Advanced Well Completion Engineering

Wan Renpu

Petroleum Industry Press

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　 现代完井工程 : 英文版/ 万仁溥编著 ．

北京 : 石油工业出版社 , 1997．9
　 ISBN 7 - 5021 - 2050 - 5

　 Ⅰ． 现…
　 Ⅱ． 万…
　 Ⅲ． 完井 - 英文
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＊
889× 1194 毫米 16 开 21 印张 753 千 字 印 1 —800
1997 年 9 月北 京第 1 版 1997 年 9 月 北京第 1 次印 刷
ISB N 7 - 5021 - 2050 - 5/ T E・1726
08600

3 24
ADVANCED WELL COMPLETION ENGINEERING
by Wan Renpu

ISBN 7 - 5021 - 2050 - 5/ TE・1726 　

Copyright 1997 by
Petroleum Industry Press
( Anhuali, Andingmenwai St ., Beijing 100011 , P .R .C .)

All rights reserved . No part of t his publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic
tapes, mechanical, photocopying , recording or ot herwise, without permission in writ－
ing from the publisher .

Printed in Beijing, China

 Editorial Committee

Advisor : Li Tianxiang, Li Yugeng, Wan Bincheng, Qing Tongluo

Chair man : Wang Laiju
V ice Chai rman : Luo Pingya, Luo Yingjun, Tang Zengxiong,
Zeng Xianyi,Sun zhencun, Wan Renpu
Com m ittee Members:Chen Suimin, Cheng Yuandun, Dong Enhuan,
Gao Dakang , Jiang Tian, Li Jianhou, Li Zhangya, Liu Wanfu,
Meng Murao, Pan Yingde, Shi Taihe, Sun Ning, Tang Yula,
Wang Ping, Wu Qi, Xiong Youming, Zhu Deyi, Zhang Youyu .

Authors and examiners

Plan ner : Wan Renpu

Chief Ed itor: Wan Renpu
V ice Chief E ditor : Pan Yingde, Xiong Youming, Wu Qi
Assistan t of Chief Editor : Cheng Jiye, Sun Dongping
 Authors and examiners

Foreword 　 written by Li Tianxiang

Preface 　 w ritten by Wan Renpu
Introduction 　 written by Wan Renpu
Chapter 1 　 The Foundamentals of Well Completion Engineering
Section 1 .1 　 written by Kang Yili and Pan Yingde
Section 1 .2 　 written by Kang Yili and Zhang Kaihong
Section 1 .3 　 written by Wang Ping , Xiong Youming and Pan Yingde
Section 1 .4 　 written by Zhang Kaihong and Xiong Youming
Section 1 .5 　 written by Pan Yingde and Wan Renpu
Examined by Tang Zengxiong , Wang Ping and Zhang Youyu
Chapter 2 　 Selection of Well Completion Methods
Section 2 .1 and 2 .2 　 written by Pan Yingde
Section 2 .3 　 written by Pan Yingde and Xiong Youming
Examined by Wan Renpu and Cheng Y uandun
Chapter 3 　 Selection and Determination of Tubing and Production Casing Sizes
Section 3 .1 and 3 .2 　 written by Xiong Youming
Section 3 .3 　 written by Tang Yula
Section 3 .4 　 written by Xiong Youming
Section 3 .5 　 written by Wan Renpu and Xiong Youming
Section 3 .6 　 written by Liu Shangqi
Examined by Wan Renpu and Gao Dakang
Chapter 4 　 Completion and Perforation Fluids
Section 4 .1 to 4 .4 　 written by Luo Pingya
Section 4 .5 　 written by Tang Yula
Examined by Cheng Yuandun and Li Zhangya
Chapter 5 　 Production Casing and Cementing Operation
Section 5 .1 　 written by Liu H uixing , Shi Taihe , Li Zhangya , Jia Liren and Song Zhi
Section 5．2～ 5．3 　 written by Liu Huixing , Shi Taihe , Li Zhangya
Examined by Li Zhangya, Cheng Yuandun and Sun Zhencun
Chapter 6 　 Perforation
Section 6 .1～ 6 .5 　 written by T ang Y ula
Section 6 .4 　 written by Tang Yula, Zhang Yi and Song Zhi
Examined by Li Zhangya and Pan Yingde
Chapter 7 　 Well Completion Evaluation by Well Testing
written by Zhuang H uilong
Examined by Pan Yingde and Liu Weining
Chapter 8 　 Tubing Strings for Putting Oil/ Gas Wells into Production
written by Wu Qi, Jiang Tian and Sun Dongping
Examined by Wan Renpu , T ang Ruiling and Li Lian Kui
 Foreword

Well completion is an importan t link in the oil field development . T he designing level and implemen ta－
tion quality play a key role in expected production target and economical effectiveness of an oil field .
As early as in the initial developmen t period of Y umen oil field in Ganshu province , our engineers kept
improving well completion technology , and had done a great amoun t of probing works in many aspects ,
such as wellbore configuration designing , cemen ting, openhole completion, liner completion , packer setting
and bullet perforating, all of w hich set up a relatively sound basis for well completion technology for our in－
fant petroleum industry .
In the early 1960’s ( the years of developing Daqing oil field ) , a wide utilization of package explosive
perforating completion technology promoted the technical progress of jet perforating , perforating wit h carri－
er and non - carrier , and magnetic locating . The technical requiremen t of separate layer production and in－
jection impelled t he developmen t of packer technology . Then , during t he development of oil fields around
Bohai Gulf , t he types of formations encoun tered by drilling and reservoirs developed became more and more
complex . The sand production problem was found in several oil fields , which propelled t he progress of sand
con trol technology , including chemical sand con trol, wire wrapped screen gravel pack and sand screen
met hods . In order to avoid formation damage in t he tigh t layer of Changqing oil field in nort hwest China,
t he core analysis and sensitivity test have been carried out . The effective well completion met hods had also
been put into use in sour gas wells in Sichuan gas field . In the mean time, a great amoun t of work had been
done in casing designing , cementing , perforating gun , detection of perforating cartridge quality , surface
detection while dow nhole perforating , as well as research on perforating process by use of high speed photo－
graph . All of t his work accomplished in formation protection and enhancement of the well completion quali－
ty helped to advance t he well completion technology .
Never theless , we found t his technology too simple . The fundamental requiremen ts of well completion ,
t hat is ,“liberating oil formation”, weren’t completely realized ; only the simple reservoir was dealt wit h ef－
fectively , not the complex .
As t he ideas about reform and open policy in China, and t he principle of“ science - technology is first”
were established and carried ou t, science and technology have been greatly pushed forward , and so has well
completion engineering . The study of formation damage and sensitivit y causes t he attention of well comple－
tion engineering to go up to drilling period . This requires reasonable designing of drilling , completion and
perforating fluids according to the formation minerologic composition , and pore pressure . The study of in -
situ formation st ress puts the atten tion of completion engineering forward to t he selection of development
well pattern orientation , thereby giving consideration to oil recovery caused by water injection , gas injec－
tion , and t he orientation of hydraulic fracture . In order to liberate oil formation and gain reasonable gas and
oil production rates under minimum pressure difference, we have reinforced the research work on perforat－
ing technology and developed many more softwares for designing perforating and establishing perforator
quality guaran tee system and detection cen ter . The perforating peneration has reached as peneration as 700
cm . The modern well testing technology has been a common peace met hod in evaluating the completeness
ratio of an oil well . The application of nodal analysis met hod , the selection of t ubing and production casing
sizes , and t he research of ar tificial lift all consider t he flow from a reservoir to t he wellhead as a w hole, not
only from the initial but also to the later production stage . The above mentioned techniques have obtained
great progress bot h in t he vertical well and directional well, and also have been used in t he development of
TZ - 4 well, T ARI M oil field in which t he completion technology for horizon tal well has made great con tri－
bu tion to t he high and stable oil production of 1 , 000 t/ d . Today, the well completion technology has be－
come a system engineering . The en tire period of an oil field developmen t requires putting emphasis not only
on the development plan , bu t also on each engineering design , and operational links , which must be consid－
ered seriously in t he management of an oil field development project .
During the“Battle for oil”in Daqing oil field , one good conventional practice is to gather various mate－
rials and data precisely, completely and integrally w hile drilling a well . Wit h respect to t he well completion
engineering , the require men t is t he same in t he appraisal well so as to guarantee the success of oil field de－
velopment . Therefore, a successful exploration project must be the one in which enough exploration invest－
ment is done to obtain high qualit y , complete materials, and data for the nex t step , i .e ., t he oil field de－
velopment ( including well completion engineering) from t he period of drilling anappraisal well . Ot herwise,
t his exploration project can not be t hought of as a successful one . By these means, the appraisal well drilling
period in exploration must consider t he requiremen ts of exploration and development in coordination . The e－
conomic profit of exploration and developmen t can only be obtained this way . Each participan t in these two
areas must learn to work wit h each other .
This book theoretically summarizes t he practical experiences of well completion , forms t he well com－
pletion engineering system , and reflects t he well completion technology and its development level in China .
One possible inadequacy of t his book is t hat it only mentions the corrosion problem in sour gas well,
but does not deal wit h the casing corrosion problems w hich occur in m any oil fields in China . The casing
corrosion problem caused by formation water and bacteria can be solved by water treatmen t during oil pro－
duction operation , but t hat caused by geocurren t can only be solved effectively during the well completion
procedures . The fur ther consideration of this problem can perfect our knowledge in practice .

Li Tianxiang
Setp ., 1995
 Preface

Well completion engineering not only connects up t he drilling and production engineerings, but also is
itself a relatively independent one . Which is a system engineering from drilling into t he oil formation , set－
ting casing , cemen ting , perforating , running the production t ubing st ring, and flowing back , to putting
t he well into production .
On the basis of t he summarization of successful experiences and new technology bot h in China and
aboard in recent years , t his book theoretically and systematically discusses advanced well completion defini－
tion , con ten ts , technical system , and met hods in an ut terly new way . The main con tents of this book are
well completion engineering foundations , selection of completion met hods , designing of tubing and produc－
tion casing size , selection of completion and perforation fluids , evaluation of production casing , cementing ,
perforation and DST well testing , measures of designing production t ubing st ring and put ting well into pro－
duction . I t is t he first monograph t hat systematically discusses well completion engineering in China .
One feat ure of t his book is to discuss bot h the meaning and internal relations of specialties in well com－
pletion engineering . Because each specialty has its ow n t reaties , it is unnecessary to include all of those con－
tents in this book . In order to discuse well completion engineering thoroughly , we cannot avoid dealing
wit h some basic principles of t hose specialties . Therefoer , we mainly focus our in terests on oil field develop－
ment and its proper establishmen t . We explain our reasons thoroughly .
This book has two themes , one, t he idea of preventing damage, and protecting formation from drilling
in to an oil formation to putting the well into production stage ; and two, the utilization of nodal system
analysis method , which optimizes t he pressure distribution from reservoir to wellhead , and plays t he sensi－
tivity analysis to design t he tubing diameters first and then t he production casing size, so as to achieve
w hole system optimization . All of these are new ideas and methods in well completion engineering . This
book combines theories and practices , It gran ts both t heoretical foundation and production application cas－
es . Some new technologies , both in China and aboard , are in troduced . Therefore , it is characterized by its
t heorization , practicality , and operabilit y t hat make it useful for technicians . We hope t his book will inspire
readers , and will be fur ther perfected , enriched and developed .

Wan Renpu
Setp ., 1995
 Contents

Introduction
Chapter 1 　 Basis of Well Completion Engineering ………………………………………………… ( 5 )
1 .1 Grounds of Oil Field Geology and Reservoir Engineering ……………………………… ( 5 )
1 .1 .1 Types of oil/ gas reservoirs ………………………………………………………… ( 5 )
1 .1 .2 Proper ties of reservoir fluids ……………………………………………………… ( 6 )
1 .1 .3 Reservoir characteristics …………………………………………………………… ( 9 )
1 .2 Core Analysis …………………………………………………………………………… ( 12 )
1 .2 .1 Contents and technical requirements of core analysis in well completion
engineering ………………………………………………………………………… ( 12 )
1 .2 .2 Objectives , results and applications of core analysis ……………………………… ( 13 )
1 .3 In - sit u Formation Stress ……………………………………………………………… ( 17 )
1 .3 .1 Basic concep t of in - situ stress …………………………………………………… ( 18 )
1 .3 .2 St ress state of t he rocks of wellbore ……………………………………………… ( 22 )
1 .3 .3 Relationship between in - situ stress and well completion engineering ………… ( 27 )
1 .4 Evaluation of Eorm ation Sensitivities …………………………………………………… ( 28 )
1 .4 .1 Formation damage and evaluation of formation sensitivities ……………………… ( 28 )
1 .4 .2 Laboratory evaluation of velocity sensitivit y ……………………………………… ( 29 )
1 .4 .3 Laboratory evaluation of water sensitivity ………………………………………… ( 32 )
1 .4 .4 Laboratory evaluation of salt sensitivity …………………………………………… ( 32 )
1 .4 .5 Laboratory evaluation of alkali sensitivity ………………………………………… ( 37 )
1 .4 .6 Laboratory evaluation of acid sensitivity ………………………………………… ( 38 )
1 .4 .7 Evaluation of damages caused by drilling and completion fluids ………………… ( 40 )
1 .4 .8 Other evaluation experimen ts ……………………………………………………… ( 43 )
1 .5 Technical G rounds for Oil/ gas Production Engineering ……………………………… ( 45 )
1 .5 .1 Water injection ……………………………………………………………………… ( 45 )
1 .5 .2 Hydraulic fract uring and acidizing ………………………………………………… ( 45 )
1 .5 .3 Cont rol of gas cap and bot tom water ……………………………………………… ( 45 )
1 .5 .4 Adjustmen t well …………………………………………………………………… ( 46 )
1 .5 .5 Thermal recovery by steam injection ……………………………………………… ( 46 )
1 .5 .6 Sand con trol ………………………………………………………………………… ( 46 )
1 .5 .7 Corrosion preven tion ……………………………………………………………… ( 46 )
1 .5 .8 Injection of nat ural gas or ot her gases …………………………………………… ( 46 )
1 .5 .9 Reservoirs with ver tical or high angle fract ures …………………………………… ( 47 )
1 .5 .1 0 Medium and thick reservoirs ……………………………………………………… ( 47 )
1 .5 .1 1 Reservoirs of ancient buried hill ………………………………………………… ( 47 )
References …………………………………………………………………………………… ( 47 )
Chapter 2 　 Selection of Well Completion Methods ………………………………………………… ( 49 )
2 .1 Well Completion Met hods ……………………………………………………………… ( 49 )
2 .1 .1 Perforation completion ……………………………………………………………… ( 49 )
2 .1 .2 Open－hole completion ……………………………………………………………… ( 50 )
2 .1 .3 Slotted liner completion …………………………………………………………… ( 51 )
2 .1 .4 Gravel pack completion …………………………………………………………… ( 54 )
 2 .1 .5 Other screen completions …………………………………………………………… ( 60 )
2 .1 .6 Chemical sand consolidation completion …………………………………………… ( 62 )
2 .2 Horizontal Well Completion Met hods …………………………………………………… ( 64 )
2 .2 .1 Open－hole completion ……………………………………………………………… ( 64 )
2 .2 .2 Slotted liner completion …………………………………………………………… ( 64 )
2 .2 .3 Perforation completion ……………………………………………………………… ( 67 )
2 .2 .4 External casing packer( ECP ) completion ………………………………………… ( 67 )
2 .2 .5 Gravel pack completion …………………………………………………………… ( 68 )
2 .3 Selection of Well Completion Methods ………………………………………………… ( 72 )
2 .3 .1 Selection of vertical well completion met hods …………………………………… ( 72 )
2 .3 .2 Selection of horizon tal and directional well completion methods ………………… ( 77 )
References ………………………………………………………………………………… ( 79 )
Chapter 3 　 Selection and Determination of Tubing and Production Casing Sizes ………………… ( 80 )
3 .1 In troduction ……………………………………………………………………………… ( 80 )
3 .2 A Brief In troduction to Nodal System A nalysis ………………………………………… ( 81 )
3 .2 .1 Pressure loss in porous medium …………………………………………………… ( 81 )
3 .2 .2 Pressure loss across completion …………………………………………………… ( 81 )
3 .2 .3 Total pressure loss in tubing string ……………………………………………… ( 82 )
3 .2 .4 Total pressure loss in flow line …………………………………………………… ( 82 )
3 .3 Selection and Determination of TP CS for Flowing Oil Wells and Gas Wells ………… ( 82 )
3 .3 .1 Importance of tubing size sensitivity analysis for flowing oil wells and gas wells
　 　 　 ……………………………………………………………………………………… ( 83 )
3 .3 .2 Sensitivity analysis and optimization of tubing size ……………………………… ( 83 )
3 .3 .3 Selection and determination of production casing size for flowing oil/ gas wells
　 　 　 ……………………………………………………………………………………… ( 91 )
3 .4 Selection and Determination of TP CS for Artificial Lift Wells ………………………… ( 92 )
3 .4 .1 Prediction of daily fluid production level in the high water－cut stage …………… ( 92 )
3 .4 .2 Selection and determination of T PCS for rod pump wells ……………………… ( 93 )
3 .4 .3 Selection and determination of T PCS for hydraulic piston pump wells ………… ( 95 )
3 .4 .4 Selection and determination of T PCS for electric submersible pump ( ESP ) wells
　 　 　 ……………………………………………………………………………………… ( 97 )
3 .4 .5 Selection and determination of T PCS for gas - lift wells ………………………… ( 98 )
3 .5 Effect of Stimulation on t he Selection of T PCS ……………………………………… ( 101)
3 .6 Selection and Determination of TP CS for Heavy Oil and High Pour Point Oil
Production Wells …………………………………………………………………………… ( 105)
3 .6 .1 Heavy oil production by waterflooding ……………………………………………… ( 105)
3 .6 .2 Heavy oil production by steam injection ……………………………………………… ( 110)
3 .6 .3 High pour poin t oil production ……………………………………………………… ( 113)
References …………………………………………………………………………………… ( 115)
Chapter 4 　 Completion and Perforating Fluids ……………………………………………………… ( 116)
4 .1 Fundamental Requirements of Drilling and Completion Fluid ………………………… ( 116)
4 .2 Drilling and Completion fluid Systems and Their Applications ……………………… ( 118)
4 .2 .1 Air based drilling and completion fluids …………………………………………… ( 118)
4 .2 .2 Water based drilling and completion fluids ……………………………………… ( 120)
4 .2 .3 Oil based drilling and completion fluids …………………………………………… ( 124)
4 .3 Temporary Plugging Technology ……………………………………………………… ( 125)
4 .3 .1 In troduction ………………………………………………………………………… ( 125)
 4 .3 .2 Fundamental t heory of temporary plugging with modified drilling fluids ……… ( 126)
4 .3 .3 Program and application of temporary plugging technology ……………………… ( 135)
4 .4 Drilling and Completion Fluids For Complicated Reservoirs …………………………… ( 135)
4 .4 .1 Drilling and completion fluids for lost circulation and sloughing hole …………… ( 136)
4 .4 .2 Drilling and completion fluids for fill - in drilling ………………………………… ( 136)
4 .4 .3 Drilling and completion fluids for deep wells ……………………………………… ( 136)
4 .4 .4 Drilling and completion fluids for directional and horizon tal wells ……………… ( 137)
4 .5 Perforating Fluids ……………………………………………………………………… ( 137)
4 .5 .1 Damage mechanism of perforating fluids ………………………………………… ( 137)
4 .5 .2 Selection and uses of perforating fluids …………………………………………… ( 138)
References ………………………………………………………………………………… ( 139)
Chapter 5 　 Production Casing and Cementing Operation …………………………………………… ( 140)
5 .1 Production Casing ……………………………………………………………………… ( 140)
5 .1 .1 Basis of production casing design ………………………………………………… ( 140)
5 .1 .2 Types and properties of casings …………………………………………………… ( 144)
5 .1 .3 St rengt h design of production casing strings ……………………………………… ( 155)
5 .1 .4 Direct welded seam casing and its properties ……………………………………… ( 163)
5 .2 Cementing Operation …………………………………………………………………… ( 164)
5 .2 .1 Basic foundations for cementing design …………………………………………… ( 164)
5 .2 .2 Types and properties of cement …………………………………………………… ( 165)
5 .2 .3 Cement additives …………………………………………………………………… ( 167)
5 .2 .4 Cementing qualit y detection ……………………………………………………… ( 167)
5 .3 Production Casing and Cemen ting O peration for Complex Type of Wells …………… ( 171)
5 .3 .1 High pressure gas well …………………………………………………………… ( 171)
5 .3 .2 Sour gas wells ……………………………………………………………………… ( 174)
5 .3 .3 Oil and gas wells with low pressure and permeability …………………………… ( 175)
5 .3 .4 Thermal production wells ………………………………………………………… ( 176)
5 .3 .5 Wells with salt beds ………………………………………………………………… ( 179)
5 .3 .6 Liner completion wells ……………………………………………………………… ( 180)
5 .3 .7 Horizontal wells …………………………………………………………………… ( 180)
5 .3 .8 Injection - production adjustmen t wells …………………………………………… ( 181)
References ………………………………………………………………………………… ( 185)
Chapter 6 　 Perforating ……………………………………………………………………………… ( 186)
6 .1 Perforating Technology ………………………………………………………………… ( 186)
6 .1 .1 Wireline casing gun perforating ( WCG ) …………………………………………… ( 186)
6 .1 .2 Tubing - conveyed perforating ( TCP ) …………………………………………… ( 186)
6 .1 .3 Tubing - conveyed perforating combination technology ………………………… ( 187)
6 .1 .4 Wireline through - tubing perforating ( T T P ) …………………………………… ( 189)
6 .1 .5 Super - high pressure overbalance perforating ( For ward impact ) ………………… ( 189)
6 .1 .6 Horizontal well perforating ………………………………………………………… ( 190)
6 .1 .7 High - pressure jet and sandblasting perforating ………………………………… ( 190)
6 .1 .8 Perforating technology selection …………………………………………………… ( 190)
6 .2 Optimum Selection of Perforating Parameters ………………………………………… ( 191)
6 .2 .1 Effects of perforating parameters on productivity of various oil/ gas reservoirs
　 　 　 ……………………………………………………………………………………… ( 191)
6 .2 .2 Effect of formation damage on the productivity of perforated wells ……………… ( 198)
6 .2 .3 Perforating parameter op timization design ………………………………………… ( 199)
 6 .3U nderbalance Pressure Design of Perforating ………………………………………… ( 205)
6.3 .1 Empirical met hods for underbalance pressure design ……………………………… ( 205)
6.3 .2 Theoretical met hod for underbalance pressure design …………………………… ( 208)
6 .4Check and Appraisal of Perforating Quality …………………………………………… ( 213)
6.4 .1 Check and appraisal of t he perforator properties ………………………………… ( 213)
6.4 .2 Surface check of casing crack induced by perforating and detonation of dow nhole
perforating ………………………………………………………………………… ( 217)
6 .4 .3 Check method by well logs for downhole perforated casing qualit y ……………… ( 218)
6 .5 St ress/ Strain Models and Percolation Model for Calculating Δ pm ax …………………… ( 220)
6 .5 .1 Total st ress dist ribu tion of perforation …………………………………………… ( 220)
6 .5 .2 Equivalen t plastic strain …………………………………………………………… ( 222)
6 .5 .3 Critical equivalen t plastic strain …………………………………………………… ( 223)
6 .5 .4 Calculation of pore pressure distribution around perforation ……………………… ( 223)
References …………………………………………………………………………………… ( 223)
Chapter 7 　 Well Completion Evaluation by Well Testing ………………………………………… ( 225)
7 .1 General …………………………………………………………………………………… ( 225)
7 .1 .1 Well test analysis is a principal method for on - site well completion evaluation ……… ( 225)
7 .1 .2 Comparison between on - site and laboratory evaluation ………………………… ( 225)
7 .1 .3 Developmen t of formation damage evaluation by well test analysis ……………… ( 226)
7 .1 .4 Modern well test analysis met hod ………………………………………………… ( 227)
7 .2 Principle of Formation Damage Evaluation by Well Test Analysis …………………… ( 228)
7 .2 .1 Measurmen t of formation damage degree by the value of S and disintegration of
t he value of S ……………………………………………………………………… ( 228)
7 .2 .2 Other parameters for describing formation dam age ……………………………… ( 229)
7 .3 Judgement Damage degree in Homogeneous Reservoirs by Graphic Characteristics
　 …………………………………………………………………………………………… ( 231)
7 .3 .1 Graphic characteristics of homogeneous reservoirs ………………………………… ( 232)
7 .3 .2 Location analysis met hod for well test curves in homogeneous reservoirs ……… ( 237)
7 .4 Graphic Characteristics of Double Porosity Reservoirs and Reservoirs with Fractures
　 …………………………………………………………………………………………… ( 241)
7 .4 .1 Graphic characteristics of double porosity reservoirs ……………………………… ( 241)
7 .4 .2 Graphic characteristics of fract ured reservoirs …………………………………… ( 247)
7 .5 Judgement of t he Treatmen t Effect by Graphic Characteristics ……………………… ( 253)
7 .5 .1 Comparison of curves for t he case of relieving damage by treat ment …………… ( 253)
7 .5 .2 Comparison of curves for t he case of relieving skin factor S and increasing
permeability ………………………………………………………………………… ( 255)
7 .5 .3 Comparison of curves for t he case of a long fracture created by t reatmen t ……… ( 258)
7 .6 Q uantitative In terpretation of Formation Da mage ……………………………………… ( 259)
7 .6 .1 Calculation of reservoir parameters such as K h , C and S by log - log type curve
matching …………………………………………………………………………… ( 259)
7 .6 .2 Calculation of skin factor S by semi - log analysis ……………………………… ( 262)
7 .6 .3 Estimation of S with log - log pressure plot measured in homogeneous reservoirs
　 　 　 ……………………………………………………………………………………… ( 264)
7 .6 .4 In terpretation met hod for early time regime ( wit hou t measured radial flow
regime data) ………………………………………………………………………… ( 265)
7 .6 .5 Evaluation of formation damage in gas wells ……………………………………… ( 266)
7 .6 .6 Evaluation of formation damage by systematic well test data …………………… ( 269)
 References ………………………………………………………………………………… ( 270)
Chapter 8 　 Measures for Putting Oil/ Gas Wells into Production and Completion Strings ……… ( 272)
8 .1 Measures of Pu tting Oil/ gas Wells into P roduction …………………………………… ( 272)
8 .1 .1 Preparations for putting into production ………………………………………… ( 272)
8 .1 .2 Measures for removal of plugging ………………………………………………… ( 276)
8 .2 Stimulation of Low Permeabilit y, Heavy Oil, and High Pour
Point Oil Reservoirs ……………………………………………………………………… ( 283)
8 .2 .1 Stimulation of low permeabilit y reservoirs ………………………………………… ( 283)
8 .2 .2 Stimulation of heavy and high pour point oil reservoirs ………………………… ( 294)
8 .3 Measures for Flowing Back ……………………………………………………………… ( 295)
8 .3 .1 Flowing back by displacement …………………………………………………… ( 295)
8 .3 .2 Flowing back by swabbing ………………………………………………………… ( 295)
8 .3 .3 Flowing back by gas－lift …………………………………………………………… ( 296)
8 .3 .4 Flowing back by foam fluid ……………………………………………………… ( 299)
8 .3 .5 Flowing back by using monoscrew pump driven at well head …………………… ( 303)
8 .4 Well Completion Tubing String ………………………………………………………… ( 305)
8 .4 .1 Tubing string for oil wells ………………………………………………………… ( 305)
8 .4 .2 Tubing string for water injection wells …………………………………………… ( 311)
8 .4 .3 Tubing string for natural gas wells ………………………………………………… ( 314)
8 .4 .4 Tubing strings for directional and horizontal wells ……………………………… ( 314)
8 .4 .5 Force analysis for well completion tubing st rings ………………………………… ( 316)
References ………………………………………………………………………………… ( 321)
Appendix Index of Term Noun ……………………………………………………………………… ( 322)
 Introduction

The concept of well completion engineering is constantly enriched, improved , and updated by the
progress of science and technology . Bot h exploration and developmen t wells possess well completion proce－
dure, and are concerned with the well completion engineering problem . This book focuses on t he develop－
ment well completion engineering , which can also act as a the reference for exploration well .
The old concept in USA, USSR , and China is t hat well completion engineering is t he final procedure
of drilling engineering , w hich includes casing designing , cementing or perforating after drilling t hrough the
target formation . During recen t years, wit h t he wide use of new technique and technology in many areas ,
petroleum engineers have acquired a deeper understanding of microscopic characteristics of oil/ gas forma－
tion, and taken some measures to protect oil formation from damage . In t he mean time, wit h t he application
of differen t well completion met hods , the productivity of gas and oil wells is enhanced . Because the technol－
ogy progress in above two aspects , the single well production rate is augmented . The idea that well comple－
tion engineering is less the operations of designing casing and cementing t han the operations closely con－
cerned wit h t he well productivit y increases is t he concep t of advanced well completion engineering , w hich
widens t he scope of well completion . Therefore, what is the definition of advanced well completion engi－
neering ? What contents does it contain ? What is the relationship between drilling and production engineer－
ing ? None of t he above questions have a clear definition or system concept , not in China or abroad .
This book is prepared to answer all the above questions systematically, and to make well completion
engineering more scientific , systematic, practical, and operable .
1 . Definition of well completion engineering
The well completion engineering not only links up t he drilling and production engineerings , but also is
a relatively independen t one, w hich is a system engineering from the drilling in to oil formation , setting pro－
duction casing , cementing , perforating , running tubing string , and flowing back to putting a well into pro－
duction .
2 . Fundamental theory of well completion fngineering
(1 ) Throughout t he oil/ gas formation research and formation potential damage evaluation , formation
protection measures must be taken during each operational procedure , from drilling to production . This
shoud reduce the formation damage as far as possible , maintain good communication between reservoir and
wellbore, and guarantee t he formation of maximum productivit y potential .
(2 ) By means of nodal system analysis , the oil/ gas formation energy is perfectly utilized and t he pres－
sure system is optimized . In light of reservoir engineering characteristics , the full process of oil field devel－
opmen t , and t he measures taken in t he oil field developmen t, t he well completion met hods and casing size
are designed to provide the necessary conditions for scientific oil field development .
3 . Contents of well completion fngineering
1) The core analysis and sensitivity analysis
The core analysis and sensitivity analysis are systematically carried ou t on t he core sample of explorato－
ry well and appraisal well . According to t he test results , t he basic formation damage preven tion data and
m aterials are provided in fluids for oil - gas formation drilling , perforating , fract uring , acidizing , well
killing, and workover .
The terms of core analysis and sensitivity analysis are as follows .
(1 ) Core analysis: conventional core analysis , slice analysis , X - ray diffraction( XRD) , scanning elec－
tron microscope( SE M ) .
(2) Sensitivit y analysis: water sensitivit y, velocity sensitivity , acid sensitivity , alkali sensitivity and
salt sensitivity .
2) Oil formation drilling fluid
1
 The selection of drilling fluid must accoun t not only for preven ting formation da mage caused by filt ra－
tion loss, but also the safet y consideration when drilling a high pressure zone , low pressure zone, lost zone,
salt bed , selenolite zone, and fract ured zone . The type, formula , and additive of drilling fluid must be de－
signed according to the well log data, core analysis , sensitivity analysis data, and empirical practice .
3) The well completion program and method
The well completion program must be designed according to t he oil filed geology characteristics, oil
field development practices , and well types in differen t rock formation such as sand , carbonate , igneous ,
metamorphic , etc . The well completion program are grossly divided into two categories , one is openhole
completion, and the ot her is casing perforating completion . There are differen t met hods in openhole com－
pletion such as open hole completion , liner wire w rapped screen and open hole gravel pack . . Casing perfo－
rating completion includes casing perforating completion , liner perforating completion , and wire w rapped
screen and gravel pack inside the casing .
4) The tubing and production casing size selection
The nodal system analysis or pressure system analysis is used for reservoir - wellbore - surface pipeline
sensitivity analysis . The t ubing sensitivity analysis is based on t he composite analysis of formation pressure,
production rate, liquid production rate, fluid viscosity , stimulation method, and development practices , the
t ubing size is selected first , t hen the production casing size is designed according to t he tubing size . Former－
ly, it was necessary to choose the production casing size before selecting t he tubing size . Advanced well
completion engineering disregards this outdated met hod and has developed a system in w hich production
casing size is determined by the t ubing size .
The casing system design was originally composed of surface casing , technical casing , and production
casing . Here we focus on the design of production casing , rat her than the ot her two which have a special
design t hat must match t he requirement of t he drilling engineering presented in ot her books .
5) The production casing design
The fundamental production casing design data are listed in t he following : well types , formation char－
acters , fluid characters, in - sit u stress and engineering measures .
(1 ) Well t ypes: oil well, gas well, t hermal production well , water injection well, gas injection well or
steam injection well .
(2 ) Formation pressure and temperature .
(3 ) Ground water properties: p H value , salinity and corrosion degree to casing .
(4 ) Corrosive gas con ten t in natural gas .
(5 ) Formation fracture pressure gradien t, peak pressure in hydraulic and acid fract uring .
(6 ) The t rend , orientation of in - situ st ress and its value .
(7 ) The pressure and temperat ure for steam injection .
(8 ) The halite zone creeping .
(9 ) The pressure changes and in terzonal channels after oil field development by water flooding .
(10) The situation of sand production .
After the well completion method has been determined and the above influence factors taken into ac－
count , we can select t he casing steel grade, st rengt h , wall t hickness , screw t hread type, t hread sealer type
and torque of casing twisting . For the liner completion , we must design the hanger dep th and fashion . For
a steam injection well, we must consider the tension and sealing property of casing t hread under t hermal
condition and t he well should be completed under prestress . For t he directional well and horizontal well, we
must also consider t he problems of casing bending, casing t hread under tension , and casing thread sealing
propert y .
6) Cemen ting design
The cemen t injection practices , such as single displace men t , multi - displacement and displacement
wit h packer outside casing , as well as t he cemen ting formula should be designed in consideration of follow－
ing factors:
(1 ) The cementing properties and displacing back heigh t in different well t ypes , such as oil well , gas
well, water injection well, gas injection well and steam injection well .
( 2 ) The pressure condition in oil/ gas reservoirs , such as high pressure zone , low pressure zone , leakage
zone and in - situ fract ures dist ribu tion .
(3 ) The pressure changes in adjustmen t well in water injection development oil field .
2
 (4 ) The flow condition of formation fluid .
(5 ) The required thermal - resisting cemen t property in steam injection well .
(6 ) The cement corrosion problem caused by t he sour gas , H2 S, CO2 and t he high salinity ground wa－
ter .
( 7) The cemen ting of t he gas well, gas injection well, and steam injection well; t he cemented displace－
ment to the surface is required .
7) The cemen ting quality evaluation
Here, t he cementing quality evaluation refers to inspecting t he cementing sealing condition outside the
casing, finding t he channel and mud slurry segment , determining the displacemen t back heigh t . The re－
cen tly wide used way is the acoustic amplit ude logging . The sonic variable density log which detects the sec－
ond surface of displacemen t has not widely been in use .
8) Perforating and its fluid selection
The perforating densit y, perforation diameter , and phase are designed t hrough perforating sensitivity
analysis . The perforator is selected according to formation permeability and oil property . The perforating
met hods, w hich include the cable perforating , tubing conveyed perforating and underbalance perforating ,
are determined by the formation pressure and oil/ gas properties . In the mean time, t he perforating fluid
must be designed to match t he reservoir fluid and formation clay minerals .
9) The evaluation of well completion by well testing
After well completion and initial production , t he standard met hod of determining t he degree of forma－
tion damage is to calculate skin coefficient by well testing . With t he analysis of skin coefficient , we can dis－
cover the causes of formation damage in order to remove or reduce the damage .
10 ) Well completion tubing st ring
The production t ubing st ring in gas and oil well and special t ubing st ring developed in China can be di－
vided in to the following t ypes:
(1 ) Permanent t ubing string .
The permanen t casing packer is set in t he upper section of oil formation before put ting the well into
production . E ach functional tool can be inserted in to the mandrel through the packer , such as the tools for
separate zone injection , separate zone production and separate zone well testing .
This tubing st ring can be used for sand washover , injecting cementing plug , and carrying ou t small
scale acidizing operation .
(2 ) Gas lifting tubing string .
If the alternate artificial lift method gas lift is expected , the gas lift t ubing st ring and downhole tools
( in single - st ring , or in dual - string) should be set before putting t he well into production . The well can
be converted into gas lift production if t he producing decreasing or shu t - in .
(3 ) The anti - corrosion , an ti - scale , an ti - paraffin , and anti - salt t ubing string .
If the nat ural gas or dissolved gas con tains H2 S, or CO2 , and if the salinity in edge water or bot tom
water is high , the tubing string is generally installed wit h t he packer at t he top of formation to seal t he an－
nulus between t he casing and t ubing , w hich can be filled wit h the protection liquid or anti - corrosion liquid
periodically to protect t he casing . All of t he above tubing string t ypes have the circulation device between
t he t ubing and annulus .
In addition , t he offshore well, deep well, ultra - deep well, nat ural gas well, and high production rate
well must be installed with dow nhole safety valves at about 100 m in dep th under t he wellhead .
11 ) Measures of putting a well into production
Differen t measures must be taken according to the formation damage degree and the t ype of oil/ gas
reservoir . The measures usually are swabbing , gas lift ( N2 ) , foam and gas water to aid flowing back , and
sometimes hydrochloric acid and mud acid soak . In some wells , the acidizing and hydraulic fract uring must
be taken before the well putting in to production .
The above definition , t heory foundation , content and operation procedures of well conmpletion engi－
neering form t he well completion engineering system . Alt hough well completion bot h conbines the drilling
and production engineering and remains a relatively independent field , this engineering ( engineering sys－
tem) is not a work system but an inherent connection among drilling , well completion and production engi－
neering w hich considers t he current and fut ure macroscopic condition of the oil field development . The well
completion is incapable of replacing drilling and production engineering ; it is necessary that drilling , com－
3
pletion , and production engineering each do t heir own works well . In this era of advanced technology field ,
each is mut ually infiltrated, and all achieve a common progress . The goals of the proposed well completion
concep t and well completion engineering system are:
(1 ) To reduce the formation damage as far as possible and to allow t he formation natural potential at
its best .
(2 ) To provide t he necessary conditions for adjusting t he production pressure difference , resulting in
argumen ttation of single well production rate .
(3 ) To pu t the reservoir reserves in effective use .
(4) To provide the necessary conditions for the application of different oil production techniques and
technology .
(5 ) To protect t ubing and casing , reduce workover and prolong t he well production life .
(6 ) To combine the curren t and future targets to improve t he composite economical effectiveness .
(7 ) To design and operate at minimum cost and maximum economic profit .
4 . Design procedure for well completion system
The system design procedure of well completion engineering is as follows:

4
 Chapter 1 Basis of Well Completion Engineering

Well completion engineering is a systematic engineering that includes drilling in to an oil reservoir , well
cementing , well completing and pu tting the well into production . The basis of well completion engineering
includes oil field geology and reservoir engineering , as well as production engineering techniques , which are
related to well completion . Reservoir types , percolation characteristics , lithologies , and reservoir fluid char－
acteristics are included in oil field geology and reservoir engineering , w hich are t he t heoretical foundations
used to determine well completion methods and prevent formation damage . Production engineering deals
wit h t he special requirements of various wells ( such as oil, gas , water injection , gas injection , steam injec－
tion, and horizontal wells ) , exploitation modes ( such as multi - zone commingled production in a well,
separate zone production , artificial lift after flowing production ) , and technical measures taken during pro－
duction ( such as fracturing , acidizing , sand con trol , water shu toff) , etc . for well completion method se－
lection , casing size and strengt h determination , cement slurry ret urn heigh t, and high temperat ure resis－
tance .

1 .1 Grounds of Oil Field Geology and Reservoir Engineering

1 .1 .1 Types of oil/ gas reservoirs

1 .1 .1 .1 Reservation and permeation characteristics of oil/ gas reservoir

Based on t he difference of reseration spaces and main flow channel of formation fluids, oil/ gas reser－
voirs can be divided into t he following types .
1) Porous reservoir
In t his type of reservoir , t he oil bearing space and flow paths are the inte - rgranular pores . Therefore,
t he flow is called porous flow . Sandstone, conglomerate, and bioclastic reservoirs can be included in this
type .
2) Fract ured reservoir
In t his type of reservoir, fractures are not only main oil bearing space , but also flow paths , and the
flow in them is called fract ured flow . There may be no primary pores, or isolated, non - permeable pores in
t he reservoir . Carbonate reservoir and mud shale reservoir can be classified as this t ype .
3) Fract ure - porosity reservoir
In this type of reservoir , inter - granular pores are the main oil bearing space, and fractures are the
m ain flow pat hs; the flow is called dual media flow . Usually , fractures extend for a long distance, but pore
permeability is very low . Renqiu carbonate oil field of China, and Spraberry Trend oil field of the U nited
States can be included in this t ype of reservoir .
4) Porous fract ured reservoir
Bot h the in ter - granular pores and the fract ures are the oil bearing space and flow paths; t he flow is
also termed dual media flow . This reservoir has many fract ures extending for a shor t distance, and has a
low porosity .
5) Cavity porosity reservoir
Solution cavities , vugs , pores and fractures in t he reservoir are t he oil bearing space and flow pat hs .
All reservoirs of this type are sedimen tary beds of soluble salts . Basically , lit tle primary pores exist , but
secondary pores develop in t he reservoir .
1 .1 .1 .2 Reservoir geometry
According to geomet ry , reservoirs can be divided in to massive, layered, len ticular , and fault block
reservoir .
1) Massive reservoir
5
 Wit h a large effective payzone thickness ( larger than 10 meters) , t he reservoir has an unitized hydro－
dynamic system and good connectivity wit h gas cap and bottom water, t he latter some feeding capacity .
When choosing completion methods, gas cap and bottom water , wellbore stablility , sand production , etc .
should be considered . Generally , perforating or open hole completion is selected .
2) Layered reservoir
Most reservoirs of t his t ype ( with a complete structure and an unitized oil - water interface ) belong to
anticlinal t rap . It has good st ratification and anumber of beds along a vertical section . Every individual bed
has a small thickness . The bed with a t hickness of five to ten meters is called thick bed , that with a t hick－
ness of one to five meters is called medium - t hick bed , and that wit h a thickness less than one meter is
called t hin bed . Difference in permeabilit y bet ween beds is greater . Drive energy from edge water is weak－
e r . Techniques such as zonal injection, zonal fract uring , or separate zone water shutoff can be applied dur－
ing water flooding developmen t in order to cont rol injection and production profiles and enhance oil recovery
efficiency . Therefore, t he perforating completion method is generally chosen . Daqing Shaert u oil field ,
Shengli Sheng tuo oil field , and Changqing Maling oil field in China are included in t his type .
3) Fault block reservoir
The reservoir of t his type is cut into many fault blocks wit h differen t sizes by fairly developeing frac－
tures . Some blocks have and area less than 0 .5 square kilometers with many pay zones , showing a total
long oil bearing section vertically . Not only oil - water interface , but also oil/ gas enrichmen t, as well as
physical properties of reservoir and natural drive energy among blocks ( even in a same block ) , are notice－
ably different . I t is reasonable to rely on elastic energy at t he initial stage and apply selective poin t flooding
at the later stage for an enclosed block . Edge water flooding injection is suitable for an open block , and per－
forating completion is chosen due to multiple series of st rata as well as the greater interlayered differences .
Shengli Dongxin oil field and Zhongyuan Wenminzhai oil field in China belong to this t ype .
4) Len ticular reservoir
A geological description of geometry for a sand body depends on ratio of leng th to widt h . A sand body
wit h a ratio less t han or equal to 3 : 1 is called a len ticular body . The distribution of len ticular bodies are fair－
ly scattered with a majority of pinchou t area . When lenticular bodies overlap one anot her , multiple reservoir
appear in a well along a vertical section .
1 .1 .2 Properties of reservoir fluids
There are t hree types of formation fluids: oil, gas , and water in pores of rocks . It is impor tan t to
study characteristics of fluids in order to formulate a rational developmen t program , working systems of oil
and water injection well, well completion design , and stimulation measures .
1 .1 .2 .1 Crude oil
Crude oil is an ignitable liquid mineral composed of various hydrocarbons and a small amoun t impuri－
ties . Because oil consists of hydrocarbons, porphyrin complexes and asphalt , the physical and chemical
properties vary greatly . Importan t physical proper ties of the oil include density , viscosit y, and pour poin t .
1) Density
3
Material mass contained in per unit volume is defined as density(ρ) measured in unit of g/ cm . Density
at 20℃ is defined as t he standard density of oil and pet roleum products . The oil densit y is often expressed
as AP I°in the United States . The relation bet ween ρand AP I°is as follows:

141．5
AP I°= - 131．5 ( 1 - 1)
ρ at 60℉ ( 15．6 ℃ )

API°decreases as density ρincreases .

2) Viscosity
Viscosity means the friction force bet ween molecules which is caused by the relative movement of
molecules . In general, viscosity is measured in unit cP or mPa・s . A nd it is often expressed in terms of dy－
namic viscosit y , kinematic viscosit y, and Engler viscosit y . Viscosit y of crude oil varies greatly . According
to viscosity , crude oil in China is classified into conventional oil with a viscosity less than 50mPa・s and
heavy oil wit h a viscosity greater than 50m Pa・s at formation temperat ure . Fur thermore, the latter has its
6
own classification standard .
The standard of heavy oil is t he following :
Heavy oil is asphalt base oil which is generally called viscous oil in China based on its viscosity , but
called heavy oil around the world based on its relative densit y . Viscous oil is actually heavy oil wit h a differ－
ent name . Bot h worldwide and Chinese standards use viscosity as t he prim ary index and relative density as
t he secondary index . The classification standard is varied in differen t countries due to different genesis of
viscous oil . The classification standard in China is showed in Table 1 - 1 , and Table 1 - 2 shows t he stan－
dard recommended by U NIT AR .

Ta b l e 1 - 1 　 The classification of heavy oil in China

Types of viscous oil Primary index Secondary index Develop ment
Name level viscosit y( mPa・s ) relative density method

① ① Conventional production …
Ⅰ - 1 50 ～150 > 0 .9200
Common Ⅰ or steam injection

Ⅰ - 2 150 ① ～10000 > 0 .9200 Steam injection

E xt ra Ⅱ 10000～50000 > 0 .9500 Steam injection

Super - ex tra Ⅲ > 50000 > 0 .9800

Steam injection
( natural asphalt ) 　 　 　

　 　 ① means t he viscosit y unde r reservoir conditions, t he ot he rs means t he viscosit y of degas sed crude a t r eservoir tempe rat ure .

