top layer
• Moisture migrates to surface.
• “Bleeding” results in moisture on the surface of
concrete caused by settling of the heavier components
of mixture.
• If moisture evaporates faster than water is being
supplied to surface by bleeding, there is tendency for
reduction in volume near surface.
• Tensile stresses result.
 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

• Plastic shrinkage cracks occur within the first hour

of casting concrete.
• Shrinkage that occurs before concrete sets
Examples of Plastic Settlement Cracking

• Commencing from the exposed

surface where evaporation takes
place causing shrinkage of that
layer.
• Cracks through the paste and
around aggregates and
reinforcement and travels towards
the opposite face.
 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
• Plastic shrinkage usually occur in the following form:
• Diagonal cracks (45 to the edge of slab), being 0.2 to 2m apart
• Normal to the direction of the wind.
• They are caused by rapid surface drying.
• Plastic shrinkage cracking is usually associated with hot-
weather concreting; however,
• If surface evaporation exceeds bleeding, the top surface
of the slab is placed in tension, cracks form to relieve the
tension.
• Influenced by environmental conditions, low bleeding
mixes and poor construction practices
 Plastic Settlement Cracking
• Measures to reduce the risk of plastic settlement
cracking are related to reducing the bleeding.
• Air-entrainment admixture can reduce bleeding.
• Hobbs (2001) noted that the use of fly ash reduces
bleeding but that the benefit is offset by a reduction
in the failure (ultimate) strain capacity.
• Slag concretes are at greater risk in this context due
to the likelihood of increased bleeding. Vigilance on
site can eliminate the problem because the cracks can
be noticed while the concrete is still in a plastic state
and amenable to revibration.
 Plastic Settlement Cracking
• Final responsibility for eliminating plastic cracking
rests with the site staff, the designer and the specifier
should be mindful of the inter-related influence of
cover, bar diameter, and slump.
• The larger the concrete cover, the smaller the bar
diameter, and the lower the slump, the lower is the
risk of plastic settlement cracking.
• The concrete cover is singularly the most important of
the three factors.
 Plastic Shrinkage Cracking
• The phenomenon is rooted in the fact that the
volume of hydration products is less than the volume
of the constituents used to make concrete.
• Self-desiccation is a significant problem in high
strength concrete.
• Self-desiccation refers to the taking up of free water by
hydration of Portland cement to such an extent that not
enough is left to cover the surfaces of unhydrated particles
or to maintain 100 percent relative humidity within the
concrete. Plastic shrinkage cracking occurs when the
environmental conditions are such that the rate of
evaporation exceeds the rate of bleeding.
 Plastic Shrinkage Cracking
• Cracking may occur if shrinkage is restrained.
• High rate of evaporation may be due to a high
ambient temperature, or strong drying winds.
• Direction of plastic shrinkage cracks depends on the
layout of restraint and wind direction.
• Cracks are typically parallel and approximately at 45°
to the slab edges.
• Spacing of cracks can vary but are usually in the
range of 0.3 m to 2 m. Sometimes cracking occurs in
a random map pattern.
 Plastic Shrinkage Cracking
• Plastic shrinkage cracks of both patterns rarely
extend to the slab edges if these are unrestrained,
but they may traverse through the full depth of the
slab.
• Cracks are usually wide at the surface and taper
rapidly.
• Proper curing procedures will often prevent plastic
shrinkage cracks.
• Covering the freshly placed concrete with polythene
sheets is particularly effective if done within ten
minutes of the completion of the pour.
Plastic Shrinkage
 Plastic Shrinkage

Plastic settlement
Prevention of Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

• Minimize evaporation rate during finishing in

• Wind breaks, fogging, sunshade
• Evaporation retarders
• Dampening the sub-grade and forms.
• Dampening the aggregates if dry
• Curing immediately after initial setting, but before the full
disappearance of the surface-sheen.
• Temporary covering or applying a fog-spray during delays between
placing and finishing.
• Sunshades- to reduce temp. at the surface.
• Slight re-trowelling before initial setting.
• Accelerate time of set
• Use set accelerating admixture (if necessary)
Prevention of Plastic
Shrinkage Cracks
Autogenous Shrinkage

• Shrinkage due to internal depletion of

water during hydration.
• Combination of chemical shrinkage,
microstructure refinement & self-
dessication within concrete matrix.
• Function of water/cement ratio.
• More significant in low w/c, high-
performance concrete mixtures.
 Early Thermal Contraction
• The heat of hydration results in a temperature increase
which will normally bring the concrete temperature above
the ambient temperature.
• This heat is dissipated at a rate that depends on a number
of factors, not the least of which is the thickness of the
member.
• The concrete may therefore set at an elevated
temperature and volume.
• Cracking may occur when the concrete attempts to shrink
on cooling if it is restrained by internal or external
restraints.
• The tensile strain capacity of concrete cracking is about
200x10-6 and the coefficient of thermal expansion of
concrete ranges from 6x10-6 to 13x10-6 per degree
Centigrade depending on the aggregate type.
• Thus the differential temperature must be kept below
16°C to 33°C and a figure of 20°C is typical.
 Thermal cracks

Closely spaced cracks resulting from thermal shock in

Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP).

Longitudinal crack in CRCP due to thermal shock.

Crack is enhanced for clarity.
 Early Thermal Contraction
• Fitzgibbon (1976) proposed a rule-of-thumb for the
maximum temperature reached by the concrete
during hydration as follows:
 Early Thermal Contraction
• Hobbs (2001) estimated the temperature increase to
be 14°C per 100 kg/m3 for a 52.5R Portland cement
and 12.5°C per 100 kg/m3 for a 42.5R Portland
cement.
• Various approaches may be used where the
temperature differential between the core and the
surface must be limited.
• For example the formwork could be insulated to
keep the surface warm, or the aggregates could be
cooled to reduce the peak temperature.
 Early Thermal Contraction
• The use of fly ash and slag can reduce the
temperature increase, but the benefit may be offset
by the reduction in the ultimate tensile strain
capacity.
• Cracking due to external restraint may be controlled
by limiting the pour size or by the use of crack-
inducing joints.
• Reinforcement in itself may not prevent the
occurrence of cracking but investigators have noted
that the crack width is inversely proportional to the
amount of reinforcement provided.
• Harrison (1992) noted that the more flexible the
base the more concentrated the crack pattern.
Drying Shrinkage

• In many applications, drying shrinkage cracking is

inevitable.
• Therefore, contraction (control) joints are placed
in concrete to predetermine the location of drying
shrinkage cracks.
 Drying Shrinkage
• Long-term change in volume of concrete caused by loss of
moisture.
• Shrinkage without restraint results in no stresses.
• Restraint to shrinkage, provided by the subgrade,
reinforcement, or another part of the structure, causes
tensile stresses to develop in the hardened concrete.
• Restraint to drying shrinkage is the most common cause of
concrete cracking.
• Restraint can result from:
 Another part of the structure
 Foundation
 Concrete on the interior of a slab, beam or other component which
shrinks less than concrete on the exterior.
• Combination of shrinkage and restraint can result in cracking.
• Reinforcing steel can uniformly distribute the cracking.
 Important!

• Reinforcing steel does not prevent

cracking
• Rather, it minimizes crack widths by
distributing the cracks
• Rather than one wide crack, there will be
many narrow cracks
Example of Drying Shrinkage

Slab length = 6 m (20 f)

Drying shrinkage = 600 microstrains

Shrinkage of slab = 4 mm (0.15 in)

Drying Shrinkage Mechanism
• Shrinkage that occurs after concrete sets
• As moisture is lost from concrete, meniscus forms
at air-water interface due to surface tension forces.
• Surface tension forces exert inward pulling force on
the walls of the pores.
• Capillary tension leads to shrinkage.
• Most significant in pore sizes ranging from 2.5 – 50
nm
Magnitude of Drying Shrinkage