Ta b l e 1 - 2 　 The classification of heavy oil and asphalt recommended by UNITAR

Primary index Secondary index
Types
Viscosit y① ( mPa・s) Density , 60°F( g/ cm3 ) °
AP I , 60°F

Heavy oil 100～10000 0 .934～1 .0 20～10

Nature asphalt > 10000 > 1 .0 < 10

　 　 ① means t he viscosity of degasse d c rude at rese rvoir tem per atur e

3) Pour poin t
U nder certain testing conditions , pour point means the highest temperature of cooling crude oil at
w hich , w hen 45°angular pitch , flowing plane of t he crude oil remains still for 1 minute . Crude oil with a
high pour poin t is rich in normal alkane ( i .e . paraffin ) .
4) The classification of reservoirs based on crude oil
(1 ) Conventional oil reservoir: An oil bearing formation in which t he oil has a viscosity less t han 50
m Pa・s is classified as a conven tional reservoir , w hich can be developed by means of water flooding .
( 2) Heavy oil reservoir : An oil bearing formation in which t he oil has a viscosit y larger t han 50m Pa・s
is classified as a heavy oil reservoir . Among t hem , a common heavy oil reservoir graded at Ⅰ - 1 ( such as
Shengli Gudao oil field , Gudong oil field, Chengdong oil field and shengt uo oil field in China) can be devel－
oped by means of water flooding ; t hose graded atⅠ - 2 should be exploited by steam injection . Super - ex－
tra heavy oil reservoirs graded Ⅱ and Ⅲ ( such as Liaohe Gaoshen oil field , Shuguang oil field , Huanxiling
oil field , Xinjiang Keramayi oil field ( 9 - 6 , 9 - 7 , 9 - 8 regions etc .) , Shengli Sanjiashi oil field , LeAn oil
field and Henan Jinglo oil field ) must be developed by steam injection . The oil formations of heavy oil
reservoir are mostly of argillaceous and crude oil cementation , therefore, they are unconsolidated and easily
produce sand .
(3) High pour point oil reservoir : High pour point oil is paraffin based crude oil wit h a pour point
higher t han 25℃ . Ninety percent of the all oils in China are in t his category . A mong them , the oil wit h a
pour point higher than 30℃ accounts 15 % , and t he oil wit h a pour point higher than 40℃ also accounts a
certain percen t . Mean pour poin t of Shenyang oil field is 55℃ . The highest poin t is 67 ℃ . The oil bearing
reservoir in w hich t he oil has a pour point higher t han 40℃ is defined as high pour oil reservoir in China . It
7
is very seldom in the world to have a high pour point as Shenyang oil field which produces crude oil of 300
×10 4 tons per year . The key to exploiting a high pour oil reservoir is to maintain a flowing temperat ure of
crude oil higher t han the pour poin t . This will sustain normal production of the oil well . In addition , t here
are volatile oil , condensate oil , and nat ural gas reservoirs .
1 .1 .2 .2 Natural gas
Natural gas exists in reservoirs in such states as dissolved gas produced wit h oil, free gas produced from
gas cap , gas reservoir, or st reak , and gas dissolved in formation water . The primary component of natural
gas is methane , but some small amoun ts of ethane, propane , butane, pan tane, and other more weighty hy－
drocarbons are con tained in natural gas as well . Non - hydrocarbon gas in nat ural gas include N2 , CO2 , H2 S
and He gas . There is CO2 gas dissolved in formation water . The decrease of fractional pressure of CO2
caused by t he decreasing of formation pressure will result in precipitaion of CaCO3 . H2 S is a common com－
ponen t of natural gas , and is specially contained in carbonate gas reservoirs . If sour gas such as H2 S and
CO2 reaches a certain volume , it will be dangerous for operators . Therefore, special requiremen ts for corro－
sion prevention design of casing and tubing , wellhead equipment , natural gas treatmen t and transportation
are needed .
1 .1 .2 .3 Formation water
Formation water defined here is the water w hich naturally occurs and exists in rocks before drilling .
Oil field water is water associated wit h any oil/ gas reservoir , and it has some outstanding chemical charac－
teristics . Connate water is fossil water w hich has lost contact with at mosphere during most part of in geo－
logic time .
1) Applications of formation water analysis
Formation water is associated wit h oil, gas , rock or mineral and has the same or similar evolu tion his－
tory ; therefore , the data from of formation water analysis is of important value in petroleum exploration and
development show n as follows:
(1 ) The water chemical composition analysis is helpful to distinguishing the water source in oil well .
( 2) During waterflooding of oil fields , injected water is chosen according to the nat ure of reservoir wa－
ter .
( 3 ) Water saturation of t he oil reservoir is determined by the measuremen t of formation water resistivi－
ty .
(4 ) The hydrocarbon poten tial of the reservoir is determined by t he analysis of organic matter and in－
organic salt dissolved in t he water .
(5 ) The type and t rend of scale deposition , as well as their compatibilities with drilling/ completion ,
fracturing , and acidizing fluids are estimated .
2) Composition and characteristics of formation water
( 1) Composition : Various dissolvable inorganic and organic compounds are con tained in formation wa－
- 2 -
ter, but common elements are sodium , calcium , magnesium , chlorine . In addition , HCO3 and SO4 also
exist . Common levels of ion concent rations in formation water are the follows:
+ -
level % : Na , Cl
- 6 2+ 2+ 2 -
level % or 10 : Ca , Mg , SO4
- 6 + 2+
level > 100 ×10 : K , Sr
level 1 ×10 - 6 ～100 ×10 - 6 : Al3 + , B , Ba2 + , Fe2 + , Li +
- 9
level 1 ×10 ( most oil field water) : Cr , Ca, Mn , Ni, Sn , Ti, Zr
- 9
level 1 ×10 ( some oil field water) : Be, Co, Ga , Ge, Pb , V , W , Zn
2+ 2+ 2+
In cations , Ca can produce CaCO3 or CaSO4 precipitation , Ba and Sr can also form sulfate pre－
-
cipitation . For example, t he t ubing scale in Changqing Maling oil field is a result of t he high Cl conten t,
w hich indicates serious corrosion . The problems of scale con trol and corrosion preven tion should be consid－
ered in t he design of well completion t ubing strings .
(2 ) Classification of formation water : According to differen t combinations of salts dissolved in forma－
tion water , water types can be classified in to four basic types which can be fur ther subdivided in to groups ,
sub - groups, and categoriess . In engineering , it is sufficient to determine w hat the water type is . The
8
characteristic coefficients of water types , i .e . classification standards , are shown in Table 1 - 3 .

Ta b l e 1 - 3 　 The characteristic coefficients and classification of connate water

Concen tration ratio in terms of“ mg/ l”
Water types
( Sulin , 1946 ) Na + Na + - Cl - Cl - + Na +
-
SO24 - 2 +
Cl Mg

Calcium chloride <1 <0 >1

Magnesium chloride <1 <0 <1

Sodium bicarbonate >1 .> 1 <0

Sodium sulfate >1 <1 <0

(3 ) Properties of formation water:

① pH value: The pH value of formation water is cont rolled by a CO2 dicarbonate system . To a large
extent , solubilities of calcium carbonate and ferruginous compound are determined by pH value . The higher
t he pH value, the greater the scale t rend . Low pH values can reduce scale trend but increase corrosion . pH
values of most oil fields range from 4 to 8 . pH values will increase in the period of time w hen formation wa－
ter is stored in a laboratory because bicarbonic radical ion dissociates into carbonic radical ion .
② Total salinit y or total dissolved solids ( TDS) : I t is defined as total material amoun t dissovled in the
known volume water . It is more suitable to call total salinity if it is computed by using total concentrations
of cation and anion from t he water analysis report . Formation water with a high salinity ( e .g . Formation
4
water salinit y of Zhongyuan oil field reaches 30 × 10 mg/ l ) is highly corrosive and seriously damages cas－
ing, w hich often results in plugging of tubing due to salt deposits on the wall of tubing during production .
1 .1 .3 Reservoir characteristics
Reservoir t ype is not the sole basis of a well completion method determination . Other factors, such as
reservoir characteristics , must be considered comprehensively . Reservoir characteristics mainly include
reservoir lithology , reservoir permeability and permeability difference between payzones , formation pressure
and its difference between payzone, nature of crude oil and its differences between beds , and existence of a
gas cap and bot tom water . All t he above are important factors in choosing a well completion met hod .
1 .1 .3 .1 Reservoir lithology
At present , the most important and widely distributive reservoirs are sandstone and conglomerate,
limestone, dolomite, and reef limestone . In addition , a few volcanics , metamorphic rock , and shale are in－
cluded . The reservoir characteristics must be studied so t hat the driling and wellcompletion techniques can
m aximize potential of payzone .
1) Clastic rock reservoir
Various clastic sediment bodies such as sandstone, glutenite, conglomerate, and siltstone , etc . are in－
cluded in the clastic rock formations . At present , t hey are the most importan t formations in China . The
componen ts of clastic rock mainly consist of grains , mat rix , and cemen t .
2) Carbonatite reservoirs
Carbonatite chiefly consists of carbonate minerals such as calcite and dolomite . Dominant rock types are
limestone and dolomite , w hich are closely interrelated . Bot h are important reservoir rocks . In China, car－
bonatite includes 55 % of total sedimen tary rock area, and developed particularly in south west and mid -
sout h regions . The older t he geological age of formation , the more carbonate will exist . I t is estimated that
one half of the hydrocarbon reserves of t he world exist in carbonatite . Excep t for the carbonatite buried hill
hydrocarbon reservoir in North China , most carbonatite is gas reservoirs in China . For example, Sichuan
basin and Shanganning basin .
There are differences bet ween sandstone and carbonate in many aspects . The latter may consist of ani－
mal and plant ( algae) remains , and exists at almost the same place as it was deposited . Because carbonate
minerals are easily dissovled by water , it is common for carbonate to be dissolved and to recrystallize during
9
diagenesis after deposition . Carbonatite is more friagile t han sandstone, and has more fractures w hich are
very important to t he reservation and flow capacities of rocks .
3) Reservoirs of ot her t ypes of rocks
This means t he various ot her reservoirs , except clastic rock reservoir and carbonate reservoir , such as
m agmatite , metamorphite, shale, and coal bed . These reservoir t ypes have been discovered bot h in China
and abroad .
1 .1 .3 .2 Physical properties of reserviors
Physical properties of reservoirs are the basic parameters for evaluating reservoir capacities w hich are
closely bound up with pore types, t hroat types , and match relations between pores and t hroats . Pores and
t hroats are also important components of such porous media of rock . It is vital to study physical properties
and pore st ructures for designing of drilling and completion fluids , choosing of well completion methods ,
and formulating of development program .
1) Porosity
Porosity of rock is a parameter used to evaluate the fluid - reserving capacity of rock . For sandstone,
porosit y is closely related to permeability , and t he correlativit y is obvious . The Chinese classification stan－
dard of clastic rock formations is shown in Table 1 - 4 .

Ta b l e 1 - 4 　 The classification standard of clastic rock formations for oil field development in China
Reservoir Porosity Permeability
Name - 3 2
types (%) (10 μm )

Ⅰ Ex tra high porosity and permeability > 30 > 2000

Ⅱ High porosity and permeability 25～30 500～2000

Ⅲ Intermediate porosity and per meabilit y 15～25 100～500

Ⅳ Low porosity and permeability 10～15 10～100

Ⅴ Ex tra low porosity and permeabilit y < 10 < 10

Grain size and sorting degree are primary factors in determining the porosity of sandstone . In China,
mesograin sandstone and fine sandstone are bet ter reservoirs , w hile coarse sandstone and siltstone are poor .
Porosity often decreases as cemen t content increases , but porosity of sandstone cemented by argillaceous ce－
ment is larger than t hat cemen ted by carbonate minerals .In carbonatite reservoirs , pore developmen t of
granular carbonatite is similar to sandstone , excep t for skeletal carbonatite, w hich is influenced by grain
size, sorting , shape and cement conten t . But there is no obvious correlativity between porosity and the
above factors for dolomite .
In general, fissure ( fracture ) porosity is very low , ranging from 0 .01 % to 6 % with an average below
2 % . The pores of carbonatite are still the oil or gas bearing space, bu t fract ure of carbonatite m ainly forms
high permeability zone .
2) Permeabilit y
Geologic factors that influence porosity also directly affect the absolute permeability of pore system .
Permeabilit y is closely related to porosity , grain size, sorting and arrange men t mode .
As mentioned above , lithologies of oil reservoirs are basically divided in to t hree types: carbonatite,
sandstone ( glutinite ) , and t he ot hers ( igneous and metamorphic rock , such as granite, gneiss , slate,
basalt , andesite, and tuff) . In t he first type of reservoir , most carbonates are solid and tigh t . T he oil bear－
ing and percolation space is fract ures and mat rix . A bottom water and a gas cap may exist in t he reservoir .
Such stimulation measures as acidizing , acid fracturing or fracturing will be taken during development . But
for a porous carbonate reservoir, for example, Chuanzhong Moxi gas reservoir wit h a permeabilit y of 0 .8 8
- 3 2
×10 μm and a porosity of 8 .35 % can be t reated as a sandstone reservoir in t he designing of t he comple－
tion met hod . Stimulation measures such as acidizing , preflush acid fract uring and sand fracturing can also
be selected . For fract ured carbonatite , open hole completion may be adopted , but perforating completion
has been used mostly in recent years bot h at home and abroad in order to cont rol bottom water and use stim－
10
ulation measures easily . For t he second type of reservoir , cements of sandstone ( glutenite ) are mainly
siliceous cemen t, calcareous cement , clay , and sometimes oil . The st ructure of the reservoir is easily dam－
aged during operations . With low pressure and mid - low permeability , most sandstone reservoirs in China
are layered zones , t herefore, multiple - zone commingled production in a well, zonal injection , and stimula－
tion , etc . are taken in oil field development . Obviously , it is suitable to choose casing (or liner) perforating
completion for most wells , open hole completion or slotted liner completion for a few wells . For t he t hird
type, igneous rock and metamorphic reservoirs , etc . are all buried hill secondary reservoirs . Rocks are tigh t
and there exist fract ures and vugs in t he reservoirs , t herefore open hole completion is adopted after weat h－
ered crust is drilled t hrough .The plagioclasite and t he combination granite formations of Liaohe Dongsheng－
bao oil field , the gneiss formations of Shengli and Liaohe oil field , the slate formations of Keramayi, the
basalt formations of Jiangshu oil fields , and the andisite formations of Liaohe oil field are an examples . Of
course , t hese types of formations can also be completed wit h perforating .
3) Permeabilit y and interlayer permeabilit y difference
Based on t he Chinese classification , formations are classified in to five t ypes: extra - high permeability ,
high permeabilit y, medium permeability , low permeability , and ex tra - low permeabilit y . But a rough clas－
sification abroad is only based on high permeability or low permeability in choosing t he completion met hod ,
2
( i .e . 0 .1μm is t he standard which distinguishes high permeability from low permeability for porous forma－
tions , and 0 .01μm 2 is t he ot her standard which differen tiates high permeabilit y from low permeability for
fractured formations) . Generally , w hen selecting a well completion met hod we should consider that a high
permeability payzone will provide a high production rate and high velocity of oil flowing from the payzone to
wellbore .
In terlayer permeability differences , commonly exist in sandstone layered oil reservoirs . Classification
principle for interlayer permeability differences is:
2 2 2
(1 ) K > 1μm ; 　 　 　 　 　 (2 ) K = 0 .5～1μm ; 　 　 　 　 　 (3 ) K = 0 .1～0 .5μm ;
2 2 2
(4 ) K = 0 .05～0 .1μm ; (5 ) K = 0 .01 ～0 .05μm ; (6 ) K < 0 .01μm
If changes in permeability among layers do not exceed one of the six levels above , in terlayer permeabil－
ity difference is recognized as small, and mingled wit hdrawal in a well can be adop ted . Ot herwise, well ar－
rangemen t should be implemen ted according to two sets of payzones .
China’s treat ment method for t his problem is as follows: the oil from differen t payzones wit h great in－
terlayer permeabilit y difference is produced through one well by stimulating(fract uring or acidizing) the low
- permeability zones after well completion .If t he interlayer permeability difference is too large to adjust by
stimulation treat ment , the reservoir must be developed as two sets of payzones .
4) Reservior pressure and interlayer pressure difference
In choosing the well completion method , abroad classifiction of formation pressure is: ( 1 ) high pres－
sure zone wit h a pressure gradient larger t han 0 .1 MPa/ 10m ; ( 2 ) normal pressure zone wit h a pressure
gradien t of 0 .1 MPa/ 10m ; ( 3) low pressure zone wit h a pressure gradien t less t han 0 .1 MPa/ 10m . The
classification standard of in terlayer pressure is pressure gradien t: ( 1) > 0 .13 MPa/ 10m ; (2 ) 0 .1 1～ 0 .13
M Pa/ 10m ; ( 3) 0 .09 ～0 .11MPa/ 10m ; ( 4 ) < 0 .09MPa/ 10m . If changes of formation pressure between
layers do not exceed one of the four levels above, in terlayer pressure difference is recognized as small . In
China, there is no quantitative classification for t he interlayer pressure difference . The interlayer pressure
difference is treated by t hree met hods; t hat is , zonal production wit h dual t ubing , zonal production in one
t ubing wit h packers or using dow nhole choke for the high pressure zone to decrease the flowing pressure of
high pressure zone to near t he flowing pressure of low pressure zone . If none of the above methods can solve
t he interlayer difference , the reservoir must be developed as two sets of payzones , as mentioned above . The
principlal problem of interlayer difference comes from t he interlayer pressure difference .
5) Crude oil properties and interlayer crude oil propert y difference
Because physical and chemical properties of water are little influenced by solu tes , temperat ure, and
pressure, oil proper ties are generally considered . Viscosit y, density and pour point of oil are related to
resin/ asphalt and paraffin conten ts , and also influenced by temperat ure and pressure . As men tioned above,
oil reservoirs are classified wit h viscosity , density , and pour point of oil in oil field geology . The in terlayer
oil propert y difference can be recognized as small if oil properties of formations belong to the same classifica－
tion , ot herwise, t he different formations should be classified , the payzones are isolated each other during
well completing or zonal production is adopted .
11
1 .2 Core Analysis

1 .2 .1 Contents and technical requirements of core analysis in well completion engineering

Core analysis includes techniques for describing and analyzing all properties of hydrocarbon reservoirs
by means of various inst ruments and equipmen t t hat can reveal the nat ures of rocks . Because a core is a rep－
resentative of underground rock , core analysis becomes a very importan t means of obtaining information
from underground rock . Core samples are determined by conten ts of analysis items, which may be core
plug , sidewall core, and drilling cu ttings . It has been proven t hat drilling cu ttings samples are poorly repre－
sentative; therefore , it is common to choose shaped cores made of regular shape in order t hat core analysis
of multiple items can be done systematically , and inherent relations of various characterictics of rock are
found .
Core analysis in well completion engineering mainly includes conventional physical propert y analysis ,
rock - mineral analysis , pore struct ure analysis , and evaluations of sensitvity and compatibility , as show n in
Table 1 - 5 .
The sampling densit y for physical proper ty analysis is 3 to 10 blocks of core samples per meter . The
sampling for optional items may be greater spaced . P hysical property analysis is a basic elemen t of reservoir
physics . It will not be discussed in detail in t his book .
Essen tial items of lit hology and mineral analysis should be done based on conven tional physical proper ty
analysis , common t hin section , and core description . The mean sampling densit y for pore cast t hin section
( thin section injected wit h epoxy resin) is 1 to 2 blocks of core samples per meter , more if necessary to in－
clude all lithologies . The sampling densities for X - ray diffraction ( XRD ) and scanning elect ron microscope
( SE M ) analysis are 1/ 3 ～1/ 2 times that of pore cast thin section , are properly increased in t he hydrocar－
bon reservoir, and properly decreased in the water zone . XRD and SEM analyses should be done for in－
terbeds , but t he sampling spacing is enlarged to 5 20m per sample .

Ta b l e 1 - 5 　 The contents of core analysis in well completion engineering

Total Necessary items Optional items
Analysis item number
of items ltems Analysis item ltems Analysis item

Conven tional 9 3 1．Air per meabilit y 6 1． Saturation of oil, gas, wa－

physical 2． Porosity ter
proper ty 3． Particle size 2．Carbonate con ten ts
3．Relative permeability
4．Apparen t density of rock
5． Pet rophysics analysis of
full size core
6．wettability

Lit hology 10 4 1 .Pore cast t hin section 6 1 .Heavy mineral analysis and
and 2 .XRD identification
mineral 3 .SEM 2 .Cathodoluminescence
4 .Electronic needle probe 3 .lnfared spect rum
4 .T her mography
5 .Fluorescence analysis
6．Common t hin section

Pore 5 3 1 . Pore cast t hin section im－ 2 1 .X - ray C T scanning

st ructure age 2 . Nuclear magnetic reso－
2 .capillary pressure curve nance( NMR)
3 .SEM

12
 ( Continued)
Total Necessary items Optional items
Analysis item number
of items ltems Analysis item ltems Analysis item

Sensitivity 16 7 1 .Kerosene elocit y sensitivity 9 1 . Damage evaluation of

and 2 . Formation water velocity drilling fluid
compatibility sensitivity 2 .Double way flow test
3 .Water sensitivity 3 .Volumet ric flow rate test
4 .Salt sensitivity 4 .Series fluids test according
5 .Alkali sensitivit y to t he operation order
6 .Acid sensitivit y 5 . Cation exchange capacit y
7 .Compatibilit y between for－ test
eigh fluid sand formation 6 .Test of clay swelling
fluids 7 .Test of acid solubility
8 .Test of acid soak
9 .Damage evaluation of cap－
illary by cent rifuger

For pore struct ure analysis , especially for t he measuring of capillary pressure, core samples should be
chosen after physical propert y and thin section analyses . At least 3 to 5 capillary pressure curves should be
obtained for every permeability level in a hydrocarbon horizon . In the end , t he average capillary curve can
be achieved based on t he dist ribution of physical properties .
As for sensitivity and compatibilit y tests , at least t hree samples are needed for every permeability level
in a hydrocarbon horizon . Op tional items are determined by the study content .
1 .2 .2 Objectives, results and applications of core analysis
As mentioned above , core analysis mainly includes conventional physical property analysis, rock - min－
eral analysis , pore st ructure analysis , and evaluations of sensitivity and compatibility . Because conventional
physical property analysis is one of the necessary and basic elements of geology , a special introduction to the
analysis is not included in t his book . The evaluations of sensitivit y and compatibilit y will be in troduced in
section 4 of this chapter . This section focuses on rock - mineral and pore st ructure analyses .
1 .2 .2 .1 Rock - mineral analysis
The techniques most widely applied to rock - mineral analysis are pore cast thin section , XRD and
SE M analyses . Sometimes , elect ronic probe analysis is involved .
1) Pore cast thin section analysis
Pore st ructure, area to volume ratio , fracture index , fracture densit y and widt h , and pore throat coor－
dination number can be accurately measured by this analysis . Combined with polaroid t hin section , cat hodo－
luminescene thin section, and fluorescence t hin section , as well as the thin section staining technique, pore
cast t hin section technique can determine t he componen ts and dist ribu tion of grains , matrix , cements and
t he ot her sensitivit y minerals , and describe pore type and genesis . I t is very impor tant to protect formation
from damage in well completion .
2) XRD analysis
XRD technique is t he most widely e mployed and the most effective technique that identifies crystal
minerals , especially fine and dispersed clay minerals and t heir inner st ructures . The types of clay minerals (
including some mixed layer clay minerals during diagenesis ) , and the propor tions of every clay mineral in
mixed layer clay minerals , ( for example, t he proportion of smectite in illitesmectite mixed layer clay miner－
al) , can be determined by means of XRD . In addition , st ructure types of clay minerals can also be deter－
mined . It is vital to determine the basic characteristics , absolu te conten ts , t ypes , and relative contents of
clay minerals by way of XRD, and these parameters t hat are needed to protect formation from damage in
well completion .
3) SE M analysis
Sensitvity t ypes and levels are closely related to compositions , con ten ts , occurrences and dist ributions
of sensitvity minerals . XRD analysis is of unique value in iden tifying compositions and con ten ts of sensitivi－
13
ty minerals , w hile SEM analysis is of an original function in identifying sizes, occurrences and distribu－
tions , pore shapes, t hroat sizes , surface characters of grains , st ruct ures of pore wall and throat wall , and is
fast , effective, and visual . Plugging status of pore t hroat of rocks when meeting wit h foreign fluids can be
observed as well . If used in conjunction with a spect rometer , SEM can analyze a single element . For exam－
ple, ferric ion , which is related to formation damage, can be detected . Therefore, SE M analysis is impor－
tant for applying reservoir protection techniques in well completion .
4) Electronic probe analysis
Electronic probe X - ray microanalysis is a technique t hat analyzes X - ray spect ra by using high speed
minute electron beams as a fluorescente X - ray exciting source . Electron beams are as minute as a needle ,
and can analyze a micro - area of a sample, t he beams go in to a sample by 1 to 3 μm wit hou t damaging
chemical composition of a measured area of sample . Electron probe analysis is of unique value for iden tifying
fine minerals of minute conten t in a pore, analysing crystal st ructures , diagnosing diagenetic evalu tion and
environment, and determining types and levels of formation damages . I t is a necessary technique for pro－
tecting formation from damage in well completion .
1 .2 .2 .2 Pore structure analysis
Based on pore cast thin section analysis combined with capillary pressure curve measurement of a core,
pore st ructure analysis can determine pore types, pore structure characters , pore diameters , and throat sizes
and dist ributions . It is importan t to st udying the migration law of solid grains in pores of rock , and the
plugging law and mechanism of foreign solid grains , and designing t he temporary plugging technique
( shown in Chapter 4 in detail) to drill into t he hydrocarbon reservoir . As show n above, well completion en－
gineering is closely related to t he exploration and development of oil fields , as shown in Table 1 - 6 .

Ta b l e 1 - 6 　 Information from core analysis and its applications

Main analysis items Main data obtained Main application

1 . Conventional petrophysics analysis
( porosity and permeability measuring as
well as screen analysis)
Porosity ; permeability ; distribution of
sand par tical size
1 .Reservoir evaluation , reserve calcula－
tion , develop ment project design
2 . Well completion method selection ,
well completion fluid design , well
compleion design

2 .Pore st ructure analysis(pore cast thin
and pore cast analysis, capillary pressure
curve test )
Pore type, pore structure, sizes and dis－
t ribu tion of pore and t hroat
1 .Reservoir evaluation , reserve calcula－
tion , production performance analysis
2 .Project design for protecting reservoir
3 .Design of temporary plugging tech－
nique

3 .T hin section analysis ( common po－
laroid t hin section , pore cast t hin sec－
tion , fluorescence t hin section , cathodo－
luminescence t hin section
St ruct ure and text ure of rock , compo－
sition of frame－work grin , composi－tion
and dist ribution of mat rix , t ype and dis－
t ribu tion of cementing minerals, pore
haracteristics, type and conten t as well
as occurrence of sensitivity minerals
1 . R eservoir evaluluation ; petrograph
characteristics
2 .Project design for protecting reservoir
3 .Evaluation of well completion fluids

4 .SEM Characteristics analysis of pore and 1 . R eservoir evaluluation ; petrograph

t hroats, struct ure and tex ture of rock characteristics
nanlysis of clay minerals 2 . Project design for protecting reser－
voir , and well completion fluids de－
sign .

5 .XRD Basic properties and total content of Project design for protecting reservoir ,
clay minerals, type and relative con ten t and well completion fluids design
of clay minerals

14
 (continued)
Main analysis items Main data obtained Main application

6 .Elect ronic needle probe ( wave spec－ Minerals iden tification and crystal Project design for protecting reservoir ,
t rum and spectromet ry) st ruct ure analysis , diagenetic evolution , and well completion fluids design
diagenetic environ men t , type and ex ten t
prediction of formation damage

1 .2 .2 .3 Clay mineral analysis

The composition , content , occurrence , and dist ribution of clay minerals not only influence reservoir
capacity and productivity , but also determine the sensitivity of formations . Well completion methods , com－
pletion fluids , and stimulation measures must be designed in combination wit h nat ures of clay minerals in
order to avoid or decrease formation damage .
When the potential damage of clay minerals is analyzed , focus should be on occurrences and types of
clay minerals . Differen t occurrences and compositions of clay minerals will have different influences on the
formations .
1) Occurrences of clay minerals and their poten tial damage
Host clays deposited simultaneously with grain mat rix at the beginning of sedimentation exist in sand－
stones in the forms of thin laminations and lumps . Since t hese clays have a small contact plane wit h pore
fluids, formation da mage caused is small . But authigenic clays precipitated from pore water and evolved
from early clays can result in serious formation damage due to complete con tact with pore fluids and priority
to physical and chemical reactions wit h foreign fluids coming into form ations . Research has show n that oc－
currences of clay minerals have a greater influence than t hier compositions have on formation damage in
m any cases . According to t he relation between aut higenic clay minerals and skeletal grains , the three com－
mon occurrences , as show n in Fig . 1 - 1 , as follows:
( 1 ) Dispersed particle or pore filling clays: Clay minerals fill in pore space between grains dispersively .
Adhesive forces of clays on grains are weak , and clays will plug pore t hroats as they easily migrate with flu－
ids .
( 2) Coating clays: Surfaces of grains are coated by clay minerals in t he form of film . Due to decreasing
effective radius of pores and throats , t he clays most easily plug pore t hroat . This is the most serious poten－
tial cause of formation damage .
(3 ) Bridging clays: Clay minerals overlap in to“ bridges”between grains . Primary in tergranular pores
are par tly filled or isolated by these clays and become fine pores . When fluids flow in pores at high speed ,
t he clays are easily broken by fluids and migrate with t he fluids .
2) Potential damages of different clay minerals
Among many physical and chemical properties of clay minerals , the fine nature ( i .e . specific surface,
cation exchange capacity , and water affinity ) are of impor tance to the potential damage and protection of
t he hydrocarbon reservoir . Different damage types and levels of differen t clays actually reflect physical and
chemical differences . Common types of clay minerals are as follows:

Fi g . 1 - 1 　 Diagram of common occurrences of clay minerals

1 - Skeletal grain; 2 - Clay minerals

15
 (1 ) Smectite: Usually found in t he shallow reservoir , smectite is coated on the surfaces or at the
bridge pore throats . If t he con ten t of smectite is high , it may fill in pores in a form of aggregate . The
strong water affinit y and cation exchange capacit y determine t hat smectite is of strong water sensitivity .
Especially for sodium - rich smectites , volume will expand by 600 % to 1000 % upon meeting fresh water ,
w hich results in plugging of oil zones and dest ruction of formation st ruct ure .
( 2 ) Kaolinite: As t he most common clay mineral in a reservoir , kaolinite can be t ransformed into ot her
clay minerals under different physical and chemical conditions . Kaolinite often fills in pores in booklet and
vermicular forms . Since combining forces between crystal faces in kaolinite aggregate, and t he adhesive
force of kaolinite on grains are both weak , kaolinite easily migrates wit h pore fluids and plugs pore throats
under the force of fluids . Therefore, it is of stronger velocit y sensitvity .
(3 ) Illite: Illite is a clay mineral found in many shapes . The con ten t of illite increases as t he dep th of
t he reservoir increases . The common scale illite occurs in the form of film on skeletal grans , but fairy and
fibrous illite occur and bridge in pores and their distribution is crisscross in form . The former may plug pore
t hroats , but t he latter can increase tor tuosit y of pore channels and decrease permeability of the reservoir .
(4 ) Chlorite: Usually found in deep formations , chlorite occurs perpendicularly to skeletal grains in the
form of a willow leaf or fills in a pore in the form of villous ball . Because chlorite con tains more ferriferous
m ateriall, it has st ronger acid sensitivity . When the reservoir is acidized, chlorite is dissolved by acid and
releases ferric ion . As a result, iron hydroxide collioid , whose particle size is larger t han the pore t hroat
size, is precipitated when chlorite combines with ot her compounds .
Smectite - illite mixed layer mineral and smectite - chlorite mixed layer mineral are also common clay
minerals, and their characteristics and damage degrees depend on t heir composition and relative propor－
tions .
3) Characteristics of clay minerals at high temperature
Clay minerals will undergo a series of complicated geochemical changes ( such as dehydration , decom－
position , oxidation , reduction , and phase change ) w hen they are heated . I t is importan t to st udy t hese
changes in order to prevent formation damage in t hermal recovery of the viscous crude reservoir .
In t hermal recovery , steam is injected in to the reservoir at ground temperatures of up to 360℃ . As
steam condenses and mixes wit h formation water ( by t he time it reaches the reservoir ) , clay minerals un－
dergo phase changes and transformation by par ticipation with the ot her minerals . Potential formation dam－
age at t his time depends mainly on mineral characteristics , fluid compositions, and formation temperat ure .
For t he shallow viscous crude well, t he main water— rock reaction between 200 and 25℃is t he dissolu tion
of quartz and kaolinite and the formation of analcime and smectite . When t he mixed formation liquids are of
high enough pH , t he following reaction results:

+ +
kaolinite + Na + quartz = analcime + H + water
When t he mixed formation liquids are of lower p H, anot her reaction occurs:
kaolinite + dolomite + quar tz = mon tmorillonite + calcite + water + CO2

Because analcime is not a clay mineral and has a small specific surface, it does not t ypically plug pore
t hroat . Therefore, the first reaction above is favorable to preven ting formation damage in thermal recovery .
In Fig .1 - 2 , t he composition of produced water and boiler water ( including condensate steam) sam－
pled from a number of cyclic steam pilots in oil sand reservoirs in Alberta is plotted . The axes of t he phase
diagram are the activit y ratios of ions in t he aqueous phase at 200 ℃ ; t he mineral stability fields are formed
w hen quartz is completely under the saturating stat us . The produced waters are shifted to higher sodium
and potassium concen trations compared to the boiler waters , but this is more than compensated for by the
much larger shift towards acidic pHs . The overall result is t hat t he produced water for steam recovery ex－
tends in to the kaolinite field while t he boiler waters extend into the feldspar and analcime stability fields .
The produced water compositions are distributed in t he t hree phase area of kaolinite - illite - smectite , a
commonly encountered clay mineral aggregate in reservoirs . Due to t he effects of bot h dilution of formation
water and t he reactions between minerals , smectite which causes t he most serious potential formation dam－
age may be formed . I t is vital to perform detailed core analysis and evaluate t he reaction phase before steam
injection for predicting and preventing formation damage or decreasing its possibility .
16
 Fi g . 1 - 2 　 Clay stability as func－
tion of chemical properties of for－
mation water at the temperature of
200 ℃
1 - Potassium feldspar ; 2 - Illite; 3 -
Kaolinite; 4 - Sodium - smectite; 5 -
Paraginite; 6 - Analcime; 7 - Boiler wa－
ter ; 8 - Produced water ; 9 - Reservoir
minerals

4) Particle size analysis

Particle size analysis is to determine of the contents of different size grains in rock . Particle size analy－
sis is applied in st udying genesis and depositional environmen t of sedimen tary rock , classifying and evaluat－
ing the reservoir . I t is also an important engineering parameter applied in t he design of gravel pack comple－
tion for t he unconsolidated reservoir , and an impor tant basis applied in t he development of oil fields to eval－
uate reservoir homogeneity . There are four methods: screen analysis , set tlement analysis , thin section im－
age analysis , and laser diffraction analysis to measure particle size in the laboratory , each of w hich has ad－
vantages and limitations . The met hod chosen is determined by the par ticle size range of the sample analyzed
and the technical level of the laboratory .
The most common method is screen analysis . The first step is to clean and dry the sample , and to de－
compos t he sample into grains . The second step is to put the grains into the top one of a series of meshes
w hich are placed on a vibrator with sonic wave ( or a mechanical vibrator) . After vibration , the grains in
each mesh screen are individually weighed , and particle size data are obtained . The screen analysis can de－
termine particle sizes from fine conglomerate with 4mm to silt with 0 .0372 mm .
The results of particle size analysis for t he Tertiary reservoirs of Liaohe oil field areshown in Fig . 1 -
3 .The series of screen meshes are 50 , 60 , 70 , 80 , 100 , 120 , 140 , 170 , 230 , 325 , and 400 meshes . The
m ain particle sizes of t he sample are between 0 .3mm and 0 .06mm .
The parameters for designing gravel pack completion can be obtained from the graph . According to
cumulative weigh t (ordinate ) of 40 % , 50 % , 90 % , t he corresponding particle size values ( abscissa) , D40 ,
D50 , and D90 are 0 .3 1 , 0 .26 , and 0 .061mm respectively . A mong t hese values , D50 is t he particle size
median standing for t he concent rated trend of par ticle size distribution , and D40/ D90 is the homogeneity
coefficient C , i .e . C = 5 .08 .
As show n above , core analysis is an importan t technique used to understand and evaluate formations ,
and a necessary basis for designing well completion .

1 .3 In - situ Formation Stress

Bot h the st ress state around a wellbore after drilling and t he rock mechanics properties have close rela－
tion to well completion engineering . They are related not only in how to complete t he well, but also in the
designing and implementation of certain engineering measures . Therefore, it is importan t to study the in -
situ st ress , especially the stress state around a wellbore under the stress concentration condition after one
17
 Fi g . 1 - 3 　 Particle size distribution curve by screen analysis
1 - D40 ; 2 - D50 ; 3 - D90 ; 4 - Sand - size particle; 5 - Silt - sized particle; 6 - Coarse sand ; 7 - Medium sand; 8 - Fine
sand; 9 - Very fine sand

well has been drilled .

On the basis of a basic concep t about in - situ st ress , t he discussion in t his chapter focuses on the st ress
state around a wellbore ( mainly t he mechanical stability of t he wellbore and the rock solidity) . Finally, the
relationship bet ween well completion engineering and in - situ stress will be briefly discussed .
1 .3 .1 Basic concept of in - situ stress
Balanced ex ternal forces acting on a rockbody in the eart h’s crust induce an additional inner force in it .
Thist will result in t he deformation of t he rockbody . The distribu tion density of the additional inner force
on an in terface is the in - sit u st ress . It is a mu tual action between adjacent par ticles in the rockbody along
t heir in terface . It is measured by force on unit area . The in - situ stress involves two components as show n
in Fig . 1 - 4 . The componen t acting in normal direction of the interface is named normal stress represented
by σ . The componen t acting in t he interface is named shear stress represen ted by τ.
In studying in - situ st ress , both normal st ress and shear st ress should be considered . Ot herwise,
m any phenomena can not be comprehended . The normal st ress toward t he interface is“ compressive st ress”.
The normal stress t hat acts apar t from the interface is“ tension stress ” . Since compressive stress is absolute －
ly dominant in t he eart h’s crust , t he compressive stress is con－
veniently defined as a positive value in geomechanics . This is
t he opposite of material mechanics and ordinary engineering
mechanics .
When balanced external forces are exerted on a rockbody ,
t here are stresses on various in terfaces in all directions . They
appear and die away simultaneosly . They have differen t values
( including both normal st ress and shear st ress ) on interfaces
wit h differen t orientations . In Fig . 1 - 5 , there are two inter－
faces represented by A and B respectively . It can be seen t hatσa
≠σb ; τa ≠τb . However , there are relationships among st resses
Fi g .1 - 4 　 Normal stress (σ) and shear
on interfaces in different directions . They comprise an en tity
stress(τ)
named“in - sit u stress tensor”commonly called“st ress state”.

18
 Fi g .1 - 5 　 Different values of stress on interfaces Fi g .1 - 6 　 The three principal stresses of in - situ
with different orientat ion stress tensor

In - situ stress tensor always has t hree planes , perpendicular to each ot her which have no shear stress on
t hem . They are named“ principal planes”. Their normal directions are“ principal directions”and normal
stresses in normal directions are“ principal stresses”as shown in Fig . 1 - 6 .
Customarily , the principal st ress wit h t he highest algebraic value is“ maximum principal stress”, rep－
resented by σ1 . The one with lowest algebraic value is“ minimum principal st ress”represented by σ3 . The
t hird is“ in termediate principal st ress”represented byσ2 . If the three principal directions are taken as coor－
dinates , t he in - sit u st ress can be described by t hree principal stresses . If t hree principal stresses are
known , the stress on an interface in any direction is definite and can be calculated .
The in - situ stress on a specific in terface, and t he in - situ st ress tensor are different things wit h dif－
feren t natures . Since t he“in - situ stress tensor”is often simplified as“in - sit u st ress”, t hese two may be
confused under a same nomenclature . Therefore, if a word“in - sit u stress”is met , one should determine
w het her it refers to the in - situ stress tensor , or an in - situ stress on a definite in terface . The in - situ
stress tensor can entirely reflect t he st ress state of t he rockbody .
In t he eart h’s crust , t he rockbody experiencespairs of balanced ex ternal forces . E ach pair induce a
stress tensor in the rockbody . The in - sit u stress tensor is the sum of all stress tensors . Each stress tensors
is a sub - st ress - tensor of the in - sit u stress tensor . Among t hese sub - st ress - tensors , the most impor－
tant are gravitational st ress tensor , tectonic stress tensor and fluid pressure . Occasionally , the t hermal
stress tensor induced by temperat ure alteration is significant . Other sub - st ress - tensors may be significant
locally and temporarily .
A gravitational stress tensor is induced by the overburden of rockbody and its coun terpart , w hich pre－
vents the rockbody from moving dow nward . Gravitational st ress has a high value in t he eart h’s crust . This
is differen t from the surface environment . It can hardly be modeled in a laboratory . The vertical principal
stress of gravitational stress tensor (σgz ) is as follows:

σgz = D r gh ( 1 - 2)

“ Dr ”is average density of t he overburden ,“ g”is the gravitational acceleration “. h”is dept h of the rock－
body . Due to horizontal confinemen t in eart h - crust environment , the horizontal principal st ress (σg h ) has
t he following value under vertical forceaction :

1/ n
σg h = σg x = σg y = σgz〔υ/ ( 1 - υ) 〕 ( 1 - 3)

“υ”is t he Poisson’s ratio of t he rock . Due to long term action in geologic time , in estimation of σg y using
Poisson’s ratio obtained in laboratory , a creep correction may be needed . The“ n”is a coefficient related to
non - linear deformation of t he rock . Generally, it is near 0 .67 . Due to high pressure in eart h crust, the
non - linear compression should be considered .
19
 The tectonic st ress tensor is induced by tectonic force and its counterpart preventing the rockbody from
moving . Due to horizontal confinement and vertical freedom in t he eart h’s crust , t he one principal stress of
t he tectonic stress tensor is vertical, which is generally zero . This means t hat tectonic action does not
change t he vertical principal stress of the rockbody’s stress tensor . One horizontal principal stress of the
tectonic stress tensor is in the direction of the compressive tectonic force ( Sc ) or the ex tensile tectonic force
( St ) , and has same value as t he S c or St .

σcx = Sc

σt x = St ( 1 - 4)

The ot her horizon tal principal st ress of t he tectonic st ress tensor is as follows:

1/ n
σcy = σc x (υ)

1/ n
σt y = σt x (υ) ( 1 - 5)

Where , two horizon tal principal stresses have t he same sign , The subscript“ c”represen ts compressive
stress , t he subscrip t“t”represen ts tensile stress; and the subscripts“ x”and“ y”represen t the directions .
Sometimes , the tectonic force is a force pair . I t is balanced wit h is counterpart preven ting rockbody
from rotating . In t he rockbody , they induce a w rench tectonic st ress tensor , w hich has two horizon tal prin－
cipal st resses in mutually opposite directions . That is one is positive and the ot her is negative . We may note
t hat the type of the tectonic stress tensor depends on t he signs of both its horizon tal principal st resses .
All formations in petroliferous basins are liquid - bearing with pressure . Liquid pressure is also induced
by gravit y . It is a global stress tensor wit h same normal st ress in all directions and t he static fluid has no
shear st ress in it . Therefore, taking any coordinates , t hree principal st resses have the same value . In nor－
mal hydrostatic system , t he fluid pressure p is:

p = Df h g ( 1 - 6)
“ Df ”is the average densit y of the formation fluid from shallow to deep . In a rest ricted environment , fluid
pressure m ay be higher . Occasionally, it may be lower . If it distinctly deviates from the normal value, it is
“abnormal pressure”.
Fluid pressure acts on t he skeleton of the rock and tends to open the pore and the fissure . I t counter－
acts the compressive stress acting on t he skeleton of t he rock . Permanen t deformation of t he rock depends
actually on t he difference between t he stress on the rock skeleton and the fluid pressure . This difference is
“effective stress”. I t is the sum of all sub - st ress - tensors in t he rock including fluid pressure ( the fluid
pressure is treated as tensile st ress ) . For t he sake of convenience ,“ in - situ stress”will refer to effective
stress , in t he following discussion if there is no specification . In oil - field developmen t , fluid pressure alters
quickly . The effective st ress alters correspondingly .
Alteration of temperature can result in thermal st ress in a rockbody . In geologic time , t hermal st ress
m ay disappear gradually . However , in well completion engineering , it can play an important role if t here is
a distinct alteration of temperature in a wellbore . Thermal st ress is also a st ress tensor . I t depends on the
amount of temperature alteration , and t he rock thermal proper ty . It also relates to the freedom degree and
direction of the environmen t .
The in - situ stress tensor is t he algebraic sum of all sub - stress - tensors . One characteristic is t here is
always one principal st ress in vertical position (or nearly vertical ) . The others are horizontal ( or nearly hor－
izontal) , in directions of t he tectonic principal stresses . In environmen t near surface, the free direction of
t he rockbody’s deformation may change as topography . I t may influence t he value of σg h and cause the tec－
tonic principal st resses to deviate slightly from vetical or horizontal . Then , t he principal stress of in - situ
stress may slightly deviate from ver tical and horizon tal . Such an influence may be distinct in a shallow dept h
wit h an area of high topographic relief . The influence becomes weaker in deeper burial . Since most reser－
voirs have deep burial, t he topography has weak influence on t he in - sit u stress in well completion .
20
 Anot her characteristic of in - situ stress is t hat in most cases , all t hree principal st resses are compres－
sive st ress ( positive value ) . Seldom is t here tensile st ress ( negative value) . This is quite different from the
environment in material mechanics .
The classification of an in - situ st ress tensor depends on t he orientation of σ1 , σ2 and σ3 . In ot her
words , t he classification depends on (σ1 ,σ2 or σ3 ) the vertical principal stress . It is type I , if the σ1 is in
vertical . The type I can be furt her classified into two sub - types . If σ3 is positive, it is Ia subtype . Under
con trol of the Ia subtype , only normal faults can occur . If σ3 is in negative, it is Ib sub - type . Under con－
trol of the Ib sub - type, only tensile fract ure or normal faults can occur . The in - sit u st ress is type Ⅱ , if
t he σ3 is in ver tical . U nder con trol of the type Ⅱ , only reverse faults can occur . It is t ype Ⅲ , if t he σ2 is
in ver tical . U nder cont rol of t he type Ⅲ , only strike - slip faults can occur ( see Fig .1 - 7)〔1〕 .
The spatial variation of the in - sit u stress tensor is“ dist ribution of in - sit u stress”. The distribu tion
of in - situ st ress is complicated . and is noticed by analyzing its sub - stress - tensors . Any change of any
sub - stress - tensor will result in a change of t he in - situ stress tensor . The σg v increases with dep th . The
σg h not only increases with dept h , bu t also changes wit h Poisson’s ratio of the rock . Different types of tec－
tonic st ress have principal stresses in different values and signs . They also attenuate in propagation lateral－
ly . Generally , tectonic stress increases with dept h . It also has relation to rock proper ty . Fluid pressure
varies spatially . Therefore, one or more principal st resses are varying laterally and vertically . For example,
in adjacent layers intered wit h different lithology, if there is distinct difference of Poisson’s ratio, horizon－
tal principal st resses may be quite differen t in differen t layers . Therefore, t he in - situ stress value measured
at a few points cannot represen t the whole area if no analysis is made .
Each sub - st ress - tensor will result in elastic deformation of t he rockbody . However , permanent de－
formation ( and its type ) depends on the total stress ( in - situ stress ) . Permanen t deformation is t hat w hich
cannot recover after the st ress dies away . I t includes plastic deformation and rupture . Permanent deforma－
tion should be studied separately on two levels: st ress on an interface and stress tensor .
St udying on the first level, permanent deformation occurs on an in terface , on which the in - situ st ress
exceeds t he resistance t hat prevents t he deformation from happening . The resistance includes two parts:
one from cohesion in t he rock , t he other part comes from in ternal friction . The cohesion reflects on t hree
strengths .
(1 ) Tensile st rengt h :
When tensile st ress exceeds this value, a tensile fract ure develops along the in terface . This corresponds
to t he intersection of t he rupture envelope wit h t he abscissa ( see Fig . 1 - 8 , point A ) .
(2 ) Shearing st rengt h :
When normal st ress is zero and shear stress exceeds this value, a shear rupt ure develops along t he inter－
face . This corresponds to the in tersection of the rup ture envelope with t he ordinate ( see Fig . 1 - 8 , point
B) .

Fi g .1 - 7 　 The classification of in - situ stress

21
 Fi g .1 - 8 　 Mohr’s circle solut ion
and rupture envelope
1 - Rupture envelope

(3 ) Yield strength :
When shear stress exceeds t his value, plastic deformation develops along t he interface . In ot her words ,
a microscopic movement happens along t he interface but the rock does not lose its cohesive force .
Rupt uring condition is highly influenced by the normal stress on t he interface , because the internal
friction increases wit h t he normal st ress on the in terface . I t reflects on t he righ tward elevation of t he rup－
ture envelope ( see Fig . 1 - 8) . However , t he normal stress has few effects on the yield condition .
All t hese are internal conditions of a permanent deformation . Such data ob tained in a laboratory can be
directly applied in solving problems of subsurface deformation . Of course , many factors should be consid－
ered , including the influence on the rock proper ty by temperature etc .
However , on this level, it is difficult to comprehend t hat permanent deformation may occur on one in－
terface bu t not anot her . Or t hat one type of permanen t deformation develops but not another . T hese prob－
lems should be studied on the level of in - sit u stress tensor : w het her t he in - situ stress tensor reaches t he
condition of permanen t deformation or not . Then it can be noted w hich interface first reaches the condition
of permanent deformation and w hat sor t of condition it reaches .
It is best to study t his problem on a Mohr diagram . The rup ture envelope is reflected better t he rup－
ture condition . Every point represents a rup ture condition including bot h values of normal st ress and shear
stress ( see point C on Fig . 1 - 8) . The crucial Mohr circle shows t he in - sit u stress state and the interfaces
wit h higher shear st ress . If the envelope and t he Mohr circle are pu t together and a comparison is made , it
is easy to see w het her a rupture will develop t he limit of σ1 or σ3 w hen a rup ture occurs on w hich in terface
t he rupture will develop and what is the stress value on the rupt ure surface .
In material test , rock streng th is always represented by the ex ternal force exer ted . This is not the in－
ternal condition of permanent deformation . Actually , it represents a stress tensor w hile the deformation
happens . In t he uniaxial compression (or tension) experiment , one principal stress along x direction is the
exerted pressure . The ot her principal stresses are zero ( in y and z direction ) . If t he experimen t is under
certain confining pressure , the other t wo principal stresses are the confining pressure . At that time, the
“rock st rengt h” is differen t from t he value obtained when t here is no confining pressure . The“ rock
strength”is the deformation condition under t hat st ress state (see small circle in Fig . 1 - 9 ) .
The in - situ stress state of a rockbody in subsurface is quite differen t from t he experimen t condition .
The principal stresses σy and σz are far higher than t he experiment condition . Therefore, in x direction , it
can suffer much higher compression t han the experiment . In studying subsurface problems , one should be
careful to apply t he rock streng th obtained in laboratory .
1 .3 .2 Stress state of the rock of wellbore
After drilling , due to the effect of stress concent ration, t he stress state around wellbore will produce
great changes .