• Magnitude depends on
• Relative humidity
• time
• 28 Days
• Typically 0.04-0.055%
• Range – 0.025 – 0.08%
• Long Term
• Typically 0.08%
• Range- 0.04 (low) - 0.12% (high)
• Data from 30year study:
• 50% of drying shrinkage at 20 years occurred within 2
months of drying
• 80% within first year!!!
Effects of Drying Shrinkage
• Cracking – if shrinkage is restrained
• Joint opening & curling in slabs-ongrade
• Prestress loss
• Overall impact on Durability, Service Life, and
Aesthetics
• Transverse cracking in 100,000+ bridges in the US
• 62% of DOTs consider early-age cracking a severe
problem
Plastic Settlement Cracks
• Plastic settlement cracks also occur within the first
hour of casting concrete.
• They are caused by excessive bleeding (and some
form of obstruction e.g. steel reinforcement).
 Plastic Settlement Cracks
Plastic settlement cracks occur when
there is a relatively
High amount of bleeding and there is
some form of obstruction such as
reinforcement, to the downward
sedimentation of the solids.
•Cracks directly over formwork-tie-bolts
or over reinforcement near the top of a
section
•Cracks in narrow columns and walls
•Cracks at change of depth of section
 Prevention of Plastic Settlement
Cracks
• Reduce the bleeding and hence the settlement.
• Reduce obstruction to sedimentation.
• Applying light revibration
Crazing Cracks
• Crazing is a pattern of fine cracks that do not
penetrate much below the surface and are usually
a cosmetic problem only.
• cracking of the ‘surface layer’ of concrete into small irregular
shaped areas
• They are barely visible, except when the concrete
is drying after the surface has been wet.
• Do not affect the structural integrity of concrete
• Should not lead to subsequent deterioration of concrete
• They occur within the thickness of the laitance
• Where water-content is more- hence, shrinks more relative to
inner layers
• Rarely more than few millimeters deep
Crazing Cracks
Crazing Cracks
• Crazing generally occurs:
• In over-floated layers of concrete
• In the ‘formed’ surface of concrete
• Avoid over-rich or excessively wet mixes
• Mixes with high cement contents may result in surface-
laitance that allows differential moisture movement
• Avoid over vibrating- the surface layer will be too rich
and too wet resulting in crazing
 Thermal cracks
• Temperature rise (especially significant in mass
concrete) results from the heat of hydration of
cementitious materials.
• As the interior concrete increases in temperature and
expands, the surface concrete may be cooling and
contracting.
• This causes tensile stresses that results in thermal
cracks at the surface if the temperature differential
between the surface and center is too great.
• The width and depth of cracks depends upon the
temperature differential, physical properties of the
concrete, and the reinforcing steel.
Thermal cracks
Weathering Cracks
• Weathering process:
• Freezing and thawing cycles
• Wetting and drying
• Heating and cooling
• Depending on the porosity (high or low) the
concrete will absorb moisture
• When exposed to freezing, the moisture will freeze
and expand resulting in hydraulic pressure which
cracks the concrete
Weathering Cracks
• Weathering of wetting and drying and heating and
cooling
• Both of theses processes produce volume changes
in concrete
• If the volume changes are excessive cracks will
occur similar to drying shrinkage and thermal
stresses
 D-cracking
• It is a form of freeze-thaw deterioration - after
three or more years of service.
• Due to the natural accumulation of water in the
base and subbase of pavements, the aggregate may
eventually become saturated.
• Then with freezing and thawing cycles, cracking of
the concrete starts in the saturated aggregate at
the bottom of the slab and progresses upward until
it reaches the wearing surface.
• D-cracking usually starts near pavement joints.
D-cracking
 Loss of Support

• Beneath concrete structures, usually caused by settling or

washout of soils and subbase materials, can cause a variety of
problems in concrete structures, from cracking and
performance problems to structural failure.
• Loss of support can also occur during construction due to
inadequate formwork support or premature removal of
forms.
 Alkali-aggregate reaction
• Alkali-aggregate reactivity is a type of concrete
deterioration that occurs when the active mineral
constituents of some aggregates react with the alkali
hydroxides in the concrete.
• Alkali-aggregate reactivity occurs in two forms:
• alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and
• alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR).
Effect of alkali-silica reaction
Alkali-aggregate reaction

• Indications of the presence of alkali-aggregate reactivity

may be a network of cracks, closed or spalling joints, or
displacement of different portions of a structure.
Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement

• Corrosion of reinforcing steel and other embedded metals is

one of the leading causes of deterioration of concrete.
• When steel corrodes, the resulting rust occupies a greater
volume than steel.
• The expansion creates tensile stresses in the concrete, which
eventually cause cracking and spalling.
Structural Cracks
• ‘Overload’ or ‘Underdesign’ – excessive stresses
(e.g. in flexure and shear)
• ‘Inadequate Construction’ (e.g. excessive
honeycombs, porous concrete, etc.)
• ‘Inadequate detailing’ (e.g. shortfalls in overlaps of
reinforcement bars, abrupt cutoffs, etc.) – excessive
stress-peaks and possible cracking and even premature
collapse
Crack Width
• Factors influencing crack-width in reinforced
concrete in flexure:
• Tensile stress in reinforcing steel
• Thickness of concrete cover
• Area of concrete surrounding each reinforcing bar in
tension
• Several methods to predict crack-width
• There is no universally accepted criterion –
determine tolerable limits of crack-width in flexure,
shear or tension
Crack Width
• The engineer experience and judgment
• As a guide to engineering-judgment for flexural crack-
width:
• Fine- up to 0.3 mm
• Medium- 0.3-0.5 mm
• Wide- < 0.5 mm
• Fine – no distress to structure, no immediate repair,
however, monitoring is recommended
• Medium – distress and loss of structural capacity is
expected, monitoring and repair of crack is
recommended
• Wide – considerable loss of structural capacity,
immediate repair is a must
 Splitting Cracks
• Splitting cracks are due to high concentrated loads,
for example, at bearings and in the anchorage-zones
for the prestressing cables.
• Usually two types of splitting are possible.
• The first type of splitting is located very close to the acting
concentrated force, which tries to split the concrete
section locally. This is normally prevented by meshes of
rein- forcing bars.
• The second type is caused by the trajectory distribution of
the concentrated force in to the cross-section, which
normally will take place over a certain distance depending
on the geometrical conditions.
Splitting Cracks
Splitting Cracks
 Transverse cracks, Longitudinal cracks, Horizontal cracks,
Vertical and diagonal cracks
Flexural Cracks
Flexure-Shear Crack
Concrete spalling
Design tactics for control of cracking
• The function of a building or structure dictates the constraints that
govern the degree of complexity required in crack control.
• Liquid-retaining structures or those used for shielding harmful
contaminants, for example, must remain effectively crack-free.
• ‘Crack-free’ structures are those in which any cracks that do occur
are so narrow that they would not interfere with serviceability.
• Three approaches to crack control for meeting the serviceability
state of cracking:
1. Structures that are effectively crack-free can be achieved by conservative
design limits on stresses.
2. Concrete’s greater structural potential by allowing crack propagation but
limits the crack width by calculation or prescriptive detailing rules.
3. To limit the crack locations to acceptable pre-determined positions while
accepting the possibility of the cracks being relatively wide.
• The design of crack-free structures could be carried out in one of two
ways.
• Crack widths could be estimated by calculation to ensure that rigorous serviceability
requirements, published in design codes are met or
• Conservative limitations could be imposed on permissible concrete and steel
stresses and strains.
 Design tactics for control of cracking
• Control of crack width by detailing is based on
prescriptive rules derived from decades of experience
in the field.
• These rules involve bar diameter, spacing, minimum
cross-sectional area of reinforcement, and cage
geometry.
• The reinforcement required for structural resistance is
supplemented where necessary to ensure compliance
with best detailing practice.
• Control of crack location is achieved by detailing joints
and reinforcement in a manner that introduces a
deliberate plane of weakness.
Design tactics for control of cracking
• It is based on the observation that cracks
preferentially propagate at highly stressed sections,
such as at discontinuities, openings or imperfections
in structural members.
• Deliberate weakness into the member so that one
large crack occurs at the preordained position rather
than several smaller cracks appearing at random
throughout the member.
• Large cracks in chases in retaining walls are not visible
from even moderate distances.
• Cracks induced in pavements and ground floor slabs
can be located at positions where they can be
efficiently sealed or covered by permanent fittings.
Design tactics for control of cracking

Examples of pre-determined crack-inducing planes of weakness in concrete

elements
Crack width calculation
• Control of crack width by calculation involves
checking the predicted width against design
code recommendations.
• Many formulae have been proposed to model
crack width in reinforced members.
• An underlying principle is that the cumulative
total of crack widths in a member is related to
the strain and that the width of any one crack
depends on the number of cracks sharing the
total width.
 Crack width calculation
• for example, Albandar and Mills (1974) proposed the
following relationship in respect of a reinforced
concrete beam:
 Crack width calculation
• The Concrete Society (1982) published a formula for the
maximum crack width based on a consideration of the
minimum crack spacing.
• It highlights the relevant parameters and may be stated as
follows:
 Crack width calculation
• The formula is based on the fact that the
stress at a crack is zero and therefore
another crack cannot form until the
stress builds up to a level that exceeds
the tensile strength of the concrete, a
minimum distance Sm away.
• Thus the maximum spacing of cracks is
2Sm.
• The development of crack width
formulae in CSA 23.3
Weathering Cracks
• Weathering process:
• Freezing and thawing cycles
• Wetting and drying
• Heating and cooling
• Depending on the porosity (high or low) the
concrete will absorb moisture
• When exposed to freezing, the moisture will freeze
and expand resulting in hydraulic pressure which
cracks the concrete