22
 Fi g .1 - 9 　 diffrence be－
tween uniaxial experiment
rupture condit ion and in -
situ rock rupture condi tion .
1 - Stress on rupture face in uni－
axial experiment; 2 - Stress on
rupture face; 3 - Rupture envelop;
4 - Confining pressure of uniaxial
experiment; 5 - Axial pressure of
uniaxial experiment

Due to stress concent ration of a wellbore , the stress state in rocks around the wellbore changes dis－
tinctly on the basis of the in - situ stress state . One of t he principal stresses in rocks around the wellbore is
vertical . I ts value is equal to σz of the in - sit u stress ( pressure of overburden) . In other words , σz is not
affected by the wellbore . H owever , both horizontal principal stresses are affected by wellbore . The influ－
ence is similar to that of a round hole on a flat plane . One principal st ress in t he normal direction of the
wellbore is named“ normal principal stress” represented by σr . The other is tangent , named“ tangen tial
principal st ress”represented by σt . Their values not only have relation to the in - situ stress , but also have
relation to t he radius ( a ) of the wellbore, t he distance ( r ) between t he rockbody and the center of the
wellbore . Suppose the azimut h of σx is zero , the angle θ between r and σx indicates t he location on the
wellbore . The values of σr and σt are as follows:

2 2 4
1 a 1 a 3a
σr = (σx + σy ) ( 1 - 2 ) + (σx - σy ) (1 - 2 ) (1 - 4 ) cos2θ ( 1 - 7)
2 r 2 r r

1 a2 1 3 a4
σt = (σx + σy ) ( 1 + 2 ) - (σ - σy ) (1 + 4 ) cos2θ ( 1 - 8)
2 r 2 x r

For an arbitrary point on the wellbore , because r = a ,

σr = 0
σt = (σx + σy ) - 2(σx - σy ) cos2θ
When r = a and θ= 0 ,
σt = 3σy - σx
When r = a and θ=π/ 2 , t hen
σt = 3σx - σy
When t he“ r”is more t han 3 a or 4 a, because ( a2/ r2 ) ≈0 and ( a4/ r4 ) ≈0 ,

σr = 〔(σx + σy ) + (σx - σy ) cos2θ〕/ 2

σt = 〔(σx + σy ) - (σx - σy ) cos2θ〕/ 2

At the point where θ= 0 ,

σr ≈ σx

σt ≈ σy
23
 At the point where θ=π/ 2 ,

σr ≈ σy

σt ≈ σx

Therefore , if a rockbody is at a poin t where r > 3 a, its st ress state is similar to t he in - sit u stress ten－
sor .
For a rockbody on adjacent to wellbore, stability depends on whether its st ress state reaches its condi－
tion of permanent deformation ( condition of plastic deformation or condition of rupt ure ) or not .
As stated above, if t he maximum tensile stress in rocks around t he wellbore surpasses the tensile
strength of the rock , tensile fracturing breaking occurs , which causes non - firmness of rock around the
wellbore and sand production from the matrix of the hydrocarbon reservoir . If the maximum shear stress in
rocks around t he wellbore surpasses the shear strength , shear breaking develop , which causes mechanical
instability of t he wellbore .
1 .3 .2 .1 Rock solidity around wellbore
The cause of sand production from the oil zone is distruction of the rock on t he wellbore . The st ress
state of near - wellbore rock and t he tensile strengt h ( mainly influenced by consolidation streng th ) of rock
is t he internal cause of whet her the oil zone produces sand . A producing pressure drop and change of the
reservoir fluid pressure are ex ternal causes of oil zone sand production . The proper ties of t he reservoir fluid
( crude oil) and water break through , as well as the water cut , are also factors which influence sand produc－
tion from t he oil zone .
In a t hermal production well, t hermal stress may overlap t he stress state of rock around t he wellbore,
but no mature theory or met hod is available for studying t his . The effect of t hermal stress is not considered
w hen rock solidity around t he wellbore is discussed . Moreover , t he effects of crude oil characteristics and
t he water cut on t he rock solidit y around t he wellbore is now st udying, and are not considered in this sec－
tion .
According to t he research result of reference [ 2] , t he tangent stress in rocks around t he wellbore in a
vertical well is the maximum st ress , which can be expressed as follows:

v - 6
σt = 2[ (10 ρgH - ps ) + ( ps - p wf ) ] ( 1 - 9)
1 - v

On the basis of failure theory of rock , w hen t he compression st reng th is smaller t han t he maximum
stressσt in the tangen t direction , the rock around t he wellbore is an infirm state, which causes the failure of
t he rock structure, and sand production from the matrix of the oil zone . The formula to determine w het her
rock around t he wellbore is firm is as follows:

v -6
C ≥ 2[ ( 10 ρgH - ps ) + ( ps - p wf ) ] (1 - 10)
1 - v

w here :σt = The maximum stress of rock around the wellbore in the tangen t direction , MPa ;
C = Compression strengt h of rock , MPa;
v = Poisson’s ratio of rock , fraction ;
ρ= average density of overburden rock , kg/ m3 ;
2
g = gravity acceleration , m/ s ;
H = dep th of t he oil zone , m ;
ps = fluid pressure of t he oil zone , MPa;
p wf = bottomhole flowing pressure w hen production , M Pa .
If the equation (1 - 10 ) is satisfied ( that is C≥σt ) , then rock around t he wellbore is firm and may
24
not cause the failure of rock st ructure under the condition of producing pressure drop ( ps - p wf ) stated
above . That is , t here is no sand from t he rock mat rix , so the completion met hod w hich does not con trol
sand may be chosen . If consolidation st rengt h is lower , and the maximum stress in t he tangent direction
surpasses t he compression st reng th of rock and causes the failure of rock st ructure , sand is produced from
t he rock matrix of the oil zone, and the well completion method to con trol sand is needed .
The maximum tangen t st ress (σt ) in rocks around horizon tal wellbore can be shown by t he following
formula ⑵ :

3 - 4v -6
σt = ( 10 ρg H - ps ) + 2 ( ps - p ) (1 - 11)
1 - v

The signs and meanings of the parameters are t he same as t hose above . Comparison of equation ( 1 -
10 ) with equation (1 - 11 ) shows t hat (3 - 4 v )/ (1 - v ) > 2 v/ (1 - v ) , because Poisson’s ratio is general－
ly between 0．15 ～0．4 , Therefore, t he st ress at the direction of the tangent line in rocks around t he hori－
zontal wellbore is larger t han t hat in t he ver tical wellbore at t he same buried dept h . It is unclear w het her
t he zone that does not produce sand in t he ver tical well will produce sand in the horizontal well . The formu－
la to judge t he rock solidity around horizontal wellbore is as follows:

3 - 4v
C≥ ( 10 - 6ρg H - ps ) + 2( ps - pw f ) (1 - 12)
1 - v

For t he ot her directional wells , t he formulae for judging rock solidit y around t he wellbore can be found
in reference [2 ] .
1 .3 .2 .2 Mechanical stability of the wellbore
The stability of the wellbore is comprehensively influenced by chemical and mechanical stability .
Chemical stability includes whet her t he oil zone con tains t he clay interlayer that is strong swelling and easy
to collapse, t he gypsum interlayer , and t he salt in terlayer . In oil field development , t hese interlayers swell
easily and plastic creep will take place w hen t hey meet water . The oil zone loses support as a result , and
will collapse since wellbore and chemical stability in well drilling only develop in a few special zones , and are
complicated and varied . They are not discussed in this section . The mechanical stability of the wellbore in
production will be chiefly discussed in t his section , which st udies t he relation between t he shear st ress and
shear st rengt h of rock in t he production process in order to provide t he basis for choosing t he well comple－
tion met hod which depends on w hether it supports the wellbore .
If the effect of t hermal stress is not considered , according to Mohr - Coulumb’s shear failure t heory
w hich neglects t he intermediate principal st ress , the shear stress and the effective normal st ress acting on
t he maximum shear st ress plane of rock around the wellbore is as follows ⑶ :

τm a x = (σ1 - σ3 )/ 2

珋
σN = (σ1 + σ3 )/ 2 - ps (1 - 13)

w here : τm a x = Maximum shear st ress , MPa;

珋σN = Effective normal stress acting on t he maximum shear st ress plane, MPa;
σ1 = Maximum principal stress acting on rock around the wellbore, MPa;
σ3 = Minimum principal st ress acting on rock around t he wellbore, M Pa ;
ps = Formation pore pressure, MPa .
According to Von Mises’s shear failure theory w hich considers the in termediate principal st ress , the
root mean square of the shear stress ( the generalized shear stress) and t he effective normal stress are as fol－
[2,3]
lows

25
 0．5 1 2 2 2
J2 = [ (σ1 - σ2 ) + (σ2 - σ3 ) + (σ3 - σ1 ) ] (1 - 14)
6

1
珋
J1 = (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) - ps
3

0．5
w here : J2 = Root mean square, MPa;
珋
J1 = Effective normal st ress , MPa;
σ2 = In termediate principal stress , MPa .
The signs and meanings of the other parameters are t he same as those above . T wo t ypes of stability
criteria are simply in troduced as follows:
[4]
Bradley’s met hod of calculating the st ress around t he wellbore is as follows .
(1) Based on t he original horizontal in - situ principal stress σT 1 , σT2 , the original ver tical in - situ
stress σ0 t he angle of dip γand the azimu th of t he wellbore , the original in - situ st ress is exchanged into
t hree normal stresses and t hree shear stresses in t he rectangular coordinate system of borehole axis .

2 2 2 2
σx = (σT1 cos + σT 2 sin ) cos γ+ σ0 sin γ
2 2
σy = σT1 sin + σT 2 cos

σzz = (σT 1 cos2 + σT2 sin2 ) sin 2 γ+ σ0 cos2 γ

τyz = 0．5 (σT2 - σT1 ) sin( 2 ) sinγ

2 2
τxz = 0．5(σT1 cos + σT2 sin - σ0 ) sin( 2γ)

τx y = 0．5 (σT2 - σT 1 ) sin (2 ) cosγ

( 2) The three normal stresses and t hree shear stresses in the rectangular coordinate system of borehole
axis are exchanged into three normal stresses σr , σθ, σz and the three shear st resses τrθ, τrz , τθz in the cir－
cular cylindrical coordinate system of the borehole .

σr = p w

σθ = (σx + σy - p w ) - 2(σx - σy ) cos (2θ) - 4τx y sin(2θ)

σz = σzz - 2 v (σx - σy ) cos( 2θ) - 4 vτx y sin( 2θ)

τrθ = τrz = 0

τθz = 2 (τyz cosθ- τxz sinθ)

( 3) Based on t he normal stresses and the shear stresses , the principal st resses are calculated as follows .

σ1 = σr = pw

1 1 2 2
σ2 , 3 = (σθ + σz ) ± [ (σθ - σz ) + 4τθz ]
2 2

The subscrip ts are renamed according to the values of the principal stresses after calculation . σ1 stands
for t he maximum principal stress , σ3 is t he minimum principal st ress , σ2 is t he intermediate principal
stress . Finally , based on t he formula of the linear shear st rengt h , the shear strength of rock around the
wellbore is calculated, t hat is:

26
 [τ] = Ch + 珋
σn tg (1 - 15)

w here : [τ] = The shear st rengt h of t he oil reservoir rock , MPa ;

Ch = The cohesive force of rock , MPa;
1
Ch = σc・σt
2
= The internal friction angle, (°)
σc - σt
= 90°- arccos
σc + σt
σc = The uniaxial compression st rengt h of t he oil reservoir rock , M Pa ;
σt = The uniaxial tension st rengt h of t he oil reservoir rock , M Pa ;
珋σn = The effective normal stress calculated by equation (1 - 13 ) , MPa .
Equation ( 1 - 15) shows that shear st rengt h of the reservoir rock [τ] can be calculated so long as the
uniaxial compressive st reng th (σc ) and the tension strengt h ( σt ) of oil reservoir rock are known . If the
shear st rengt h calculated by equation ( 1 - 15) is larger than t he maximum shear stress of rock around the
wellbore w hich is calculated by equation ( 1 - 13) , i .e . [τ] > τm a x , then mechanical instability will not ex－
ist ; ot herwise, mechanical instabilit y exists . The borehole probably collapses, and open hole completion
cannot be used .
If t he st ress state of rock around t he wellbore is calculated based on Von .Mises’s shear failure theory ,
t he root mean square of the shear st rengt h of rock can be calculated according to t he root mean square for－
[5]
mula of linear shear strength , t hat is :

0．5
[ J2 ] = α+ 珋
J1 t gβ (1 - 16)

w here : [ J02 ． 5 ] = Root mean square of the shear st rengt h of oil reservoir rock , M Pa ;
α= Rock m aterial constan t , MPa;
3 Ch
α= 2 0．5
( 9 + 12 tg )
β= Rock material constant , M Pa;
3tg
tgβ=
(9 + 12 tg2 ) 0 ． 5
珋J1 = The effective normal stress calculated by equation ( 1 - 14) .
0．5
If the root mean square of t he shear strengt h [ J2 ] calculated by equation (1 - 16 ) is larger than that
of the shear stress calculated by equation ( 1 - 14 ) , then the mechanical instability will not occur . Ot her－
wise, mechanical instabilit y occurs .
1 .3 .3 Relationship between in - situ stress and well completion engineering
The selection of completion met hod ( seen in detail in chap ter 2 ) and t he designing of well completion
engineering should consider the in - sit u stress under long - term production of the oil/ gas well . The rela－
tion between the dist ribution of in - situ stress ( specially the stress state around wellbore) and the well com－
pletion engineering mainly embody in the following two aspects .
1 .3 .3 .1 A basis for the choice of optimum completion method and designing of well completion
As stated above, the stress state of rock around the wellbore after drilling ( especially t he maximum
tangen t stress and the maximum shear st ress in rocks around t he wellbore in production process) is directly
related to the tensile failure and shear failure of rock around the wellbore, w hich in turn directly determines
t he choice of t he completion method . The stress state of rock around the wellbore also influences t he design－
ing of casing ( see Chapter 5 ) and fracturing completion .
1 .3 .3 .2 In - situ stress state determines the fracture shape induced by hydraulic fracturing
For t he pay zone wit h t ype I in - situ stress , since the vertical stress is the maximum principal st ress
and a fracture induced by hydraulic fracturing is perpendicular to t he minimum principal stress , t he fractur－
27
ing fracture in the zone is always a vertical fracture .For t he zone wit h t ype Ⅱ in - sit u st ress , since the ver－
tical stress is t he minimum principal st ress , t he fracture induced by hydraulic fracturing is always a horizon－
tal fract ure . Thus , the state and t ype of in - situ st ress determine t he fracture shape induced by hydraulic
fracturing . Therefore, t hey influence t he designing of fract uring t reatmen t .

1 .4 Evaluation of Formation Sensitivities

The evaluation of formation sensitivities is completed mainly through t he core flow test . I ts goals are to
observe and study t he effects of various physical - chemical changes induced on t he rock properties after for－
eign fluids meet t he core sample, chiefly permeability . In addition , some physical - chemical properties of
formation rock w hich are closely related to formation sensitivities must be measured t hrough chemical met h－
ods in order to understand the formation characters fully and select t he optimum working fluids compatible
wit h formation . These tasks provide the necessary parameters and basis for design of well completion engi－
neering and its implemen t .
1 .4 .1 Formation damage and evaluation of formation sensitivities
Most formations contain some sensitive minerals . Generally , t he mineral grain size is very small ( <
20μm) , and the minerals are distribu ted on t he surface of pores or at t he pore t hroats, w here t he minerals
m ay predominan tly meet foreign fluids . Since t he physical and chemical properties of minerals are not sta－
ble, during well completion , when foreign fluids ( working fluids ) go into formation , the minerals generate
serveral physical and chemical changes which reduce well productivit y or injectivit y . This is called formation
damage . The formation damage can be evaluated by t he reduction of permeability , which is also the basis of
laboratory evaluation .
Indust rial practices have proven t hat formation damage exists in drilling , well completion , work over ,
stimulation , water injection and oil production . One may note this from Table 1 - 7 . Some damage is per－
manen t and non - reversible .

Ta b l e 1 - 7 　 The level of format ion damage during different phase( From J .O .Amaefnle et al )
Well const ruction phase Production phase

Problem t ype Drilling & Well Workover Stimulation DST Natural Water
cemen ting com pletion 　 　 　 energy injection

Plugging of mud ・・・・ ・・ ・・・ — ・ — —

particles 　 　 　 　 　 　 　

Particles migration ・・・ ・・・・ ・・・ ・・・・ ・・・・ ・・・ ・・・・

Clay swelling ・・・・ ・・ ・・・ — — — ・・

Emulsion plugging ・・・ ・・・・ ・・ ・・・・ ・ ・・・・ ・・・・

/ Water blocking 　 　 　 　 　 　

Wat tabilit y ・・ ・・・ ・・・ ・・・・ — — ・・・・

reversal 　 　 　 　 　 　 　

R eduction in ・・・ ・・ ・・・・ ・・・ — ・・ —

relative
permeability 　 　
　 　 　 　 　
Organic scale ・ ・ ・・・ ・・・・ — ・・・・ —

lnorganic scale ・・ ・・・ ・・・・ ・ — ・・・ ・・・

28
 (continued)
Well const ruction phase Production phase

Problem t ype Drilling & Well Workover Stimulation DST Natural Water
cemen ting com pletion 　 　 　 energy injection

Foreign par ticles ・・・・ ・・・ ・・・ — — ・・・

—
blocking 　 　 　 　 　 　

Secondary mineral — — — ・・・・ — — ・・・

precipitation 　 　 　 　 　 　 　
Bacterial blocking ・・ ・・ ・・ — — ・・ ・・・・
Sand production — ・・・ ・ ・・・・ — ・・・ ・・
　 　 Notes:・seriousness degree; —no damage .

Through t he evaluation of formation sensitivities , one will find t he occurring conditions and sensitivity
degree of formation damage . The results can be used to guide t he optimization design of well completion flu－
ids and drilling and completion engineering parameters .
1 .4 .2 Laboratory evaluation of velocity sensitivity

1 .4 .2 .1 The concept of velocity sensitivity and experimental goals

When fluid flows t hrough the formation pore space, formation particles will migrate and block t he pore
t hroats due to t he effects of fluid flow , t herefore the permeability of form ation is reduced . This phe－
nomenon is defined as velocity (flow rate) sensitivity . In one given formation , the formation damage due to
par ticle migration is mainly related to t he flow rate of fluid . Thus , t he goals of laboratory evaluation of ve－
locit y sensitivity are as follows:
(1 ) To find the critical velocity at which the formation damage due to particle migration under the ef－
fects of fluid flow will occur , and to find the degree of formation damage induced by the velocit y sensitivity .
(2 ) To provide t he basis of determining the rational experimen tal flow rate of the other four kinds of
experiments such as water sensitivit y, salt sensitivity , alkali sensitivit y , acid sensitivit y and some other ex－
perimen ts . Generally, after t he critical velocity is found , one can determine t he fluid flow rate of t he ot her
experiments , which is equal to t he critical velocity times t he coefficien t of 0 .8 . The laboratory evaluation of
velocity has , t herefore, to be completed before t he ot her experimental evaluations .
(3 ) To provide a scientific basis of determining rational water injection rate and oil production rate .
Therefore, t he laboratory evaluation of velocity sensitivit y is impor tant .
1 .4 .2 .2 Principle and method
By injecting experimen tal fluid ( kerosene or syn thetic formation water ) in to a core sample at different
flow rates , and measuring the permeability of core sample at each flow rate , one can evaluate the flow rate
sensitivity of t he core sample and find t he critical velocity ( which is the poin t w here t he permeability is re－
duced clearly on the curve of flow rate vs . permeability) . If t he permeability Ki - 1 at flow rate Q i - 1 and
t he permeability K i at flow rate Q i satisfy following formula (1 - 17 ) :

K i - 1 - Ki
× 100 % ≥ 5 % (1 - 17)
Ki - 1

t hen t he sensitivity of flow rate occurs . The flow rate Qi - 1 is t he critical flow rate . Note the evaluation
standard of velocity sensitivity in Table 1 - 8 .

29
 Ta b l e 1 - 8 　 Evaluation standard of flow rate sensitivity
Degree of damage ≤0．3 0．3～0．7 ≥0．7

Degree of sensitivity Weak Medium St rong

In above table , t he degree of damage is calculated by formula( 1 - 18) :

K m ax - K min
degree of damage = × 100 % (1 - 18)
K m ax

2
w here : K m ax = Maximum permeability at all flow rates , μm ;
2
K mi n = Minimum permeability at all flow rates , μm .
Fig . 1 - 10 and Fig .1 - 11 show the curves of flow slow rate vs . permeability using flowing media of
kerosene and synt hetic water, and core samples from t he Tertiary sandstone formations of Nan Yang Xiaer－
men oil field . From these curves , one can find the critical flow rate of kerosene at 3 .0 ml/ min and t hat of
syn thetic formation water at 0 .3ml/ min . T ables 1 - 9 and 1 - 10 show t he evaluation results for 10 core
samples:

　 　 　 　 　 　 Ta b l e 1 - 9 　 The evaluation results of kerosene flow rate sensitivity using core

samples from Nan Yang Xiaermen oil field
Critical flow rate
Sensitive
Well Sample K∞ Km ax Kmin
Horizon Linear Kmin/ Kmax degree for
name No . - 3 2 - 3 2 - 3 2
( 10 μm ) (10 μm ) ( 10 μm ) R adial flow
flow 3 flow rate
[ m / ( d・m ) ]
( ml/ min)

11 H3 Ⅵ 176 158 70 .5 1 .5 5 .50 0 .45 Medium

Xia 14 H3 Ⅵ 43 .0 43 .3 40 .8 3 .0 10 .9 0 .94 Weakness

16
20 H3 Ⅶ 5 .40 6 .19 3 .88 2 .5 9 .10 0 .63 Medium

81 H3 Ⅶ 14 .0 13 .5 9 .97 3 .5 12 .7 0 .74 Weakness

Xia
J4 - 87
115 H3 Ⅶ 100 100 50 .9 0 .5 1 .80 0 .51 Medium

Fi g . 1 - 10 　 The curve of
flow rate vs permeabili ty
using kerosene
( Oil field : NanYang Xiaermen;
Core No . : 20 ; Formation:
Tertiary ; K∞ = 43×10 - 3μm2 )

30
 　 　 　 　 　 　 Ta b l e 1 - 10 　 The evaluation results of formation water flow rate sensitivity
using core samples from Nanyang Xiaermen oil field
Critical flow rate
Sensitive
Well Sample K∞ Km ax Kmin
Horizon Linear Kmin/ Kmax degree for
name No . ( 10 - 3μm2 ) (10 - 3μm2 ) ( 10 - 3μm2 ) R adial flow
flow flow rate
[ m3 / ( d・m ) ]
( ml/ min)

12 H3 Ⅵ 166 136 73 .8 0 .50 1 .80 0 .54 medium

Xia 15 H3 Ⅵ 93 .0 93 .0 62 .7 0 .10 0 .36 0 .67 medium

16
25 H3 Ⅶ 4 .55 3 .82 1 .62 0 .10 0 .36 0 .42 medium

Xia 82 H3 Ⅵ 44 .0 42 .3
14 .9 0 .25 0 .91 0 .35 medium
J4 - 87 　 　 　 　

Fa 115 H3 Ⅶ 80 .9 77 .5 39 .9 0 .25 0 .91 0 .51 medium

118 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　

From T ables 1 - 9 and 1 - 10 , one may note the critical flow rate of kerosene is in t he range 0．5 ～
3．5ml/ min , and t hat of formation water is in t he range 0 . 1 ～ 0 .5ml/ min . The critical flow rate of
kerosene is much higher t han that of water . The reason is t hat t he core sample has weak water wettability
to water wettabilit y . When water flows t hrough core sample, t he pore par ticles will be migrated by the
wet ting phase ( water) . However , when kerosene flows t hrough the core sample, as kerosene is the non -
wet ting phase, the pore particles will migrate only if t he flow velocity of kerosene is high and t he pore par－
ticles are dest royed by the mechanical sheer . This results in sensitivity difference between kerosene and wa－
ter , and shows that t he allowed oil production rate may be higher t han the water injection rate . The critical
radial flow rates in Tables 1 - 9 and 1 - 10 are calculated by t he critical linear flow rates derived in the core
flow test and can be used to guide the production . Their transforming relationship is as follows:

Q 1．152 rw Qc
= 2 (1 - 19)
h D

w here : Q = Critical oil production rate or water injection rate of formation , m3/ d ;
h = Effective formation thickness, m ;

Fi g . 1 - 11 　 The curve of
flow rate vs permeability us－
ing synthet ic format ion wa－
ter
( Oi l field: Nanyang Xiaermen;
Core No . : 12 ; Formation: Ter－
tiary ; K∞ = 166×10 - 3μm2 )

31
 　 rw = Well radius( to the perforation well, which is equal to t he distance from hole tip to well cen－
ter) , cm ;
Qc = Critical flow rate got ten in core flow test, cm3/ min ;
D = Diameter of core sample, cm .
During experiments , pay attention to t he following points . First , when evaluting an oil well, kerosene
must be used . The kerosene should be first dried to remove the water , t hen t he polar substance wit hin the
kerosene must be removed by clay , and finally the kerosene must be filt rated by a G5 sand funnel . Second ,
w hen evaluating a water injection well, use real or synthetic formation water , which also must be filt rated
as experimental fluid .
1 .4 .3 Laboratory evaluation of water sensitivity

1 .4 .3 .1 The concept of water sensitivity and experimental goals

The clay minerals of formation exist in an environmen t of some salinity under t he original formation
conditions . When low salinity water or pure water goes in to formation , some clay minerals will swell, mi－
grate or be dispersed to decrease or block t he formation pore and t hroats . The result is reducing of perme－
abilit y . This phenomenon ( t he formation permeability reduction after meeting low salinity or pure water) is
termed water sensitivity . T he experimental goals are to understand t he swelling , migration , and dispersal
of clay after meeting low salinit y or pure water , find t he condition of water sensitivit y and t he formation
damage induced by water sensitivity , and finally provide t he design basis of various types of working fluids .
1 .4 .3 .2 Principle and evaluation standard
First , measure t he permeability of a core sample using formation water , t hen measure t he permeability
of the core sample using half salinity formation water , and finally measure t he permeability using pure wa－
ter . According to above results one m ay evaluate t he swelling of clay minerals and the formation damage in－
duced by water sensitivity . The evaluation standard is shown in Table 1 - 11 .

Ta b l e 1 - 11 　 Evaluat ion standard of water sensitivity

K w/ Kf ≤0 .3 0 .3 - 0 .7 ≥0 .7

Degree of sensitivity Weak Medium St rong

　 　 note : Kw = permeability measured by pure water ;

Kf = permeabilit y measured by for mation water .

Fig .1 - 12 shows t he curve of water sensitivity using core sample from Jurassic formation of Tuha Qi－
uling oil field . The K w/ Kf is 0 .1 78 , this shows st rong water sensitivit y .
Fig .1 - 13 shows the curve of water sensitivit y using a core sample from the Tertiary formation of
Chaidamu basin ( strong water sensitivity) .
1 .4 .4 Laboratory evaluation of salt sensitivity

1 .4 .4 .1 The concept of salt sensitivity and experimental goals

During drilling , well completion and other treat ments , differen t fluids have differen t salinities . Some
fluid salinity is lower t han t hat of formation water , some fluid salinit y is higher . When fluids with high
salinity leak off in to formation , the filtrate of foreign fluids will result in cont raction of the clay minerals ,
t hen the clay minerals lose stabilit y and fall from t he rock framework . When foreign fluids with lower salin－
ity leak off in to formation , t he filtrate of t he fluids will induce t he swelling and dispersal of clay minerals .
Bot h processes result in t he con traction and blockage of pore space and throats , and t he reduction of perme－
abilit y . Finally , formation damage occurs .
1 .4 .4 .2 Principle and evaluation standard
By injecting synt hetic salt water of varying salinity ( which is made up according to the composition of
32
 F i g .1 - 12 　 The water sensitivity curve of core sample
　 　 　 　 ( Oil field: Tuha Qiuling; Core No . : THL 12 - 14 ; Formation: Jurassic ; K∞ = 2．93×10 - 3μm2 )

formation water ) and measuring t he core sample permeability of each varian t , one can evaluate the forma －
tion damage induced by salt sensitivity , according to the relationship between salinity and permeabilit y . For
t he salt sensitivity evaluation experimen t of increasing salinity , the salinity of first class salt water is equal
to t hat of formation water . The salinity of syn thetic water can be enhanced according to salinit y difference
until t he critical salinity CC2 is found or t he maximum salinity of working fluids is reached . For t he salt sen－
sitivity evaluation experimen t of decreasing salinity , the salinit y of first class salt water is also equal to that
of formation water . The salinity of syn thetic water can be reduced according to some salinity difference un－
til the critical salinit y CC1 is found , or t he minimum salinity of pure water is reached .
If permeability Ki - 1 of a core sample at salinity Ci - 1 and permeability K i of core sample at salinity Ci
satisfy the following formula :

F i g .1 - 13 　 The water sensitivity curve of core sample

　 　 　 　 (Core No .: 30 - 21 ; strong water sensitivity)

33
 Fi g . 1 - 14 　 The salt sensitiv－
ity curve of core sample
1 - Evaluation experiment of
salinity decreasing; 2 - Evalua－
tion experiment of salinity in－
creasing
( Oil field : Tuha Qiuling ; Core No . :
THL 23 - 78 ; Formation: Jurassic ;
- 3 2
K∞ = 7．28×10 μm ;
Salinity of formation water = 4000
- 3 2
mg/ l; Kf = 3．30×10 μm )

K i - 1 - Ki
× 100 % ≥ 5 % (1 - 20)
Ki - 1

t hen salt sensitivity occurs , and salinit y Ci - 1 is the critical salinity CC . According to t his standard , one can
determine t he maximum critical salinit y C C2 in t he evaluation experiment of increasing salinity , and the
minimum critical salinit y CC1 in t he evaluation experiment of decreasing salinity . Finally , we can find the
effective salinity range which can protect formation from da mage due to salt sensitivit y . The calculation of
damage degree is t he same as formula 1 - 18 , and the evaluation standard is showed in Table 1 - 11 .
The curves of salt sensitivity using core sample from the Jurassic formation of Tuha QiuLing oil field
are showed in Figs . 1 - 14 and 1 - 15 .
From Fig . 1 - 14 , note that core permeability decreases gradually as salinity decreases , by reason of
t he swelling of clay minerals when meeting low salinlty water , and finally the pore t hroats narrow and be －

Fi g . 1 - 15 　 The salt sensitivi ty

curve of core sample
1 - Evaluation experiment of
salinity increasing; 2 - Evaluat ion
experiment of salinity decreasing
( Oil field: Tuha Qiuling; Core No . : THL
25 - 4 ; Formation: Jurassic ; K∞ =
3．79 × 10 - 3 μm2 ; Salinity of formation
water = 4000 mg/ l; Kf = 2．10 × 10 - 3
μm2 )

34
come blocked . When t he salinity of synt hetic water is reduced to zero , if we recover t he salinity to t hat of
formation water , t he final permeability at the salinity of formation water is much lower t han that of original
formation water . This shows the salt sensitivity damage of reducing salinity is irreversible . Table 1 - 12
shows the results of four core samples from the same zone of t he Tuha oil field .

　 　 　 　 Ta b l e 1 - 12 　 Salt sensi tivity test results of core samples from the Tuha oil field
( The salinity is from that of format ion water to zero)

Well Sample Horizon Barrel K∞ Salinit y 0 .4 0 .30 0 .15 0 .10 0 .00 0 .40
name No . 　 No . - 3
(10 μm )
2
(104 mg/ l ) 　 　 　 　 　 　

K( 10 - 3μm2 ) 3 .77 3 .44 2 .89 2 .04 1 .01 1 .43

Ling 23 - 18 S1 5 (11/ 44) 16 .2
23 　 　 　 　
damage( % ) 8 .753 23 .342 45 .889 73 .210 62 .069

- 3 2
K( 10 μm ) 0 .75 0 .678 0 .663 0 .615 0 .349 0 .458
Ling 22 - 30 S2 2(9/ 44)
2 .36
22 　 　 　
damage( % ) 9 .60 11 .60 18 .00 53 .467 38 .933

K( 10 - 3μm2 ) 2 .32 2 .28 1 .95 1 .85 0 .389 0 .779

Ling 7 - 27 S1 5 (50/ 68) 9 .34
7 　 　 　 　
damage( % ) 2 .145 16 .309 20 .601 84 .163 66 .587

- 3 2
K( 10 μm ) 3 .30 3 .37 2 .47 2 .66 1 .26 1 .51
Ling 23 - 78 S2 9 (22/ 30) 7 .28
23 　 　 　 　
damage( % ) - 2 .121 25 .152 19 .394 61 .818 54 .242

K( 10 - 3μm2 ) 0 .47 0 .397 0 .317 0 .316 0 .127 0 .163

　 4 　 　 　 　 　
Ling 12 - 16 S2 4 (13/ 24) 2 .07
12 　 　 　 　 damage( % ) 16 .24 33 .122 33 .333 73 .207
85 .612
　 5 　 　 　

- 3 2
K( 10 μm ) 1 .19 0 .982 0 .75 0 .468 0 .205 0 .361
Ling 12 - 9 S2 4(6/ 24) 3 .73
12 　 　 　 　 damage( % ) 17 .47 36 .975 60 .672 82 .773 69 .664
　 9 　 　 　 　

In t he evaluation experiments of increasing salt salinit y, t he salinities are 4000mg/ l ( which is the
salinity of formation water) , 5000mg/ l, 7000mg/ l, 10000mg/ l, 20000mg/ l . F rom Fig . 1 - 15 , note that
t he permeability of a core sample decreases gradually as t he salinit y increases , w hich results from the con－
traction of clay minerals w hen meeting high salinit y water , and finally t he pore t hroats narrow and become
blocked . After salinity of synthetic water is increased to the maximum value, if we recover t he salinit y to
t hat of formation water , the final permeability at t he salinit y of formation water is also lower t han that of o－
riginal formation water . This shows that salt sensitivit y damage w hich dest roys t he stabilit y of the clay lat－
tice is irreversible .
In t he evaluation experiments of increasing salt salinit y, t he salinities are 4000mg/ l ( which is the
salinity of formation water) , 5000mg/ l, 7000mg/ l, 10000mg/ l, 20000mg/ l . F rom Fig . 1 - 15 , note that
t he permeability of a core sample decreases gradually as t he salinit y increases , w hich results from the con－
traction of clay minerals w hen meeting high salinit y water , and finally t he pore t hroats narrow and become
blocked . After salinity of synthetic water is increased to the maximum value, if we recover t he salinit y to
t hat of formation water , the final permeability at t he salinit y of formation water is also lower t han that of o－
riginal formation water . This shows that salt sensitivit y damage w hich dest roys t he stabilit y of the clay lat－
tice is irreversible .
Table 1 - 13 shows the results of six core samples from the same zone of t he Tuha oil field .

35
　 　 　 　 Ta b l e 1 - 13 　 Salt sensi tivity test results of core samples from Tuha oil field
( The salinity is from that of format ion water to the maximum)
Well Sample Horzon Barrel K∞ Salinit y 0 .4 0 .30 0 .15 0 .1 0 0 .40
name No . 　 No . - 3
(10 μm ) 2
( 1000mg/ l ) 　 　 　 　 　 　

Ling 25 - 4 S1 3 .79 K( 10 - 3μm2 ) 2 .10 1 .92 1 .50 1 .48 1 .43 1 .11

25 　 　 　 Damage ( % ) 8 .57 28 .57 29 .52 31 .90 47 .14
- 3 2
Ling 23 - 101 S2 11(40/ 86) 1 .87 K( 10 μm ) 0 .556 0 .442 0 .397 0 .419 0 .401 0 .253
23 　 　 　 　 Damage ( % ) 20 .5 28 .59 24 .64 27 .87 54 .496
- 3 2
Ling 22 - 51 S3 3(8/ 28) 0 .92 K( 10 μm ) 0 .218 0 .193 0 .125 0 .121 0 .136 0 .100
22 　 　 　 　 Damage ( % ) 11 .467 42 .66 44 .495 37 .615 54 .128

Ling 7 - 22 S1 5 (48/ 68) 15 .3 K( 10 - 3μm2 ) 3 .52 2 .49 2 .04 1 .89 1 .84 1 .62
7 　 　 　 　 Damage ( % ) 29 .26 42 .045 46 .307 47 .727 53 .977
- 3 2
Ling 23 - 65 S2 9(5/ 30) 6 .63 K( 10 μm ) 2 .84 2 .38 1 .88 1 .88 2 .01 1 .523
23 　 　 　 　 Damage ( % ) 16 .197 33 .803 33 .803 21 .323 46 .479
- 3 2
Ling 12 - 13 S3 4 (11/ 24) 2 .96 K( 10 μm ) 2 .07 0 .623 0 .481 0 .535 0 .528 0 .475
12 　 　 　 　 Damage ( % ) 69 .903 79 .807 74 .155 74 .493 77 .053

The curves of salt sensitivit y using core sample from the Tertiary formation of Nanyangxia Ermen oil
field are showed in Fig .1 - 16 and 1 - 17 .
This book adds the con tent of salt sensitivity evaluation of increasing salinity as compared wit h the old－
er CNPC’s evaluation standard , and this is suitable to most oil & gas formations . But for t hose formations
wit h high salinity brine water ( as t he salinity of working fluids is generally lower than t hat of formation
water) the salt sensitivit y of increasing salinit y may not be evaluated .

Fi g .1 - 16 　 Curve of salt sensit ivity when salini ty decreasing

( Core No .: Y268 ; Formation: H3 Ⅵ , 2( 23/ 42 ) ; K∞ = 153×10 - 3μm2 )

36
 F i g .1 - 17 　 Curve of salt sensitivity when salinity increasing
- 3 2
( Core No .: Y269 ; Formation: H3 Ⅵ , 2( 23/ 42 ) ; K∞ = 123×10 μm )

1 .4 .5 Laboratory evaluation of alkali sensitivity

1 .4 .5 .1 The concept of alkali sensitivity and experimental goals

The pH value of formation water is generally not too high , so formation water is neut ral or weak alka－
line . Most drilling fluids and cemen t slurries have high pH value w hich is up to 8 ～ 12 . When going into
formation, t he fluid wit h high pH value will dest roy t he lattice of clay minerals and siliceous cements
( mainly , cleavage of clay minerals and release of particles after t he cemen ts are solved) , and result in block－
ing damage to t he formation . Moreover , after m any OH - ( hydroxyl ion) combine with divalen t cations, in－
soluble materials are generated and blocking damage occurrs . Therefore , the goal of alkali sensitivity evalua－
tion is to find t he condition of damage , mainly the damage degree induced by alkali sensitivity , and to pro－
vide the basis for t he design of various working fluids .
1 .4 .5 .2 Principle and evaluation standard
By injecting synt hetic brine water with different pH values and measuring the permeability for each pH
value, one can evaluate the form ation damage induced by alkali sensitivit y according to t he relationship be－
tween t he pH value and permeability , and find the condition of damage induced by alkali sensitivity . The
CNPC’s standard has not stipulated a method or evaluation standard of alkali sensitivit y experiment ; we es－
tablished the following procedure after our several years of work .
(1 ) Prepare syn thetic brine water wit h different pH values . According to t he real condition of dow n－
hole t reatmen ts , we begin the test from t he pH value of formation water un til t he last pH value of 12 is
reached t hrough enhancing the pH value step by step .
(2 ) The core sample is vacuum saturated wit h first class formation water, and soaked wit h this water
for abou t 24 hours . Then , t he permeabilit y K1 of core sample wit h this class water at the flow rate lower
t han critical value is measured .
(3 ) Inject second class water with the volume of 10 PV in to t he core sa mple, and the core sample is
soaked wit h this second class water for about 24 hours; then measure t he permeability K2 of core sample
wit h t his second class water at the flow rate lower than critical value .
(4 ) Change the p H value of the brine water , and repeat step(3 ) un til the last permeability Kn .

37
 Fig . 1 - 18 　 The alkali sen－
si tivity curve of core sample
1 - Evaluation experiment of in－
creasing pH value; 2 - Evaluation
experiment of recovering pH val－
ue
( Oil field: Donghetang in Tarimu;
Core No . : 117 ; Formation: Car－
- 3
boniferous; K∞ = 35 . 70 × 10
2
μm ; pH value of formation water
= 8 .55 )

If the permeability K i - 1 at pH i - 1 and t he permeability K i at pH i can satisfy formula ( 1 - 20 ) , it

shows the alkali sensitivity occurs . The pH i - 1 is t he critical pH . The calculation of the damage degree is
t he same as formula 1 - 18 , the evaluation standard is shown in Table 1 - 11 .
Fig . 1 - 18 shows t he curve of alkali sensitivit y with core samples from sandstone formations of the
Donghetang area in Tarimu Basin . T able 1 - 14 shows t he results of three samples from the same area .
　 　 　 　 　 Ta b l e 1 - 14 　 The results of alkali sensi tivity with core samples from
sandstone formations of Donghetang area in Tarimu Basin

Well Sample horizon K∞ pH value 8 .55 9 .41 10 .24 8 .55

name No . 　 - 3
(10 μm )
2
　 　 　 　 　
- 3 2
Ki ( 10 μm ) 29 .40 9 .58 8 .68 9 .47
117 C 35 .70
Damage ( % ) 67 .4 70 .5 67 .8
- 3 2
Ki ( 10 μm ) 11 .30 7 .99 6 .90 5 .22
Dong he 1 123 C 21 .20
Damage ( % ) 29 .3 38 .9 53 .8
Ki ( 10 - 3μm2 ) 15 .10 12 .90 10 .30 10 .30
171 C 22 .30
Damage ( % ) 14 .6 31 .8 31 .8

From above results , note t hat the core permeability decreases gradually as the p H value increases . Fi－
nally, w hen recovering the pH value to that of formation water, one may note that t he permeabilities re－
main basically stable, and some is reduced . This shows the damage induced by alkali sensitivity is irre－
versible .
1 .4 .6 Laboratory evaluation of acid sensitivity

1 .4 .6 .1 The concept of acid sensitivity and experimental goals

Acidizing is one of the commonly used measures of damage removing and stimulation . When going into
formation , acid will not only improve t he formation permeability but also react wit h minerals and formation
fluids , and t heir reaction precipitations block the pores and throats . Therefore , the acid sensitivity of for－
mation implies the phenomenon of permeability being reduced after t he acid reacts wit h the formation . The
goal of laboratory evaluation of acid sensitivit y is to research the acid sensitivity of various acids; t heir
essence is to st udy t he compatibility between acid and formation, and to provide t he basis of determining the
suitable acid for mat rix acidizing .
1 .4 .6 .2 Principle and evaluation standard
The testing of acid sensitivity includes the tests of fresh acid ( hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, and mud
acids ) and residual acid ( which is prepared by using fresh acid to react wit h another core sample ) . The CN－
38
PC’s standard method is as follows:
(1 ) Measure the basic permeability K1 of core sample wit h formation water in t he positive direction .
(2 ) Inject acid wit h t he volume of 0 .5 ～ 1 .0 PV into the core sa mple in the negative direction , and
wait 1 ～3 hours for a reaction .
( 3) Measure t he recovering permeability K2 of the core sample wit h formation water in t he positive di－
rection .
After several years of work , t his met hod has been changed from above procedure to the following by
us .
(1 ) Measure the basic permeability of t he core sample with formation water in the positive direction .
Then , measure the effective permeability K1 of kerosene in the same direction before injecting acid into the
core .
(2 ) Inject acid wit h t he volume of 0 .5 ～ 1 .0 PV into the core sa mple in the negative direction , and
wait 1 - 3 hours for a reaction .
(3 ) Measure t he recovering effective permeability K2 of core sample wit h kerosene in the positive di－
rection .
Use both parameters K1 and K2 , and t heir ratio K2/ K1 , to evaluate the degree of acid sensitivity ,
w hich is show n in Table 1 - 15 . Table 1 - 16 shows results for core samples of the Triassic sandstone for－
mation of t he JiLake area in Tarimu Basin .

T a b l e 1 - 15 　 The evaluation standard for acid sensitivi ty

K2 / K1 ≤0 .3 0 .3 - 0 .7 ≥0 .7

Degree of acid sensitivity Strong Medium Weak

　 　 　 　 Ta b l e 1 - 16 　 Some acid sensi tivity results for core samples of the

Triassic sandstone formation of the JiLaKe area in Tarimu Basin

Degree of
Well Sample Horizon Acid type K1 K2 K2/ K1
acid
name No . 　 　 - 3
(10 μm )
2
(10
- 3 2
μm ) 　
sensitivity

Lunnan 118 Hydrochloric 200 .57 126 .78 0 .63 Medium

T
55 179 Acid 242 .49 240 .04 0 .99 Weak

Lunnan 96 Mud acid 82 .62 43 .64 0 .53 Medium

T
57 104 Fluid 103 .83 67 .68 0 .65 Medium

From t he above discussion , note that the testing of t he five t ypes of sensitivities is one of t he most im－
por tant methods for evaluating and diagnosing formation damage . Generally , do these t ypes of sensitivity
tests to every reservoir, then determine the technical program for protecting formation from damage accord－
ing to T able 1 - 17 . The program can be used to guide the oil/ gas production .

Ta b l e 1 - 17 　 T h e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e f i v e t y p e s o f s e n s i t i v i t y t e s t s
Test type T he suggestions and applications of experimental results

Flow rate (1 ) To determine t he suitable flow rate of the other sensitivit y tests ( water , salt , acid and alkali sensitivi－
sensitivity ties)
( including oil ( 2) To determine t he critical production rate Qco of an oil well which can preven t the damage of flow rate
& water) sensitivity
(3 ) T o determine the critical water injection rate Qc w , if Qcw is too small and can’t satisfy the require－
ments of the injection allocation , stimulation should be considered
(4 ) To deter mine t he maximum allowed density of working fluids

39
 (continued)
Test type T he suggestions and applications of experimental results

Water (1 ) If no water sensitivit y , t he salinity of working fluids must be lower t han t hat of for mation water
sensitivity ( 2) If water sensitivity exists, t he salinit y of working fluids must be maintained higher than critical salin－
it y Cc1
(3 ) If water sensitivity is st rong , t he clay stabilizer must be used in the working fluids

Salt ( 1) T he salinity of various working fluids must be maintained between the two critical salinities , that is,
sensitivity t he critical salinit y CC1 < t he salinity of working fluids < t he critical salinit y CC2
( including ( 2) If t he oil field is exploited by injecting water , when t he salinit y of injection water is lower than CC1 ,
increasing some suitable clay stabilizer must be added to t he water in order to cont rol t he damage of water sensitivi－
and ty , or the water injection wells must be t reated periodically by using clay stabilizer
decreasing
salinity)

(1 ) T he pH value of various working fluids must be sustained lower t han t he critical pH value
( 2) Since we can’t main tain the pH value of t he cemen t slurry lower t han t he critical pH value if t he for－
Alkali
mation has strong alkali sensitivit y , temporary plugging techniques forming a protective screen near t he
sensitivity
wellbore is suggested in order to con trol formation damage
(3 ) If the formation has st rong alkali sensitivity , strong alkali working fluids should be avoided

Acid (1 ) To provide scientific basis for the design of acid fluid in mat rix acidizing
sensitivity (2 ) To provide the basis for deter mining suitable damage removing methods and stimulations

1 .4 .7 Evaluation of damages caused by drilling and completion fluids

During the process of overbalanced drilling , the drilling fluid cannot avoid leaking into formation . If
well completion fluid is not compatible wit h t he formation , t he solid and liquid phase of fluid will leak into
formation and formation damage will be induced . Therefore , in well completion engineering , in addition to
t he five t ypes of sensitivity , the damage induced by well completion fluids should also be understood . It is
impor tan t to the formation , w hich is drilled and completed by using drilling fluid . T he goals of damage e－
valuation of drilling and well completion fluids , are understand t he dam age degree induced by those fluids
and to evaluate and select t he optimum fluids . If necessary , the damage induced by their additives and fil－
trate also must be evaluated .
1 .4 .7 .1 Static damage test of drilling and completion fluids
U nder constant pressure difference, t he drilling fluid is forced to leak in to a core sample , then t he per－
meability of core sample is measured before and after the fluid entering . One can evaluate the dam age degree
by using both permeabilities . This t ype of test can be completed by adding one small cylinder ( stainless hol－
low cylinder ) at the fluid inlet tip of the core sample . In fact , this static test simulates t he soaking process
of well completion fluid during drilling . The test procedure is as follows .
(1 ) Measure the basic permeability ( Kf ) of a core sample wit h formation water in t he positive direc－
tion .
( 2 ) Inject kerosene and measure t he effective kerosene phase permeability ( Ko ) under t he state of irre－
ducible water in t he positive direction .
(3 ) Perform t he leakage test in t he negative direction until the filtrate flows from t he fluid inlet tip of
t he core sample under t he constan t pressure difference 3 .5 MPa .
(4 ) Inject kerosene and displacing completion fluid in the positive direction un til kerosene flows from
t he fluid outlet tip of t he core sample .
( 5) Inject kerosene and measure the effective kerosene phase permeabilit y ( K op ) of damaged core sam－
ple in t he positive direction .
During t he test process , the flow rate of fluid must be lower t han t he critical value .

40
1 .4 .7 .2 Dynamic damage test of drilling and completion fluids
The cent ral point of t he dynamic damage test of drilling and completion fluids is to simulate the solid
and liquid damage induced by static and dynamic leakoff and shear effects in wellbore . The S W - Ⅱ dam－
age simulator researched & made in Sout hwest - China Pet roleum Institute is shown in Fig . 1 - 19 . The e－
quipmen t is composed of a high pressure vessel, rotating system , core holder , temperat ure and pressure ad－
justing system , etc . The test procedure is as follows .
( 1) Measure the basic permeability ( K f ) of t he core sample wit h formation water in t he positive direc－
tion .
( 2 ) Inject kerosene and measure t he effective kerosene phase permeability ( Ko ) under t he state of irre－
ducible water in t he positive direction .
(3 ) Perfoerm t he leakoff test in t he negative direction under t he dynamic condition . The simulation
conditions are pressure difference 3 .5 MPa, formation temperat ure, shear rate 50 ～360 / s at t he tip of core
sample, leakoff time 1～2 h .
( 4) Inject kerosene and displace completion fluid in the positive direction un til t he kerosene flows from
t he fluid outlet tip of t he core sample .
(5 ) Inject kerosene and measure the effective kerosene phase permeabilit y ( Ko p ) of the damaged core
sample in t he positive direction .
During t he test process , the flow rate of fluid must be lower t han t he critical value .
1 .4 .7 .3 Evaluation tests of damage depth and degree of well completion fluids
The above two types of tests evaluate t he damage degree of drilling fluids . Yet , during the drilling
process , t he leakoff of fluids in to the formation progresses step by step . From wellbore to greater dep th in
t he formation , t he distribution areas of formation fluid can be classified as flushing , t ransitional , diffusion－
al, and original formation areas . The volume of filtrate in each area is differen t, the invading depth of solid
and liquid phase is different , t hus the damage degree is different . The evaluation tests of damage dept h and
degree of well completion fluids observe and study the changes of damage degree, wit h t he damage dept h in
t he one hand , to provide the basis of design or evaluation of perforating depth . In t he other hand, t his test
provides t he basis for determining the mut ual relationships among well logging , well testing and laboratory
tests . The high temperature and pressure, long core, multi - port damage evaluation system , w hich was
researched and made in South west - China Petroleum Institute, is shown in Fig . 1 - 20 . The highest
working temperat ure is 150℃ , the maximum confining pressure is 50 M Pa , t he leng th of core sample is
100cm , and the diameter of core sample is 2 .5 4cm . There are 19 points of measuring pressure and resistivi－
ty along t he core lengt h . Through t he resistivity measuring , the invading dep th of filtrate and the changes
of sat uration of original formation fluids can be exactly determined . Through t he pressure measuring , the
changes of permeability can also be exactly deter－
mined, thus t he damage degree can be evaluated .
This system adop ts real - time monitoring and dis－
playing by a compu ter , and data playback can also be
done . This system can simulate the dynamic , static
damage processes, or t he combined effects of bot h
processes . The experimental procedure is almost the
same as above two types of evaluations .
This test can ob tain results such as invading
dept h , damage dep th and degree, and t heir relation－
ship . In addition , it will reveal the average perme－
　 Fi g . 1 - 19 　 Dynamic damage simulator of
abilit y after damage of core sample according to for－
drilling fluid
mula 1 - 21 . If one observes the flow state of forma－ 1 - Core sample ; 2 - Core holder ; 3 - High pressure
tion fluids before and after damage from a macroscop－ vessel; 4 - Rotating cyl inder ; 5 - Measuring cylinder ;
ic viewpoint , w hen t he test conditions are t he same as 6 - Electric stove
dow nhole conditions , t his permeabilit y can be com － 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　
pared wit h t hat obtained by well testing .

41
 Fi g . 1 - 20 　 The experimental system for high temperature and pressure, long core, multi - port
coredamage evaluation
1 - Oil ; 2 - Positive direction; 3 - Pipe for measuring pressure and resistivity ; 4 - Working fluid; 5 - Negative ; 6 - Core
sample ; 7 - Temperature controller ; 8 - Confining pressure ; 9 - Temperature controller

1
珡
K = (1 - 21)
L1 1 L2 1 Li 1
× + × +…+ ×
L K1 L K2 L Ki

Note that t his system may be used for evaluation tests of water injection and tertiary oil recovery .
1 .4 .7 .4 Analysis of experimental results and evaluation standard
Table 1 - 18 shows t he drilling and completion fluid evaluation results of four core samples from the
Tertiary sandstone formations of Nanyang Xiaermen oil field under t he conditions of static and dynamic
states . The working fluid for t he test is t he simulated well completion fluid which is used at t he oil field .

Ta b l e 1 - 18 　 Test results of drilling and completion fluid at static and dynamic states
Simulated condition
Original Damaged Damage
Well Core Hor - Shear Time T Filtrate
permeabilit y Ko permeability degree
name No . izon Δp
(10 - 3μm2 )
- 3
Kop (10 μm )
2
(%) rate ( h) ( ℃) ( ml)
( MPa )
( 1/ s) 　 　 　

Bi118 147 H3 Ⅴ 1 .06 0 .58 65 .1 3 .5 180 1 90 6 .7

Bi191 377 H3 Ⅵ 11 .5 2 .43 63 .2 3 .5 180 1 90 4 .2

Xia16 265 H3 Ⅵ 6 .93 4 .95 28 .2 3 .5 0 1 90 0 .5

Xia16 262 H3 Ⅵ 36 .4 26 .3 26 .4 3 .5 0 1 90 0 .8

According to t he original permeability ( Ko ) and t he damaged permeability ( Kop ) , t he damage degree

can be calculated , See Table 1 - 19 .

T a b l e 1 - 19 　 Ev a l u a t i o n s t a n d ar d f o r d a ma g e o f c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d
Ko - Kop
≤0 .3 0 .3～0 .7 ≥0 .7
Ko

Damage degree Weak Medium St rong

From T able 1 - 18 , one will notice that t he dam age induced by the completion fluid is serious . The
damage degree is weak at a static state , but becomes stronger at a dynamic state . This damage included the
damage of solid particles , water sensitivity ( because t he well completion fluid is of water base ) , and addi－
tives . In order to understand t he damage of filtrate, anot her four core samples were used to perform the
static state damage test of filtrate . The results are shown in T able 1 - 20 .

42
 T a b l e 1 - 20 　 Test results of filtrate of completion fluid at stat ic state
Original
Well Core Horizon Damage Damage Soaking Soaking
per meabilit y Ko
name No . permeability degree temperature time
- 3 2
　 　 　 Kop (10 μm ) ( %) (℃ ) ( h)
(10 - 3μm2 )

Xia16 313 H3 Ⅶ 42 .86 35 .24 17 .8 90 24

Bi118 H3 Ⅶ 21 .63 17 .54 18 .9 90 24

Bi191 H3 Ⅵ 10 .50 8 .39 20 .2 90 24

Bi118 H3 Ⅶ 4 .38 3 .32 22 .8 90 24

　 　 Ta b l e 1 - 21 　 The experimental results on invading depth and damage

degree of filtrate of well completion fluid
Measuremen t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
point

Length ( cm) 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33

Analytical parameters

(%) 10 .28 10 .54 10 .68 10 .38 11 .76 11 .92 9 .72 9 .24 10 .00 11 .86 11 .77
Swi ( % ) 28 .15 29 .33 28 .17 26 .64 25 .77 25 .01 29 .81 30 .55 22 .37 23 .05 24 .76
Ko1 (10 - 3μm2 ) 5 .52 5 .58 5 .29 5 .50 6 .03 6 .35 6 .18 6 .06 5 .95 6 .26 6 .38
R t1 (Ω・m ) 272 .3 258 .4 277 .7 286 .0 294 .9 301 .3 264 .1 236 .7 331 .5 319 .4 310 .8
R t2 (Ω・m ) 25 .6 33 .59 52 .76 79 .79 132 .3 205 .5 239 .0 236 .7 331 .5 319 .4 310 .8
Ko2 (10 - 3μm2 ) 1 .126 1 .534 1 .793 2 .393 3 .401 4 .731 5 .500 5 .866 5 .99 6 .26 6 .38
R t2 / R t1 0 .094 0 .130 0 .190 0 .279 0 .450 0 .682 0 .905 1 .00 1 .00 1 .00 1 .00
Ko2 / Ko1 0 .204 0 .275 0 .339 0 .435 0 .564 0 .745 0 .890 0 .968 1 .00 1 .00 1 .00

　 　 Notes: Resistivit y ( Rt ) , permeability ( Ko ) and porosity( ) have average errors of repeating measurement 3 % , 1% ,
and 0 .3% , respectively .

It is quite evident t hat the damage induced by solid particles is greater than t hat done by the filt rate,
and that t he dynamic state damage is greater t han the static state damage . Generally , t his type of fluid is
not suitable for opening formations unless special measures ( such as temporary plugging techniques forming
a protective screen near the wellbore ) are taken , or underbalance drilling is performed .
Table 1 - 21 shows the results of invading depth and damage degree of core samples from t he Jurassic
formations in t he Tuha Sansan oil field . Additional results are show n in Fig . 1 - 21 and Fig .1 - 22 .
From t hese results , one may make t he following conclusions: ( 1 ) The invading dep th of filt rate is
about 21 cm , but t he damage dept h is 24 cm ; the ratio of the two parameters is 0 .8 75 . The damage dept h
is larger than the invading dept h ; t his is due to salt ion diffusion from the invading area to a low salinity
formation water area and reduced permeability in t he diffusion area . ( 2) The invading of filt rate is a tongu－
ing process . The volume of filtrate is about 1/ 3 of the pore volume of a core sample , but t he invading dept h
is up to 2/ 3 of t he length of t he core sample . In addition , the nearer to t he inlet tip of t he core sample , the
more t he filtrate , and t here will be resistivity reduced . ( 3) The damage degree of filt rate is obviously relat－
ed to t he dept h of damage . More filt rate , causes a greater degree of damage . The recovered permeability
increases wit h t he depth of invading . ( 4 ) There exists one power function between the invading depth of
filtrate and t he invading volume of filt rate, and between damage dept h of filt rate and damage degree . When
combining the experimental results with well logging and well testing data, one can determine the radius
and degree of downhole formation damage . This is helpful to guiding well completion t reatmen ts .
1 .4 .8 Other evaluation experiments
This section will discuss tests such as damage evaluation of a volume rate of flow , damage evaluation of

43
 Fi g . 1 - 21 　 The relationship between invading Fi g . 1 - 22 　 The relationship between invading
depth of filtrate vs resistivity depth of filtrate vs permeability
( Oil field: Tuha Sansan; Formation: Jurassic ; Invading ( Oil field: Tuha Sansan; Formation: Jurassic ; Damage
depth: 24 cm) depth: 24 cm)

a series engineering fluids, fast evaluation of a capillary pressure measured by a cen trifuger , core flow test in
positive and negative directions , wettability test, relative permeability test, etc . The goals and applications
of these tests are shown in Table 1 - 22 .
The laboratory evaluation results of formation damage may be used as t he basis for determining the
program for protecting a formation from damage in each t reatment . That is to say, the program for forma－
tion damage con trol in each t reatmen t ( from opening t he formation to oil field exploitation) is determined
by using laboratory results .
Techniques for laboratory evaluation of formation da mage have been greatly improved . Recently, the
following directions have been observed:
(1 ) F ull size simulation to evaluate formation damage by simulating downhole real conditions such as
formation temperat ure, pressure ( back pressure, formation pressure ) and the downhole real shear rate
state .
(2 ) Application of a multi - port damage evaluation system , developed from short to long core sample .
(3 ) Development from small to large size core sample .
(4 ) Au tomatization and compu terized data acquisition .
(5 ) Combination of computer mat hematical simulation wit h laboratory physical simulation .

Ta b l e 1 - 22 　 Other format ion damage evaluation experiments

Projects Goals and applications of tests

Core flow tests in positive Observing t he effect of fluid flow direction on particle migration and formation damage
and negative directions induced by par ticle migration .

U nder conditions lower than critical velocity , using a large volume of working fluid for
Damage evaluation of core flow test , observing stability of core cemen tation . If using injection water to per－
volume rate of flow form t his test , the sensitivit y of t he formation core on injection water can be evaluated .

Damage evaluation of U nderstanding the total damage induced by all kinds of working fluids according to t he
series engineering fluids real t reatment procedure .

Cation exchange test Measuring t he cation exchange capacity to determine t he relative degree of water sensi－
tive expansion of clay minerals, and to determine the basis for researching mechanism
of formation damage and suitable well completion measures .

44
 (continued)
Projects Goals and applications of tests

Evaluation test on acid Injecting acids according to t he real acidizing procedure . Evaluating and selecting t he
fluid op timum acid fluid formation in the laboratory .

Wettabilit y evaluation test Measuring t he wet tability before and af ter injecting working fluids , to observe t he ef－
fect of working fluids on the wettability changes of for mation rock

Measuring t he relative permeability curve of formation rock to understand t he damage

Relative permeability degree induced by water blocking ; or measuring t he relative per meability curve before
evaluation test and af ter injecting working fluids to understand the effects of working fluids on relative
per meability curve changes and the damage induced by its changes .

Expansion ratio Measuring t he expansion ratio after t he working fluid goes into core samples, to evalu－
evaluation test ate the compatibility of for mation rock ( specially t he clay minerals ) with working flu－
ids .
Fast evaluation of Measuring t he capillary pressure changes of core sample before and af ter injecting work－
capillary pressure ing fluids using cent rifuger to perform fast evaluation on formation damage .
measured by cen trifuger

1 .5 Technical Grounds for Oil/ gas Production Engineering

Selection of well completion met hods should consider some parameters of oil production engineering , in
addition to the characteristics of oil field geology and reservoir engineering . T hese parameters have large ef－
fect on well completion qualit y, as well as oil/ gas field exploitation .
1 .5 .1 Water injection
The sandstone oil fields of China are mainly from continental deposit . Multiple series of st rata, multi－
ple thin interbeds layers , large propor tion of low permeability formations , and widespread low formation
pressure are their characteristics . As a result , most oil fields were developed by using early waterflooding ,
multiple series of strata were exploited in a same well . And zonal waterflooding was commonly applied .
Since waterflooding runs through t he entire process of oil field developmen t , and the water injection pres－
sure is near the formation fract ure pressure ( t he water injection pressure of deep well wit h low permeability
layers was much higher) , t hus t he selected well completion met hod is required not only to isolate zones , but
also to consider the strength of production casing and t he sealing ability of screw thread , in order to guaran－
tee normal working of t he water injection well under t he conditions of extended periods and high pressure .
In addition , suitable water injection pressure should be determined according to t he nodal analysis of a water
injecting well w hen selecting well completion met hod .
1 .5 .2 Hydraulic fracturing and acidizing
Most sandstone formations of China were put in to production by hydraulic fract uring , or stimulated af－
ter waterflooding . Since t here are many pay zones in a well, fracturing of separate layers must be used .
When pumping fracturing fluid through tubing , t he t reatment pressure rises as pumping rate and friction
increase . The well completion met hod of casing perforating must be selected . T he st rengt h of the produc－
tion casing , and the sealing ability of the screw t hreads must also be considered . Sometimes one should se－
lect larger size t ubing in order to decrease tubing friction and t reatment pressure of hydraulic fract uring .
Most of t he fractured or porous carbonate formations must be pu t into production by normal acidizing ,
sometimes massive acidizing or acid fract uring will be required . Then the wells must be completed by casing
perforating , and t he st rengt h of production casing and t he sealing ability of screw t hread should be consid－
ered .
1 .5 .3 Control of gas cap and bottom water
Most massive sandstone or carbonate reservoirs have t he problem of gas cap and bottom water cont rol .
45
Some reservoirs may have both gas cap and bottom water , w hile others only have one of t hese . When com－
pleting wells , we must consider how to develop the beneficial aspects of gas cap and bottom water, and at
t he same time effectively control t he harmful aspects .
1 .5 .4 Adjustment well
An adjust ment well is an oil or water well whichis redrilled in order to adjust or perfect the well pattern
after well failure occurs during the mid - to - late stages of oil field development . This type of well differs
greatly from t he original production well in following aspects: first , t he pressure system of t he oil or water
injecting well, interzonal pressure, difference and oil saturation have been greatly changed by water flood－
ing; second , some streaks or pay zones have collapsed; . The more impor tan t t hing is t hat the dow nhole liq－
uids are in the flow state, which will result in difficult y during cemen ting . The completion of an adjust ment
well should consider these changes .
1 .5 .5 Thermal recovery by steam injection
Heavy crude oil ( especially ex tra－heavy and super－heavy crude oil) will be difficult to flow in formation
due to high viscosit y . t hus , heavy crude oil cannot be produced by the usual met hod , and must be devel－
oped by thermal recovery met hods . At present , the main method of t hermal recovery widely used world－
wide is steam injection . The steam injection pressure and temperature depend on the dept h of the pay zone .
Considering the high viscosity of heavy oil and t he great loss of friction , it is best to select the larger size
production casing ( ≥7 in) and tubing ( ≥3 in) . At t he same time, considering t he ex tension of casing at
high temperatures and t he sealing abilit y of screw thread , it is best to complete t he well wit h pre－st ressed
casing . In addition , the high temperature cement should be used and t he cemen t slurry should be ret urned
to the surface . If necessary , heavy oil can be exploited by t he method of Steam Associated Gravity Drainage
( SAGD ) of horizon tal well .
Since most heavy oil pay zones were cemented by clay or crude oil, t hese pay zones easily produce
sand , thus sand con trol must be considered . The great t hick layer , if no gas cap, bottom water , and in－
terbed water , can be completed with an open hole gravel pack . On the other hand, t he great thick layer
completed by an open hole gravel pack has difficult y modifying the steam in take profile, so t his t ype of well
completion method should be considered prudently . Generally , completion by casing perforating with inside
casing gravel packing is most common .
1 .5 .6 Sand control
Depending on wellbore rock firmness ( see section 3 , this chapter) and t he data of production test , if it
is judged t hat t he formation will produce sand , completion met hods of sand control should be selected . U n－
der normal conditions , the great thick formation wit hou t gas cap and bottom water can be completed by
open hole gravel packing, or casing perforating with casing gravel packing . Thin beds or in terbeds should
be completed by casing perforating wit h casing gravel packing . Met hods of sand con trol may be selected de－
pending on the degree of sand production and grain dia meter of sand . Casing larger than or equal to 7 inches
should be used for sand con trol ; this will be helpful to retarding the inflow velocity and increasing the t hick－
ness of gravel packing layer to improve t he efficiency of sand cont rol .
1 .5 .7 Corrosion prevention
A nat ural gas well wit h higher H2 S or CO2 con tent should be considered to use anti－corrosion casing
and tubing . When completing the well, use a permanen t packer in order to prevent t he corrosive gas from
going into annular space between casing and tubing .
The salinity of formation water in some oil field is high . For example, the salinity of formation water
in t he Zhongyuan oil field is 200 , 000 ～ 300 , 000 mg/ l, and the salinity of formation water in the
Donghetang sandstone formations in T arim basin is 200 , 000～260 , 000 mg/ l . These formation waters wit h
high salinity will corrode t he casing . When completing t hese wells , anti - corrosion casing and perm anent
packer must be used During production , an ti - corrosion measures also should be taken .
1 .5 .8 Injection of natural gas or other gases
Gas injection mainly implies t he cyclic gas injecting in gas condensate field , or injecting nit rogen gas
46
( N2 ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) or another gas for tertiary oil recovery . When injecting any of t hese gases , as
t he density of gas is small, t he pressure of the gas column is also sm all, thus t he gas injection pressure must
be very high . In order to guaran tee normal functioning of t he casing for a long duration under high pres－
sure, the strength of production casing and the sealing ability of screw thread must be considered , t he ce－
ment slurry should be returned to surface w hen cementing , and a permanen t packer must be used . The tub－
ing st ring with snubbing downhole tools should be used . That is to say , t he tubing may be lifted above the
pay zone under the condition of snubbing wit hout killing the well, in order to prevent killing fluid from
damaging gas resrvoir .
1 .5 .9 Reservoirs with vertical or high angle fractures
The Permian sandstone formations of the HuoSaoshan oil field in Xingjiang are vertical fracture forma－
tions . If a well is completed by using normal methods , a large volume of cement slurry will leakoff in to pay
zones when cementing . The result is that the pay zones have not been cemented and deep formation damage
is caused . Well completion of t his t ype of formation should consider setting technical casing above t he top of
pay zones . After cemen ted , the pay zone is drilled again and completed with a slot ted liner or horizon tal
hole , or an ex ternal casing packers are used to isolate t he zones . A nother example is the Chengdong oil field
of Shengli oil area . An uncomformit y of t he Carboniferous and Permian form ations is of multi - zones wit h
60 degree high angle fract ures . If the well is completed wit h a vertical hole, the hole will make contact wit h
few reservoirs , perhaps only one or two . Yet the well is completed wit h a directional or horizontal holes ,
t he well can go through multiple reservoirs .
1 .5 .10 Medium and thick reservoirs
Medium and thick reservoirs with either t hin or heavy oil, wit h or without gas cap and bottom water ,
m ay be produced with a vertical well . I t is best for those reservoirs to be produced wit h horizontal well in
order to enhance single well productivity and exploitation speed . The C3 reservoirs of t he Tazhong - 4 Well
( which is completed wit h a horizon tal hole) in T arim oil field , is one good example . Good results were ob－
tained t here . A nother example is t he super - heavy crude oil of t he Xinglongtai reservoir in Liaohe Suguang
oil field can only be produced with a horizon tal hole, and, which t he well completion met hod can be combi－
nation slotted liner and ex ternal casing packer or casing perforating .
1 .5 .11 Reservoirs of ancient buried hill
The rocks of t his type of reservoir include carbonate, metamorphosed , and igneous rocks . The reser－
voir geometry is mainly of massive , sometimes layered . The most are fractured reservoirs or dual media of
fracture/ porosit y, occasionally with bottom water and gas cap . The layered reservoir should be drilled
t hrough , and completed with casing perforating . The massive reservoir , after the in termediate casing is run
to top of reservoir and weathered crust is drilled t hrough , can be completed wit h open hole . However ,
m any problems of open hole completion , e .g . bot tom water and gas cap cont rol, acidizing , and water
shutoff, are difficult to be solved . Thus , in recen t years , most massive - type reservoirs are also completed
wit h casing perforating .

References
[1 ] Wang Ping : The principle of tectonic mechanics in oil - bearing basin . Beijing , Petroleum Indus－
t ry P ress , 1993 .( In Chinese)
[ 2] Xiong Youming & Pan Yingde: The criterion“c”formula determining wellbore rock solidit y and
its application . Journal of sou th west - China petroleum institute, No .2 , 1994 . ( In Chinese)
[3 ] K .S .Hansen :“ Eart h St ress Measurements in t he Sou th Belridge Oil field, Kern Coun try , Cali－
fornia”, SP E 15641
[4 ] B .S . Aadnow:“Stabilit y of Highly Inclined Boreholes”, SPE 16052
[5 ] G .F . F uh :“ Horizon tal Wellbore Stability for Openhole Completions”, SPE 19717
[6 ] Luo Zhitan , et al .:“ porous struct ure of oil/ gas formations .”Beijing , Science Press , 1986
[7 ] Zhang Shaohuai, et al .:“ Techniques of protecting form ation from damage .”Beijing , Pet roleum
Industry Press , 1993 . ( In Chinese )
47
 [8 ] Zhang Kaihong, et al .:“ experimental study of the mud filtrate invading on rock petrophysical
and elect rical properties .” The Journal of Sou th west - China pet roleum institu te , No .1 , 1994 .
( In Chinese )
[ 9] Wang Xingxin , et al .:“Clay minerals of sandstone formation and formation protecting .”Beijing ,
Geology Press , 1992 . ( In Chinese )
[10] W .D . Gunter . et al .:“ Modeling formaton damage caused by kaolinite from 25 - 300 degrees
centigrade in the oil sands reservoir of Alberta .”, SP E 22786
[11] O .O . Eleri . et al .:“ Physical aspects of formation damage in linear flooding experiments .”SPE
23785
[12] A .M . Mehdizadeh , et al .:“ Laboratory investigations of t he effects of formation damage in a
high - permeabilit y reservoir .”SP E 23826

48
 Chapter 　 2 　 Selection of Well Completion Methods

Selection of completion methods appears to be one of t he key links in well completion engineering .
There are a variet y of completion met hods curren tly practiced , yet each has its own adaptabilities and limi－
tations . Only when the most preferable one is chosen on t he basis of oil/ gas reservoir type and oil/ gas for－
mation properties , can t he field be effectively developed , well life prolonged as well as economical benefits
raised . A rational method should meet the require men ts listed below as far as possible:
( 1 ) To provide optimal communications between borehole and oil/ gas formation and to limit damage to
t he formation .
( 2) To offer as large a percolation flow area between t he borehole and oil/ gas formation as possible and
minimum resistance to oil/ gas inflow .
( 3) To effectively isolate oil - gas - water formation and to prevent gas or water channeling and inter－
formational in terference .
(4 ) To effectively cont rol sand to keep the borehole wall from collapse and to warrant long period of
well production .
(5) To allow such measures as separate zone waterflooding , zonal gas injection , st ratified fracturing
and acidizing to be taken , and to gran t conditions suitable for artificial lift and workover jobs .
(6 ) To permit heavy crude production to be carried out by steam process .
( 7) To prepare conditions available for sidet racking and horizon tal drilling in t he late stage of develop－
ment .
(8 ) To produce simple and convenient operational procedure and considerably low cost .

2 .1 Well Completion Methods

Nowadays , the most commonly used met hods both at home and abroad are casing or tail pipe ( liner)
completion, perforating completion , slotted liner completion , open hole completion, open hole or casing
gravel pack completion , etc . Due to the adap tabilities and restrictions for each of the existing completions ,
it is important to learn each of thier characteristics .
2 .1 .1 Perforation completion
This type of completion is most widely employed in China . Included are casing perforation completion
and liner perforation completion .
2 .1 .1 .1 Casing perforation completion
The completion is implemen ted by drilling t hrough the oil formation to the designed TD wit h same size
bit, running tubing string dow n to formation bot tom , cementing , perforating the string and cement sheat h
to certain penetration depth , and t hus setting up an oil flow passage as shown in Fig .2 - 1 .
Casing perforation completion formations with different pressure and different physical properties can
be perforated selectively , by avoiding in terformational interference or bypassing interbedded water, bot tom
water and gas cap , or preventing in termediate larger collapse . Consequently , favorable conditions will be
created for practicing zonal injection recovery , selective fract uring , and acidizing operations .
2 .1 .1 .2 Tail pipe ( liner ) perforation completion
When employing this kind of completion , it is necessary to run an intermediate casing string and per－
form t he cemen ting job after t he bit goes to t he top boundary of oil formation . Next , a smaller size bit drills
t hrough the formation to t he designed T D, Third, tail pipe is run and hung on the in termediate casing .
The overlay of the tail pipe wit h t he casing is generally no less than 50m . Finally, tail pipe cementing and
perforating jobs are completed , as shown in Fig . 2 - 2 .
When t his completion met hod is applied , the top formation has been isolated by in termediate casing
49
Fi g . 2 - 1 　 Casing Perforation 　 Fi g . 2 - 2 　 Perforated tail pipe 　 F i g . 2 - 3 　 Ini tial open - hole
completion schematic diagram 　 complet ion schematic diagram 　 　 Completion Schematic diagram
1 - Surface casing; 2 - Production casing ; 　 1 - Surface casing; 2 - Intermediate casing; 　 　 1 - Surface casing; 2 - Intermediate casing;
3 - Cement mantle; 4 - Perforation hole; 　 　 3 - Liner; 4 - Perforation hole; 5 - Forma－ 　 　 3 - Cement mantle; 4 - Borehole;
5 - Formation; 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 tion; 6 - Hanger; 7 - Cement; 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 5 - Formation

and cemented before the oil formation is drilled . Therefore, balanced or low balanced pressure drilling wit h
formation - compatible drilling fluid may be used to open the oil formation in favor of formation protection .
In addition , this completion reduces casing weigh t and cement consumption , thus lowering drilling cost . At
present , this completion is employed in a majority of considerably deep oil/ gas wells . Perforation comple－
tion applies to many oil/ gas reservoirs . Conditions advantagous to this completion is listed in T able2 - 8 .
2 .1 .2 Open - hole completion
Two operation procedures may be followed .
The first is to run intermediate casing , and conduct cemen ting job after t he bit reaches t he vicinity of
t he oil formation’s top boundary . After the cement slurry ret urns to a predetermined heigh t , a smaller di－
ameter bit is run in to t he intermediate casing string and drills t hrough the cement plug and oil formation to
t he designed depth . Thus completion ends , as show n in Fig . 2 - 3 .
Some heavy oil formations are preferably open - hole completed . If gas cap or water zone exist near the
top boundary , in termediate casing can be run t hroughout t he oil - gas interface to pack t he upper par t of the
oil formation , and open - hole completion is accomplished . The oil bearing interval will be perforated if nec－
essary . Such completion is called“composite”in foreign countries . Fig . 2 - 4 shows t his type .
Anot her open - hole completion procedure is to drill t hrough oil formation to t he designed TD without
changing t he bit, run into intermediate casing near to formation top boundary, and exercise cementing . To
avoid cemen t slurry da maging oil formation beneat h casing shoe, the conven tional practice is to fill up oil
formation in terval wit h low water loss and high viscosity mud , for the purpose of preventing ce men t slurry
from settling . Ot herwise, external casing packer and cementing joint are instaled in t he lower section of
casing string to support annulus cement slurry in order to keep t he slurry from falling . This t ype of proce－
dure is not applied in general, as show n in Fig . 2 - 5 .
The principal features of open - hole completion are oil formation fully opening and maximum percolat－
ing area . Wells completed t his way are termed hydrodynamic perfect well and t he productive capacity is no－
ticeably high . Despite openhole completion is perfection , the limitations for its application seem great .F ur－
thermore , openhole completion cannot be carried out in sandstone oil/ gas formation , or medium with low
permeability t hat need fracturing . There always exist mud shale streaks in sandstone t hat easily slough , if
50
water is encountered , to plug borehole . Open - hole completion was widely employed in overwhelming car－
bonate oil/ gas formations , including fract ured ones such as in many Middle - Eastern oil fields in the 1970’
s , the Renqiu field in Huabei, and gas fields in Sichuan . Later , openhole completion was replaced by casing
perforation completion because the former cannot satisfy the requirements of well stimulation , bottom - wa－
ter - coning cont rol and water plugging in addition to t he improvement of perforation technology . During
t he early spread stage of horizon tal drilling in the early 1980’s , a majority of t he horizon tal wells drilled in
t he U . S . Austin chalk ( where vertical fract ures are well developed ) were open - hole completed ; some
horizon tal wells in coun tries other than the U . S . were open - hole completed as well . In t he late 1980’s ,
slot ted liner or slotted liner wit h external casing packer completion was practiced instead of open - hole in
most horizontal wells . Par ticularly , with the reach ex tended and multi - branch horizontal drilling ad－
vanced , open - hole completion is more rarely employed , for large number of technical problems with open
- hole completion are hard to deal wit h .
2 .1 .3 Slotted liner completion
There are two procedures for t his type of completion . One procedure is as follows: use t he same size bit
to drill through t he oil formation , run a casing string with liner at its lower end to t he formation , and con－
duct cemen ting through external casing packer and cemen ting connection to isolate t he annulus above the
formation top , as show n in Fig . 2 - 6 .
Anot her procedure is generally employed to replace said procedure for t he dow nhole damaged liner is by
no means repaired or substituted for in t he well completion , according to said procedure . The procedure is
essen tially t hat after the bit has drilled at t he top boundary of oil formation , intermediate casing is first run
and ce men ted, after w hich a smaller size bit is run dow n t he casing and drills t hrough the oil formation to
planned TD . Finally , a pre - slotted liner is set in t he formation and hung on t he in termediate casing st ring
by a liner hanger ( anchor ) at t he top of t he liner and the annulus between t he liner , thus the casing is
sealed . As a result oil/ gas is forced to flow in the wellbore t hrough t he slots , as show n in Fig . 2 - 7 .
This other procedure may not result in cemen t slurry damaging t he oil formation , and permits opening

Fi g . 2 - 4 　 Composi te comp－ 　 F i g . 2 - 5 　 Later openhole comp－ 　 Fi g . 2 - 6 　 Slotted liner comp－

letion schemat ic diagram 　 　 　 letion schematic diagram 　 　 　 　 　 letion schematic diagram
1 - Surface casing ; 2 - Cement 　 　 　 1 - Surface casing; 2 - Intermediate 　 　 　 1 - Surface casing; 2 - Intermediate
mantle; 3 - Intermediate casing ; 　 　 casing; 3 - Cement sheath; 4 - ECP ; 　 　 casing; 3 - Cement mantle; 4 - Cem－
4 - Gas cap ; 5 - Perforation hole; 　 5 - Borehole; 6 - Formation; 　 　 　 　 　 　 ent junt ; 5 - ECP ; 6 - Slotted liner ;
6 - Formation; 7 - Wal l of open 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 7 - Formation
hole well

51
 　 　 Fi g . 2 - 8 　“Sand Bridge”resulting from natural sorting
　 　 outside the liner
　 　 1 - Formation; 2 - Sand bridge; 3 - Slot ; 4 - Wellbore

Fi g . 2 - 7 　 Slotted liner complet ion formation wit h formation compatible drilling fluid , or any fa－
schematic diagram vorable to formation protection drilling technology . If t he slot－
1 - Surface casing; 2 - Intermediate casing; ted liner wears out or fails to work , it can be pulled out for re－
3 - Cement mantle; 4 - Liner hanger ; 5 - Slot－ pair or replacement .
ted liner ; 6 - Formation

2 .1 .3 .1 Technical requirements of slotted liner

Sand con trol mechanism of a slotted liner lies in t hat cer－
tain size fine sand particles ( which can be carried out by crude oil to the surface ) are allowed to pass the
slots , larger particles are retained outside t he liner , and coarse sands held ou tside the liner forming a“Sand
Bridge” . Fig . 2 - 8 shows t he“ Sand Bridge”.
Small sand par ticles are unable to remain in The“ Sand Bridge”due to considerably high flow velocity
of fluids t here . Nat ural sorting of sands allows t he“ Sand Bridge”to provide a reasonably good flow pas－
sage, and to play at the same time a role of protecting matrix sands at t he hole wall . Slot shape and size
should be determined based on the matrix sand particle size .
1) Slot Configuration
Slot section appears be a trapezoid , as show n in Fig . 2 - 9 .
The angle formed by t he two hypotenuses of the trapezoid is related to the pressure t he slot can under－
take, and the flow rate t he slot can provide . The angle is about 12 degrees . The long base of t he t rapezoid
should be t he inner surface and the short base t he outer surface . This slot configuration impedes sand parti－
cles from clogging t he slot and plugging t he liner .
2) Slot W idt h
The leng th of the small base of a trapezoid - shaped slot is termed slot wid th . The key to a slotted liner
con trolling sand lies in how to correctly ascertain t he slot width . On t he basis of an experimental study the
condition favorable for a“Sand Bridge”forming is w hen the slot wid th is less than or equal to two times
sand particle diameter , i .e .

e ≤ 2 D1 0 ( 2 - 1)

w here : e = Slot width ;

　 　 　 D1 0 = Dia meter of those sand particles .
Accumulative weight makes up 10 % on t he accumulative curve of pay zone sand granularmet ric compo－
sition . I t is clearly indicated that small and fine sand particles whose weigh t constitu tes 90 % of the total
sand 　 sample 　 weight are permitted to pass t he slot , 　 and large diameter load - supporting par ticles whose
52
 Fi g . 2 - 9 　 Slot configuration 　 　 　 　 　 F i g . 2 - 10 　 Alternat ing arrangement of slots

weigh t is only 10 % of the total cannot pass and are contained outside t he liner forming a“Sand Bridge”
wit h high permeability .
3) Slot Arrangement Pat tern
There are two patterns commonly employed : slots are arranged parallel, or perpendicular to the liner
axis , as show n in Fig . 2 - 9 .
The st rengt h of a liner wit h slots perpendicular to its axis appears lower t han t hat of liner with parallel
slots , so t he lat ter is employed most often . Paralled slots are preferably arranged alternatingly , as show n in
Fig . 2 - 10 .
The longit udinal distance between two slots on each slot’s generating line is 0 .7 l . Along t he circum－
N
ference of a liner, one slot’s generating line is uniformly arranged per 360° / . Physical meanings
1000/ 1 .7 l
of N and L are found in formula 2 - 2 .
4) Slotted Liner Size
Based on in termediate casing size and bit size utilized in drilling open - hole the OD of the liner to be
run can be confirmed as showed in Table 2 - 1 .

Ta b l e 2 - 1 　 Compatible casing, bit and liner sizes on slotted liner complet ion

Intermediate casing Bit in open hole Slot ted liner

Nominal Casing OD Nominal Bit diameter Nominal Liner OD

size ( in) ( mm ) size( in) ( mm ) size( in ) ( mm)

7 177 .8 6 152 5～5 127～140

8 219 .1 7 190 5 ～6 140～168
9 244 .5 8 216 6 ～7 168～194
10 273 .1 9 244 .5 7 ～8 194～219

5) Slot Length
The length should be determined by relying on liner size and slot spread pattern , generally 20 ～
300mm . The length of a perpendicular slot is shor t ( 20 ～ 50mm ) for the strengt h of a liner wit h slots of
t his type is low . The lengt h of paralleL slots is normally 50 ～300mm . For small diameter and high strengt h
liner , the higher value of the slot lengt h is adopted ; for large diameter and low st rengt h liner , the lower
value applied .
6) N umber of Slots
The number determines the flow area of a slotted liner . When deciding the flow area, either fluid pro－
duction or slotted liner strengt h should be taken into account . The principle behind the determination must
be enlarging t he flow area as far as possible, while liner st rengt h should be secured . As is practiced in for－
eign count ries , t he total area of slots is 2 % of the overall liner ou ter surface area .
Slot number is determined by t he following formula:

53
 αF
n = ( 2 - 2)
el

w here : n = Slot number , pieces/ m ;

　 　 　 α= Percentage of total slot area in t he overall liner outer surface area, generally 2 % is taken ;
2
　 　 　 F = Outer surface area per meter liner , mm / m;
　 　 　 e = Slot widt h , mm ;
　 　 　 l = Slot length , mm .
Slotted liner completion is one of t he current essential completion met hods . It performs t he function
open - hole method does , or keeps t he open - hole wall from collapsing and borehole from plugging, or
plays the role of sand con trolling to some ex tent . Thanks to procedure, convenient operation , and low cost,
t his completion met hod has been applied quite in some medium and coarse sand formations w hich produce
sands in sm all amount and particularly in horizontal wells . Conditions suitable for t he adop tion of this type
of completion are found in Table 2 - 8 .
2 .1 .4 Gravel pack completion
To an unconsolidated formation w here sand is produced in large amounts , gravel, pack completion is
conventionally applied . The completion procedures are as follows . To begin with , a wire - wrapped screen
is run down in the oil formation ; then t he surface - preselected gravels are pumped wit h packing fluid dow n
eit her t he annulus between t he screen and borehole , or t he annulus between t he screen and casing , conse－
quently forming a gravel packed larger to stop formation sands from flowing in t he borehole . As a result,
t he goals of protecting t he borehole wall and avoiding sand flow in the well will be reached . This completion
employs wire wrapped stainless steel screen instead of a slotted liner . Reasons for this are:
( 1) The minimum slot wid th comes to 0 .5 mm due to the limitation on the slot cut ter st rengt h . There－
fore, slotted liner can be adop ted only in medium or coarse sand formations . The minimum seam widt h of
wire - wrapped screen , however , reaches 0 .12mm , and t he screen application range is wider .
(2 ) The seam of t he wire - wrapped screen is continuous , and is formed by w rapping wire on the
screen surface . See Fig . 2 - 11 ( a ) . No pressure drop exists w hile fluids flow through t he screen . The
screen profile is a t rapezoid , its outside is narrow , inside wide . Thus the screen is able to conduct self -
cleaning to some exten t; on t he ot her hand , slight plugging can be released by produced fluids , see Fig . -
11 .( b) , ( c) , ( d) . The screen flow area appears much larger than t hat of a slotted liner , see Fig . 2 - 12 .
(3 ) Wire - wrapped screen made of stainless steel is sufficient for tolerating corrosion , is long in ser－
vice life , as well as high in comprehensive economic benefits .
To satisfy t he requiremen ts of differen t formation properties , both open - hole completion and perfora－
tion completion may be accompanied by gravel pack , and are termed open - hole gravel pack and casing
gravel pack respectively .
2 .1 .4 .1 Open - hole gravel pack completion
This type of completion should be practiced by providing geologic conditions , employing open - hole
completion , and necessitating sand cont rol . The procedures are: after the bit has reached a level abou t 3m
above t he formation top boundary , an intermediate casing string is run and cemented; then another smaller
size bit drills t he cement plug and opens t he formation at the designed well dept h ; an expansion - t ype bit is
next plied instead , to enlarge t he hole diameter in the formation in terval by 1 .5～2 times the casing outer
diameter for t he purposes of providing considerably large annulus in favor of gravel packing , increasing the
t hickness of pack sand filter , and enhancing sand - control effect . The thickness of a pack sand filter is no
less t han 50mm .
Enlarged open - hole size and other sizes can be matched as in Table 2 - 2 .
Following the hole - size enlarging operation gravel packing is carried out as shown in Fig . 2 - 13 .
Condition under which this type completion can be applied are found in Table 2 - 8 .
2 .1 .4 .2 Casing gravel pack completion

54
 Ta b l e 2 - 2 　 Matched sizes upon open - hole gravel pack completion

Casing size Small diameterl hole size Enlarged hole size Screen pipe OD

( in) ( mm ) ( in) ( mm) ( in) ( mm ) ( in ) ( mm)

5 139 .7 4 120 .6 12 305 2 87

6 ～7 168 .3～177 .8 5 ～6 149 .2～155 .5 12～16 305～407 4～5 117～142

7 ～8 193 .7～219 .1 6 ～7 165 .1～200 14～18 355 .6～457 .2 5 1/ 2 155

9 244 .5 8 222 .2 16～20 407～508 6 184

10 273 .1 9 241 .3 18～20 457 .2～508 7 194

The procedures for t his type of completion are as follows . After the bit has drilled through the oil for－
mation and reached the designed well depth , a casing string is run dow n to t he bottom of t he formation and
cemented , then perforation is carried out on t he formation . High perforation densit y ( abou t 30 shots/ m)
and large - diameter ( about 20mm) perforation are required to enlarge t he flow area of the packed layer ;
occasionally, t he formation sand outside t he casing should be flushed out for t he purpose of filling in the
perforations surrounding formation with gravel, and for preventing gravel from mingling with formation
sand , w hich raises resistance to t he filt ration flow . In most cases , high density pack ( high viscosit y) is em－
ployed for its efficiency , w hich results in effective sand cont rol and a long operative period . Casing gravel
pack is shown in Fig . 2 - 14 . Casing size and wire - w rapped screen size matching show n in Table 2 - 3 .
Conditions preferable to casing gravel pack completion are found in Table 2 - 8 .
Despite the completion division in to open - hole and casing gravel pack , t he sand con trolling mecha－
nism for the two completions is exactly the same .

　 　 　 　 　 Fi g . 2 - 11 　 Wire - wrapped screen profile 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 Fi g . 2 - 12 　 Flow capacity

comparison of screen with liner 　 　
1 - 0 .5mm screen slot , 2 7/ 8in tubing;
2 - 0 .5mm liner slot, 2 7/ 8in tubing 　

55
 Fi g . 2 - 13 　 Open - hole gravel pack complet ion
Fi g . 2 - 14 　 Casing gravel pack completion
schematic diagram 1 - Production casing ; 2 - Lead sealing; 3 - Gravel ;
1 - Intermediate casing ; 2 - Lead sealing; 3 - Screen;
4 - Centralizer ; 5 - Oil formation; 6 - Interbed; 7 - Oi l for－
4 ,6 - Centralizer ; 5 - Gravel; 7 - Oil formation; 8 - Pipe
mation; 8 - Screen
choker

Ta b l e 2 - 3 　 Matching sizes of casing with wire - wrapped screen

Casing size Screen OD

( mm ) ( in ) ( mm ) ( in)

139 .7 5 74 2
168 .3 6 87 2
177 .8 7 87 2
193 .7 7 104 3
219 .1 8 117 4
244 .5 9 130 4
273 .1 10 142 5

Gravel which packs t he hole bottom works as a sand filter , permitting fluid to flow through and allow－
ing no formation sand to pass . The key to sand con trol is choosing an appropriate wire - wrapped screen
( whose slot size must match wit h t he produced sand size) , and to select gravel that must correspond in size

56
to formation grain completion . The principles behind t he selection of bot h screen and gravel are to prevent
t he formation from producing sand , and to make gravel layer for higher permeability . Thus the technical
factors to successful gravel pack completion are wire - w rapped screen , gravel size, gravel qualit y, packing
fluid properties, high sand/ fluid ratio pack [ the volumet ric ratio of sand - to - fluid required is ( 0 .8～1 )∶
1] , as well as operation qualit y .
2 .1 .4 .3 Requirements for gravel quality
The qualit y of packing gravel affects sand con trol, as well as t he producing capacity of a formation
completed in this way . Consequently , gravel quality control is of great importance . Gravel qualit y includes
t he selection of gravel grain size, t he qualification of gravel size, the sphericity and roundness of gravel par－
ticles , t he acid solubilit y of gravel, and t he strengt h of gravel .
1) Gravel grain size selection
The grain size recommended in China and abroad is 5 ～ 6 times the formation sand grain size ( mean
D5 0 ) .
2) Gravel qualification
The criteria for API gravel qualification are t hat t he weight of gravel w hose size is greater than the re－
quired must not exceed t he weigh t of the sand sample by 0 .1 % , and t hat for smaller t han t he requirednot
exceed by 2 % .
3) Gravel st reng th
API criteria for gravel st rengt h are t hat the percentage ( by weigh t ) of broken sand determined by the
crashing test must not surpass t he figures listed in Table2 - 4 .

Ta b l e 2 - 4 　 Recommended cri teria for gravel crush strength against

Packing sand grain size ( mesh) Broken sand percen tage by weight ( % )

8～16 8
12～20 4
16～30 2
20～40 2
30～50 2
40～60 2

4) Gravel sphericity and roundness

According to AP I standards, the average
gravel sphericity must be larger than 0 .6 , but
t he average roundness must be larger than 0 .6 .
Fig . 2 - 15 is the visual comparison diagram for
evaluating gravel sphericity and roundness .
5) Gravel acid solubility
API standards recommend that the percent－
age (by weight ) of t he gravel dissolved in stan－
dard mud acid (3 % HF + 12 % HCl ) must not be
over 1 % .
6) Gravel conglomeration
API criteria require that gravel be composed
of individual quartz sand particles and the sand
sample be disposed of if 1 % or more sand con－
glomeration are present in it .
Fi g . 2 - 15 　 Sphericity visual estimation diagram

57
2 .1 .4 .4 Wire - wrapped screen slot size selection
The screen should warrant the integrity of the layer to be gravel packed . Its slot size should be smaller
t han that of t he smallest gravel in t he packed layer , approximately 1/ 2 ～ 2/ 3 of t he sm allest gravel size .
For example, if t he gravel grain diameter is measured at 16 ～ 30 mesh ( based on the formation sand size
mean) , t he gravel size will range from 0 .5 8～1 .1 9mm . As a result , t he slot size will be 0 .3 8mm .
Or , check gravel size and slot size matching Table 2 - 5 .

Ta b l e 2 - 5 　 Recommended table for gravel size and its corresponding screen slot size

Gravel size Screen slot size

Standard mesh ( mm ) ( mm ) ( in)

40～60 0 .419～0 .249 0 .15 0 .006

20～40 0 .834～0 .419 0 .30 0 .012
16～30 1 .190～0 .584 0 .35 0 .014
10～20 2 .010～0 .834 0 .50 0 .020
10～16 2 .010～1 .190 0 .50 0 .020
8～12 2 .390～1 .680 0 .75 0 .030

2 .1 .4 .5 Example of sand control by gravel pack completion

Example 1 . Sand con trol is carried ou t in a ver tical well of an oilfield in Bohai Sea . The target oil for－
mation in the well is of Dongying Formation sandstone that is 1450～1700 meters in dep th , w hose crude oil
density reaches 0 .95 ～0 .96 and in - place crude oil viscosit y is 10 mPa・s , and w here t he oil - bearing in－
terval amounts to 100～200m . In addition , t he flowing ability of the well is weak . During a t rial produc－
tion wit h a submersible elect ric pump w hile oil testing , t he well produced large amoun ts of sand , and the
sand column height in t ubing came to over 20m . Due to a long oil formation interval, many oil zones and
great sand out pu t, t he well were completed by inside casing wire - wrapped screen gravel pack met hod .
Production casing size was 9 in or 7in with 39 shots per meter . In the 9 in casing , a 4 .95in wire－
wrapped screen had been run w hose OD was 6 .05 in and ID was 4 .95in . In 7 in casing , the wire－w rapped
screen had a 4 .62 in OD and a 3 .94in ID . Three separate intervals were gravel packed to preven t sand , ac－
cording to the classification of oil zones . The upper two intervals were installed wit h sliding sleeve, and the
lowest with a blanking plug working barrel . Thus , any interval, if necessary, could be shut in . The diame－
ter of t ubing was 3 in . The dept h of t he submersible electric pump was 1 , 000m . Since 1993 w hen the
well was pu t on stream , t he average single well out put had remained 100 ～130t/ d , and t he producing pres－
sure difference at 4M Pa . The well has produced for two years without any trouble . The pipe st ring ar－
rangemen t can be seen in Fig . 2 - 16 .
Example 2 . Sand cont rol was designed in a directional well in the Bohai oilfield . w hich belongs to
Dongying Formation , The well depth is 1800～ 1870m , relative crude density is 0 .955 , in－sit u crude vis－
cosity averages 57 mPa・s , and well inclination is 40″. In the early 70’s large quantities of sand were pro－
duced during testing , and prepacked screen was ineffective against this . In the late 80’s , a long in terval
wire－wrapped screen gravel pack completion was accomplished in the 7in casing ; the well began flowing af－
ter going on stream in 1985 . Later , t he well was produced using jet and submersible elect ric pumps wit h
producing pressure difference of 3 .0～ 6 .0 MPa . The well has produced for 10 years since then , wit h a dai－
ly oil output of around 100 tons and no sand problem . The sand con trolling tubing string is shown in Fig .
2 - 17 .
2 .1 .4 .6 Prepacked wire－wrapped screen

58

Fi g . 2 - 16 　 Pipe string arrangement for sand
control in Bohai oilfield
1 - 1/ 4 in controll ing pipe ; 2 - Downhole safety valve;
3 - 3 in EVE tubing; 4 - Cable ; 5 - Eccentric valve seat ;
6 - 3 in sliding sleeve; 7 - Dual - sealing packer ; 8 -
Submersible electric pump ; 9 - Gravel packing packer ; 10
- Wire－wrapped screen; 11 - Gravel
　 Fi g . 2 - 17 　 Sand controlling tubing string in
　 Bohai oilfield
　 1 - Casing; 2 - Tubing; 3 - Jet pump; 4 - Sliding sle－
　 eve ; 5 - Packer ; 6 - Screen
This type of screen is manufactured at t he
surface by means of filling in the annular space
between inside and outside layers of a wire－
wrapped screen with gravel, which is compatible
with oil－bearing formation properties . It will be
run in a well against t he sand producing zone to
prevent sand flow . This kind of sand cont rol
provides a lower producing capacit y and shor ter
period of effective sand cont rol than does gravel
pack method , as this met hod may only preven t
formation sand in t he wellbore from en tering t he
tubing, bu t cannot prevent the formation sand
from entering the wellbore as gravel pack
method can preven t . Nevert heless , t his sand
cont rol met hod appears to be ( due mainly to its
simple procedures and low cost ) , effective, and
is still widely employed abroad in wells where
the conditions are unfavorable for cont rolling
sand by gravel packing . The configuration of
this screen can be seen in Fig . 2 - 18 .
59
 Fi g . 2 - 19 　 Structure of Metal Fibre Screen
1 - Base tube; 2 - Plug; 3 - Protective pipe ; 4 - Metal fibre; 5 - Met－
al mesh

The principle for selecting bot h t he gravel size used for

prepacking and t he slot size of the dual wire - w rapped screen
seems t he same in down hole gravel pack operation . The dif－
ference between the outer screen OD and casing ID should be
as sm all as possible, ( around 10mm) , for the purpose of en－
larging t he thickness of the prepacked gravel layer to fortify
the sand cont rol effect , The thickness should be secured at
25mm . The inner screen ID must be larger by more t han
2mm t han t he OD of t he cen tral pipe, and the screen will
cause less friction when assembled wit h t he cen tral pipe .
2 .1 .5 Other screen completions

2 .1 .5 .1 Metal fibre screen

Fi g . 2 - 18 　 Prepacked Wire - Wrap－
ped Screen
1 - Coupling ; 2 - Gland; 3 - Inner wire -
wrapped screen; 4 - Gravel ; 5 - Outer wire -
wrapped screen; 6 - Control pipe
Its essen tial st ructure is indicated as Fig . 2 - 19 .
Stainless steel fibre is t he main ele men t in sand con trol,
and is manufactured by rolling , carding , and forming t he
broken and mingled fibres . The essential principle of t his
brand of fibre is that a large number of crevices will be
formed between fibres as large quan tities of fibre are heaped
up . The advantage of t hese crevices is t hier hindrance of for－
mation sand . The crevice size depends upon t he tight ness of
the fibre accumulation . Con trol of t he crevice size or tigh t－
ness achieves the goal of preventing differen t size formation
sands . In addition , thanks to t he great elasticity of metal fi－
bre, small sands may pass t hrough t he crevices under certain
driving pressure, and fibre clogging may t hus be avoided .
After the sand particles pass , t he fibre restores and provides
self - cleaning action .

　 　 In the process of injecting steam , the well fluid displays alkalinity , ( i .e . pH value between 8 ～ 12 ) ;
However, t he metal fibre material remains H T tolerant ( at maximum 360 ℃ ) , HP resistan t ( 18 .9M Pa at
m aximum ) and corrosion - proof ( pH value = 12) .
The diameter of stainless metal fibre applied in Liaohe oil field ranges from 50 ～120 μm , t he t hickness
of the fibre filter layer 15～25mm , and the compression coefficient 22 ～28 . This t ype of fibre filter layer
offers permeability above 1000 μm2 porosity over 90 % , and sand ou tput below 0 .01 % . A fibre filter can be
used for sand cont rol in open - hole, cased , vertical and horizon tal wells .
2 .1 .5 .2 Ceramic screen

60
 　 　 The Shengli oilfield manufact ured ce－
ramic screen makes use of pottery clay par－
ticles as filtering materials w hose sizes are
determined in accordance wit h formation
sand mean and formation permeability . The
clay particles , mingling wit h an inorganic
consolidating agent at a certain percen tage,
are H T sintered in t he form of a cylinder .
Afterwards , the product will be kept in a
steel protective sleeve and connected wit h
t he tubing st ring . At t his time t he ceramic
screen is ready for running in . The
schematic struture of ceramic screens and a
performance curve of percolation flow can
be seen separately in Fig . 2 - 20 and Fig .2
- 21 .
The physical parameters of ceramic
screens can be found in Table 2 - 6 .
This screen holds considerable st ring
resistance against bending and pressure
variation and is able to stand corrosion
caused by highly mineralized water, mud
acid and hydrocloric acid . The screen is
t herefore widely used in oil fields .
2 .1 .5 .3 Porous metallurgical powder
screen
　 　 The screen is made by the power -
metallurgical process of such raw materials
as iron , bronze , w hite copper , nickel and
Fi g . 2 - 20 　 Schematic Structure of ceramic screens monel metal .It posesses the following prop－
1 - Coupling; 2 - Sealing; 3 - Outer tube ; 4 - Ceramic tube;
er ties .
5 - Hydraulic anchor ; 6 - Ceramic screen; 7 - Oil formation
(1 ) Sin tering of spherical metal pow－
der of differen t diameters (20～300μm ) chosen according to oil formation sand grain size median results in
porous material with a diversity of porosity that holds a broad sand - cont rol range and consequen tly finds
wide application .
( 2) The porosit y is about 30 % and has permeability around 10μm2 This not only offers strong sand -
con trolling ability , bu t brings little influence on well producing capacity .
(3 ) The majorit y of t he porous material is made of iron powder , resulting in low cost .
(4 ) Screen manufact ured by sintering iron pow der retains low resistance to corrosion ; anti - corrosion
measures should be taken .
2 .1 .5 .4 Multilayer packed downhole screen
The screen recommended by US Pall Co . is composed of a main t ube, inner and outer oil draining met－
al meshes , 3～4 pall medium filtering layers ( w hich are separately wrapped in t he annulus between t he in－
ner and outer oil draining layers) , and a housing tube . The medium filtering layer is t he principal sand fil－
tering elemen t, and is manufactured by sintering stainless steel wire and pow der . Therefore , it can be made
by sintering various sizes of stainless steel powder selected in accordance with the sand grain size mean .
Liaohe oil field of China developed one type of sin tering - formed mini - porous screen , show n in Fig .
2 - 22 .

61
 Ta b l e 2 - 6 　 Technical parameters of ceramic screen and i ts ceramic screen
Downhole accessary tools

Ceramic screen
Down Casing size
Maximum Total
hole
OD of steel lengt h
tool ID
lengt h body ( mm) ( mm )
OD ( mm ) ID ( mm ) ( mm ) OD ( mm ) ID ( mm)
( mm )

127 75 1200 152 62 2200 177 .8 158 .08

2300
3500 161 .7

101 50 1200 115 50 1600 139 .7 124 .38

2300
3500 127 .3

A component of t his type of screen is sand - cont rol layer , which is made of stainless steel metal fiber
packed in staggered form , and has mini - pores wit h high permeabilit y and porosity . The sand - con trol
layer is sintered to link wit h t he base pipe under conditions of high pressure and temperature . Its st ructure
is simple, and can be used in high indirection wells , side - tracked wells , and horizontal wells . This kind of
screen has been used in 100 vertical wells and 3 side - t racked wells .
2 .1 .6 Chemical sand consolidation completion
Chemical sand consolidation means that various consolidating agen ts ( cemen t slurry, phenolic resin
etc) and propants ( different types of hard particles such as quartz sand , chest nut shell, etc .) are combined
at a certain proportion and uniformly mixed , The mixed slurry is squeezed out of t he casing , accumulates at
t he zone where sand is produced , and after setting , finally forms a strong and permeable artificial wall to

Fi g . 2 - 22 　 Schematic
Structure of sintering -
formed mini - porous
screen
Fi g . 2 - 21 　 Pe r f o rm a n c e c u r v e o f p e rc o l a t i o n f l o w t h r o u g h c e r am－
1 - Base pipe; 2 - Filter pipe;
ic s c reen 3 - Stainless steel metal fiber

62
preven t sand production . Or , wit hou t proppants added , consolidating agen ts are directly pumped at high
pressure out of t he casing and into a sand producing zone , which cementing the unconsolidated sandstone to
preven t sand production . Furt her more, the Liaohe Oil field’s manufact ured H T chemical sand .

Ta b l e 2 - 7 　 Chemical sand consolidation

Consolida－
　 　 Advantages and
　 　 Method tion Proppant 　 Form ulation 　 　 　 Application
　 　 disadvantages
agent

Sand control in oil and wa－

Sand - cemen t slurry Cemen t∶water∶ Raw material source is
Cemen t Quartz ter wells at late stage , in
artificial bore hole quartz sand = rich , strength low and ef－
slurry sand low - pressure, shallow
wall 1∶0 .5∶4 fective duration long
wells

Sand con trol in high water

Water - carried dry Cemen t : quartz content oil well or water Raw material source is
Quartz
cement and sand ar－ Cemen t sand = 1∶( 2 ～ injector at late stage , in rich , cost low and result－
sand
tificial bore hole wall 2 .5 ) low - pressure oil and wa－ ing plugging serious
ter wells

Sand control in oil and wa－

Diesel - cement Diesel - Diesel∶cement∶
ter wells at early stage, in
emulsion artificial cemen t water = 1∶1∶ Same as above
low sand production or
bore hole wall emulsion 0 .5
shallow wells

Phenol∶ Initial and early sand con－

Phenolic Adaptability is wide , cost
Phenolic resin ar tifi－ met hanal∶ am－ t rol in oil and water wells,
resin so－ high and resin storage peri－
cial bore hole wall monia water = in medium and coarse sand
lu tion od short
1∶1 .5∶0 .05 formations

Consolidation st rengt h is
high , permeability high
Resin - chest nut Early and late sand con trol and sand con trol effect
Phenolic Chestnut Resin∶chest nut
shell ar tififial bore－ in oil and water wells, in good .
resin shell shell = 1∶1 .5
hole wall low sand production well raw material source is poor
and operation procedures
complex

Consolidation st rengt h is
Resin - sand slurry
Phenolic Quartz Resin ∶ quartz Late sand con trol in oil and high , adaptabilit y wide
artificial bore hole
resin sand sand = 1∶4 water wells and operation procedures
wall
complex

Phenol∶
Initial and early sand con－
met hanal∶ con－ Low solution viscosity re－
Phenolic solution Phenolic t rol in oil and water wells
solidating agent sults in easy squeezing and
downhole synt hesis solution temperature being high
= 1∶2∶( 0 .3 ～ separate layer sand cont rol
above 60℃
0 .36)

Early and late sand con trol

Resin - coated gravel High strengt h , high per－
Quartz Resin∶gravel = in oil and water wells tem－
atificial bore hole Epoxy meability and simple oper－
sand 1∶( 10～20) perature being high above
wall ation
60℃

63
 Fi g . 2 - 23 　 Open hole co－
mpleted horizontal well
schematic diagram
1 - 9 in casing ; 2 - Inclination
point; 3 - 8 in borehole; 4 -
Formation

Consolidating agent is essentially utilized on a steam injection well and is able to stand temperat ures
higher t han 350℃ . Canada ARC developed agent made of polymers can preven t fine sand from flowing in
t he bore hloe . While che mical sand consolidation provides a means of sand control, limitations on its appli－
cation exist . I t can be used only in single and thin layers , perferably about 5m t hick . It cannot be adopted
in thick layers or long intervals . Advan tages , disadvan tages and applications of chemical sand con trol are
listed in Table 2 - 7 . Details may be found in the sevent h volume on“Sand Con trol Techniques”of the“ Oil
Production Technology Handbook”[ 3 ] . Conditions adap table to various completions are in T able 2 - 8 .

2 .2 Horizontal Well Completion Methods

There are five completion methods presently employed in horizon tal wells , namely open hole, slotted
liner , slotted liner wit h external casing packer ( ECP ) , perforation , and gravel pack . It is well know n that
horizon tal wells can be classified as short , medium and long radius ones based on t heir inclination and curva－
ture radius , as is shown in Table 2 - 9 .
Horizontal well completion should be singled ou t in accordance with t he act ual reservoir conditions , for
each completion has its own application limitations .
2 .2 .1 Open - hole completion
It appears to be the simplest one, and can be carried out by running intermediate casing in a well at a
predetermined dept h and doing a cemen ting job . After that a smaller size bit is employed to bore t he hori－
zontal interval to a designed lengt h . U p to t his poin t the well is completed as shown in Fig . 2 - 23 .
This type of completion is mainly applied in such hard and non - collapsed reservoirs as carbonatite;
and in some reservoirs with vertical fract ures for example , U . S . Austin Texas Chalk formation . Please re－
fer to Table 2 - 10 and Table 2 - 11 .
2 .2 .2 Slotted liner completion
The completion procedures are: hang a slotted liner on the intermediate casing and isolate the annulus
using a hanging packer . The slotted liner should be equipped wit h a centralizer to keep it in cent ral position
as show n in Fig . 2 - 24 . The majority of horizon tal, branched , and multi branched well employ t his type
of completion as shown in Fig . 2 - 25 .

64
 Ta b l e 2 - 8 　 Geologic conditions favorable for various vertical well completions

Completion Application

(1) Reservoirs where gas cap , bottom water , water bearing interbed , or collapse of the in terbed re－
quire isolation of layers or intervals
Perforation comple－ (2) R eservoirs where pressure and lit hological diferences in various layers require seperate zone test ,
tion separate zone production , separate zone waterflooding and separate zone process
(3 ) Low per meability reservoirs requiring hydraulic fracturing job
(4 ) Sandstone and fractured carbonate reservoirs

( 1) Carbonate or sandstone reservoirs whose hole wall appears stable and does not tend to collapse and
whose lit hology seems hard and tight
Open hole comple－
(2 ) Reservoirs with no gap cap , bottom water , water - bearing interbed , or collapsed interbed
tion
(3 ) Singular thick reservoirs or multilayer reservoirs wit h physically unifor m pressure and lithology
(4 ) Reservoirs where there is no need of isolating layer , intervals, or of practicing selective process

(1 ) Reservoirs withou t gas cap , bottom water , water - bearing , or collapsed interbeds
Slot ted liner com－ (2 ) Single thick reservoirs or multi - layer reservoirs wit h basically uniform pressure and lit hology
pletion (3 ) Reservoirs which are not prepared for isolating layers, in tervals or practicing selective process
(4 ) Medium , coarse sandstone reservoirs wit h considerably loose lit hology

(1 ) , ( 2) , (3 ) Same as above
Open - hole gravel
(4 ) Medium , coarse, and fine sandstone reservoirs wit h loose lit hology whose sand production is seri－
pack completion
ous

(1) Reservoirs with gas cap , bottom water , water - bearing in terbed , or collapse in terbed where in－
Casing gravel pack terbeds or in tervals need to be isolated
completion (2 ) Reservoirs with pressure and lithology differences existing where selective process is necessary
(3 ) Medium , coarse, and fine sandstone reservoirs wit h loose lithology and severe sand production

(1 ) Reservoirs with hard and tight lit hology , and wit h stable ( not collapsed) borehole wall
(2 ) Reservoir which bear no water and have no collapsed interbeds in t he intervals
Complex type com－ (3 ) Simple t hick reservoirs, or reservoirs wit h basically uniform pressure and lit hology
pletion (4 ) Reservoirs where no layer or interval isolation or no selective process is required
(5 ) Reservoirs with gas cap or wit h H P water zone close to reservoir top boundary , and without bot－
tom water

T a b l e 2 - 9 　 Horizontal well type

Short Medium Long

Curvature radius 6～12 m 50～213m 305～914 m

Inclination 5°～10°
/m 26°～98°
/ 100m 7°～20°
/ 100m

65
 Fi g . 2 - 24 　 Slotted Liner
Completion
1 - Packer ; 2 - 9 in casing;
3 - Kick out point ; 4 - 5 in cas－
ing; 5 - 8 in bore hole; 6 -
Centralizer ; 7 - Formation; 8 -
Hanger

Slotted liner completion is used in a well not to be completed with perforated casing , and intended to
preven t formation collapse that often occurs on open - hole completion . This completion met hod appears
simple in operation .Not only can it prevent formation collapse, but it will aid division of t he horizontal in－
terval into several smaller ones for t he purpose of taking sm aller - scale operation . In horizon tal wells this
kind completion is commonly employed . The application is found in T able 2 - 10 and Table 2 - 11 .

Fi g . 2 - 25 　 Horizontal Branched Well

　 　 1 - Branched wel l with slotted liner completion; 2 - Branched well with open hole completion; 3 - Pay zone

66
 Fi g . 2 - 26 　 Schematic of
horizontal well wi th perfora－
t ion completion diagram
1- 9 in casing; 2 - Hanger ; 3
- Kick out point ; 4 - 8 in bore
hole ; 5 - Perforation holes ; 6 -
Pay zone

2 .2 .3 Perforation completion
After cementing in termediate casing in the ver tical , the tail pipe is rundow n into the horizon tal inter－
val . And the tail pipe should overlop t he intermediate casing around 100m . Then cementing and perforating
in the horizon tal in terval will be taken .
The well completion met hod is practical in t hat in tervals and layers can be isolated , separate layer stim－
ulation and water injection job may be carried ou t and it may be practiced bot h in thin and heavy oil reser－
voirs . Application conditions of t his method are found in T able 2 - 9 and T able 2 - 10 .
2 .2 .4 External casing packer ( ECP ) completion
This met hod , m aking use of ECP to isolate intervals , permits operation and production cont rol in sep－
arate in tervals , w hich is critical to water flooding oil field in particular . Its application conditions can be re－
ferred to in Table 2 - 10 and T able 2 - 11 . ECP completion is classified into three types , as show n in Fig .
2 - 27 , 2 - 28 and 2 - 29 .

Fi g . 2 - 27 　 ECP and slot－

ted liner completion
1 - ECP ; 2 - Slotted liner

67
 F i g . 2 - 28 　 ECP and sliding sleeve completion
1 - Hanger ; 2 - ECP ; 3 - Sliding sleeve; 4 - Pay zone

2 .2 .5 Gravel pack completion

Bot h domestic and foreign practice indicate t hat procedures for t his type of completion are complicated
eit her by open - hole gravel or inside casing gravel pack means . Those completions are curren tly at t he test
stage in horizontal wells in sit u .
Open - hole dow nhole gravel pack may cause t he bore hole to collapse prior to the gravel being fully
packed .
Open - hole downhole gravel pack may lead to t he centralizer being buried in unconsolidated formation ,
and the long screen can not be cent ralized .
When open - hole and casing gravel packing operations are conducted, filtrate loss of the packing fluid
will be great . This not only results in formation damage bu t limits t he pack lengt h under the existing condi－
tions of pumping equipment and packing fluid properties . As reported in foreign papers the pack lengt h can
2
not reach 60m in high - permeabilit y oil formation ( K > 0 .1 μm ) . Even in low - permeabilit y formation
( K < 0 .1μm 2 ) the lengt h can not yet reach 120m . Clearly , t his met hod is not applicable in long horizon tal
in terval . Curren tly , sand cont rol completion in a horizontal well employs gravel prepacked screen , metal fi－
bre screen , or a slotted liner .

F i g . 2 - 29 　 ECP and perforated liner completion

1 - ECP ; 2 - Cemented interval; 3 - Perforated interval; 4 - Pay zone

68
 Fi g . 2 - 30 　 Horizontal well
open - hole gravel prepack－
ed screen completion sche－
matic diagram
1 - Intermediate casing; 2 -
Hanger ; 3 - Centralizer ;
4 - Pay zone; 5 - Prepacked wire
wrapped screen; 6 - Wall of open
hole

Open - hole horizon tal well, gravel prepacked wire - wrapped screen completion applies a screen wit h
t he same st ruct ure and properties as t hat used in vertical well completion except for a cent ralizer e mployed
for cen tralizing t he screen in the horizon tal in terval, as shown in Fig . 2 - 30 .
Horizontal well casing perforation wit h prepacked wire - wrapped screen completion shown in Fig . 2 -
31 .
The Shenli oil field of China studied the dow nhole gravel pack of horizon tal well t hrough physical and
m at hematical models . One large scale full - size experiment equipment of a horizontal well gravel pack has
been established, as show n in Fig .2 - 32 .

Fi g . 2 - 31 　 Horizontal well
casing gravel prepacked
screen completion schemat－
ic diagram
1 - Hanger ; 2 - Packer ; 3 -
Centralizer ; 4 - Liner ; 5 -
Prepacked wire - wrapped
screen; 6 - Perforation holes ; 7
- Pay zone

69
　 Fi g . 2 - 32 　 Schemat ic diagram of full - size experiment equipment of horizontal well gravel pack
1 - Lifting equipment ; 2 - Camera system ; 3 - Data acquisition system ; 4 - Simulated wellbore; 5 - Pipelines

The simulated wellbore is made of t ransparent organic glass , its norminal diameter is 7 in and its full
lengt h is 30 meters , and can resist 1 .2 M Pa . This equipment can be used to research the flowing state of
gravel in a horizontal well and t he packing laws and selection of op timum para meters of gravel packing
t reat ment .
Advantages , disadvan tages , and application conditions are found in Table 2 - 10 and T able 2 - 11 .

Ta b l e 2 - 10 　 Advantages and disadvantages of different horizontal completion

Completion 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 Advantages 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 Disadvantages

(1 ) Low cost
(2 ) No reservoir damage ( 1) Bore hole collapse in unconsolidated reservoir
( 3) Use of expandable straddle packer allows stimu－ ( 2) Inter - interval channeling can’t be avoided
Open - hole lation measures as production cont rol and in terval ( 3 ) Stimulation measures are limited , hydraulic
isolation fracturing cannot be accomplished
(4 ) Use of spinner flowmeter helps to exercise pro－ ( 4) Production test data are unreliable
duction testing

( 1) Interval isolated can’t be practiced and inter -

layer channeling is unavoidable
(1 ) Relatively low cost
(2) Selective stimulation and injection are impossi－
Slot ted liner (2 ) No reservoir damage by cemen t slurry
ble
(3 ) Bore hole collapse can be preven ted
( 3) Production cont rol can’t be executed and no re－
liable production testing data can be ob tained

(1 ) Comparatively cost
(2 ) No reservoir damage by cement slurry
Slot ted liner (3 ) In terval isolation by ECP avoids interlayer chan－
wit h ECP neling to some ex tent
(4 ) Production cont rol , production testing , stimula－
tion , and injection can all be executed
Effectiveness of ECP isolating interval depends upon
t he regularity of horizon tal bore hole, setting of
pack and resistance of sealing element to pressure
and temperature

70
 (continued) 　 　

Completion 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 Advantages 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 Disadvantages

(1 ) Most effective interval isolation preven ts inter－

( 1) Relatively high completed cost
layer channeling
( 2) Reservoir damage by cemen t slurry
Perforation (2 ) Effective production control , production testing
( 3) Cemen ting qualit y not guarated
and any selective stimulation and another jobs may
( 4) Requirement for high perforating technique
be implemen ted

(1 ) No reservoir damage caused by cemen t slurry

Open - hole ( 1) Interval isolation can’t be practiced and in ter -
(2 ) Sand production from unconsolidated reservoir
gravel layer channeling is unavoidable
and bore hole collapse can be avoided
prepacked ( 2) Selective stimulation can’t be executed
( 3 ) T he completion is adap table in particular to
screen ( 3) Production con trol can’t be implemented
t hermal process of viscous oil reservoir

(1) Unconsolidated reservoir’s producing sand and

Casing gravel bore hole collapse can be preven ted ( 1) Reservoir may be damaged by cement slurry
prepacked (2 ) The completion is applicable in par ticular to (2 ) Selective stimulation can be carried out only if
screen t hermal process of heavy oil reservoir t he downhole gravel prepacked screen is pulled ou t
(3 ) Selective perforation is applicable

Ta b l e 2 - 11 　 Geological condit ions favorable to different horizontal well completions

　 　 Completion 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 Geological Conditions

(1 ) Reservoir wit h hard and tight rocks and stable bore wall
(2 ) Reservoir that needs no interval isolation
　 　 Open - hole
(3 ) Nat ural fractured carbonate and hard sandstone
(4 ) Short and ext remely shor t radius horizontal wells

(1 ) Reservoir whose bore hole is unstable and easy to slough

　 　 Slot ted liner (2 ) Reservoir needs no interval isolation
(3 ) Nat ural fractured carbonate and hard sandstone

(1 ) Reservoir waterflooding with in terval not necessary to isolate

Slot ted liner wit h (2 ) Reservoir that needs in terval isolation , bu t not hydraulic fract uring job
ECP (3 ) Reservoir whose bore hole is unstable, and possibly sloughs
(4 ) Nat ural fractured or laterally heterogeneous carbonate or hard sandstone

(1 ) Waterflooding reservoir which requires interval isolation

Perforation (2 ) Reservoir which needs hydraulic fract uring
(3 ) Fract ured sandstone reservoir

(1 ) Medium , coarse and fine sandstone reservoir which produces large amoun ts of sand due to loose
Open - hole gravel lit hologic cemen tation
prepacked screen (2 ) Reservoir which needs no interval isolation
(3 ) T her mal - processed heavy oil reservoir

(1 ) Medium , coarse and fine sandstone reservoir which produces large amoun ts of sand due to loose
Casing gravel prep－ lit hologic cemen tation
acked screen (2 ) Fract ured sandstone reservoir
(3 ) T her mal - processed viscous oil reservoir

71
 Fi g . 2 - 33 　 Factors con－
sidered in complet ion meth－
ods selection

2 .3 Selection of Well Completion Methods

The selection of completion methods mainly applies to a single well . Despite wells are drilled in a cer－
tain reservoir , t hey would not be completed by the same method as other wells due to t he difference of geo－
graphical location . For instance , if one reservoir has gas cap and bottom water , t he in termediate casing
string should plug the gas cap, and t he oil zone will be opened , but not t he bottom water zone . Suppose
casing perforating completion is e mployed , t he gas cap and bottom water zone should not be perforated . A－
gain , provided t hat t he reservoir has edge water and casing perforating completion is applied , full advantage
should be taken of the edge water dividing action and perforating of oil/ water transition zone should be
avoided . Chapter 1 has described how completion selection should be based on oilfield geologic conditions
and reservoir engineering requirements . On t he ot her hand , t his section will discuss , from anot her view－
poin t , some problems with t he completion selection for three large groups of wells ( vertical, directional and
horizon tal) , on t he basis of oil field geologic properties and reservoir engineering needs . Principal factors
w hich should be considered during completion met hods selecting are found in Fig . 2 - 33 .
2 .3 .1 Selection of vertical well completion methods
Well completion met hods of a vertical well have remained essen tially ( both in China and abroad) as
w hen oil was first exploited , and are likely to be t he same in t he fut ure . These methods are wide in applica－
tion , simple in operational procedures , shor t in hole construction period as well as low in cost . Depending
on lithology , wells can be classified in three large groups ( sandstone , carbonate and other lit hological )
w here vertical completion applies .
The selection of well completion met hods herein described considers reservoir t ype, percolation behav－
ior and crude proper ties . Now let us discuss how to choose a completion met hod on the basis of lithological
properties .
2 .3 .1 .1 Sandstone oil/ gas reservoir
Completion met hod selecting flow chart for sandstone reservoir is shown in Fig . 2 - 34 .
(1 ) Sandstone reservoirs classified bedded , massive and lithological categories . In sedimentary forma－
tions, bedded reservoir makes up a larger proportion than ot her two types of reservoir . Lithological and
m assive reservoirs possess similar physical properties , crude proper ties , and pressure system . No special ac－
count should be taken of t he completion met hod . However , in a bedded reservoir with simultaneous expl－

72
Fi g . 2 - 34 　 The flow chart selection of well completion methods in sandstone reservoir
Notes:
Completion 1———As bottom water exists , ≥7 in prepacked casing gravel pack completion (or metallic fibre screen, metal－
lic powder sand screen, wire－wrapped screen are run in the casing) is applied . As no bottom water exists , open hole gravel
pack completion ( or metallic fibre screen, metallic powder sand screen, wire - wrapped screen) is used . All the wells are
produced by thermal recovery .
Completion 2———As without both gas cap and bottom water , open hole gravel pack completion or slotted liner or metallic fi－
bre screen or wire - wrapped screen completions are selected . In other situations , casing gravel pack or casing the wire -
wrapped screen or metallic fibre screen or metallic powder sand screen are selected or chemical sand control is conducted
outside casing .
Completion 3———perforating completion with 1/ 3 of mid payzone perforated .
Completion 4———perforating completion with 2/ 3 of lower payzone perforated .
Completion 5———perforating completion with 2/ 3 of upper payzone perforated .
Completion 6———perforating completion with all payzone perforated .
Completion 7——— liner completion with casing run in through gas cap and drilling reaching at a depth above oil/ water inter－
face , or perforating completion with mid payzone perforated .
Completion 8——— liner completion with casing run in through gas cap or perforation completion with lower part of payzone
perforated .
Completion 9——— liner completion with drilling to a depth above oil/ water interface or perforating completion with upper part
of payzone perforated .
Completion 10———open hole completion, or liner completion, or perforating completion with entire payzone perforated .
Completion 11———casing perforating completion, separate production, or dual tubing completion . Different strata series can
be exploitated separatively and each series can be completed by most apprapriate completion selected according to the flow
chart for single oi l/ gas formation .

73
ploitation of multiple zones in a particular well, t he completion met hod should be considered seriously . The
first concern is the differences of in terzonal pressure and yield ; simultaneous exploitation in a single well
m ay be executed if t hose differences are not great . Suppose t he differences , in terzonal pressure in par ticu－
lar , are great . Crude oil coming from a high pressure zone tends to flow in to t he low pressure zone because
of great interzonal interference and t he total out put of many zones seems less than that of single zone . U n－
der such circumstances , separate single zone exploitation should be practised . Occasionally , t he t hickness of
a single zone is not adop ted for separate exploitation and dual - st ring production is t he only option ; one
string exploits oil from one zone avoiding in terzonal interference and warranting normal production . O ne
well in Nanhai oil field is dual－string completed .
Example of dual－string completion implemented in one well of Nanhai oilfield .
Some well Reservoir in t he first series of st rata is of bedded type, its dep th 2440 ～2446m , and gas cap
exists in some region .Test of t he reservoir provides a daily output of 200t . A reservoir in t he second series
of strata is massive, wit h a dep th of 2468 ～2538m , and test of it offers 400～ 600t/ d . If t he two reservoirs
are produced in one well, it follows that in terference will take placedue to the great pressure difference ex－
isting between t heir out puts , different pressure systems con trolling them , and different pressure taking
place . Probably , t he t wo reservoirs can be produced individually on the daily output basis . U nfort unately ,
t hey have not enough reserves to be developed separately . Moreover , it is not beneficial to open them up in－
dividually due to a long offshore well construction period , and large investmen t in t he const ruction . Obvi－
ously , there is no met hod other than dual－string production w hoch will suffice as shown in Fig . 2 - 35 . The
in termediate casing is 9 in , and on it is hung a 7in liner . A 2 in t ubing produces the first series of st ra－
ta, another 3 in tubing t he second series . After t he flowing stopped, the gas lift was planned to be exe－
cuted . The dual－string completion brings about normal production and favorable economic benefits .
While dual－st ring completion solves the problem of interbed interference , it knows cer tain limitations .
Because there are two t ubings ext racting two differen t series of strata and t he two series m ay stop flowing at
different times , a topic of when to install t he artificial lift is in troduced . I t is impossible to simultaneously
run in two sets of large diameter rod pumps or submersible elect ric pumps , due to t he limited size of casing
string . If a gas lift is planned , two artificial lifting strings should be run in as t he well is completed . As one
t ubing stops the flowing oil, the gas lift is initiated at once and dual－string production can be main tained .
Adversely, dual－st ring production begins at t he early stage of oil field development , and simple st ring pro－
duction cannot be avoided during t he late development stage . Dual－string production requires t he three fol－
lowing conditions:
① In termediate casing size ≥ 9 in , liner ( to be hung on the casing ) whose size should be≥7 in , and
two tubing strings can be run in .
② Natural gas source available for t he accomplishment of a gas lift , to guaran tee continuous production
by gas lift after flowing stops .
③ On completion , two tubing st rings wit h a gas lift production string and tools are run in ; eit her of
t he two tubings stops t he flowing oil, and gas－lifting will begin at once ( because it is impractical to kill a
well to replace a downhole string as one t ubing ceases flowing) .
Due to t he special requiremen ts needing to be satisfied during dual－st ring production , this type of pro－
duction surely has limited application in offshore wells, or onshore ult radeep ones . The advantages of this
kind production are high single well yield , no downhole operation conducted for a considerably long period
of time, as well as no medium and large scale stimulation measures being taken . A majority of onshore deep
and medium－deep wells do not employ dual－string production .Production casing size used in single tubing
production is relatively small, production cost low , well const ruction period short , artificial lift method can
be determined on t he basis of requiremen ts if flowing stops; t he reservoir may be opened up as two series of
strata if there is great interbed interference . U nder such circumstances one more well should be overcome by
t he simple managemen t of a single well, as well as t he feasibility of downhole jobs and stimulation proce－
dures .

74
 　 　 ( 2) Sandstone reservoirs can be divided as thin oil and
heavy oil reservoirs in accordance with crude viscosity .
The characteristics of a terrestrial sedmentary formation
are many series of strata, rather low permeabilit y , and low
formation energy . A large majorit y of t hin oil reservoirs
need water injection to add to the formation energy neces－
sary for development . In addition , many series of strata
must be fractured . This type sandstone reservoir can sim－
ply be casing perforation completed ; other completions
such as open - hole, slotted liner , etc . are impractical, for
t hese other completions do not allow separate water - in－
jection and separate fract uring jobs .
In a sandstone heavy oil reservoir , either conven tion－
ally or super viscous , a sand con trolling measure should be
taken due to the majorit y of t his type reservoirs being
loosely cemen ted by clay and crudes , t hus producing con－
siderable amoun ts of sand . This type of sand con trol has
been described in section one of this chapter , and may be
selected for use in accordance with the field conditions . In
addition , emphasis must be placed on the employment of
large diameter ( D > 7 in ) casing in a heavy oil well to aid
t he running of large diameter t ubing to deal wit h high
crude viscosity and great flow resistance . This problem
will be discussed in the third chapter of t his book .
Conventional heavy oil sandstone reservoirs are devel－
oped chiefly by t he waterflooding process . ( Gudao,
Gudong, Chengdong and Shengt uo fields in Shengli Oil－
field, for example ) . Wells in a waterflooded reservoir are
casing perforation completed , and t hus can be cont rolled in
separate zones . Sand cont rol will be executed wit h resin in
a water injection well, and sand con trol in a producing
well will be practiced either wit h resin or sand con trol
screen . This type of completion has been proven adequate
by t he development tests done during t he 70’s and 80’s .
As for super heavy oil reservoirs, they are produced
by t he steam injection process . Gaosheng field in Liaohe,
for instance . The reservoir had thick pay zone, the t hick－ Fi g . 2 - 35 　 Dual－string gas lift diagram
ness is 60～80m t hick , and wit h gas cap and bottom wa－ 1 - 2 in tubing ; 2 - 3 in tubing ; 3 - Gas lift valve;
ter . In the early production stage , t he reservoir is open - 4 - Dual string packer ; 5 - Pay zone No .1 ; 6 - Pack－
hole completed and sand con trol is implemented wit h wire er ; 7 - Pay zone No .2
- w rapped gravel pack screen . Later , the reservoir is
changed and completed by casing perforation since open hole completion has difficult y con trolling gas cap
and bottom water and modifying t he steam intake profile . Other bedded and t hin in ter bedded heavy oil
reservoirs ( such as Huanxiling and Shuguang in Liaohe, Jinglou in Henan and Lean in Shengli oil field ) are
completed wit h casing perforation , while sand cont rol employs a wire - w rapped gravel pack screen or ot her
sand screen . The completion of these reservoirs has endured t he stea m injection process . Each t ype of sand－
stone reservoir , if low permeabilit y , should be fract ured to increase output . If t he reservoir is high perme－
abilit y and its oil zones are loosely cemen ted t hen t he formation tends to collapse and produce sand . More－
over , a t hin oil reservoir must be conducted by water injection , and a heavy oil reservoir by steam injection .
Cont rol should be exercised in individual zones , and water and steam in take profiles must be modified . Cas－
ing perforation completion will be accomplished, but slot ted liner completion appears feasible in some mod－
erate permeability uniform reservoirs without gap cap and bot tom water, which are produced by nat ural en－
ergy need not to be stimulated .
75
Fi g . 2 - 36 　 Complet ion method selecting flow chart for carbonate reservoirs
Notes:
Completion 1———perforating completion with 1/ 3 of mid payzone perforated .
Completion 2———perforating completion with 2/ 3 of lower payzone perforated .
Completion 3———perforating completion with 2/ 3 of upper payzone perforated .
Completion 4———perforating completion with all payzone perforated .
Completion 5———open hole completion with casing run in through gas cap and drilling reaching at a depth above oil/ water in－
terface, or perforating completion with 1/ 3 of mid payzone perforated .
Completion 6———open hole completion with casing run in through gas cap or perforation completion with 2/ 3 of lower part of
payzone perforated .
Completion 7———open hole completion with drilling to a depth above oil/ water interface or perforating completion with 2/ 3
of upper part of payzone perforated .
Completion 8———open hole completion, or perforating completion with al l payzone perforated .

　 　 Most sandstone gas reservoirs are tight sandstone low permeability , and all are to be fractured . Those
wit h bottom water should be completed with casing perforating and should not be open - hole completed in－
order to prevent bottom water coning .
2 .3 .1 .2 Carbonate oil/ gas reservoirs
A flow chart for selecting a completion method for carbonatite reservoirs is found in Fig . 2 - 36 .
Reservoirs of this type can be divided , according to percolation flow properties , in to porous and frac－
tured, or pore/ fract ure dual medium . For example , a pseudo myrmekitic limestone reservoir in Chuhua
field of Shengli Oilfield is porous formation while Wumishan reservoir in Renqiu field of Huabei Oilfield is
t he dual medium mainly , wit h fract ure accompanied by a matrix pore . Porous reservoirs can be completed
exactly t he same as sandstone , and casing perforation completion is usually conducted for t he former needs
acidizing and fract uring/ acidizing . Fract ured or fract ured/ porous dual medium reservoirs ( reservoirs wit h
gas cap and bottom water in Renqiu field of H uabei Oilfield for instance ) are open - hole completed at the
initial development stage . Later , a set of open - hole packer is used to plug water and practice the acidizing
process , which is not as convenien t as t he downhole operation implemented in casing string . Then the
reservoirs are casing perforation completed, which is much more effective in con trolling gas channeling ,
76
bot tom water coning , and carring out acidizing . On the other hand, open - hole completion is applicable if
reservoirs wit hout gas cap and bottom water exist .
As wit h carbonatite oil reservoirs , carbonatite gas reservoirs can be of two types . Moxi gas field in
Sichuan and Qingbian gas field bot h belong to t he porous type . A great number of Sichuan gas reservoirs are
of t he fractured type, however . Most gas reservoirs of these two types have bot tom water . A porous gas
reservoir can be completed exactly the same as an oil reservior . Both need acidizing or fracture acidizing ,
and are commonly completed wit h casing perforation . A fract ured gas reservoir wit h bottom water must be
acidized , and bottom water con trol should be implemen ted ; casing perforation completion is practical, but
open - hole completion sometimes preferred .
2 .3 .1 .3 Igneous rock, metamorphosed rock and other oil reservoirs
These reserviors are of volcanic, esite, effusive , granite, andgreiss rock types . They are secondary an－
cien t buried hill reservoirs w hich were formed by the migration of crudes from t he oil source form ation into
t he fract ures or pores existing in t he rocks listed above . They are composed of hard rocks and therefore can
be completed as a fract ured carbonatite reservior would be . The completion method selecting flow chart for
igneous and metamorphosed rock oil/ gas reservoirs is show n in Fig . 2 - 37 .
2 .3 .2 Selection of horizontal and directional well completion methods
The selection of horizon tal well completion methods can be accomplished according to two met hods .
2 .3 .2 .1 Completion method selection on curvature radius basis
Currently , short radius horizon tal wells are essen tially open - hole completed in reservoirs with hard
vertical fractures (such as U .S Austin Chalk formation ) or tigh t fractured sandstone, for those rocks are
not apt to collapse, and will con tinue normal oil production even if the hole is open .
Medium or long radius horizontal wells may be completed by a met hod chosen based on lithological
properties , physical properties of crude , and type of stimulation to be performed . As t he horizontal in terval
grows longer wit h the rapid development of horizon tal drilling ( especially sandstone ) , formation collapse of－
ten takes place during production , t hus open - hole completion is impractical . U nder such circumstance the
slot ted liner with ECP or casing perforation completion is applied .

Fi g . 2 - 37 　 Completion method selecting flow chart for igneous and metamorphosed rock oil/ gas reser－
voirs
Notes:
Completion 1—open hole or liner completion with casing run in through gas cap and drill ing to a depth above oi l/ water inter－
face , or perforating completion with 1/ 4～1/ 3 of mid payzone perforated .
Completion 2—open hole or liner completion with casing run in through gas cap or perforating completion with 1/ 3～1/ 2 of
lower payzone perforated .
Completion 3—open hole or liner completion with dri lling to a depth above oil/ water interface or perforating completion with
1/ 3～1/ 2 of upper part of payzone perforated .
Completion 4—open hole completion, or perforating completion with all payzone perforated .
77
　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 Fi g . 2 - 38 　 Complet ion selection flow chart for horizontal wells

78
2 .3 .2 .2 Completion method selection in accordance with production method and stimulation process
For heavy crude production , the steam injection process has been widely employed in horizontal pro－
ducers in the district of Saskatchewan , Canada . A great majority of t he wells are slotted liner completed ,
and sand control has been accomplished by running in metallic fibre or gravel prepacked wire - w rapped
screen . In China, slotted liner and casing perforation completions have been executed in Lean area of
Shengli Oilfield and sand production has been prevented using metallic fibre and ceramic screen . Open -
hole completion seems inadequate due to the heavy oil reservoir being loosely cemen ted and formation col－
lapse .
Some low permeability reservoirs drilled by horizontal wells maybe fractured, and will require casing
perforating completion . Occasionally , slot ted liner with ECP completion is carried out , and small - scale
acidizing may be practiced , but not be fracturing due to the isolated in terval leng th , about 100 ～ 200m or
longer . On the other hand , high speed sand - carrying fracturing fluid may pierce or dest roy t he slots of
slot ted liner .
Completion method selection for a directional well is essen tially t he same as for a vertical well, since di－
rectional well inclination ranges roughly 50°. Completion selection for horizon tal wells is indicated in Fig . 2
- 38 .
At last, a brief int roduction will be made to slim - hole completion . T he slim - hole ( hole diameter≤
5 in ) drilling technology was recen tly suggested in America, for the reduction of drilling cost and for attain－
ing economic benefits . Oil in consideration of environmental protection measures are st ricter . Side tracking
in t he original production casing necessitates slim - hole drilling and completion technology . Slim - hole
completion includes open - hole, slot ted liner and cemen tated tail pipe perforating .U .S Shell Co . also uti－
lized a so - called mono - bore well completion . There is little difference between slim - hole and conven－
tional well completions excep t t hat a set of necessary measures and devices should be considered for stimula－
tion processes , perforating , artificial lift , dow n hole and fishing tools in order to ensure slim - hole produc－
tion will run smoothly .

References
[1 ] M , O .Aslafiyoung ( Russian Author) :“Completeness of Dow nhole St ruct ure”( in Russian)
[2 ] Wan Renpu and Luo Yingjun : “ Oil P roduction Technology Handbook , Volume 7 ” Beijing ,
Petoluem Indust ry Press , 1991 ( in Chinese )
[ 3] Cooper , R .E . and Troncoso , J .C .:“An overview of horizon tal well completion technology .”SPE
paper 17582 , Nov ., 1 - 4 , 1988
[4 ] Haas , R .C . and Stokley , C .O .:“Drilling and completion a horizon tal well in fract ured carbon－
ate .”World Oil, Oct ., 1989
[5 ] Zaleski, T .E . and Spatz, E .:“ horizontal completion challenge for industry t .”Oil and Gas Jour－
nal, May 2 , 1988
[6 ] King, G .E .:“Perforating the horizon tal well .”JP T , July 1989
[7 ] Economides , M .J . et al .:“ Horizon tal well .”Dowell Schlumberger Technical Publication , 1989
[8 ] Austin , C . et al .: “ Halliburton Horizontal Completion Seminar .” Held in Calgary , Alberta,
November 30 - December1 , 1989
[9 ] Weirich , J .B . et al .:“ perforating t he horizon tal well: designs and techniques prove successful .”
SPE 16929 presented at t he 62 nd annual technical conference , Dallas , T X, September 27 - 30 ,
1987
[ 10 ] Pan Yingde and Xiong Youming :“Op timum selection of horizon tal well completion met hods .”,
The Journal of sout hwest - China pet roleum instit ute, No .2 , 1994 ( in Chinese )

79
 Chapter 3 　 Selection and Determination of Tubing
and Production Casing Sizes

3 .1 Introduction
The selection and determination of production casing size, and t he design of casing program are one of
t he importan t phases of well completion engineering . In the past , the casing program was designed by a
drilling engineer and production casing size was t hen determined . After well completion , the production en－
gineer selected t he tubing size and production met hod on t he basis of t he selected production casing . Conse－
quently, production engineering was rest ricted by production casing size , and proper technology could not
be used in many wells . It was also difficult for stimulation to be carried ou t, and t he fluid production rate
could not be increased for a number of oil wells during high water cu t . In order to modify t his conventional
way, this chapter will attempt to demonstrate the selection and determination of reasonable production cas－
ing size . The proper sequences for t he selection and determination of t ubing and production casing sizes
( TPCS ) should be : the tubing sizes for different production methods are first determined according to
reservoir energy and the requiremen ts of production engineering , then the maximum production casing size
available is selected and determined as the correct one . In t he period of flowing production , a reasonable
t ubing size can be selected and determined by t he sensitivit y analysis of t ubing size , based on nodal system
[1]
analysis already described in detail by Brown and ot hers . During t he artificial lift, t he tubing size is close－
ly related to the stable production requirement in oil field developmen t and specific ar tificial lift met hod .
Therefore , in this chapter , a brief int roduction to nodal system analysis is given first , then t he selection and
determination of tubing and production casing sizes are described in detail .
Tubing and production casing sizes must be selected and determined before well completion . After well
completion , tubing can be replaced w hile production casing cannot . Thus some factors such as type of well,
production method , stimulation , fluid propert y and requirements of production engineering must be consid－
ered in t he selection and determination of production casing size . Specifically, in all gas wells , flowing
wells , artificially lifted wells , stimulation and heavy oil production have effects on the selection of produc－
tion casing size . For a specific well, the factors above must be taken into consideration w hen t ubing and
production casing sizes are determined .
For gas wells , Tubing and Production Casing Sizes ( TPCS ) are determined by considering both pro－
duction optimization and stimulation , and should be:

T PCS = max { T 1 , T 2 , T 3 } ( 3 - 1)

w here : T1 = TPCS from production op timization ( See section 3 of this chapter) ;

T2 = TPCS considering stimulation ( See section 5 of this chapter) ;
T3 = TPCS considering ot her special technology (for particular well) ;
max = maximum function .
Oil wells consist of conventional production well and heavy oil production well . For conventional pro－
duction well, TPCS should be:

TPCS = max { t1 , t2 , t3 , t4 } ( 3 - 2)

w here : t1 = T PCS from production optimization during flowing production ( See section 3 of t his chap ter) ;
t2 = T PCS according to the selected artificial lift method ( See section 4 of this chapter) ;
t3 = T PCS considering stimulation ( See section 5 of t his chap ter ) ;
t4 = T PCS considering other special technology ( for par ticular wells) ;
80
 max = maximum function .
For heavy oil production well, TP CS should be:

T PCS = max { T t 1 , T t2 , T t 3 } ( 3 - 3)

Where : T t 1 = T PCS according to t he selected ar tificial method ( See section 4 of this chapter) ;
T t 2 = T PCS from heavy oil production method ( See section 6 of t his chapter) ;
T t 3 = T PCS considering ot her special technology (for particular wells) ;
max = maximum function
After T PCS have been determined , the casing program for a well is designed according to t he well
dept h , drilling technology , the complexity of oil/ gas reservoir and overburden characteristics .
Details are found in chap ter 5 and reference [ 10 ] .

3 .2 A Brief Introduction to Nodal System Analysis

Generally , oil/ gas will flow t hrough several components from the reservoir to t he surface separator , as
show n in Fig .3 - 1 [ 2 ] .
From t he point of pressure loss, t he total pressure loss along the way from t he reservoir to the surface
separator includes six componen ts of loss . The pressure loses flow t hrough the porous medium , completion ,
t ubing st ring, and flow line are regarded as subsystem 1 , 2 , 3 , and 4 respectively . The pressure system of
t he entire production consists of the four pressure subsystems above .
3 .2 .1 Pressure loss in porous medium
Based on the mechanics of flow in a porous medium , the pressure dist ribution and inflow performances
of single phase liquid flow , single phase gas flow , t wo phase flow of oil/ gas, three - phase flow , and dis－
solved gas drive in flow can be derived from t he relationship among reservoir pressure , flowing bottom hole
pressure , and bubble - point pressure . Thus the total pressure loss in a porous medium can be determined .
3 .2 .2 Pressure loss across completion
Pressure loss across completion is closely related to t he completion met hod and can be calculated by

Fi g .3 - 1 　 Pressure losses
in complete Producing sys－
tem
1 - Sales pipe; 2 - Gas ; 3 -
Separator ; 4 - Liquid; 5 - Sur－
face choke; 6 - Oil tank ; 7 - Bot－
tomhole restriction device

81
compu ting the total skin factor S under t he completion met hod .
3 .2 .3 Total pressure loss in tubing string
The total pressure loss in t ubing st ring is determined according to t he calculations of multiphase flow in
pipes . Calculation met hods vary [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ] .
3 .2 .4 Total pressure loss in flow line
The total pressure loss in flow line is also determined by t he calculation method for multiphase flow in
pipes .
Oil and gas producing system consists of four subsystems w hich can be combined as a w hole by placing
nodes to segmen t t he portion defined by differen t correlations or equations . The total - producing - system
can be simulated mat hematically if numerical simulation is applied to each component of t he system . It is by
t his simulation t hat nodal analysis is used to analyse and optimize the oil/ gas producing system . When this
approach is used to solve practical problems , a cer tain node in t he system is usually selected as a solu tion
node t hat will divide t he producing system into two componen ts , i .e . the inflow and ou tflow components .
When a node at t he bottom of the well ( wit h pressure p wf ) is the solution node, for example , t he inflow
componen t includes flow through t he porous medium and flow across the completed in terval, while t he out－
flow component is composed of flow up the t ubing st ring and flow in t he surface flow line . In this way , the
following problems can be solved :
( 1) When t he parameters in the ou tflow component are constant , nodal systems analysis can be applied
to t he completion optimization . For instance, we can apply t he nodal system approach to t he optimization of
perforating parameters ( such as perforation density , perforation diameter , perforation penetration dep th ,
and phase) for a perforated well .
(2 ) O n t he con trary , when t he completion method and completion parameters are fixed , tubing size
and chokes can be optimized by the nodal approach . This problem will be discussed fur ther in the tubing
size sensitivity analysis in the following section ( §3 .3 ) .
In addition to t he application of nodal analysis to the problems above, there are some applications of
t his approach to ot her aspects , such as t he determination of well performance in t he condition of present
production , the optim al selection of production rest rictions for modification and adjust ment , t he determina－
tion of production stat us at the final date of flowing production and cause analysis of off production , the de－
termination of optimum time for transition from flowing production to artificial lift , t he optimization of arti－
ficial lift methods , and discovery of new ways to increase t he production rate .
In summary , the nodal system analysis can be applied to t he optimization of completion parameters and
t ubing size for new wells , w hich is greatly concerned in completion engineering . The nodal analysis is help－
ful to t he scientific production management of producing wells .
More discussions abou t the t heory and practice of nodal analysis are not given in t his chapter and can be
[ 1～ 8 ]
seen in References .

3 .3 Selection and Determination of TPCS for Flowing Oil Wells and Gas Wells
The tubing size sensitivity analysis for gas and flowing wells is based on nodal system analysis . For gas
wells , t he size range of production casing can be determined on t he basis of t ubing size sensitivity analysis ,
but a final casing size determination cannot be m ade yet . This is because tubing size should still meet t he re－
quiremen t of stimulation ( especially hydraulic fracturing , acid fracturing, and pad fluid acid fracturing) af－
ter being put in to production . Hence, the final casing size selection and determination must be made accord－
ing to the requirements of production op timization and stimulation . For flowing wells , the selection and de－
termination of production casing size are more complicated . First of all, t he flowing life is limited and oil
will be produced by artificial lift after t he flowing life . The TPCS for t he flowing are different from t hat for
t he artificial lift met hods ( sucker - rod pumping , elect rical submersible pumping , hydraulic piston pumping
and gas lift ) considering the requirement of stable production , and are usually smaller . Second , different
TP CS are needed for different artificial lift methods . In addition , waterflood developmen t is used in most
oilfields in China . In t he high water - cut stage, high volume artificial lift is needed for stable oil produc－
tion . Consequently , in a given ar tificial lift , the TP CS should still be determined after pump diameter has
82
been selected and determined according to the fluid production rate in high water - cut stage . Finally , the
TP CS must meet the requirements of stimulation and sand con trol as well . Therefore , the final T PCS de－
termination should be made by considering t he requirements of t he three aspects above for flowing wells ,
and by considering t he requirements of the latter two aspects above for nonflowing wells .
The selection and determination of TP CS for flowing and gas wells are discussed in this section , and
for ar tificially lifted wells in §3 .4 , for heavy oil production and high - pour - point oil wells in §3 .6 . The
effect of stimulation on the T PCS is discussed in §3 .5 .
3 .3 .1 Importance of tubing size sensitivity analysis for flowing oil wells and gas wells
The objective of production optimization of t he flowing oil well is to ensure that the well maintains
m aximum flowing life at maximum production rate, w hich is t he met hod of u tilizing reservoir energy opti－
mally . The importance of tubing size selection is presented as show n in Fig .3 - 2 .
When Q L > Q A , i .e . at a high production rate as show n in Fig .3 - 2 , t he lift efficiency for 4 in
( 114 .3mm ) t ubing is the highest . When Q L = QA , 3 in ( 88 .9 mm) tubing is better . When Q L = QB ,
2 in ( 73mm) tubing is more economical . While Q L ≤ QC , 2 in ( 60 .3 mm) tubing is op timal .
Fig .3 - 3 illust rates t he I PR curve for a gas well and t he wellhead performance relationship ( W RP )
curves for various t ubing sizes .
As shown in Fig .3 - 3 , gas production of a gas well is cont rolled by choke, and lines A and B represent
t he choke performance relationship ( CP R ) curves for two different choke sizes . Stabilit y analysis shows
t hat gas must be produced on t he right side of t he maximum crest of each W PR curve , or pressure fluct ua－
tion will occur and the well will stop producing . When t he gas production rate is low , off - production oc－
curs for large tubing diameters , w hile production can be maintained for small t ubing diameters . In con trast,
w hen gas production rate is high , t he flow efficiency is higher for large tubing diameters; t herefore, the ef－
fective measure for utilizing reservoir energy and extending t he life of a gas well is gas production using a
large - diameter t ubing in t he early stage of gas field developmen t, and small - diameter tubing in the late
stage of development .
3 .3 .2 Sensitivity analysis and optimization of tubing size

3 .3 .2 .1 Objective and method of tubing size optimization

During t he flowing production , t he flow in t ubing can be analyzed by t he vertical multiphase flow in
pipe . The most significan t factors affecting the pressure gradient dist ribution for ver tical multiphase flow
are tubing size, flow rate , gas - liquid ratio , viscosity , and water - cut . For a designed well , gas - liquid
ratio , viscosit y , and water - cut are basically in a range while the flow rate can be cont rolled and changed .
According to the multiphase flow t heory , there is an optimum tubing size for which t he pressure gradient or
pressure loss in t he well is minimum at each flow rate . When the flow rate is fixed , tubing size too small
will result in high flow velocit y that leads to high friction pressure loss; tubing size too large will cause low
flow velocit y t hat leads to serious slippage effect . Thus only when t he proper tubing size is used can the sum
of the friction pressure loss and t he slippage loss be minimum , and the maximum energy utilization efficien－
cy be achieved .
Since production rate is an impor tan t factor of tubing size op timization , and there are differen t opti－
mum tubing sizes for different flow rate, production rates should be considered the variable in all analyses .
During the flow from reservoir to wellhead ( including the flow in surface flow line ) , production rate is
closely related to pressure, hense, pressure is generally regarded as another variable . Usually , t he effect of
t ubing size is analyzed according to pressure - rate ( p — Q ) coordinate plot, and nodal analysis is applied to
determine op timum tubing size .
The following two explanations concern t he optimum tubing size: ( 1 ) In a fixed surface condition
( such as separator pressure, wellhead pressure, or surface flow line size ) , a tubing size for which the maxi－
mum rate can be obtained is optimum ; ( 2) At a given production rate, a tubing size for which the well can
m ain tain a maximum flowing life with a minimum producing gas - oil ratio ( GO R) and a maximum utiliza－
tion efficiency of gas expansion energy is optimum . P ractically , these are two met hods , or two differen t ob－
jective functions of t ubing size optimization . One of method is used , or bot h are used together to optimize
t ubing size according to t he practical conditions in t he oilfield .
83
 Fi g .3 - 2 　 Effect of tubing size on the lift effi－ Fi g .3 - 3 　 Effect of tubing size on the lift effi－
ciency of the flowing oil well ciency of the gas well

3 .3 .2 .2 Tubing size optimization for a maximum production rate under a fixed surface condition
1) Wellhead ( Tubing) Pressure p w h ( under a given separator pressure )
In order to ensure that t he produced fluid will flow from the wellhead to the separator , a minimum
wellhead pressure p w h for a designed well must be reached according to the surface flow line design and well
location . Generally , a minimum inflow pressure is required in the separator . Using t his pressure, t he sur－
face pipeline size and rou te , and flow rate in pipeline, the wellhead pressure can be calculated . If a choke is
fixed to control t he production for the flowing well, t he wellhead pressure p w h under the minimum separa－
tor pressure is the sum of t he calculated wellhead pressure above and t he choke pressure drop Δ pc ho k e . Obvi－
ously , p w h is a function of production rate Q . The higher the flow rate Q is , t he higher t he required mini－
mum wellhead pressure pw h will be . Curve 1 and curve 2 in Fig .3 - 4 represent the flow line performance
curve ( wit hout choke) and t he comprehensive flow line and choke performance curve, respectively . This is
a case of production point determination when t he wellhead pressure is unfixed . Curve 3 in Fig .3 - 4 is the
wellhead pressure p w h vs . t he flow rate Q plot, called WP R ( Wellhead Performance Relationship) curve .

Fi g .3 - 4 　 Solution node at wellhead

for pressure system analysis under a
given separator pressure
1 - Flow line performance; 2 - Comprehen－
sive flow line and choke performance ; 3 -
Wellhead performance relationship

84
 Fi g .3 - 5 　 Wellhead performance rela－
tionship ( WPR) when taking the flows in
reservoir and tubing as a whole

WP R curve is ob tained by combining t he inflow performance ( I PR ) wit h the t ubing pressure drop Δ pt ub ,
as show n in Fig .3 - 5 .
Obviously , t he variation of surface parameters ( such as choke size, surface line size and separator pres－
sure) will change t he performance of outflow curve 1 or 2 . Reservoir conditions , completion met hods and
t ubing sizes ( such as gradually reduced reservoir pressures , time , differen t perforating parameters , and tub－
ing sizes) will have effects on t he wellhead inflow performance ( W P R) .
On t he condition t hat the wellhead pressure p w h is not given , t he variation of tubing size is expressed
by differen t WP R curves . Fig .3 - 6 shows t he wellhead inflow performance curves of three different tubing
sizes , and t he wellhead outflow performance curves of two different choke sizes . Evidently, t he tubing wit h
a diameter of dt 1 is optimum w hen the choke size is dc h 1 , and t he t ubing with a diameter of d t3 is optimum

Fi g .3 - 6 　 Tubing size sensitivity analysis . - 7 　 Tubing size sensitivity analysis at A fixed

Fi g 3
under unfixed wellhead pressure wellhead pressure

85
w hen t he size is dc h2 .
2) A Given Wellhead Pressure pw h
In many analyses and calculations , t he specific circumstance of the surface flow line is unknown in ad－
vance, t herefore, tubing size sensitivity analysis can not be carried out according to the first method men－
tioned above . In this case , tubing size optimization is usually carried out according to a given wellhead pres－
sure .
First , plot a reservoir inflow performance relationship ( I PR ) curve as shown in Fig .3 - 7 . Then ac－
cording to a given wellhead pressure p w h and different assumed production rate, t he t ubing in take pressures
p wf for various t ubing sizes are calculated and the production rate vs . tubing intake pressure curves ( called
t ubing performance relationship( T P R) curves) for different tubing sizes are obtained , as show n in Fig .3 -
7 . The intersections of the TP R curves and IP R curve are production poin ts for various t ubing sizes .
Generally speaking , a large tubing size means a high flowing production rate . Bu t w hen t ubing size is
larger t han t he critical one, t he increase of tubing size will cause rate reduction , as show n in Fig .3 - 7 .
Example # 1:
2 2 0．8294 4
The inflow performance for a gas well is that Qg = 0．3246 ( 13．495 - p wf ) ( Qg = 10 standard
3
m / d , p wf = MPa ) with a gas relative density Gg of 0 .6 at a given wellhead pressure p w h of 6MPa . Try to
analyze t he effects of 2 in (60 .3mm , 50 .7mm ID ) tubing and 3 in (88 .9mm , 76mm ID ) tubing on the
system productivity .
Solution: Plot the inflow performance I PR curve first , as show n in Fig .3 - 8 . Then plot the outflow
performance T PR curves ( p w h = 6MPa ) of different tubing sizes ( 50 .7mm and 76mm ) by t he calculation
met hod of vertical flow in pipes for a pure gas well, described in §3 .1 , as curve 2 and curve 3 , as show n
in Fig .3 - 8 . The following results are obtained , according to the in tersections of IP R curve and T P R
4 3
curves: production rate Qg1 = 15 × 10 m / d ( p wf1 = 8 .9MPa ) w hen dt 1 = 50 .7mm and Qg 2 = 17 .6 ×
10 4 m3/ d when dt 2 = 75 .9mm . In t his example, the production rate increases by 17 .3 % when t ubing size
is increased from 2 in to 3 in .
Example # 2:
Data for well Shen 77 in Shenyang oil field , Liaoning are given below : reservoir average pressure p r =
3 3
16 .3 MPa, dept h H = 1673 .1m , GL R = 108 .7 standard m / m , bubble point pressure p b = 18 .89MPa,
oil relative densit y Go = 0 .856 , gas relative density Gg = 0 .73 , water - cut f w = 0 . The IP R curve is plot－
ted as show n in Fig .3 - 9 , according to t he observed data . Wellhead pressure pw h = 4 .4MPa, wellhead
temperature T w h = 20 ℃ , bottom hole temperat ure T w b = 68℃ . Determine t he optimum tubing size for
flowing production .
Solution: After having analyzed and
calculated t he inflow performances for
various t ubing sizes, we found that the
well stopped flowing when tubing size dt
> 3 in ( 73 .02mm ID ) . For t his rea－
son , the tubing ou tflow curves for only
d t ≤ 73 .02mm are plotted in Fig .3 - 10 .
Plot the production rate vs . t ubing size
( ID ) curve as show n in Fig .3 - 11 , ac－
cording to t he in tersection values in Fig .3
- 10 . Obviously, production rate is very
sensitive to t ubing size and t he production
rate has a significant increase w hen the
t ubing size ( ID) is increased from 38mm
to 40 .3 mm and 50 .3mm ; the production
rate has a considerable decrease when t he
Fi g .3 - 8 　 Effect of various tubing sizes for gas well t ubing size ( ID ) is increased from 5 0 . 3
mm to 62mm . Therefore , t he optimum

86
t ubing size is 2 in ( 50 .3 mm ID) .
The following is anot her example of
analyzing tubing size sensitivity for a high
productivity well .
Example # 3:
The following are data given for Well
Ta zhong 402 in Tarim oil field: reservoir
average pressure p r = 42 .49M Pa , dep th H
3 3
= 3695m , GL R = 220 standard m / m ,
bubble poin t pressure p b = 42 .49MPa, oil
gravit y Go = 0 .8331 , gas relative density
Gg = 0 .7851 , water - cu t f w = 0 . IP R
curve according to well test data as show n
in Fig .3 - 12 . It is obviously a high oil pro－
duction rate well . Wellhead pressure pw h =
19 .5MPa, wellhead temperat ure T w h = 30
℃ , bottom hole temperature T w b = 85 ℃ .
Determine t he optimum t ubing size for the
flowing production .
Solution: After having analyzed and
calculated t he outflow performance curves ,
it was found t hat t he well stopped flowing Fi g 3 . - 9 　 IPR curve for well shen 77 ( according to the
w hen tubing size dt > 83 .8mm . Fig .3 - 13 observed data )
shows t he tubing outflow performance
curves of seven differen t tubing sizes from d t = 38mm to 83 .3mm . Plot the Qo — dt curve and p wf — dt
curve according to t he intersections of various ou tflow performance curves with t he IP R curve, as show n in
Fig .3 - 14 and Fig .3 - 15 respectively . It
is know n from t he curves t hat, when dt <
75 .9mm , t he oil production rate increases
as dt increases; when d t ≥ 83 .8mm , the
production rate begin to drop . Since the
production rate for the tubing size d t of
73 .02mm is approximate to that for the
t ubing size dt of 75 .9mm, the t ubing size
d t of 3 in ( 73 .02mm ID ) should be se－
lected as op timum for economical reasons .
From t his example we know t hat a larger
t ubing size should be selected for a high
productivity well, but this does not mean
t hat t he larger dt , the better . Too large
t ubing size dt will cause the well to stop
flowing .

3 .3 .2 .3 Tubing size optimization for a

maximum flowing life

Flowing production is t he most eco－

nomical production met hod , and flowing
. - 10 　 Outflow performance curves of various tubing
Fi g 3
life should be ex tended as far as possible .
sizes for well shen 77
The key to ex tending the flowing life lies in
( note: Inner diameter of tubing: 0 - 38mm; 1 - 40 .3mm ; 2 - 50 .3mm ;
3 - 62mm ; 4 - 73 .02mm) t he economical u tilization of reservoir fluid

87
 energy , w hich includes pressure energy and
gas expansion energy . When t he Wellhead
pressure, or even the bottom hole pressure,
is lower than the bubble point pressure,
reservoir energy is released mainly in the
form of gas expansion energy . When the
GLR of production fluid is not high e－
nough , the well probably stops flowing .
During t he entire flowing production ,
bot h t he production rate and t he bot tom
hole pressure will generally decline . The
decline of the flowing bot tom hole pressure
( B HP) will cause the increase of producing
gas - oil ratio ( GOR ) , and t hen t he dis－
solved gas drive stage begins . In this stage,
t he GO R will first increase rapidly from a
lower original to a high one, t hen decrease
gradually to a value lower than t he original .
Thus , the problem of extending t he flowing
Fi g .3 - 11 　 Oil production rate vs . tubing sizes for well life is changed into t he problem of utiliza－
shen 77 tion of gas expansion energy .
The former Soviet researcher A . П .
K pbIПОВ t hought that the t ubing size selection for the end of flowing production ( t he last stage of flowing
production ) is still needed to main tain a maximum lift efficiency . In other words , t ubing size should be se－
lected according to t he production stat us ( such as production rate, B HP , and GL R ) at the end of flowing
production . A .П .K pbIПOB has given t he following equation for tubing diameter selection :

Gl L 0．5
d = 0．074( )
p wf - p w h
Ql L
[ ] × 25．4 ( 3 - 4)
Gl L - 10 ( pw f - p w h )
w here : d = Tubing ID, mm ;
Gl = Liquid gravit y , decimal;
Q l = P roduction rate at t he end of
flowing production , t/ d ;
L = Tubing lengh , m ;
p wf = BHP at t he end of flowing
production , 105 Pa ;
p w h = Wellhead pressure at the
end of flowing production ,
5
10 Pa .
The production rate at t he end of
flowing production can be determined ac－
cording to t he intersections of a IP R
curve and TP R curve at the end of flow－
ing production . We can plot t he tubing
performance TP R curve according to the
t ubing size for a present maximum rate .
Plot the in tersections of TP R curves and
IP R curves for different stage of reservoir
pressure . When the IP R curve is tange －
Fi g .3 - 12 　 IPR curve for well tazhong 402

88
 Fi g .3 - 13 　 Outflow performance
curves of different tubing sizes for
well tazhong 402
(Note : Inner diameter of tubing 0 - 38mm ;
1 - 40 .3mm ; 2 - 50 .3mm ; 3 - 62mm;
4 - 73 .02mm ; 5 - 75．9mm; 6 - 83 .8mm)

ntial to t he TP R curve, t he tangen tial poin t is t he flowing stop point , and t he corresponding rate and BHP
to t he point are the rate and BH P respectively w hen the well stops flowing . In practice, a tubing perfor－
mance curve may vary continuously because t he water - cu t and viscosity will be higher and higher, and the
GLR will become lower and lower as the production is proceeding . When the wellhead pressure p w h is
fixed , the TP R curve will move up w hile t he I PR curve will move down gradually , as shown in Fig .3 - 16 .
After t he prediction of the rate and
BHP when the well stops flowing , the
t ubing size for maximum flowing life can
be selected by using equation ( 3 - 4 ) .
Example # 4:
At the end of flowing production for
an oil well, it is predicted that Ql = 75 ×
3 5
10 kg/ d , pw h = 2 × 10 Pa, p wf = 23 ×
5
10 Pa, dept h L = 1000m , liquid gravity
Gl = 0 .9 . Select the size for a maximum
flowing life .
Solution: According to t he equation
(3 - 4) :

0．9 × 1000 0 ． 5
d = 0．074( )
23 - 2
75 × 1000
・[ ]
0．9 × 1000 - 10 (23 - 2)
× 25．4 = 58 .7 mm

. - 14 　 Plot of oil production rate vs tubing ID for well

Fi g 3
tazhong 402

89
 　 　 The tubing size close ( approximate ) to
t he value determined above can be selected ,
such as 2 in tubing wit h an ID of 62mm .

3 .3 .2 .4 Effect of inflow performance on

tubing size and sensitivity analysis

The principle and general method of

t ubing size optimization for t he flowing well
have been briefly discussed above . Since the
inflow and outflow componen ts of a produc－
ing well interact and condition each other ,
and t ubing is merely an external factor
w hile t he inflow performance is an internal
factor conditioning t he producing system ,
t he effect of the inflow performance on tub－
ing size must be analyzed .
Reservoir pressure will drop during
producing time, which will cause not only
t he variation of inflow performance, but al－
so t he gradual variation of fluid properties .
Consequen tly , t he optimum tubing size will
change . To simplify the analysis , the effect
Fi g .3 - 15 　 Plot of flowing bottom hole pressure vs tubing of inflow performance on the optimum tub－
ID for well tazhong 402 ing size alone is discussed here .
Example # 5:
Given data for Well Wenxi # 1 in Tuha oil field : reservoir average pressure pr = 24 .6M Pa, depth H
3 3
= 2513m , producing GL R = 116sm / m , bubble point pressure pb = 18 .89M Pa, oil gravit y Go = 0 .8 147 ,
water relative densit y Gw = 1 . 05 , gas relative
density Gg = 0 .824 , water - cut f w = 30 % ; liquid
3
production index pi = 5 ( m / d )/ MPa when the
flowing B HP p wf > p b ; pw h = 1 .5M Pa . Bot tom
hole temperature T w b = 79 ℃ , wellhead tempera－
ture T w h = 20 ℃ . Analyze the variation of t he op－
timum tubing size when reservoir pressure drops
from 24 .6 MPa to 22 .6MPa and 20 .6 M Pa .
Solution: Assume t he inflow performance
curve A, B , C for the three different reservoir
pressures, show n in Fig . 3 - 17 . Plot the liquid
production rate vs tubing size curves for different
reservoir pressure according to t he intersections of
t he curve A, B , C and the t ubing performance
curve . The optimum tubing size is 40 .3mm or 50 .3mm
w hen pr = 24 .6 MPa . When p r drops to 22 .6MPa,
t he liquid production rate declines markedly and the
optimum tubing size becomes 38mm or 40 .3mm .
When pr drops to 20 . 6MPa , t he well will stop
flowing for the t ubing wit h an inner diameter( ID) Fi g .3 - 16 　 Variat ion of product ion point and pre－
of 50 .3mm or larger and t he op timum t ubing size diction of stop flowing step point as reservoir pres－
is 25mm . sure declines
1 - Current IPR; 2 - Future TPR; 3 - Current TPR; 4 - Future
If the well can main tain a flowing production
IPR
by using such small tubing , it is bet ter to change
90
 . - 17 　 Variation of IPR curve
Fi g 3
resulting from the variation of
reservoir pressure

t he flowing well into a pumping well with a larger tubing , thus t he economic benefit will be greater .
Therefore, t his method can be used to predict the stop flowing date ( i .e ., t he time to change t he flowing
in to pumping production) .
3 .3 .3 Selection and determination of production casing size for flowing oil/ gas wells
As described above, the optimum tubing size range can be given according to either a maximum rate
objective or a maximum flowing life objective . But t his will not determine the production casing size yet .
Other conditions must be considered for the determination of production casing size .

Fi g .3 - 18 　 Effect of inflow perfor－

mance variation on oil product ion
rate and tubing size

91
3 .3 .3 .1 Determination of TPCS for gas wells
First , on t he basis of t he gas production optimization , the optimum tubing size can be determined by
t he nodal system analysis approach .Then consider the requirement of stimulation for tubing size ( See§3 .5) , and
the optimum tubing size is determined by the composite consideration of the two aspects described above . Finally ,
select the production casing size according to the recommended value in Table 3 - 1 .

T a b l e 3 - 1 　 Matching relationship between tubing and production casing sizes

Production casing size
Tubing OD [ mm ( in) ] Tubing OD [ mm ( in) ] Production casing size [ mm ( in) ]
[ mm ( in) ]
60 .3 (2 ) 127 (5) 88 .9( 3 ) 168 .3～177 .8 (6 ～7 )
63 .5( 2 ) 139 .7( 5 ) 101 .6(4 ) 177 .8( 7)
73 .0( 2 ) 139 .7( 5 ) 114 .3( 4 ) 177 .8( 7)

3 .3 .3 .2 Determination of TPCS for the flowing wells

First of all, apply t he nodal system analysis to the op timum tubing size determination by t he oil pro－
duction optimization , and select t he basic production casing size according to T able 3 - 1 . T hen consider the
requirements of a cer tain ar tificial lift met hod and stimulation for T PCS ( see §3 .4 , §3 .5 , §3 .6 ) , and
determine t he optimum TPCS by a composite consideration of the aspects above ( refer to §3 .1 ) .

3 .4 Selection and Determination of TPCS for Artificial Lift Wells

When t here is an insufficient reservoir energy or a higher water - cut in spite of a sufficient reservoir
energy , an artificial lift method is required to maintain oil production . Differen t TP CS are needed to match
different artificial lift methods wit h differen t lift installation and equipmen t , and hole conditions . For ex－
ample, 73mm ( 2 in ) t ubing is used to match a conventional 56 tubing pump with a maximum outside
diameter( OD ) of 89 .5mm and 139 .7 mm( 5 in) casing can be selected when sand control is not necessary
and single - st ring production is used . If sand cont rol is needed and the inside casing gravel pack is used , it
is better to select production casing wit h a diameter of 177 .8mm ( 7 in ) or larger . In another example,
114 .3mm (4 in ) tubing is used to match a conventional 110 tubing pump with a maximum OD of
146mm ; at least 177 .8mm ( 7 in ) casing is required , even t hough sand control is not necessary , and single
- string production is used . If sand cont rol is required and inside casing gravel pack is used , it is better to
select 244 .5mm ( 9 in ) casing .
What are the grounds for t he determination of TPCS for artificially lifted wells ? O ne consideration is
t he artificial lift met hods . The existing artificial lift met hods include sucker rod pumping , electrical sub－
mersible pumping , hydraulic piston pumping , and gas lift . The rod - pumped wells account for more than
90 % of t he production wells in China , hence t he selection and determination of TP CS for the rod - pumped
wells are one of t he emphases in t his Section . The other is daily liquid production level in t he mid - life or
final - life of the waterflood development , w hich is key to t he determination of pump type and TPCS . The
applicable conditions of various ar tificial lift met hods , and t he selection of production met hods , are found in
reference [9 ] . This section will first demonstrate the prediction of fut ure daily fluid production level, t hen
discuss the selection and determination of TP CS for t he four various lift methods above .
3 .4 .1 Prediction of daily fluid production level in the high water - cut stage
The flowing production method can be adopted for new wells with sufficient reservoir energy at the be－
ginning of production . Normally , oil is produced wit h no water - cu t or a low water - cut for a flowing
well, and consequen tly t he daily liquid production rate is relatively low . After t he flowing production is
changed in to the artificial lift production at t he stage of oilfield waterflooding development , t he daily fluid
production rate will greatly increase to a stable oil production rate .
The well completion design is made before drilling , it is t herefore necessary to predict and consider all
stages of oilfield developmen t as a w hole, especially t he liquid production rate at high water - cut stage and
its requiremen t for TPCS, in the selection and determination of TPCS .
92
 Generally , the daily fluid production rate for the flowing life is relatively low , thus t he corresponding
TP CS should be relatively small . After the flowing production is changed into the artificial lift production ,
par ticularly in t he high water - cut stage , larger T PCS are required to match a large pump . Having deter－
mined the lift met hods, it is necessary to predict the possible daily liquid production in the future, then se－
lect t he T PCS; ot herwise the correct technology and string cannot be adop ted for many oil wells, and the
production rate is probably limited . For instance , rod pumping is selected and a conventional tubing pump is
used for a well . At t he beginning of production , daily oil production rate is 50t/ d and water - cu t is 10 % ,
t hus daily liquid production rate is 55 .6 t/ d . If the pump average efficiency is assumed to be 60 % , t hen the
pump wit h a t heoretical pumping rate of 92 .7 t/ d can be selected . If 56 tubing pump with an OD of 89 .5 mm
is selected, t he matched tubing size is 73 .0mm ( 2 in) , and 139 .7mm ( 5 ) casing can be selected .
When water - cut f w = 90 % , however , daily fluid production of 400 t/ d must be reached for a stable oil
production rate of 40t/ d , t hus 110 tubing pump with an OD of 146mm must be selected , according to the
same pump efficiency of 60 % . In t his situation , t he matched tubing size is 114 .3mm (4 in ) , and at least
177 .8mm(7in) casing is required . If sand con trol is needed in the high water - cu t stage for t he well, even
7in casing cannot meet t he requirement and a larger casing is required , or the oil production rate of t he well
must be reduced and t he daily oil production level of 40 t/ d cannot be reached .
Therefore, it is only a scien tific and practical way to select and determine the T PCS by considering the
fu ture daily liquid production level . After a well is completed , t ubing size can be replaced while production
casing size cannot be replaced . In order for the fluid to be produced wit h a large size pump in t he water -
cut stage, it is better to select a larger casing size . Hence, in the flowing life and early life of artificial lift
production , t he t ubing size ( it may be smaller t han t hat in t he high water - cut stage ) can be selected ac－
cording to production op timization ( nodal system analysis) . When a large size pump is required in t he high
water - cut stage, t he tubing size can be replaced by a larger one .
The daily liquid production in the high water - cu t stage is predicted mainly according to a stable oil
production requiremen t of a developmen t project . In t he development plan , the daily oil production level
( prorated production ) for each well has been formulated according to the reservoir oil property , reservoir
parameters , and proration requirement . When well production enters t he high water - cut stage in a water－
flooding oilfield , t he daily fluid of viscous oil production must be increased for a stable oil production rate .
Thus , the relationship between the daily liquid production Q L in the high water - cut stage and t he prora－
tion production Qp o is:
Qpo
QL = ( 3 - 5)
1 - fw
3
w here : Q po = Daily oil prorated production designed in the development plan , m / d ;
3
Q L = Predicted daily liquid production , m / d ;
f w = Water - cut , % .

3 .4 .2 Selection and determination of TPCS for rod pump wells

Sucker rod pumping has been being t he chief lift system of t he world pet roleum industry . At presen t,
90 % of oil wells are rod - pumped in China .
Sucker rod pump is classified as conven tional or special, according to its applications:

93
 The procedure of t he selection of TPCS for the sucker rod pumped well is given below :
(1 ) P redict the daily liquid production level in the high water - cut stage according to equation ( 3 -
5) .
(2 ) Select t he theoretical pump capacit y . The relationship between t he theoretical pump capacity Q tL
and the daily liquid production Q L is

QL
Q tL = ( 3 - 6)
ηp

3
w here : Q t L = Theoretical pumping rate, m / d ;
3
Q L = Predicted daily liquid production , m / d ;
ηp = Pump efficiency , % .
(3 ) Select t he nominal diameter of t he pump on t he basis of t he t heoretical pump capacit y .
( 4) Determine production casing size . First determine the matched tubing size and maximum pump OD
by consulting t he corresponding pump parameter list, according to t he selected pump diameter above . Then
determine t he matched production casing size by considering w het her sand cont rol is required, and w het her
single or double tubing production is used .
The pump barrel of a tubing pump is located under t he tubing st ring . A plunger is run into the pump
barrel wit h t he pump rod . The t ubing pump consists of only pump barrel and plunger ; as a result , the
pump diameter can be designed larger , wit h a high theoretical pump capacit y . As a general rule, t he tubing
pump is applicable to t he shallow and medium depth pumping well with higher production rates . For this
type of pump , the selection and determination of TPCS are show n in T able 3 - 2 .

Ta b l e 3 - 2 　 Matching relationship conventional tubing pump

( integral pump barrel) and tubing & casing
Pump nominal Outer diameter T heoretical pump Maximum pump Recommended casing size( in)
diameter of t ubing capacity OD
Gravel pack for
( mm ) ( mm) ( m3 / d) ( mm ) Non - sand con trol
sand con trol
32 60 .3 , 73 .0 14～69 89 .5 5～5 7

38 60 .3 , 73 .0 19～98 89 .5 5～5 7

44 60 .3 , 73 .0 26～131 89 .5 5～5 7

57 73 .0 42～212 89 .5 5～5 7

70 88 .9 66～330 107 5 7

83 101 .6 93～467 114 5 ～7 7

95 114 .3 122～613 132 .5 7 7～9

110 114 .3 164～820 146 7～9 9

Plunger stroke
1 .2～6 .0m
lengt h range
- 1
　 　 Note: T heoretical pump capacit y is calculated according to a stroke frequency of 10 min and a fill factor ηof 1 .

Rod pump consists of the inner and outer barrels, normally has a smaller pump diameter , a low pump
capacity, and is applicable to the deep well wit h a lower fluid level and production rate . The selection and
determination of T PCS for this type of pump are shown in Table 3 - 3 .
Actually , t he pump does not always work with a maximum stroke and maximum frequency of stroke .
Therefore, t he selected pump diameter and capacit y are possibly a bit conservative ; it’s better to take the
next larger pump size of t he selected one above as the final pump diameter determination .
The other special pumps ( such as sand - proof , gas - proof , hydraulic feedback ( for pumping heavy
oil ) , circumflux , and separate - in/ mixed - out are rarely, used and are not discussed in this Section . How－
ever, t he selection met hod of T PCS for special pumps is t he same as t hat for t he conventional tubing and
94
rod pumps .

T a b l e 3 - 3 　 Match relationship between conventional rod pump and tubing & casing

Pump nominal Outer diameter T heoretical pump Maximum pump Recommended casing size( in)
diameter of t ubing capacity OD
( mm ) ( mm) ( m3 / d) ( mm ) Gravel pack for
Non - sand con trol
sand con trol

32 48 .3 , 60 .3 14～69 89 .5 5～5 7

38 60 .3 , 73 .0 19～98 89 .5 5～5 7

44 73 .0 26～131 89 .5 5～5 7

51 73 .0 35～173 107 5～5 7

56 88 .9 42～212 107 5 7

57 88 .9 44～220 107 5 7

63 88 .9 54～259 114 7 7～9

Plunger stroke
1 .2～6 .0m
lengt h range
- 1
　 　 Note: T heoretical pump capacit y is calculated according to a stroke frequency of 10 min and a fill factor ηof 1 .

Example # 6:
3
The designed oil prorated production rate for a waterflooding well is 25m / d . Reservoir oil viscosit y is
14 .5 m Pa・s and no sand is produced . Select and determine the production casing size .
Solution: ( 1) Predict the daily liquid production Q L in t he high water - cut stage according to equation
3 3 3
(3 - 5 ) . Q L1 = 125m / d when f w = 80 % , and Q L 2 = 250m / d when f w = 90 % , and Q L3 = 500m / d
w hen f w = 95 % . (2 ) Select a conventional t ubing pump . If the pump efficiency ηP in the high water - cuts
stage is assumed to be 0 .8 0 , then the required theoretical pump capacit y for t he t hree different water - cut
3 3 3
above is 156 .2 5m / d, 312 .5m / d , and 625m / d respectively , according to equation ( 3 - 6 ) . ( 3 ) Select
3
95 t ubing pump wit h a t heoretical pump capacity of 122～ 613m / d , or 110 t ubing pump wit h a t heoret－
3 3
ical pump capacit y of 164 ～820m / d , for a stable oil production rate of 25m / d according to Table 3 - 2 .
( 4 ) If 95 tubing pump is selected , t he matched tubing size is 114 .3mm (4 in) , maximum pump OD is
132 .5mm , and production casing size is 177 .8mm ( 7 in) . If 110 t ubing pump is selected , t he matched
t ubing size is also 114 .3mm ( 4 in ) , maximum pump OD is 146mm , and production casing size is 177 .8
～244 .5 mm ( 7～9 in) . The calculation result gives the required pump diameter in high water - cut stage
for a waterflooding production well, from which the tubing and casing diameters are derived . The optimum
artificial lift met hod is selected on t he basis of this result as well . That is , t he selection and determination of
TP CS are made for various lift types first , and t hen the op timum lift met hod is selected by economic analy－
sis .
3 .4 .3 Selection and determination of TPCS for hydraulic piston pump wells
3
The hydraulic piston pump has a high pump capacit y ( 60 ～ 1000m / d ) and is suitable for pumping
medium viscosity and high pour poin t oil, and for a deep pumping sit uation . Consequently, t he hydraulic
piston pumping has become an important met hod of lift in China . The flexibility and process conditions of
t he hydraulic piston pump are shown in Table 3 - 4 .
The common hydraulic piston pump includes single - acting pump wit h variable pressure ratio, bal－
anced single - acting pump , long - stroke double acting pump and double acting pump wit h two engines .
The power fluid circulation and string combination are show n in Table 3 - 5 .

95
 Ta b l e 3 - 4 　 Flexibility and process conditions of hydraulic piston pump

ltems Flexibilit y Application limit or process conditions

Lifted height Good 4000m or so

Liquid production rate Good Over 320m3 / d can be reached for 140 mm (5 in)

casing ; over 640 m3 / d can be reached for 178mm ( 7 in) casing

High GOR Fair No limit when gas flow is t hrough a single path ; it’
s
necessary to maintain a sufficient submergence depth
when gas flows t hrough a pump
Deviated hole or crooked hole Good Deviation angle 45°or so

Power fluid wit h scale inhibitor , or using magnetic anti - scaling inst ru－
Scale Fair
ment

Sand Poor Sand con ten t of power fluid is less t han 0 .01 %

High pour point crude oil well Good I t’s necessary to main tain an adequate power fluid rate and temperat ure

T hin oil or water base fluid must act as power fluid , and it’s necessary
Medium viscosty oil well Fair
to maintain a adequate flow rate and temperature of the power fluid

Corrosion Fair Power fluid wit h corrosion inhibitor

I t’s necessary to use t he pump and string suitable to separate zone pro－
Separate zone production Good
duction

Ta b l e 3 - 5 　 Power fluid circulation and string combination

Tubing string size ( ID ) combination [ mm( in ) ]

Casing size ( OD)
[ mm ( in) ]
Open one - tubing st ring Parallel two - tubing st ring Concen tric two - t ubing string

127 50 .3( 2)
——— ———
(5 ) 62 .0( 2 )

50 .3( 2) 50．3×25 .0 62．0×40．3

140 62 .0( 2 ) (2×1 ) (2 ×1 )

(5 ) 75 .9( 3) 75 .9×40 .3

(3×1 )

178 50 .3( 2) 50 .3×50 .3 62 .0×40 .3

(7 ) 62 .0( 2 ) (2×2 ) (2 ×1 )

75 .9( 3) 62．0×40 .3 75．9×40．3

88．6( 3 ) (2 ×1 ) (3×1 )

100．3 (4) 88 .6×50 .3

(3 ×2 )

100 .3×62 .0

(4×2 )

96
 The procedures of T PCS selection for hydraulic piston pumped wells is similar to t hat for sucker rod
pumped wells , i .e .
(1 ) Predict t he fu ture liquid production rate Q L .
(2 ) Determine the theoretical pump capacity Q tL .
(3 ) Determine t he matched tubing size and maximum pump OD according to the technical parameter
list of hydraulic piston pump .Then determine the production casing size by considering w hether single -
t ubing string or dual - t ubing string is used .
The long - stroke double acting pump is commonly used today and is suitable to the wells wit h a high
liquid production rate . The matched T PCS for hydraulic piston pumped well are shown in Table 3 - 6 .

Ta b l e 3 - 6 　 Matching relationship between long - stroke double - acting

hydraulic pump and tubing & casing

Pump - t ype SHB2 .5×10/ 20 SHB2 .5×20/ 20 SHB2 .5×30/ 20 SHB3 .0×50/ 20

T ubing size( in) 2 2 2 3．0

3
Flow rate( m / d) 100 200 300 500

Maximum OD( mm ) 114 (102) 114( 102 ) 114 114

One - tubing st ring 140 , 127 140 , 127 140 140

R ecommended casing production (5 , 5) (5 , 5) (5 ) (5 )
nominal size
[ mm( in) ] dual - tubing string 177 .8 177 .8 177 .8 193 .7～244 .5
production (7 .0 ) ( 7 .0) (7 .0) (7 ～9 )

Example # 7:
Select the TP CS for a hydraulic piston pumped well on the basis of t he parameters ( data) in Example
#6 .
3
Solution: As wit h the calculation made in example # 6 , the daily liquid production level is 500m / d
for a stable oil production rate of 25m 3/ d w hen water - cut f w = 95 % . When t he long - st roke double - act－
ing hydraulic piston pump is selected, at least SHB3 .0 × 50/ 20 pump with a t heoretical pump capacit y of
3
5 0 0 m / d must beselected , and the matched tubing OD is 76 .2 mm ( 3 in ) and productioncasing size is1 39 .7 mm
3
(5 ) . In fact , this selected pump cannot fulfill t he requiremen t of a stable oil production rate of 25m / d
because the pump efficiency cannot reach 1 .0 . Thus it’s better to select 177 .8mm (7 in ) casing , w hich
m akes it possible to use a large hydraulic piston pump in the fut ure .
3 .4 .4 Selection and determination of TPCS for electric submersible pump ( ESP) wells
ESP is used in producing low and medium viscosity fluids , high and medium flow rate wells , and low
sand content production wells from dept hs up to 3000m . It can also be used in deviated , and gravel packed
sand con trol wells , for general viscous oil production . At present , t he domestic submersible electric pump
3
suitable to 5 in ( 139 .7mm) casing has a t heoretical pump capacity of 550m / d , The procedure of T PCS
selection for electric submersible pumped wells is t he same as that for hydraulic piston pumped wells . The
m atched t ubing and casing are show n in Table 3 - 7 .
Table 3 - 8 represents t he tubing and casing m atched relationship wit h ESP made in TRW Reda
Pumps Company in USA .
Example # 8:
Select the casing size for a ESP well on t he basis of t he parameters in example # 6 .
Solution: As wit h t he calculation in example # 6 , the daily liquid production will be 500m3/ d for a
stable oil production rate of 25m 3/ d when water - cut f w = 95 % . QYB120 - 550 pump wit h a theoretical
97
pump capacit y of 550m3/ d can be selected according to Table 3 - 7 . The matched t ubing size is 73mm (2
in ) , and 139 .7 mm (5 in ) casing is selected for no sand production well, and 177 .8 mm (7 in ) casing can
be selected for a gravel packed sand con trol well . Actually, as the real pump efficiency is lower than 100 % ,
a large casing size, such as 177 .8mm (7 in) casing for a conven tional well and 244 .5mm ( 9 in ) casing
for a sand con trol well, should be selected , which makes it possible to use a larger ESP in the fu ture . For
instance , higher liquid production rate can be reached by selecting an G - 160 , G - 180 , or G - 225 pump .
Note T able 3 - 8 .

Ta b l e3 - 7 　 Matching relationship between some Domestic ESP

and tubing & casing

R ated pump Recommended casing size( in)

T ubing size capacity Pump OD
Factory Model number
( mm) ( flow rate) ( mm )
Conven tional Gravel packed
( t/ d)
well well

A10 60 .3 , 73 .0 100 95 5 7
Tianjing A15 60 .3 , 73 .0 150 95 5 7
motor A20 60 .3 , 73 .0 200 95 5 7
factory A42 60 .3 , 73 .0 425 95 5 7
A53 60 .3 , 73 .0 500 95 5 7

5 .5QD100 60 .3 , 73 .0 100 100 , 98 5 7

Zibo 5 .5QD160 60 .3 , 73 .0 160 100 , 98 5 7
submersible 5 .5QD200 60 .3 , 73 .0 200 100 , 98 5 7
pump 5 .5QD250 60 .3 , 73 .0 250 100 , 98 5 7
factory 5 .5QD320 60 .3 , 73 .0 320 100 , 98 5 7
5 .5QD425 60 .3 , 73 .0 425 100 , 98 5 7

QYB120 - 75 60 .3 , 73 .0 75 100 , 98 5 7
QYB120 - 100 60 .3 , 73 .0 100 100 , 98 5 7
QYB120 - 150 60 .3 , 73 .0 150 100 , 98 5 7
Huxi
QYB120 - 200 60 .3 , 73 .0 200 100 , 98 5 7
motor
QYB120 - 250 60 .3 , 73 .0 250 100 , 98 5 7
factor
QYB120 - 320 60 .3 , 73 .0 320 100 , 98 5 7
QYB120 - 425 60 .3 , 73 .0 425 100 , 98 5 7
QYB120 - 500 60 .3 , 73 .0 550 100 , 98 7

3 .4 .5 Selection and determination of TPCS for gas - lift wells

Gas lift is an importan t type of lift and can be used in producing low and medium viscosity or high
GO R fluid , and sand producing , deep , and deviated wells . The advantages and limitations of a gas lift are
listed in Table 3 - 9 .
Gas lift includes continuous gas lift and in termitten t gas lift . Intermittent gas lift includes t he conven－
tional lift, chamber lift and plunger lift . Since t he daily fluid production rate by in termitten t gas lift is much
lower than that by continuous gas lift , only the con tinuous gas lift is discussed here .
The procedure of T PCS selection is:
(1 ) Predict t he daily fluid production rate Q L according to equation ( 3 - 5 ) .
( 2) Determine the TPCS t hat meet the requirement of Q L when single - string gas - injection is used ,
according to T ables 3 - 10 and 3 - 11 .
The procedure of production casing selection for Dual - st ring Gas - lift Wells is given below :
( 1) Predict daily fluid production rate Q L 1 of payzone 1 and Q L2 of payzone 2 respectively , by using e－
quation ( 3 - 5 ) .
(2 ) Select t ubing size 1 suitable to Q L 1 and tubing size 2 suitable to Q L2 , according to Table 3 - 10 .
(3 ) Based on the combination of tubing sizes for upper and lower zones, t he recommended casing size
98
can be obtained from Table 3 - 12 .

Ta b l e3 - 8 　 Tubing and casing matching relationship with the ESP made in

TRW REDA PUMPS COMPANY in USA
Recommended casing size
Theoretical [ mm ( in) ]
Pump OD Maximum
Model number Pump type pump capacity
( mm ) horsepower (k W ) Conventional Gravel packed
( t/ d)
well well
338 85 .9 A - 10 62 33～66 127 177 .8
A - 14 E 62 58～86 (5) (7 )
A - 25 E 62 90～140
A - 30 E 62 115～195
A - 45 E 79 160～240
D- 9 62 26～53 139 .7 177 .8
400 101 .6
D - 12 62 33～66 (5 ) (7 )
D - 13 62 53～80
D - 20 E 62 75～115
D - 26 78 106～146
D - 40 78 125～240
D - 51 78 180～260
D - 55 E 78 190～320
D - 82 161 280～480

450 117 .35 E - 35 E 99 135～200 139 .7 177 .8

E - 41 E 99 140～235 (5 ) (7 )
E - 100 161 380～560

G- 52 E 161 210～310 177 .8 244 .5

540 130 .3
G- 62 E 161 240～360 (7) (9 )
G- 90 E 161 320～480
G- 110 224 420～600
G- 160 224 580～840
G- 180 224 660～960
G- 225 224 636～1140

Ta b l e3 - 9 　 Advantages and limi tations of gas lift

Method Advantages Limitations

Gas ( 1) Con tinuous gas - injection is required

( 1) Initial cost and lif t cost are less for deep wells
lift ( 2) Lift cost is high if injection gas is bough t from oth－
( 2) I t’ s very effective for high GOR wells
er place
( 3) Lift cost is less for sand producting wells
( 3) Lift cost is higher when corrosion occurs
( 4) Gas lift has good flexibility on production condi－
( 4 ) It ’s difficult for the wells wit h a long perforated
tions
interval to main tain a low downhole fluid level
( 5) I t is adap table to deviated wells
( 5) Production well has a high back pressure
( 6) I t is suitable for high productivit y wells
( 6) High pressure gas has poor safe reliability
( 7) Casing is needed to bear pressure

Example # 9:
A well has two payzones . Separate zone production by dual - st ring gas - lift is designed . The daily
3 3
fluid production rates for t he upper and lower zones are predicted to be 450m / d and 1000m / d respective－
ly . Select t he production casing size .
Solution: 60 .0 mm ( 2 in) tubing should be selected for the upper zone and 100 .3mm ( 4in) tubing
should be selected for the lower zone, according to Table 3 - 10 . The sum of the two t ubing diameters is
160 .3mm (6 in) , and at least 244 .5mm (9 in) casing must be selected by considering t he clearances

99
between casing and tubing and packer size , according to Table 3 - 12 .
Ta b l e 3 - 10 　 Matching relationship between tubing and casing for
single - string gas - lift wells

Minimum fluid Maximum fluid Tubing size Recommended casing size ( in)
production rate production rate
( t/ d) ( t/ d) [ mm ( in) ] Conven tional well Gravel packed well

4～8 55 25 (1 ) 5～5 7

8～12 96 35 .2 (1 ) 5～5 7

12～20 159 40 .3 (1 ) 5～5 7

31～40 397 50 .3( 2) 5 7

50～80 476 60 .0 (2 ) 5 7

30～120 636 75 .9( 3) 5 7

159～240 1590 100 .3( 4) 5 ～7 7～9

Ta b l e3 - 11 　 Matching relationship between tubing and casing

for tubular annulus gas - lift wells
Minimum fluid Maximum fluid
T ubing size Casing size
production rate production rate
( in) ( in)
( t/ d) ( t/ d)
476 1270 2 5

795 2380 2 7

636 1900 2 7

500 1590 3 7

Ta b l e3 - 12 　 Matching relationship between tubing and casing for

dual - string gas - lift wells

Tubing size 1 for upper Tubing size 2 for lower

Recommended minimum casing size ( in)
(or lower) zone ( in) (or upper) zone ( in)

1 1～2 5

1 1～2 5

1 1～2 5

2 1～2 5 ～7 ①

2 1～2 5 ～7 ①
①
3 1～2 7～9
①
4 1～2 7～9
①
5 1～2 9 ～11

3 3 9

4 3 10
　 　 ① If a larger t ubing size 2 is selected , a larger casing size should be selected .
For example , if 2 in tubing 1 and 2 in t ubing 2 are selected , 7 in casing should be chosen .

1 00
3 .5 Effect of Stimulation on the Selection of TPCS
Stimulation refers mainly to fracturing and acidizing, and is not only the measure of commissioning ,
but also the common treat ment for removing t he plugging and stimulation in oil field development . Matrix
acidizing has no special requirement for t ubing size because of its lower pump rate . But fracturing such as
t he hydraulic fract uring for sandstone reservoir acid fracturing for carbonate reservoir , and especially deep
well fract uring and t he fract uring of high fract uring pressure reservoir , have some effect on t ubing size and
furt her casing size .
Since fract uring and acidizing are usually high pressure and high pump rate operations , many difficul－
ties arise , such as hydraulic friction resistance , and an ext remely high wellhead pressure and inefficient
power loss .These result in operational failure due to no fractures being induced . When fract uring is made ,
t he relationship among t he wellhead pressure , formation fract uring pressure, and t he wellbore friction loss
is:

-6
p w h = αH + Δ pf - 10 ρg H + Δp h ( 3 - 7)

w here : p w h = Wellhead pressure, MPa ;

α= Formation fracturing pressure gradien t, M Pa/ m ;
H = Reservoir depth , m ;
Δpf = F ricrion pressure loss through wellbore , MPa ;
3
ρ= Fracturing fluid density , kg/ m ;
2
g = Gravitational acceleration , m/ s ;
Δp h = Total friction pressure loss across perforations , M Pa .
According to equation ( 3 - 7 ) , w hen t he formation fract uring pressure αH is high ( when the fractur－
ing pressure gradient αis high or the well is deep) , Δ pf and Δ ph must be lowered to reduce p w h . General－
ly , Δpf is much higher than Δ p h , t herefore the key to a lower p w h is to reduce Δpf .
The fracturing fluid used in the oil field includes Newtonian fluid and non - Newtonian fluid . For
Newtonian fluid , the friction pressure loss Δpf is:

2
H V
Δpf = f ・ × 10 - 2 ( 3 - 8)
D 2g

w here : f = Friction coefficien t, dimensionless;

H = Well depth , m ;
D = Tubing ID , m ;
V = Fluid flow velocity in wellbore ( tubing) , m/ s;
Δpf = F riction pressure loss , MPa;
2
g = Gravitational acceleration , m/ s .
The relationaship between pump rate and flow velocit y is:

Q
V = 2 ( 3 - 9)
15πD

w here : Q = P ump rate, m3/ min ;

D = Tubing ID , m ;
V = Fluid flow velocity in tubing , m/ s .
Substituting equation ( 3 - 9 ) into equation (3 - 8) gives:

2
-7 HQ
Δpf = 2．29 × 10 f 5 (3 - 10)
D

1 01
w here :Δpf = F riction pressure loss , MPa;
Q = P ump rate, m3/ min ;
D = tubing ID, m .
The ot her nomenclatures are t he same as above .
From equation ( 3 - 10) it is known t hat Δ pf is proportional to dept h H and the square pump rate, and
is inversely proportional to the tubing ID to the fift h power . The pump rate of fracturing is normally about
3 3
2 ～ 6 .0m / min , and will reach 6m / min or so during limited entry fracture treatmen t .Therefore , w hen
fracturing is made in deep wells wit h a high pump rate, t he friction pressure loss Δ pf will be high . There
are two met hods used to reduce the friction pressure loss . One is to reduce the effective viscosity of fractur－
ing fluid (or to add reducer to t he fracturing fluid ) . But t he friction resistance of the fracturing fluid can
only be reduced to abou t 60 % of t he friction resistance of water . The other is to increase tubing size , and is
t he most effective met hod according to equation (3 - 10 ) and Table 3 - 13 .

Ta b l e3 - 13 　 Calculation values of the friction resistance in tubing and the

wellhead pressure when fracturing treatment

Friction 　 　 resistance ( MPa) Well head pressure ( M Pa )

T ubing ID
[ mm ( in) ] 3 3 3 3
pump rate: 3m / min pump rate: 6m / min pu mp rate : 3 m / min pump rate : 6 m / min

50 .8( 2) 107 .99 430 .81 152 .95 475 .77

63 .5 (2 .5) 33 .48 133 .37 78 .44 178 .33

76 .2( 3) 12 .89 51 .26 57 .85 96 .22

88 .9 (3 .5) 5 .76 22 .87 50 .72 67 .83

101 .6( 4) 2 .87 11 .38 47 .84 56 .34

114 .3(4 .5 ) 1 .56 6 .16 46 .52 51 .11

Calculation parameters : water viscosity = 1mPa・s; well dept h H = 4000 m , fracturing pressure of formation pf = 92 MPa , rel－
ative density of fracturing fluid = 1 .2 .

According to Table 3 - 13 , the formation cannot be fractured w hen a Type 1400 ( working pressure
3
140 MPa) fracturing unit wit h a pump rate of 3m / min , and 50 .8mm (2 in) ID t ubing are used . Howev－
er , if t he wellhead pressure is 78 .44MPa, t he formation can be fractured when t he tubing ID is increased to
63 .5mm ( 2 in) . If t he t ubing ID is increased to 76 .2 mm (3 in) or larger , it is easy to fracture the for－
3
m ation . In t he same situations , if a flow rate of 6 m / min is used , and t he t ubing ID is smaller t han 7 6 . 2
mm ( 3 in) , it’s impossible to fract ure the formation . But when tubing ID is increased to 88 .9mm (3 in)
or larger , t he formation can be fract ured easily .
Fig .3 - 19 and Fig .3 - 20 represent t he pump rate vs friction resistance curves for differen t sizes of
t ubing given by Hullibur ton Service Company in USA .
If non - Newtonian fluid is used as a fracturing and acidizing fluid , the power - law model can be con－
sidered , i .e .

n′
τ = K′
γ

w here τis shear st ress ,γ is shear rate, K′is fluid consistency coefficient , n′is flow regime index . K′and
n′are determined by laboratory experimen t . The equation (3 - 8) can also be used to calculate t he friction
resistance . The friction coefficient f in t he equation , which is related to Reynolds number and n′, should
be obtained by experiment . I t should be noted t hat the existing water - based gel fract uring fluid is basically
viscoelastic fluid and as a result , cannot be expressed exactly by t he power - law model . In the field, the
friction resistance of a practical fracturing fluid is acquired by a transient stop - pumping method and com -

1 02
 Fi g .3 - 19 　 Fracturing fluid friction resistance vs pump rate curves
( viscosity = 1 mPa・s ; Tubing : A = 2 in—inner diameter = 50 .8 mm, B = 2 in— inner diameter = 62 mm, C = 3
in— inner diameter = 76 mm; Casing: D = 4 in ( 17 .2 kg/ m)— inner diameter = 101 .6 mm, E = 5 in ( 25 .4 kg/ m)—
inner diameter = 124 .4 mm , F = 7 in (34 .2 kg/ m) —inner diameter = 161 .9 mm)
pared with water friction resistance, t hen expressed as a percentage of water friction resistance ( which is an
input datum of fracturing design) . Generally , the friction resistance of a water - based gel fracturing fluid
is lower t han t hat of fresh water ( abou t 60 % of water friction resistance) , and is related to the material,
formulation and shear rate of t he fluid . When hydroxypropyl guar ( HPG ) is used in the field , t he fluid fric－
tion resistance has often reached 45 % of water resistance or lower in some conditions . The friction reducing
mechanism of t his high molecular polymer is complicated , and the st udy of the mechanism is beyond the

1 03
 Fi g .3 - 20 　 Fracturing Fluid Friction Resistance vs Pump Rate Curves
( viscosity = 1 mPa・s; size of annular space : A - 5 in —25 .4 kg/ m— inner diameter = 124 .4 mm, 2 in—outer diam－
eter = 73 mm ; B - 7in —34 .2 kg/ m— inner diameter = 161 .9 mm , 2 in —outer diameter = 73 mm)
reach of t his book . But the main reason for friction reducing is believed to be t he result t hat the long - chain
linear molecular polymer has resisted the turbulent flow friction . Although the polymer can be used to re－
duce friction resistance , it should still be noted t hat t he tubing diameter effected by the friction resistance is
3
ext remely significan t . If fracturing is conducted by 2 in tubing with a pump rate of 2m / min and dept h of
3000m , t he friction resistance will reach 30M Pa or higher , and t he required wellhead pressure will be more
t han 70MPa . It is impossible to fract ure t he formation wit h a high fracture pressure . When t he tubing size

1 04
is changed to 3 in , the required wellhead pressure drops to about 50M Pa and the formation can be frac－
tured . Now refer to water’friction resistance curves in Fig .3 - 19 ; in the conditions above, water friction
resistance is 44 .1M Pa , and the fract uring - fluid friction resistance is 68 % of water friction resistance . Al－
though this shows t he friction reducing effect of the polymer , the friction resistance is still high . When the
t ubing diameter is increased from 2 in to 3 in , water’s friction resistance is just 17 .6MPa, w hich is 40 %
of that for 2 in tubing in the same cases ( according to Fig .3 - 19 ) . If t he friction reducing effect of the
fracturing fluid is also taken into accoun t , it is possible to increase the pump rate . For instance , when the
3
pump rate is increased to 3m / min and the friction reducing effect of the polymer is considered, water’s
friction resistance is 35MPa, and the wellhead pressure will drop to 54M Pa or lower . This will greatly im－
prove the operation situations of fracturing .
It’s known from t he analysis above t hat t he friction drops in tubing sharply as tubing size increases .
Therefore , a larger tubing size must be designed for high formation fracturing pressure and deep wells , and
t he corresponding production casing size should also be designed larger .
When selecting production casing size , first , based on t he formation fracturing pressure gradien t and
well dept h , predict the friction resistance in t he tubing and the wellhead pressure for differen t tubing sizes
according to equations (3 - 7) and ( 3 - 8 ) , or Figures 3 - 19 and 3 - 20 , and Wellhead pressure 80 % ×
operating pressure of fract uring unit .Then refer to the matching relationships between tubing and casing in
Table 3 - 1 , and select the corresponding minimum casing size . O n t his basis , refer to t he selected T PCS
for artificially lifted well, and make a composite consideration to select appropriate T PCS .

3 .6 Selection and Determination of TPCS for Heavy Oil and High Pour Point
Oil Production Wells

Heavy oils are asphalt - base crudes w hich have a high resin and asphalt conten t and high viscosity . As
a result , they have poor flowability , and some cannot flow at all . However , the viscosity of heavy oil is
sensitive to temperature ( see Fig .3 - 21) and will drop rapidly as temperat ure increases , and vice - versa .
Consequen tly , heavy oil production is quite differen t from the conventional thin crude oil production , and is
more complex as well . Today, there are two main production methods for exploiting heavy oil in China .
Common heavy oil with a reservoir viscosity of 150mPa・s or lower is produced by conventional waterflood－
ing, and the special viscous crudes with a reservoir oil viscosity of higher t han 150mPa・s are produced by
huff and puff or steamflooding .
3 .6 .1 Heavy oil production by waterflooding
Heavy oil wit h a lower reservoir viscosit y ( lower than 150mPa・s) are produced by conven tional water－
flooding since the oil has more dissolved gas and still has some flowability in the reservoir ( t hough its surface
viscosity can reach several thousands MPa・s) . Waterflooding provides mat ure techniques , simple process
and relatively low cost wit h good economic benefit, and t here fore is a considered first as a recovery
met hod . For exa mple, Gudao , Gudong , Chengdong and Shengtuo oilfields in Shengli oil region , and Jin
99 , Niuxin tuo and Haiwaihe oilfields in Liaohe oil region in China , are developed by t he conven tional wa－
terflooding , and good results have been achieved .
3 .6 .1 .1 Flowing production
Since t he friction resistance between molecules of gum and asphalt is high , heavy oil has poor flowabili－
ty . The fluid friction head loss in tubing is calculated by t he following equation :

2
L V
Hf = f ・ (3 - 11)
D 2g
w here : H f = Friction head loss , m ;
f = Friction coefficien t, dimensionless;
L = Tubing running depth , m ;
D = Tubing diameter , m ;
V = Fluid flow velocity , m/ s .
1 05
 Fi g .3 - 21 　 Heavy oil viscosity - temperature curves
1 , 6 - Huan 17 ; 2 - No . 9 area of Xingjiang ; 3 - Kongdian; 4 - ShuYi area; 5 - LinFanjia; 7 - Gao 3 - 5 - 13 ; 8 - Shuyi
area 1 - 36 - 234 ; 9 - Shuyi area 35 - 330 ; 10 - Shuyi area 35 - 32 ; 11 - Sanjiashi; 12 - San 2 ; 13 - San 53
The head losses for different t ubing diameters are calculated by using equation (3 - 11 ) ( See Fig .3 -
22 ( a ) , ( b) , ( c) ) .
It is know n from t he figures that , t he higher crude oil viscosit y is , t he greater is the friction head loss .
For the same curve on viscosit y, the friction head loss increases as fluid flow velocity decreases , yet friction
head loss decreases as t he t ubing diameter increases . Thus for heavy oil with a high viscosit y , a larger tub－
ing diameter must be used to maintain flowing production .
3 .6 .1 .2 Pumping unit— deep well pumping production
Due to t he shackle of old conventional concepts , small tubing is run into most of t he heavy oil wells
in the early stage of developmen t,
which results in many problems in
the producing wells . With a high
viscosity of heavy oil and a high
friction resistance, t he pumping
rod is slowed dow n in t he dow n－
stroke, w hich causes t he movement
of the pumping rod to lag behind
horse head . In this way , when the
horse head moves up , the pumping
rod is still moving down , w hich
will not only disturb t he normal
movement of pumping rod , but al－
so cause“ figh ting”between pump－
ing rod and horse head , as well as
impact load ( See Fig .3 - 23) . As a
result, t he operating life of the
Fi g .3 - 22( a ) 　 Effect of tubing diameter on friction head loss sucker rod and pumping unit will
3 2
( Q = 50m / d,γ= 0 .001m / s) be reduced and mechanical failure
may occur .

1 06
 . - 22 ( b ) 　 Effect of tub－
Fi g 3
ing diameter on friction head
loss
3 2
( Q = 50m / d, γ= 0 .001m / s)

　 　 Therefore , w hen a rod pump is used for handling heavy oil, t he problem to solve first is how to reduce
friction resistance . The friction resistance between rod and fluid can be calculated by the following equa－
tion :
2
2πμL V 1 4b 4b
Fr = 3 ( + + ) (3 - 12)
10 ln ( m ) a a
w here : Fr = Friction resistance between pumping rod and t he fluid , N;
μ= Fluid viscosity , m Pa・s;
L = Pump running dept h , m ;
V = Move speed of pumping rod, m/ s;
πsn
　 　 　 V = V m ax = ;
60
　 　 　 S = St roke lengt h , m ;
- 1
　 　 　 n = Stroke per minute, min ;
dt
m =
dr

. - 22 ( c ) 　 Effect of tub－
Fi g 3
ing diameter on friction head
loss
3 2
( Q = 100m / d,γ= 0 .001m / s)

1 07
 4 ( m 2 - 1 )2
a = m - 1 - ;
ln( m )

2
m - 1
b = - 1;
2 ln ( m )
d t = Tubing diameter, m ;
d r = Pumping rod diameter , m .
From equation ( 3 - 12 ) it’s know n that
friction resistance is related to fluid viscosity ,
flow velocity , and t ubing diameter . The friction
resistance curves for different t ubing diameters
and heavy oil viscosity ( See Fig .3 - 24 ) show
t hat a high viscosit y means high friction resis－
tance; and for a given pump running dept h , a
small t ubing size means high friction resistance .
Fi g .3 - 23 　 Viscosity effect durng the course of pump－ Thus, 76 .2 ～ 101 .6mm ( 3 in ～ 4 in ) tubing
ing viscous crudes - pumping rod flotation must be used to reduce friction resistance, sucker
rod flotation , and the collision between sucker
rod and horse head .
Using large - diameter tubing and a large pump for exploiting heavy oil will not only reduce fiction re－
sistance to sucker rod and sucker rod floatation , bu t also increase pump stroke efficiency and pumping rate .
For heavy oil production by conventional waterflooding , there are a high oil/ water viscosity ratio and early
water breakt hrough , and water - cut increases quickly ( the average incre men t is about 3 % each year ) ;
most of t he oil must be produced in t he high water - cut stage . Generally the water - free oil recovery factor
is only 2 % ～5 % . When water - cut is more t han 50 % , the fluid production rate must be increased by a
factor of 2～10 ( see T able 3 - 14) to main tain stable oil production . Consequen tly , large tubing size is re－
quired for a high fluid production rate, to maintain a stable oil production ( Refer to §3 .4 ) .
In Shengli Gudao oilfield , the surface gas - free oil viscosit y is 250 ～5700mPa・s and the reservoir oil
viscosity is 20 ～130mPa・s . The oil/ water viscosity ratio is 80～350 . The fluid was put into production in
1973 and was developed by waterflooding in April, 1974 . Since oil viscosity is high and water - cut increas－
es rapidly, most oil must be produced wit h a high water - cu t . In order to maintain a stable oil production

Fi g .3 - 24( a ) 　 Effect of tubing diameter on the friction resistance between fluid and sucker rod
(μo = 1000mPa・s , S× n = 4×6 )

1 08
 Fi g .3 - 24( b ) 　 Effect of tubing diameter on the friction resistance between fluid and sucker rod
(μo = 2000mPa・s , S× n = 4×6 )

and increase liquid production rate, 70mm and 83mm pumps for producing t he crudes have been devel－
oped successively since the original 43 ～ 56mm pump has not been suitable to the oil field production .
When 43～ 56mm pumps were used , t he individual - well oil producing rate was 20t/ d and 2 in tub－
ing could meet the requirement of oil production . When water - cut increases to 80 % , t he fluid production
rate must be increased to more than 100 t/ d to maintain a stable oil production rate, and 70mm and
83mm pumps must be used , and the corresponding tubing diameter must be increased to 3～ 4in .

Ta b l e3 - 14 　 Relat ionship between water - cut and fluid produc tion rate
Water cut
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95
(%)

Fluid production
25 27 .5 31 .3 35 .7 41 .7 50 62 .5 83 .3 125 250 500
rate ( t/ d)

Fi g .3 - 24( c ) 　 Effect of tubing diameter on the friction resistance between fluid and sucker rod
(μo = 4000mPa・s , S× n = 4×6 )

1 09
 3 .6 .2 Heavy oil production by steam injection

3 .6 .2 .1 Oil production by huff and puff

H uff and puff is the most popular method
used for heavy oil production in China . During
steam injection , t he oil reservoir is heated by in－
jected steam and t hen oil viscosity decreases ,
w hich makes t he crudes flow more easily . When
wells begin to produce, t he heated and viscosity
- reduced crudes flow to bot tom holes by reser－
voir elastic energy and gravity function . w hen
t he oil temperature drops and oil viscosity in－
creases gradually as the crude low toward the
wellhead ( due to t he heat transfer effect ) .
Therefore, when designing t he tubing strings , it
is necessary to consider bot h the pumping sit ua－
tion in producing and the wellbore heat loss .
During steam injection , t he insulated tubing
usually must be run in to the wellbore to reduce
heat loss and improve bottomhole steam quality .
Thus the string in wellbore will consist of tub－
ing , casing , and insulated tubing . Different
string size combinations have different total heat
t ransfer coefficien ts which are greatly affected by
Fi g .3 - 25 　 Bottomhole steam pressures for various t he t hickness of insulating layer and annulus
tubing sizes size . The total of heat transfer coefficien ts for
different wellbore structure sizes ( see Table 3 -
15 ) show that , a small overall st ring size , and a high heat t ransfer coefficien t mean a high heat loss . 2 in
×4 in insulated tubing used in 7 in . casing has a better insulation effect than 2 in ×4 in insulated tubing
due to its thicker insulating layer . But in deep wells , 2 in tubing has a weaker mechanical strengt h and
lower safety load than 2 in t ubing . There are high flow velocity in t he small diameter tubing st ring , it
will make high friction resistance and higher pressure drop , which result in a low bottomhole steam inject－
ing pressure ( see Fig .3 - 25 ) . Therefore , large - diameter strings should be used for steam injection on the
premise of maintaining a good insulation effect , and improving t he heavy oil producing .
2
Ta b l e3 - 15 　 Total heat transfer coefficient U∞ [ w/ ( m ・k) ]
for different string size combination
Steam injection temperat ure
St ring size Insulating layer Annulus (℃)
Serial
combinati on t hickness clearance
number
in ( mm) ( mm ) 250 300 350

1 7×2 ×4 17 28 .7 1 .91 2 .52 2 .67

2 7×2 ×4 10 .5 28 .7 4 .13 4 .48 4 .78

3 7×2 ×4 16 22 .5 3 .58 3 .79 4 .02

4 5 ×2 ×3 10 .4 17 .7 4 .18 4 .85 5 .41

5 5 ×2 ×4 16 .8 11 .1 3 .99 4 .01 4 .33

1 10
 Fi g . 3 - 26 　 Relationship
between flow velocity and
friction resistance to sucker
rod for different tubing sizes

T ab l e 3 - 16 　 Fric tion resistance to pumping rod for different tubing sizes

oil viscosity μo = 1000 mPa・s sucker rod diameter dr = 1in

T ubing diameter ( in) 2 3 4 5

2 .7×6 20500 14500 9500 6600

Friction
resistances( N) 3 .3×6 25000 17800 11600 8100
for different 4 .0×6 30400 21600 14000 9800
S× n
5 .0×6 38000 27000 17600 12300
　 　 note: S = st roke lengt h ; n = strokes/ min .

Fi g .3 - 27 　 Effect of viscosi ty
on friction resistance to sucker
rod for different fubing sizes

1 11
 Steam injection production is accomplished by natural reservoir energy and has a high fluid production
rate, t hus extending the peak production life should be t he objective of any technological measures to im－
prove the production effect . In t his way , t ubing size should meet t he requirement of high liquid production
rate . If a small t ubing is used , the fluid flow velocity is high w hen t he flow rate is high . For the same di－
ameter t ubing , the higher t he flow rate is , the st ronger is friction resistance to the sucker rod , as show n in
Fig .3 - 26 . In addition , friction resistance increases as t he oil viscosity increases ( see Fig .3 - 27 ) . As a re－
sult , the sa me problem as heavy oil production by waterflooding will occur ; i .e . pumping rod flotation , col－
lision between pumping rod and horse head , and low stroke efficiency will occur .
A large tubing diameter must be selected to reduce friction resistance to t he sucker rod . For instance,
- 1
w hen the fluid viscosity is 1000mP・s and t he pumping parameters are 3 .3m× 6min ( see T able 3 - 16 ) ,
friction resistance for 2 in t ubing is 1 .4 times that for 3 in t ubing and 2 .2 times that for 4 in t ubing . Ob－
viously, t he effective way to reduce t he friction resistance is to use 3 ～ 4 in tubing , and t he corresponding
production casing should still be larger .
Apparen tly , for oil production by huff and puff, both t he stea m injection and oil production require us－
ing large - diameter st rings to improve t he recovery efficiency .
3 .6 .2 .2 Steam flooding recovery
Steam flooding is t he major met hod of steam recovery for heavy oil . When steam huff and puff recov－
ery has been carried out for some time, the recovery effect will become poor gradually as reservoir pressure
drops and water sat uration increases . If t he oil recovery factor must be improved fur ther , huff and puff re－
covery must be converted in to steam flooding recovery . Laboratory study and field practice show t hat well
flow capacity is an impor tant factor t hat affects steam flooding recovery , and well drainage rate must be
greater t han steam injection rate . Only when t he production - injection ratio reaches 1 .2 ～ 2 , t hen steam
flooding have a good recovery effect . For example, in block Du 66 , Shuguang oilfield in Liaohe, the opti－
mum stea m injection rate is 135t/ d . The recovery results of steam injection by Production - Injection Ratio
( PIR ) show in Table 3 - 17 . U nder t he condition of differen t steam injection rate , and will occur different
results , If PIR is greater than 1 .2 and reach to 2 , t he better results will be got .

Ta b l e 3 - 17 　 Effect of production veloci ty on steam flood recovery

Net in－
produc－ Produc - Cumulative Cu mulative Oil
Average oil production－ creased
tion tion steam oil recovery
production GOR injection oil
velocit y time injected ( t ) production factor
rate ( t/ d) ratio production
( t/ d) ( d) ( t) (% )
( t)
80 126 17010 2410 19 .1 0 .142 4 .1 0 .59 992

100 147 19845 2860 19 .5 0 .144 4 .8 0 .74 1206

120 218 29430 3870 17 .8 0 .132 6 .5 0 .89 1417

140 304 41040 5190 17 .1 0 .126 8 .7 1 .04 1770

160 1341 181035 23050 17 .2 0 .127 38 .8 1 .18 7963

180 788 106380 16390 20 .8 0 .154 27 .6 1 .33 7525

200 751 101385 16010 21 .3 0 .158 26 .8 1 .48 7561

220 706 95310 15150 21 .5 0 .159 25 .5 1 .63 7207

The gas - free crude oil viscosity is 13000mPa・s and reservoir thickness is 27m wit h a dep th of 450m
[ 11 ]
in T angleflags oil field , Canada . A successful combined vertical and horizontal well steam flooding ex－
perimen t was performed by Scept re Company in this oilfield in 1988 . The main experience and operational
met hod are:
( 1) Adequate understanding of reservoir productivity should be acquired . At t he beginning of develop－
ment in t he oil field , t he predicted drainage radius was 50m , and t he predicted maximum fluid production
3
rate is 6 5 0 m / d by mathematical simulation . But t he practical production data shows that t he drainage
1 12
 Fi g .3 - 28 　 Schematic diagram of typical producing well completion in tangleflages oilfield
1 - Production casing 10 in ; 2 - Tubing 7 in ; 3 - Testing tubing 2 in ; 4 - Pump diameter 7 in ; 5 - Top place of
Lloydminster sand formation; 6 - Bottom place of Lloydminster sand formation
3
radius should be 80m , and the fluid production rate 1200m / d . Due to t he underestimation of liquid pro－
duction rate, t he original running 3 in pump was not suitable to oil production , and was replaced by 4
in , 5 in and 7 in pumps respectively . The corresponding fluid production rate continuously increase as
pump size increase; yet high production life has not been achieved . Finally , a 7 in pump , 7 in tubing
and 10 in casing were used ( schematic drawing of well completion shown in Fig .3 - 28) . The method of
moving up slowly and dow n fast was used for pumping to improve t he fill factor . The practical fluid produc－
3 3
tion rate reaches 1200m / d , oil production rate 480m / d when water - cut was 60 % . The recovery result
will be greater if the maximum fluid production rate is predicted exactly .
(2 ) The period after steam breakt hrough is an impor tant oil production stage . Well production rate is
lower before steam break through . Only after steam break through , can the fluid production rate increase .
Most of t he crudes will be produced w hen water - cu t reaches 60 % ～ 80 % . In this stage , a sufficien tly
high fluid production rate must be maintained , and the production - injection ratio must be greater t han 1 .
2～2 . Consequently , large enough string and matching large - diameter casing must be run in to t he well .
3 .6 .3 High pour point oil production
High pour point oil is a type of paraffin - base crude oil with a high pour point and low viscosity . The
oil viscosit y is sensitive to temperat ure ( Fig .3 - 29) . When temperature is higher t han t he pour point , the
crudes are Newtonian fluid and t he oil viscosity may drop to several tens mPa・s to several mPa・s . When
temperature is lower t han wax precipitation point , however , t he fluid will be changed into non - Newtonian
fluid and its viscosity is related to not only the temperat ure, but also the shear rate; t hus its flowabilit y de－
creases as t he temperat ure drops . Therefore, when the temperature is higher t han t he pour poin t tempera－
ture , crude oil has good flowability with low viscosity and will easily flow from reservoir to bottomhole . But
w hen t he oil flows from bottomhole to wellhead , its viscosity increases and its flowability decreases , and oil
flow may even stop due to freezing as t he temperat ure drops . Hence , the keys to high pour point oil produc－
tion are maintaining a higher oil temperat ure than freezing point during oil flow, and especially solving the
flow proble ms near and in the wellbore to ensure that wax precipitation won’t occur .
In order to produce the high - pour - point oil, the following met hods are employed :
(1 ) Au tomatic cont rolled Auto Trace Cable ;

1 13
 Fi g .3 - 30 　 Schematic diagram of concentric
dual - string hot water circulation
1 - 7 in casing ; 2 - 2 in tubing ; 3 - 4in tubing; 4 -
Fi g .3 - 29 　 High - pour - point oil rheological curves Heated oil; 5 - hot water ; 6 - Packer
in shengbei oilfield in liaohe oilfield
　 　 (2 ) Hollow sucker rod , including two types of elect ric heating and hot water circulation ;
(3 ) Hydraulic piston pump ;
(4 ) Elect ric submersible pump ;
(5 ) Concen tric dual - st ring hot water circulation ( See Fig .3 - 30) .
Using t hese production methods , the string selection for t he first four methods depends on reservoir
productivity and process conditions, and has no special requiremen t for casing . Since t he concent ric dual -
string is used in t he fift h production type , larger casing must be selected to match t he st ring combination .
In general, 7 in casing , 4 in outer t ubing and 2 in inner tubing are used to form a path of hot water circu－
lation .
In summary , gas wells , flowing wells , ar tificially lifting wells , stimulation , and heavy oil production
have effects on t he selection of TPCS . Therefore , for a specific well, the requiremen ts of all above aspects
must be considered when determining the correct T PCS .

1 14
Reference
[1 ] K .E . Brown et al .:“ Production technology of ar tificially lifting”, Vol . 4
[2 ] Mach . Joe, Eduardo Proano, and Kermit E . Brow n .:“ A Nodal Approach for Applying Systems
Analysis to t he Flowing and Ar tificial Lift Oil or Gas Well . ”SPE 8025
[3 ] Hagedorn et al . JPT , April 1965 , P475
[ 4] Duns , H . Jr . and N . C . J . Ros .:“ Vertical flow of Gas and Liquid Mix tures in Wells”6 th World
Petreleum Congress , Frankfun t , Germany
[5 ] Orkiszewski . J .:“ Perdicting Two - phase P ressure Drop in Vertical Pipe”J . P . T ( June 1967 )
[6 ] Beggs , H . D . and J . P . Brill:“ A Study of T wo - Phase Flow in inclined Pipes”J . P . T . ( May
1973) , P60
[7] Aziz, K ., et al .:“ Pressure Drop in Wells P roducing Oil and Gas”J . C . P . T . ( July - Sep t,
1972 ) , PP38 - 48
[8 ] Wang Deyou :“ Examples of oil/ gas well nodal system analysis”, Beijing, Pet roleum Indust ry
Press , 1991 . ( In Chinese )
[9 ] Wan Renpu and Luo Yingjun : “ Oil Production Technology Handbook , Volume 4 ”, Beijing ,
Petroleum Industry Press , 1993 . ( In Chinese )
[10] Li Kexiang et al:“ Handbook of drilling ( First party )”, Volume 1 , Beijing , Petroleum Indust ry
Press, 1990 . ( In Chinese )
[11 ] P .J .Jespersen , T .J .Fontaine “: The tangleflags North Pilot a Horizontal Well Steamflood .”,
Pet roleum Societ y of CI M and Canmet , Paper No 4 , 1991

1 15
 Chapter 4 Completion and Perforating fluids

The completion fluid used to open a reservoir can be act ually called drilling fluid . I t must have t he abil－
ity to cont rol formation damage and ensure downhole safet y and smooth drilling . Therefore , it is a combina－
tion of drilling fluid technology and formation damage cont rol technology , i .e . drilling and completion fluid
technology for protecting oil/ gas reservoirs . The perforating fluid is the working fluid during the perfora－
tion operation . It must have the ability to con trol t he formation damage and meet the requirements of the
perforation operation .

4 .1 Fundamental Requirements of Drilling and Completion Fluid

For different reservoirs and different drilling engineering requirements , t he properties of the drilling
and well completion fluids are different . However , t he fundamental requiremen ts are t he same . I t must
have the functions of drilling fluids and the ability of formation damage con trol . As a drilling fluid , it must
have the following functions:
(1 ) Con trol formation pore pressure, and ensure drilling safety . Therefore, the density of t he drilling
fluid can be changed according to the dow nhole conditions and requirements of drilling techniques in order to
effectively con trol pore pressure .
( 2) Meet t he rheological requiremen ts of the drilling engineering . In order to meet t he requirements of
jet drilling , the rheological properties can be optimally selected to maximize downhole hydraulic horsepow－
er . In order to ensure t he dow nhole is clean , carry cut tings and suspend weigh t materials , the drilling and
completion fluids must have t he relative rheological properties . At t he same time , t he rheological properties
related to cementing must also be considered .
(3 ) Wellbore stabilit y . The density , inhibitive properties , and filtration and wall building properties of
t he drilling and completion fluid must meet the requiremen ts of the formation to be drilled in order to keep
t he wellbore stable .
(4 ) Improve filtration and mud cake properties , stabilize wellbore and preven t differential pipe stick－
ing . Improvemen t of t he filt ration and mud cake properties is an important requirement of t he drilling and
completion fluids . I t is not only for wellbore stabilit y , but also for preven ting differential pipe sticking at
high permeable form ation section . Formation damage cont rol also requires a good filt ration property .
Therefore, it is one of key technologies of drilling and completion fluids .
(5 ) Ot her properties t hat a drilling fluid must have .
On t he other hand , drilling and completion fluids must con trol the formation damage .
Differen t types of reservoirs have different types of formation damage when differen t completion fluids
are used . The damaged condition depends on the petrophysical proper ties of t he reservoir and t he comple－
tion fluid properties . However , the damage mechanism is included in Reference [1 ] . Therefore, to clearly
idetify t he damage mechanism, find out t he reasons for causing t he damage , select a suitable completion flu－
id system , and determine t he techniques are t he key con ten ts of t he completion fluid for formation damage
con trol .
When opening a reservoir , the original balance state is destroyed , t he reservoir starts to contact the
working fluid ( such as drilling mud, cementing slurry , perforating fluid , etc .) and formation da mage oc－
curs . Therefore, formation damage cont rol is t he first consideration when opening a reservoir .
After a reservoir contacts the drilling fluid and cementing slurry , all the related formation damage
problems may occur . These include solid invasion , liquid invasion causing clay hydration , wettability
change, water blockage, emulsion , precipitation , scale , and fine migration . Also , blowout , loss circula－
tion and wellbore instability may cause formation damage .
Therefore, formation damage con trol can be effective only on the basis of t he recognizing damage
mechanisms during drilling, accurate analysis of t he reasons causing t he damage and a proper drilling opera－
tion . Thus reservoirs can be found timely and t he original productivity can be kept . The expected results of
1 16
formation damage cont rol can be achieved .
There is a time period as a reservoir is drilling . Formation damage
m aybe take place from opening the reservoir until cemen ting . There
are several factors which can affect the formation damage con trol, such
as pressure difference , the time during which reservoir contacts the
drilling fluid . I t should be separated to investigate t he damage . How－
ever , for general rules , t he factors w hich affect formation damage can
be summarized as follows .
( 1) Solid con ten t and size distribution of the drilling fluid . When
a reservoir is opened, the solids in t he drilling fluid will invade into the
reservoir and cause formation damage . The higher t he solid content in
t he drilling fluid, t he more the damage . Fi g . 4 - 1 Effect of solid content
The seriousness of formation damage caused by solid invasion de－ in drilling fluids on format ion
pends upon solid shape , size, solid propert y and size distribu tion . Dur－ damage
ing drilling , the solid whose size is larger t han pore size cannot invade
t he formation and cannot cause any damage . However , t he solid whose
size is less than pore size will invade formation and cause damage . The smaller t he par ticles , t he deeper can
t hey invade . So if a drilling fluid con tains small or super small par ticles , the formation damage will be more
serious . If a drilling fluid contains various sizes of par ticles , the invasion dept h of the smaller or super small
par ticles will be less , bu t the damage degree cannot be reduced .
Solid invasion in a fractured reservoir will be more serious . Therefore, solid con trol, reduction of solid
con tent , especially for smaller and super small solid particles , and keeping reasonable size dist ribution are
t he importan t conten ts to reduce the formation damage caused by solid invasion . Also, wellbore instability ,
hole enlargement , shale making mud will increase the solid content and cause formation damage even more
serious .
(2 ) Inhibitive abilit y to clay hydration of drilling fluid .
The main reasons causing formation damage are clay swelling , dispersion and migration . If a drilling
fluid has high inhibitive ability to clay hydration , the formation clay will have less hydration and t he dam－
age will be less . Therefore, it is an importan t element in formation damage cont rol during drilling to im－
prove the inhibitive proper ty according to the type and property of clay in reservoir .
(3 ) Compatibility of the liquid phase of drilling fluid wit h formation fluid .
The formation damage will occur if the liquid phase of a drilling fluid reacts wit h formation fluids and
produces precipitation or forms emulsion . The scale is t he most obvious form of precipitation when t he fil－
trate of a drilling fluid reacts with formation water .
(4 ) Formation damage caused by drilling fluid additives .
There will be a reaction between formation and the invaded additives . Even though the type and mech－
anism of the reaction depend upon t ypes of additives and formation properties, t hey will cause some degree
of formation damage . Since t he additives are the compositions of drilling fluids , it is important to select
suitable additives for a par ticular reservoir to reduce the damage .
Therefore, in order to ensure formation damage con trol, drilling and completion fluids must meet the
following requirements .
(1 ) Compatibility between t he liquid phase and formation .
①Compatibility with formation fluids . This includes no precipitation with formation water, no emul－
sion with oil, no gas bubbles generated .
②Compatibility with formation sensitivit y : especially for water - , salt - and alkali - sensitive forma－
tions , ex tra care should be taken .
③Effect of the form ation wettability :
To determine t he above compatibility , an effective evaluation met hod should be used to select a suitable
completion fluid , including additives , inorganic salt and surfactants .
( 2) The solid con tent and size dist ribution should be cont rolled strictly depending on t he pore size dis－
tribution in order to reduce the solid invasion .
( 3) Corrosion of drill pipes and casings should be preven ted . Since t here are some inorganic salt ( Na－
Cl, KCl and CaCl2 ) in t he completion fluid , corrosion of drill pipes and casings is serious . The corrosion not
1 17
only reduces the lifetime of drill tools and well, but also causes formation damage due to corrosion products .
(4 ) There is no con tamination of environment , or con tamination can be removed .
(5 ) The properties of the completion fluid system should be stable and ensure downhole safet y . Ther－
mal stability should be considered in deeper wells .
( 6) Low cost, simple to use . The practice in China and abroad shows that the costs of successful com－
pletion fluids are high and t hey are complicated to use ( including mixing , use , maintaining etc .) . There－
fore, the objective of developing and investigating completion fluids is to lower t he cost , and simplify t heir
use .

4 .2 Drilling and Completion Fluid Systems and Their Applications

When selecting drilling and completion fluids, one must consider the formation pressure , rock compo－
sitions and text ure, and formation liquids . There are many types of drilling and completion fluids available
in China and abroad . They can be classified into three categories .
(1 ) Air based : air , fog , foam and aerated mud .
(2 ) Water based : clear salt water drilling fluid , clay free completion fluid ( temporary plug t ype sys－
tem) and modified drilling fluid .
(3 ) Oil based : oil based drilling fluid, invert emulsion drilling fluid .
4 .2 .1 Air based drilling and completion fluids
For low pressure reservoirs ( pressure coefficien t less t han 1 ) , in order to prevent high overbalance to
damage formation , normal water based or oil based drilling fluids cannot be used . U nder this condition , air
based drilling fluids can be used to drill through the formation . It should be noted that t hese drilling fluids
should not be called air based because t he con tinuous phase of these drilling fluids is not air . However , it is
3
t he air which reduces the density to less t han 1 .0 g/ cm in order to drill t hrough the low pressure forma－
tion .
4 .2 .1 .1 Air
As a circulation fluid , air fluid contains air or natural gas , corrosion inhibitors, and drying agents .
Since t he density of air is low , it often is used to drill lost circulation zones , high sensitivit y formations and
low pressure reservoirs . The penert ration rate wit h air based drilling fluids is three to four times higher than
t hat of normal drilling fluids and drilling costs are low . Special equipment is needed for air drilling . On nor－
mal conditions , surface air injection pressure require to be kept at 0 .7 ～1 .4 MPa, and annular velocity at
762～ 914 m/ min . However , air drilling is limited by t he dept h of well, water outflow from formation and
wellbore stability .
4 .2 .1 .2 Fog
Fog fluid consists of air , foamer , corrosion inhibitor and small amoun t of water . I t is a transitional
technology of air drilling . When formation water comes into a wellbore , the dry air cannot be used . If the
formation water comes into a wellbore at a rate less than 24 m3/ h , the fog fluid can be used to drill in low
pressure reservoir , if the rate is larger than that amount , only foam fluid can be used . In the fog fluid , air
is a continuous phase and water is a discon tinuous phase . The ret urned cut tings , air and liquid are in fog
state . When using fog as a drilling fluid , t he amount of air needed is 30 % or 50 % higher than air drilling .
According to t he amount of water which comes into a wellbore, an amount of 20 ～50 liters of liquid foamer
( 99 % water , 1 % foamer ) will be injected into t he well . In order to carry cu ttings to the surface, t he sur－
face injection pressure should be higher than 2 .5 M Pa and an annular velocit y over 914 m/ min . Since air or
fog drilling is conducted on the condition of underbalance, formation damage is low .
4 .2 .1 .3 Aerated drilling fluid
Injecting air into a drilling fluid is made to reduce the fluid pressure and forms an aerated drilling fluid .
3
The densit y of the aerated drilling fluid can be lowered to 0 .5 g/ cm . Normally , t he ratio of drilling fluid
to air is 1 0∶1 . The annular velocity should be kept over 5 0 ～ 5 0 0 m / min and surface working pressure at
3 .5 ～8 MPa during drilling w hen aerated drilling fluid is being used . Care should be taken when separating
1 18
air , corrosion and erosion cont rol .
4 .2 .1 .4 Foam
Foam is the most commonly used and effective working fluid to drill in a low pressure reservoir . Good
results are obtained when using it as a workover fluid .
The most commonly used foam is stable foam . I t is generated at the surface and t hen pumped into the
well . This t ype of foam is also called pre - generated stable foam .
1) Characteristics of the stable foam
( 1 ) Low density , low hydrostatic pressure : under normal conditions , the foam density is 0 . 0 3 2 ～
0 .065 g/ cm3 . The hydrostatic pressure is only 2 % ～ 5 % of water . When used to drill in a low pressure
reservoir, t he underbalance will prevent formation damage . However , if t here is a mechanically unstable
shale formation , the foam is limited to be used .
( 2) High carrying capacity : The stable foam is an air - water system which is formed by concent rated
small bubbles enclosed by firm liquid film . It is of low density , high strengt h and struct ured , t herefore, it
has a high apparent viscosity at a lower shear rate . Flow in annulus seems a piston so t hat it has high carry－
ing capacity . Because foam is compressed at t he downhole, there is an expansion when it returns up the
hole . This also benefits in carrying cu ttings . The carrying capacity of a high qualit y foam is ten times high－
er than t hat of water , four to five times higher than that of normal drilling fluids . It can fully meet the re－
quiremen ts of clearing bottom hole and carrying cu ttings for drilling engineering . Obviously , t he carrying
capacity directly relates to the foam stability and t he strengt h of the foa m .
(3 ) Low liquid content : There is less than 25 % of water in t he foam . All t he water is retracted on
t he liquid film , so t hat the chances of water contact with the reservoir or invading the reservoir are small .
(4 ) No solid phase except cu ttings .
The foam can be solid free excep t for cuttings ( no need to select solid foarm stabilizer) so t hat solid in－
vasion is limited .
(5 ) Hard to recover and reuse .
Pre - generated foam is hard to recover when it returns to the surface . Recovery unit needs high re－
quiremen ts , so t he foam is only used once, and cannot be reused . Obviously , it is importan t to develop a
practical, effective foam recovery unit .
2) Composition and mixing of foa m
There are many types of foams used in drilling .
(1 ) Fresh water or salt water : Salinit y and ion types are dependen t on t he formation being drilled .
Water content is about 3 % ～ 25 % ( volume ) .
( 2) Foamer : Foamers are surfactants in w hich the mostly used are alkyl sulfate, alkyl sulfonate, alkyl
benzene sulfonate et al .
(3 ) Liquid phase viscosifier: Some types of polymers are used to increase the liquid phase viscosity ,
such as CMC . The amoun t added should depend on t he viscosity needed .
(4 ) Gas phase: Air or nit rogen can be supplied by a special unit .
(5 ) Ot hers: special conten ts used to increase foam stability .
Besides the compatibility wit h formation , suitable foam composition depends upon the stability of the
foam . The more stable the foam , the better t he composition . The foam stability can be measured by the life
or half - life time . The way to measure t he half - life time can be found in the foam tex t books .
After composition of a foam is determined , t he key factor to form a foam at dow nhole is t he mixing u－
nit . There is a commercial unit for oil field use available now .
3) Determination of t he gas - liquid ratio of a foam
The foam compositions is very important . It is not a simple problem of formation , but a complicated
applied technique .
Generally , the stable and good carrying capacit y foam can be formed at 3 % ～ 2 5 % of liquid ( volume ) .
When liquid fraction is less than 3 % ( dry foam ) , the stability of t he foam becomes less , and bubbles break
and form a“ gas bag”, creating a loss in carrying capacit y . When liquid fraction is higher than 25 % ( wet
foam ) , t he struct ure of the foam begins to break and becomes gas liquid mixing fluid . The flowing proper－
ties and carrying capacit y of the gas liquid mixing fluid are similar to water solu tions and foam properties are
lost . The gas liquid ratio of a foam can be controlled by t he amount of water and gas injected . Generally ,
1 19
w hen t he gas injection rate is at 12～30 m3/ min , water injection rate is at 40～200 L/ min , surface work－
ing pressure is at 1 .5 ～ 3 .5 MPa and annular velocity is at 2 .5 ～ 1 .0m/ s , the borehole cleaning can be
m ain tained .
Since temperature and pressure affect gas phase much more than water , the gas - liquid ratio of a sta－
ble foam will change w hen circulating to t he downhole . Therefore, in order to keep a foam stable in the
well, the gas - liquid ratio must be designed according to formation temperat ure and pressure, t hen t he total
amount of injection and gas - liquid ratio are determined .
This is a complicated problem w hich is affected by a lot of factors such as basic parameters of wellbore,
amount of air injected, and how fast a foam pumped in and penet ration rate . A computer is used to con trol
t he process abroad .
4) Back pressure control in annulus
In order to suit t he formation condition , the circulation pressure of t he foam should be adjusted to en－
sure drilling safet y . This problem can be solved by putting back pressure in the annulus . The dow nhole
pressure can also be used to con trol the gas - iquid ratio at downhole and to understand the back pressure
change in time . Therefore, cont roling annulus back pressure is an important par t for foam drilling . Gener－
ally , the back pressure valve is located between t he wellhead and cu ttings carrying pipe .
5) The rheology of foams
Since t he gas in a foam is highly compressible , rheological properties and studying methods of foam
quite differ from t hat of normal fluid . This is a new research area and breakt hroughs have yet to be
achieved .
From above discussions , as long as it is allowed by formation condition , it is t he best way to use foam
drilling for low pressure reservoirs . There were successfully used in Xinjiang and Changqin oil fields as a
drilling fluid and workover fluid .
4 .2 .2 Water based drilling and completion fluids
Water based drilling and completion fluids are widely used at home and abroad . There are three kinds
of mostly used with water based drilling and completion fluids .
4 .2 .2 .1 Solid free clear salt water
1) Basic t hough ts
Solids invasion is eliminated . The fluid is solid free and meets t he requirements of drilling and forma－
tion damage con trol .
(1 ) This system is solid - free salt water . A fine filter is used to ensure its cleanliness .
(2 ) Different t ypes of inorganic salt and concen tration are used to adjust t he density .
(3 ) The system has a high salinity and differen t kinds of ions , so that it can inhibit t he water sensitivi－
ty of t he formation .
(4 ) Non - damage polymers are used as a viscosifier .
(5 ) Non - damage polymers are used as a filtration control agent .
(6 ) Surfactant and corrosion inhibitor can be used if necessary .
2) Density control of clear salt water
Clear salt water is a mixt ure of water and several types of inorganic salts . I ts density depends on the
concentration of salt solu tion and the proportions of every types of salts . The range of density is abou t 1 .00
3
～2 .30 g/ cm .
(1 ) Various salt water solutions , when reaching sat urated state, have different density as show n in
Table 4 - 1 .
For the same types of salt solution , t he densit y can be adjusted by its concen tration . Temperature af－
fects the density so that it must be considered .
(2 ) Mixing normally used clear salt water :
① KCl solution : KCl solu tion is t he best drilling and completion fluid for sensitive form ation . The
3
density can be changed from 1 .003～1 .17 g/ cm depending on its concent ration .
②NaCl solution : The mostly used solid free salt water is NaCl solution . In order to preven t formation
clay hydration , 1 % ～3 % KCl was added . The action of KCl is to inhibit clay hydration , not for densit y .
The density is cont rolled by NaCl concentration .
1 20
 Ta b l e 4 - 1 The maximum density of different salt solut ions
3
Salt solution Concentration ( wt % ) Densit y at 21 ℃ ( g/ cm )

N H4 Cl 24 1 .0

KCl 26 1 .07

NaCl 26 1 .17

KBr 39 1 .20

CaCl2 38 1 .37

NaBr 45 1 .39

NaCl/ NaBr 1 .49

CaCl2 / CaBr2 60 1 .50

CaBr2 62 1 .81

ZnBr2 / CaBr2 1 .82

CaCl2 / CaBr2 / ZnBr2 77 2 .30

③ CaCl2 solution : As a reservoir’s dept h gets deeper or pressure gets higher, the densit y of drilling
3
and completion fluid is required to be more t han 1 .20 g/ cm . The density of CaCl2 solu tion should range
3
between 1 .008 and 1 .3 90 g/ cm .
There are two types of commercial products of CaCl2 . One is t he granular CaCl2 , its purit y is 94 % ～
97 % and water con tent is 5 % . The other is t he plain shape CaCl2 , its purity is 77 % ～ 82 % , and water
con tent is 20 % . If t he latter is used , t he amoun t of CaCl2 added must be increased . Combination of the two
types of CaCl2 products w hen used will reduce t he costs . The density of t he solution can be con trolled by
CaCl2 concent ration .
3
④ CaCl2/ CaBr 2 solution : When a solu tion density of 1 .4～1 .80g/ cm is needed , t he CaCl2/ CaBr2 salt
3
solution may be used . The basic solu tion is CaBr 2 of w hich t he density can reach 1 .82 g/ cm , t hen saturat－
ed CaCl2 solution can be mixed with CaBr2 solution to reduce t he solution density . The density of t he mixed
solution is con trolled by the concen trations of CaCl2 and CaBr2 .
⑤ CaCl2/ CaBr2/ ZnBr 2 solution : The density of t his mixed salt solution can reach 1 .81 to 2 .31 g/ cm 3
to meet the high density requiremen t w hen high temperature and high pressure wells are drilled . When
mixing t hese t hree types of salts solution , some effects ( such as densit y, crystallization , corrosion ) must
be considered according to the conditions of each well . The increase of CaBr2 and ZnBr 2 concen trations will
increase t he densit y, and decrease the crystallization point of t he solution . The highest crystallization point
at t he maximum density of the solu tion is - 9℃ . However , an increase in concent ration of CaCl2 will de－
crease the density and increase t he crystallization point to 18 ℃ and decrease the costs of t he solution . The
density of t he solution is cont rolled by CaBr2 , CaCl2 and ZaBr2 concent rations .
3) Filtration cont rol and viscosit y increase
Since t hese are solid - free salt solutions , no filter cake is formed on the wall of a wellbore and t he solu－
tion has no ability to cont rol the filt ration . Therefore, t he filt ration rate is high at a highly permeable zone .
In order to reduce t he loss of the high cost solution and reduce the formation damage , it is necessary to con－
trol the filt ration . The way to do it is to use t he salt water soluble polymer to increase viscosity . The poly－
mer must have the following characteristics .
(1 ) Can be dissolved in high salinity salt solution and can not be precipitated by high valence ions .
(2 ) Can increase viscosity of t he high salinity solution .
(3 ) Does not damage the formation seriously .
(4 ) Has good stability at high temperat ure (100℃ ) .
The most commonly used polymers are HEC , XC and hydroxyet hyl starch . A core rat her than filter
paper should be used to measure t he water loss .
1 21
 Since t he drilling and completion fluid must have some range of viscosity to keep t he wellbore clean ,
t he polymer is the only way to increase viscosity in solid - free salt water . HEC and XC (one or bot h used)
can increase t he solution viscosity to 40 ～50 mPa・s ( apparent viscosity ) and reduce API water loss to 10
ml . They can meet the requiremen ts of drilling and formation damage con trol .
4) Effect of temperat ure
Temperature will affect t he proper ties of the drilling and completion fluids . The most commonly af－
fected property is density of t he solution . There are two ways to affect the density .
(1 ) Crystallization temperat ure of sat urated salt water : At high temperatures t he saturated salt water
will be crystallized when t he temperat ure is reduced . The crystallization will plug the pipe lines , reduce the
concentration of t he salts and density of the solution . The completion fluids cannot be used . Therefore, the
crystallization temperature of a completion fluid must be higher than the lowest temperature at this area .
The crystallization temperature of a salt solu tion is dependent on t he types of salts and the amoun t used .
When several salts will be used to adjust the density of the solution , one with t he highest crystallization
temperature of t he syste m must be considered . For example, there are several combinations to prepare the
3
1 .40 g/ cm salt solution . Saturated CaCl2 solution or mixing CaCl2/ CaBr2 can reach t his density . Howev－
e r, sat urated CaCl2 solution has crystallization temperat ure of 18 °c . The crystallization temperat ure for lat－
ter will decrease as CaBr2 increases . Therefore , it is impor tant to select a completion fluid wit h low cost,
high crystallization temperature and suitable density .
( 2) Effect of temperat ure on density : When the temperature changes , the volume of solution and den－
sity change . Therefore, t he bot tomhole temperat ure is an important factor to design and maintaining of a
completion fluid . T he temperature variation from the surface to bottomhole affects the average density of a
completion fluid . Therefore , t he average hole temperature must be know n in order to design t he densit y of
t he completion fluid at t he surface . Fig .4 - 2 shows t he experimental data of t he relation between t he tem－
perat ure and density for some salt water at 21 ～ 43 ℃ ( 70 ～ 110 °F ) . The correction coefficien t can be
used to calculate the surface density to balance the formation pressure at dow nhole temperature .

ρ2 1 ℃ = ρL + ( 1 .8 t - 38 ) Kx ( 4 - 1)

3
w here : ρ2 1 ℃ = Salt water density at 21 ℃ , g/ cm ;/
3
ρL = Required densit y to balance formation pressure, g/ cm ;
t = Average borehole temperat ure, ( bottomhole temperat ure + surface temperature)/ 2 , ℃ ;
K x = Temperature correction factor , ( g/ cm 3 )/ 55 .5℃ .
3
Generally , temperat ure has less effect on KCl, NaCl, and CaCl2 salt water in t he 1 .02 ～1 .40 g/ cm
density range . However , temperature has a great effect on heavy salt water , such as CaBr 2 , ZnBr2 solu－
tions . For a par ticular salt water , the higher t he density ( high concen tration) , t he less t he effect of tem－
perat ure on densit y .
5) Keeping completion fluid system solid free
Solid - free completion fluid has an advan tage of avoiding formation damage caused by solids . There－
fore, it is a key factor in removing the solids in the system and keeping t he system solid free . The solid free
state must also be kept during mixing , storage and transport . It is necessary to use fine filter equipment to
apply this technology and to keep t he mixing storage and transport equipment clean .
6) Corrosion control
Salt water has a great potential to corrode the surface equipment and downhole pipes . I t is necessary to
consider adding some type of anti - corrosion additive to cont rol corrosion . However , t hese additives must
not cause formation damage .
7) Recovery
The cost of solid free salt water is high . In order to reduce t he cost , t he salt water must be recovered
and reused .
Solid - free salt water completion fluids have been widely used abroad and the results have been impres－
sive . For example, on 573 st ructures in t he Gulf of Mexico , t he average single well oil production rate was
3 3
31 .8 m / d , gas rate 56634m / d before using solid free completion fluid . After using solid free - completion
3 3
fluids , t he average single well oil production increased to 270 .3m / d and gas rate 566343 m / d . However ,
1 22
t here were some problems which obstructed the application .
Below , the obstructions are briefly outlined .
( 1) High cost . High density solid - free completion flu－
ids have a very high cost du to t he high costs of CaBr2 and
ZnBr2 , also the voscosifier used in the system has high cost .
The average cost of solid free completion fluid is more than
10 times higher than a normal drilling fluid .
(2 ) Difficult technique and high requirements . In order
to keep t he system solid free , special equipment and tech－
niques must be applied . To maintain a stable density , special
consideration also needs to be applied . Thus , high technical
requirements are needed to use this completion fluid .
( 3 ) Formation damage caused by some viscosifiers , such
as HEC , XC , cannot be neglected, specially at higher con－
cen trations .
(4 ) Water blockage may occur when filtration is high
and cause formation damage .
(5 ) High salinity water invading a salt sensitive reser－ Fi g . 4 - 2 Temperature correction coeffi－
voir will cause severe formation damage . Therefore , the solid cient for several salt solutions
free salt water cannot be used in t he salt sensitive formation .
As discussed above, the advantages and the disadvan－
tages of a solid free completion fluid coexist . Therefore, a new drilling and completion fluid system needs to
be developed . This new system con tains solids and t he formation da mage can be removed at a later time .
This new system is called te mporary plug completion fluid system .
4 .2 .2 .2 Clay free drilling and completion fluid system
Formation damage will be permanent w hen highly dispersed clay in drilling fluid invades into t he for－
mation . Therefore , the clay par ticles should be removed from the system . Even though solid - free salt wa－
ter system does not con tain t he clay par ticles , the density and filtration are difficult to con trol and t he cost
is high . If some solids ( not clay) are added into t he salt water to increase density and con trol filt ration, the
system is easy to control and use . Though these solid par ticles will plug t he formation pores during drilling ,
t he plug can be removed after drilling , so the formation is not damaged . These kinds of solids are called the
temporary plug additives and t he technology is called temporary plug technology . The drilling and comple－
tion fluid system is called clay free drilling and completion fluid system or temporary plug completion fluid
system .
This system consists of liquid and temporary plug solids . The liquid is t he formation water or compati－
ble water which contains some kinds of salts . Since t he density of t he syste m is not cont rolled by the liquid
phase , it is easy to con trol . Besides controlling the density of the system , the solid phase can form a remov－
able filter cake on the wall of the borehole and reduce t he water loss . The solids in the system are highly
dispersed fines . The size of t he fines are compatible wit h pore throats . They can form a low permeability
external mud cake and bridge at the pore throat to form a shallow internal mud cake . These solids can be
dissolved in acid or in oil, even in water . Therefore, the system is called acid , oil or water soluble tempo－
rary plug system according to the solid type . Generally , the temporary plug additives can be classified into
two classes: bridge particles and filling particles .
1) Acid soluble system
All components of this system can be dissolved in a strong acid . The normally used acid soluble system
is polymer - CaCO3 completion fluid . This completion fluid consists of salt water , polymer , fine CaCO3 par－
3
ticles ( 2500 mesh ) and weighting materials and t he system density is 1 .03～ 1 .56 g/ cm . After well com－
pletion , acid can be used to dissolve the in ternal and external mud cakes .
2) Water soluble system
Water soluble system consists mainly of salt water , polymer , salt par ticles and relative additives . The
3
density ranges between 1 .00 and 1 .56 g/ cm . The water soluble system is made up by adding different
sizes of salt particles to a sat urated salt solu tion and polymer . Because salt par ticles cannot be dissolved in
1 23
t he saturated salt solu tion , t hey are suspended in the solution as inactive par ticles . Therefore, salt particles
and colloidal composition in the system act like a bridging agen t , weight m aterials and filt ration cont rol ad－
ditives . Compared with the acid soluble system , t he salt particles at pore t hroats can be dissolved by circu－
lating fresh water or an undersaturated salt solution . Acidizing is not needed .
3) Oil soluble system
Oil soluble system consists of oil soluble resin , salt water , polymer and some additives . The oil resin
acts as a bridging agent . Polymer, such as HEC , is selected as a viscocifier . A hydrophilic surfactant needs
to be added into t he system to make resin water wettable . The oil soluble resin accumulating at pore throats
can be dissolved by produced oil, diesel or hydrophobic surfactan t solu tion .
Even though t he oil soluble system has some advantages , the resin is hard to be suspended , cannot
form a st ructure and is difficult to be made up , t herefore , it is not widely used . The most widely used tem－
porary plugging agent is modified drilling and completion fluids . The ways for modifying are as follows .
(1 ) Adjust inorganic ions in t he drilling fluids to match t he formation water . Increase t he salinit y of
t he drilling fluid above a critical value, and make the water phase of t he drilling fluid compatible wit h the
formation water .
(2 ) Reduce the solid content in t he drilling fluids .
(3 ) Adjust t he particle size distribu tion in t he drilling fluids . The bridging particle size can be decided
by pore t hroat size . Remove t he solids of which t he diameter is less t han 1μm .
(4 ) Select acid soluble or oil soluble particles as a bridging agent .
(5 ) Improve filter cake qualities and reduce H T HP filt ration of the drilling fluid .
(6 ) Use additives w hich cause less formation damage .
Modified drilling fluids as completion fluid are widely used as drill - in fluids in the world . This is be－
cause their costs are less ( much lower t han a completion fluid) , easily to be used wit h no specific require－
ments for borehole struct ure and drilling engineering . The field application of t his drilling fluid proves that
t he formation damage can be reduced to less than 10 % and skin factor lowered to zero . On t he other hand ,
some practical problems make t he specific completion fluids , ( such as the solid free completion fluid , clay
free system) , unable to be used . For example , upper layer of a reservoir has an unstable shale formation
t hat is uncased . In order to keep this shale formation stable , a high density drilling fluid is needed , bu t it
will cause high overbalance when drilling through the reservoir . If a reservoir is an unstable formation , the
drilling and completion fluid must have a high anti - sloughing property ; high temperat ures , and deeper
wells will make specific completion fluid hard to overcome t he difficulties . In practice , there are multi - pay
zones in a well . Each pay zone is separated by a shale formation . It is hard to maintain t he original proper－
ties of t he specific completion fluids . They will become clay con taining drilling fluids . As discussed above ,
because of t he complexit y of actual dow nhole condition , multi - payzones and limitations of casing struc－
tures, specific completion fluids cannot be applied and maintained . Therefore , t he best way is to use the
modified drilling fluids which are able to handle t he complicated downhole conditions and minimize the for－
mation damage . The modified drilling fluids are mostly valuable in drilling and completion fluids for forma－
tion damage con trol . Curren tly , the technology w hich t ranslates drilling fluids into completion fluids is fo－
cused on how to minimize the formation damage . In the nex t section , a new technology called“temporary
plug”will be discussed in detail . This te mporary plug technology is differen t from other modified drilling
fluid technology .
4 .2 .3 Oil based drilling and completion fluids
Oil based drilling and completion fluids include invert - emulsion drilling fluids and oil wet par ticle dis－
persed system . They have some advan tages , such as high thermal stabilit y , larger density variation , easily
adjustable rheological properties , high ability to sustain salt contamination , high inhibitive properties , sta－
ble borehole and no corrosion . Since the filt rate is oil , t here is no water sensitivit y problem . Therefore,
most people believe that oil based completion fluids cause no formation damage and can bot h meet all re－
quiremen ts of different operation and prevent formation impairment . Oil based completion fluids can be used
as a drill - in fluid , and also can be used in reaming , perforation and workover operations . However , eco－
nomics and safet y should also be considered .

1 24
4 .2 .3 .1 Formation damage mechanisms of oil based drilling and completion fluid
Field practices have proved t hat oil based drilling and completion fluids also cause formation impair－
ment . The damage mechanisms are similar no matter w hat types of oil based completion fluids are used .
The damage mechanisms can be classified as follows:
(1 ) Change reservoir wettabilit y, and reduce oil relative permeability .
(2 ) Form emulsions wit h formation water and block pores;
(3 ) Hydrophilic fines migration ;
(4 ) Invasion of solids of completion fluid;
(5 ) Ot her componen ts causing permeability impairment ;
The first three topics will be discussed in detail .
1) Reservoir wettabilit y change
The wettabilit y change of a reservoir will cause changes in relative permeabilit y . The relative perme－
abilit y of oil will reduce by about 40 % when a water wet reservoir changes to oil wet . The wettabilit y must
be changed when surfactan ts react wit h t he surface of a rock . In oil based drilling fluids , a lot of surfac－
tants , such as main emulsifiers , auxiliary emulsifiers and wettability additives ( from hydrophilic to hy－
drophobic) must be used . The hydrophilic side of a surfactan t will adsorb on the water wet surface of the
rock and t he hydrophobic side st retches outside . As a result , t he rock surface changes to oil wet . The
cationic surfactan t has the most effect .
2) Blocking pores due to emulsion
In oil based drilling fluids , there always is some emulsifier . The excess emulsifier flows with the fil－
trate into reservoir , meets with formation water and forms an emulsion under flowing condition . The emul－
sion may be eit her oil - in - water or water - in - oil type . The emulsion droplets will block pores and cause
t he permeability impairment w hen they flow . If the emulsion is water - in - oil type , the high viscosity will
cause serious formation damage .
3) Solid par ticle invasion
This topic is on solids in t he completion fluid invading the formation and causing permeability impair－
ment . There must be solid particles in oil based completion fluids . For well completion operation , some oil
wet particles , such as organic clay , oxidized asphalt , must be added in to t he oil phase . These particles will
cause permeability impairment when t hey invade the formation . On t he other hand , if wettability changing
additive in t he oil phase invades t he formation , the additive will react with clay particle and cause them to
swell, disperse, migrate in oil, t hus causing formation damage . The third is t he water wet fines released
since the rock surface changes to oil wet . These fines may migrate and plug pore throats .
4 .2 .3 .2 Compositions of oil based drilling and completion fluids
The compositions of oil based drilling and completion fluids are different with t heir usage and reservoir
characteristics . The basic composition and t he ways of employing it are t he same as the oil based drilling
fluids . However , every composition should be evaluated under the reservoir condition so t hat the completion
fluids can meet the requirements of drilling and formation damage control .

4 .3 Temporary Plugging Technology

4 .3 .1 Introduction
In order to keep downhole drilling safe, to reduce cost and to simplify t he applied technology , modified
drilling fluids as drilling and completion fluids are the most effective . It is unavoidable that high solid con－
tents and dispersed solid particles in drilling fluids will damage reservoir w hen the reservoir is opened under
high overbalance and a long time exposure of the reservoir to drilling fluids . Therefore, the factors that
cause formation damage always exist . I t is important now to investigate a technology to preven t formation
damage under t he conditions of high overbalance, long time exposure of a reservoir and high solid con tent
drill - in fluid .Through t he research on t he migration and blocking mechanism of particles in all types of
porous formations , we developed one new theory and new technique applied to protect formations from
damage during drilling and completion . The new technique changes the two damage factors , that is , the
1 25
overbalanced pressure difference and solidity which are impossible to be removed during drilling and comple－
tion, to t he necessary conditions of implementating t he technique . The above two factors will no longer
damage the formations , so t he formations be protected effectively during the process of drilling and comple－
tion . This new technique is called temporary plugging .
The temporary plugging technology is based on t he understanding of petrophysics , mineral composi－
tions, sensitive mineral con tents , deposition stat us and porosity , permeability , reservoir temperatures and
formation water compositions . This technology has no special requirements for drilling engineering and
drilling fluids . The key point of the technology is to apply the plugging mechanisms of solids of drilling flu－
id , add some bridge par ticles of which t he size is based on pore size distribution , filling particles and de－
formable seal particles .
These par ticles can form an almost zero permeability ring near wellbore range ( less than 10 cm ) in
more t han ten minu tes to prevent furt her invasion of the solids and liquid . Therefore, t he formation damage
caused by drilling , cementing and long time exposure is eliminated . The zero permeability ring can be over－
come by perforating, so that no damage or very small damage may occur . Comparing this technology to the
conventional formation damage con trol technology , t he breakt hrough is the proposal of the idea t hat in or－
der to prevent formation dam age the near wellbore range must be plugged or sealed at very short time to
prevent further invasions . This is the entirely different idea comparing conventional formation damage control .
Features of t he te mporary plugging technology are as follows:
( 1) This technology can be used in every sandstone reservoir , its cost is low and it is simple to use and
has no special requirements for drilling engineering and drilling fluids . This technology is used to modify
drilling fluids used during drilling and add some temporary plugging materials . I t does not need to make up
any new drilling and completion fluid . This lowers t he cost and simplifies the operation process . During the
operation , the only thing to do is to add t hese plug materials in to the drilling fluid , there is no special e－
quipmen t needed . Therefore, the oil field operators welcome this technology to be used in their fields .
(2) Changing t he effect of overbalance w hich is t he main reason to cause formation damage during
drilling into t he required condition to protect formation . In order to form a very low permeability ring at
near wellbore range in more t han ten minutes , t here has to be a high overbalance . The higher the overbal－
ance, the lower the permeability of the ring .
This characteristic of t he temporary plugging technology is very useful during refilling well drilling or
for a multi - pressure system well . In order to drill t he well and stabilize the upper part of t he well, a high
drilling fluid densit y is required . However , when high density drill - in fluid is used , formation damage is
more serious in conventional formation damage technology . The temporary plugging technology successfully
solves t his problem and combines t he goals of drilling and production engineering .
( 3) Recovered value in permeabilit y may be as high as 80 % of original permeabilit y when backflow of
oil . This characteristic is very important w hen well test is conducted . Because t he low permeability ring is
t hin ( < 10 cm) near the wellbore when backflow of oil is conducted, t he deformable par ticles are flowing
out first, t hen filling and bridge particles . Hence drillstem test accurately reflects the pet rophysical parame－
ters and productivity of t he well .
(4) The formation damage caused by cementing is eliminated and the qualit y of the cementing job is
improved . Since t he permeability of t he ring formed during drilling is very low , t he high p H filt rate of ce－
menting and cementing particles are difficult to invade t he formation , so the formation damage is eliminat－
ed . Since the low permeabilit y ring is formed , the gauged well is formed , displacemen t of cement slurry is
very efficient and t he strengt h between t he cemen t and formation is increased .
Therefore, t he key to the temporary plugging technology is forming a very low permeability ring at
near wellbore range on very shor t time . In order to form such a ring , it is very importan t to understand
reservoir pet rophysics . Only after the reservoir petrophysics is understood , t he size of the bridging particles
can be selected and they are added into t he drilling fluids . This is a breakt hrough of the formation damage
con trol and the temporary plugging technology is based upon understanding the reservoir petrophysical
properties .
4 .3 .2 Fundamental theory of temporary plugging with modified drilling fluids

1 26
4 .3 .2 .1 The reasons for the development of the temporary plugging technology
It is well know n t hat t he technology of form ation damage cont rol is to prevent formation damage , or to
preven t t he plugging of t he flow channels of oil/ gas . Drilling operations will damage t he reservoirs , and the
damage caused by cementing will be added to t he damage caused by drilling . Information abroad and at
home shows that formation damage caused by drilling may be as high as 10 % ～100 % , and damage caused
by cementing will add 20 % or more to the damage caused by drilling . Therefore, there has to be an effec－
tive formation damage cont rol technology during drilling and completion .
Research results show that t he main reason causing formation damage during drilling is the solids and
liquid invasion under overbalance . The invasion of solid particles which plug the pore t hroats can cause a
permeability damage of 10 % ～ 100 % . Besides causing water , alkali , and salt sensitivities , the invaded
liquid may form a water blockage causing formation damage . Incompatible additives may also cause forma－
tion damage . The main reason causing formation damage is overbalance ( Δp > 0 , t he higher the Δp , the
greater the damage) , exposure time t ( the longer the t, t he greater the damage) , and the return velocity
in the annulus ( unreasonable ret urn velocity will increase formation damage by drilling fluid ) . The damage
caused by cemen ting is due to the invasion of cementing filtrate . Therefore , t he ways to prevent formation
damage during drilling are as follows .
(1 ) In drilling engineering , balance drilling should be carried ou t if possible, and the Δp and exposure
time should be reduced as far as possible; hydraulic parameters should be op timized and return velocity
should be con trolled .
(2 ) Using special completion fluid to drill through the reservoir .
① No solid or maximal reduction of solids in t he completion fluid, especially, the highly dispersed
clays , unless t he damage caused by solids can be removed later .
②Liquid compatible wit h formation .
a . Compatible wit h formation fluids ( oil, water or gas ) .
b .Compatible wit h formation rocks , including no damage due to water , salt and alkali sensitivities and
compatibility wit h t he surface of t he pores .
③Preventing invasion of drilling fluids .
From t he above discussion it may be noted t hat formation da mage con trol technology during drilling in－
cludes two aspects . One is to prevent the invasion of t he drilling fluids . The other is invading par ticles can－
not plug the formation pores . The first aspect is t he best even though“ no invasion”is impossible at most
time . However , preven ting invasion is still the research topics in formation dam age con trol .
4 .3 .2 .2 Mechanisms of temporary plugging technology and experimental results
The key point of temporary plugging technology is the particles can or cannot seal the pore t hroat , so
how can one con trol the seal very near t he wellbore range . Among t hem , t he key poin t is t he particle plug－
ging mechanisms .
1) Physical models of particle plugging pore throat
(1 ) The deposition and plugging during fine migration :
From t he research results of fine migrations, t he fines flowing along with fluid in porous medium can
be trapped and stopped moving . This t rapping can be classified in two types: one is deposition on the wall
of large pores , t he ot her is plugging at pore t hroats . The deposited fines can re - migrate if the flowing ve－
locit y or pressure difference is increased . The plugged fines at pore throats usually cannot move . These two
mechanisms will reduce t he permeabilit y of t he reservoir , but the later is more serious . The old way to
modify drilling fluids cont rolling t he formation damage must prevent t hese two mechanisms . However , the
temporary plugging technology uses t he plugging mechanisms .
(2 ) Single particle, gradual plugging model: Fig . 4 - 3 shows t he schematics of the physical model .
After opening the reservoir , the drilling fluid contacts with t he form ation . U nder t he differen tial pressure
Δp , t he drilling fluid starts to filtrate into t he formation . The particles larger than pore size will be deposit－
ed on t he wall of t he well and form a filter cake . The particles smaller t han pore size will flow along wit h
t he filt rate into t he formation . At the pore t hroat , if the particle diameter ( Df ) is larger than the diameter
( D t ) of the pore throat , t he particle will be deposited outside of the pore throat ; if Df is less than D t ( Df <
D t/ 7 ) , t he par ticle will flow through the pore throat and into the deeper reservoir . The par ticle of w hich
1 27
 Fi g . 4 - 4 Double - particle ( Multi - particle )
F i g . 4 - 3 Gradual plugging model
bridge model

t he size and shape are compatible wit h t he pore t hroat will be plugged at the pore t hroat and form a new
smaller pore t hroat . We call t his par ticle“ bridge particle”. At this new pore t hroat , t he fines will repeat
t he above process . The particles compatible wit h t he new pore throat will be trapped . We call the second
par ticle“ filling particle”. Obviously , t he filling particle is smaller t han the bridge particle . After a filling
par ticle fills the pore t hroat , the even smaller pore throat still occurs . The smaller particle is needed to fill
t he pore t hroat un til the smallest particle in the fluid is t rapped . The formation pore throats are plugged and
t he permeability is reduced . Since t he smallest particle cannot seal t he pore t hroat , a smallest pore t hroat
will be left . Obviously , the size of t he final pore t hroat determines the degree of t he plug . The bridge and
filling are caused by single particle, and the size is from large to small . At t he cross section of t he pore
t hroat , t here is only single particle passing through at any time . So we call t hat it is single particle, gradual
plugging model show n in Fig .4 - 3 .
(3 ) Double - particle ( Multi - particle ) bridge model : When t he concent ration of particles is high in
t he fluid , t here can be t wo or several par ticles at the pore t hroat at t he same time . Even though each parti－
cle cannot bridge or fill at t he pore t hroat , two or more particles have an equivalent diameter to make a
bridge at t he pore t hroat . This bridge process is called double - particle or multi - particle bridge model, as
show n in Fig . 4 - 4 .
The research results show that the two bridge models cannot be clearly separated . The single particle,
gradual plugging model does not cont radict t he double - particle ( multi - particle ) bridge model . If the plug－
ging technology is based on single par ticle , gradual plugging mechanism , t he effectiveness is better if multi
- par ticle bridge mechanism occurs .
2) The plugging mechanisms of the fines at pore throat ( for single particle, gradual plugging model )
(1 ) Study t he bridge par ticle and bridge process: For a single par ticle and gradual plugging model, the
bridge par ticle existence and how to bridge at the pore t hroats are t he basis of successful plugging . The
bridge particle must plug at the pore t hroats and reduce the diameter of the pore throats . The flowing
stream cannot break t his bridge . So t he bridge particle is“stick”at the pore t hroat .
① The relation between bridge particle size and pore size .
Since Abram pointed out the 1/ 3 principle of fine bridge , t his principle was widely accep ted . This
principle was pointed ou t from formation damage and proved by experimental results . However , it is needed
to exam w het her t his principle is suitable for our bridge process .
After t he average pore throat diameter d is determined , the bridge par ticles with size Df = Dt/ n were
injected in to the core, t hen t he permeabilit y was measured wit h brine .
Let n = 3 , 2 , 3/ 2 , or the ratio of par ticle size to pore t hroat size is equal to 1/ 3 , 1/ 2 , 2/ 3 . T he ex－
perimen tal conditions are (Δp = 3 .5 MPa, time = 15 min . at room temperat ure . Fig . 4 - 5 shows the
par ticle size distribu tion of a drilling fluid . Fig . 4 - 6 shows t he result when t he ratio of particle size to pore
t hroat diameter is 1/ 3 . F rom Fig . 4 - 6 , we can see that if the particle size is 1/ 3 of the pore size, t he par－
ticle can be plugged at the pore throat and a permeabilit y reduction of 50 % ～80 % is caused , making the 1/
3 principle righ t . However , from the curves in Fig . 4 - 6 we also can see t hat t he permeability experiences
con tinuous reduction during t he experimental time which means t hat the fines are moving . The analysis of
t he effluen t indicates t hat there are some fines which are not contained in t he core . When the bridge parti－
cles are flowing ou t of t he core , t he permeabilit y of t he core increases . The experimen tal results show that
t he 1/ 3 pore size particles cannot be used as bridge particles .
Fig .4 - 7 shows t hat the results of t he 1/ 2 ratio ( particle / pore) are similar to the 1/ 3 ratio, but the
1 28
 Fi g . 4 - 5 Particle size distribution of a drilling Fi g . 4 - 6 Bridge in porous medium of particles
fluid with 1/ 3 particle/ pore size ratio

Fi g . 4 - 7 Bridge in porous medium of particles Fi g . 4 - 8 Bridge in porous medium of particles

with 1/ 2 particle / pore size ratio with 2/ 3 particle / pore size ratio

damage is more severe and t he permeability reduction is over 80 % of original permeability . The permeabili－
ty decreases with time, but t he degree of reduction is slow . It is indicated t hat t he particles wit h 1/ 2 ratio
of particle / pore size cannot be used as t he bridge particles .
Fig . 4 - 8 shows that w hen the particle - pore t hroat size ratio is 2 / 3 , t he permeability reduction of
t he core is 90 % of the original permeabil－
ity and t he permeability reduction does
not change with time . This means that
t here are no fines migration and the par－
ticle is stick on the pore throat as the
bridge .
② Bridge stability : using above 2/ 3
ratio of particle / pore throat size princi－
ple, whet her the particle can stick on the
pore throat is t he key point of the
temorary plugging technology . The ex－
perimen ts were conduced on a core and
par ticles with 1/ 3 , 1/ 2 , 2/ 3 ratio of par－
ticle / pore size . The results shown in
Fi g . 4 - 9 Effect of filtrate veloci ty on permeabili ty
Fig . 4 - 9 indicate that the particle wit h
2/ 3 ratio of par ticle / pore t hroat size is

1 29
 stable .
③ Effect of bridge par ticle concen－
tration : t he bridge particle concent ration
has a great effect on t he bridge process
and t he stabilit y of t he bridge . If the
concentration of t he bridge is too low,
par t of t he pore t hroats can be bridged by
par ticles wit h 2/ 3 particle / pore size,
t he ot her par t of t he pore t hroats will be
bridged by small particles , w hich cannot
form a stable bridge . The streng th of the
bridge is low and the permeabilit y of the
plugging ring cannot meet t he require－
ments of the temporary plugging technol－
F i g . 4 - 10 Effect of concentration of bridge particle
ogy . Fig . 4 - 10 indicates t he experi－
mental results of differen t concentrations
of bridge particle .
From Fig . 4 - 10 it may be noted that t he Ki/ K w decreases as the concentration increases . As the
concentration increases to 2 % , Ki/ K w almost is no change . When t he concentration is over 3 % , Ki/ K w
does not change . Thus , the 3 % of the bridge particle concent ration is the critical concent ration . Obviously ,
t he critical concent ration depends upon porosity of t he formation . T he higher t he porosit y , t he greater the
critical concentration .

T a b l e 4 - 2 Petrophysical properties of the cores and particle size and concentration

Original K w Average pore Particle size Particle concen tration
Core No . - 3 2
( 10 μm ) throat size (μm ) (μm ) ( %)

M - 16 2003 .2 6 .60 4 .0～5 .0 2 .5

M - 60 3738 .2 9 .41 6 .0～7 .0 0 .5

L - 4 - 22 1516 .0 5 .30 3 .0～4 .0 1 .5

M - 25 1996 .5 6 .77 4 .0～5 .0 3 .5

M - 29 2011 .1 7 .06 4 .0～5 .0 5 .0

④ The relation between t he dept h of bridge and the concen tration of bridge par ticle : For single parti－
cle, gradual plugging model, t he dept h of the bridge determines t he invasion dept h of t he particles in
drilling fluids . Therefore , the dept h of the bridge is the key poin t for shallow plug of the temporary plug－
ging technology . Therefore , experiments were conducted to plug the core with differen t concen tration of
bridge particles , t hen t he core was cu t into
several sections and the permeabilit y was mea－
sured to determine the invasion dept h . T able
4 - 2 and T able 4 - 3 show t he results .
The experimental results show t hat the
dept h of t he bridge is only 2 ～ 3 cm and the
concentration of t he bridge has no effect .
⑤ Effect of time : In this technology ,
t he time needed to form a bridge is very im－
por tant . Short time can ensure the bridge at a
shallow dept h . T able 4 - 4 indicates t he time
effects .
Experimental results show t hat bridges
Fi g . 4 - 11 Study of gradual plug characteristics .
have been formed in 10 minutes . The require－

1 30
ment of“ fast”can be met .
(2 ) Study of the filling process:
The single particle and gradual filling model indicates t hat filling will be carried out after bridges were
formed .
The ways of the bridging of particles wit h different sizes have been discussed in detail in the above
studies . The results have shown t hat t he particle / pore throat size of 2/ 3 has the characteristics of“ fast,
shallow and effective”. T wo - thirds bridge par ticles can be used as t he bridge particles of temporary plug
technology . Even though t he ratio Ki/ K w is very low after plugging, the pore throats are not be plugged
completely and some flowing channels still remain . We know from plugging mechanisms that after bridging
of 2/ 3 bridge par ticles , the remaining small pores should be filled by small fines . Therefore , t he gradual
plug results show t hat the permeability of the rock should be reduced to minimum ( the best is Ki 0) .

T a b l e 4 - 3 Experimental results
Permeability of differen t sections Ki
- 3 2 Ki/ K w
( 10 μm )
Core No .
Section Section
Ki Ki/ Kw Ki Ki/ Kw
leng th ( cm ) length ( cm )

M - 60 0 .0～1 .8 19 .1 0 .051 1 .9～3 .7 3540 .0 0 .95

3 .8～6 .5 3740 .2 1 .00 6 .7～7 .5 3742 .7 1 .00

L - 4 - 22 0 .0～1 .6 69 .5 0 .046 1 .7～3 .2 1322 .6 0 .87

3 .3～4 .9 1500 .8 0 .99 5 .0～6 .6 1517 .2 1 .00

M - 16 0 .0～1 .4 76 .4 0 .038 1 .5～2 .8 1707 .0 0 .85

2 .9～4 .3 201 .5 1 .00 4 .4～5 .8 2010 .4 1 .00

M - 25 0 .0～1 .9 39 .8 0 .020 2 .0～3 .5 1805 .1 0 .90

3 .6～5 .3 2002 .7 1 .00 5 .4～7 .1 2411 .5 1 .00

M - 29 0 .0～2 .0 39 .1 0 .019 2 .1～3 .7 1984 .0 0 .99

3 .8～5 .6 2041 .0 1 .01 5 .7～7 .3 2024 .8 1 .00

Ta b l e 4 - 4 Time effect

Core K∞ KW K1 Experimental conditions( dynamic)

- 3 2 - 3 2 - 3 2
No . (10 μm ) ( 10 μm ) (10 μm ) p( M Pa ) Time ( min) Filt rate volume ( ml)

1 -2 63 .14 60 .40 0 .43 3 .5 10 1 .0

2 -3 74 .80 59 .07 0 .48 3 .5 30 1 .5

3 -5 60 .55 41 .08 0 .32 3 .5 60 3 .3

T he compositions of test fluid : 3 % bentonite + 1 % QS - 2 + 2% HL - 2

K1 : permeabilit y measured by 1 % KCl at 0 .12 MPa

① Gradual plug : Experimental results in Fig . 4 - 11 and Table 4 - 5 show t hat after 2/ 3 bridge, 1/ 2
par ticle and 1/ 4 particle were int roduced in order .
The bridge results show that t he particle filling is effective . The ratio of Ki/ K w is reduced to lower
t han 0 .1 after a 2/ 3 bridge w hich is effective and key bridge . The filling of t he 1/ 2 par ticle and 1/ 4 parti－
cle size reduces the permeability . This indicates t he effectiveness and necessit y of t he filling . The flat curve
indicates the stability of the bridge and filling wit h no fines migration . Also t he concen tration of the drilling
par ticles has less effect and less than 1 % is enough .

1 31
 Ta b l e 4 - 5 The experimental results of the gradual plug
＊
PV 4 .4 6 .1 7 .9 10 .7 14 .5 16 .5

Ki 198 .2 211 .6 211 .6 204 .3 196 .9

- 3 2
169 .6 2/ 3 bridge
( 10 μm )

Ki/ KW 0 .047 0 .050 0 .050 0 .048 0 .047 0 .04

PV 2 .4 3 .2 4 .3 6 .9 9 .2 11 .45

Ki 100 .7 104 .0 103 .0 100 .2 94 .4

- 3 2
91 .2 2/ 3 bridge
( 10 μm )

Ki/ KW 0 .024 0 .025 0 .024 0 .024 0 .022 0 .022

PV 0 .7 0 .9 3 .9 5 .0 5 .9 7 .0 7 .9 8 .8

Ki 57 .4 52 .5 56 .2 54 .0 52 .6 50 .1 49 .3
- 3 2
46 .9 2/ 3 bridge
( 10 μm )

Ki/ KW 0 .014 0 .012 0 .013 0 .013 0 .012 0 .012 0 .012 0 .11

　 　 Not e: PV = pore volume .

Comparison of Fig .4 - 7 , 4 - 8 and 4 - 11 shows t hat if t here are no 2/ 3 bridge particles , the 1/ 2
and 1/ 3 par ticle can be migrated . However , after 2/ 3 bridge particles form a bridge, the remaining parti－
cles cannot migrate . This indicates t he“ gradual plug ”process exists .
② Effect of plug of particles wit h differen t size: During the practice, it is impossible to plug separately
formations by using particles of differen t sizes . There are different size par ticles in a drilling fluid and t hese
par ticles are plugged at t he pore throats at the same time . If t here is enough bridge particles in a drilling
fluid , filling particles can be added in to a drilling fluid to form the drilling fluid system for temporary plug－
ging technology . Table 4 - 6 shows t he experimen tal results of t his kind of drilling fluid .

Ta b l e 4 - 6 The effectiveness of mixing particles plug

P V＊ 0 .0 1 .2 3 .4 5 .7 6 .9 8 .1 9 .7 10 .5 12 .0

Ki 2060 .9 36 .48 35 .27 36 .26 35 .07 35 .85 35 .65 35 .47 35 .33

(10 μm )
- 3 2
　

Ki/ Kw 1 .0 0 .018 0 .018 0 .018 0 .018 0 .018 0 .018 0 .018 0 .018

　 　 Not e: PV = pore volume .

The experimen tal results show that t he effectiveness ( Ki/ K w = 0 .017 ) of mixing plug is the same as
t he gradual plug ( K i/ K w = 0 .0 11 ) . This indicates t he plug model and mechanism can be used in drilling
fluids .
③ Effect of deformable particles: If t he above conditions are satisfied , the plugged zone can be formed
at near wellbore range . The permeability of t he formation can be reduced by 99 .9 % . However, t he perme－
abilit y is not zero and the invasion of the filtrate cannot be completely stopped . The requirements of the
“temporary plug technology” are not met . F rom the analysis of the plug model, no matter how it is
plugged , this kind of plug can not reduce the formation permeability to zero . This is because t he gradual
plug model has to leave some tiny pores to open and t he particles are supposed to be rigid . These tiny pores
are larger than water molecule and the permeabilit y is not zero . Therefore, if one wants to plug the tiny
pores, deformable particles must be used . Highly dispersed particles plug pore t hroats and some tiny pores
are kep t unless even smaller particles are filled in . If t he par ticles are deformable under t he pressure, the
par ticles deform toward t he tiny pores and seal them . The size of the tiny pore is t he same as t he deformable
par ticles . So, t here are no pores to open to flow in the plug zone and t he permeability is zero . According to
t his mechanism , t he deformable par ticles must meet t he following requirements . First , t he deformable par－
1 32
ticles must be dispersed to micro fines . Second, t he particles may be deformed under t he formation’s tem－
perat ure and pressure, but does not become liquid . Therefore, the formation temperature has a great effect
on the use of t his kind of par ticles .
It may be proven from the above theoretical analysis and experimental st udies that the temporary plug－
ging technology can be achieved . Whet her t he plug is successful depends upon the existence of bridge parti－
cles with ratio of particle size to pore throat size which satisfies the 2/ 3 rule and necessary concentration ,
existence and concen tration of filling par ticles of various levels , and the existence of deformable particles and
concentration ; but is not directly related to formation characteristics and the type of drilling fluids . Even
t hough a minimal concent ration is needed for successfully plugging for every kind of particle, t his concen－
tration is low ( usually 1 % ～3 % ) . T his concent ration is easy to maintain and high solid con ten t in drilling
fluids have no bad effect .

Ta b l e 4 - 7 Effect of differential pressure on plugged ring formation

Core K∞ R Kw K1 K2 K3 K4 Dynamic plug condition
No . (%) (μm ) Δp ( MPa) Time ( min) Filt rate ( ml )

3- 2 307 .19 33 .07 2 .3 228 .05 6 .35 1 .0 10 1 .2

8- 1 316 .87 33 .15 2 .4 252 .09 0 .94 0 .88 0 .67 3 .0 10 1 .2

5- 2 310 .93 32 .80 2 .3 238 .16 0 .86 0 .75 0 .51 0 .43 0 .50 10 1 .2
- 3 2
　 　 Note: T he unite of K∞ , K w , K1 , K2 , K3 , K4 is 10 μm ;
　 　 T he com positions of test fluid : 3 % bentonite + 1% QS - 2 + 2% HL - 2 ;
　 　 K1 : per meabilit y measured by 1 % KCl at 0 .15 M Pa ;
　 　 K2 : per meabilit y measured by 1 % KCl at 0 .95 M Pa ;
　 　 K3 : per meabilit y measured by 1 % KCl at 2 .00 M Pa ;
　 　 K4 : per meabilit y measured by 1 % KCl at 4 .00 M Pa .

(3 ) Effect of outside factors .

① Effect of differen tial pressure : Differential pressure Δp is t he necessary condition to form a plugging
ring so that the effect of Δp determines the success of this technology . Table 4 - 7 shows the experimen tal
results of t he effect of Δp on t he effectiveness of t he plug .
The experimen tal results indicate t hat higher differen tial pressure results in a better ring . In order to
ensure t he quality of t he plugging ring , differential pressure must be larger than or equal to 1 .0 M Pa . Gen－
erally , good quality of a plugging ring can be obtained when Δp is equal to 3 .5 MPa .Since t he higher the
differential pressure, t he better t he results , t his technology can be used to solve t he problem caused by
drilling under high differen tial pressure . From t he mechanism of plugging it is understood t hat the plugging
zone is compressible . The effect of a differen tial pressure can occur with t he compressibilit y of a plugged
zone .

Ta b l e 4 - 8 Effect of time on formation of plugging ring

Core K∞ R Kw K1 Plugging conditions (dynamic )
No . (10 - 3μm2 ) (%) (μm ) (10 - 3μm2 ) (10 - 3μm2 ) Δp( MPa) T ( min) Filt rate ( ml)

8 -1 316 .87 33 .15 2 .4 252 .09 0 .94 3 .0 10 1 .2

8 -3 519 .39 34 .56 2 .9 442 .68 0 .87 3 .0 30 2 .0

8 -4 451 .92 34 .23 2 .8 337 .86 0 .93 3 .0 60 3 .0

　 　 Note : Composition of test fluid : 3 % ben tonite + 1 % QS - 2 + 2 % HL - 2 .

　 　 K1 : permeability measured by 1% KCl at 0 .15 MPa .

② Effect of time: Three cores were selected to verify t he effect of time on t he formation of t he plug－
ging ring . Table 4 - 8 shows t he results .
1 33
 The experimental results show that t he plugging ring can be formed in 10 min . After 10 min , time has
no effect . T herefore, t he requirement of“ fast”can be achieved . The deep invasion of drilling fluids can be
preven ted and t he effect of long time exposure can be eliminated .
③ Effect of temperat ure: Temperature effect is reflected on t he soft particles w hich are added to
drilling fluids . T able 4 - 9 indicates t he experimen tal results .

Ta b l e 4 - 9 Effect of temperature on plugging ring

- 3 2
Temperature ( ℃ ) Plugged Ki ( 10 μm ) Ki/ Ko

15 12 .98 0 .0150

32 9 .01 0 .010

45 4 .93 0 .0057

50 0 .64 0 .0007

60 2 .34 0 .0027
- 3 2
　 　 Note : Core : Ko = 865 .29×10 μm , = 33 .77% , R = 6 .44μm , injected Vol = 1050 ml ;
par ticle : D = 1 .0～8 .0μm , C = 4 .1% , soft particle con tent = 1% ,
soft temperature = 52℃

The results show t hat effect of temperature is reflected in t he effect on deformation of the soft parti－
cles . If the test temperature is lower than a softening temperat ure, as t he test temperat ure increases, the
plugging results get better . If t he test temperature is higher than the softening temperat ure, an increase of
temperature will result in a poor plug . Therefore , in order to plug differen t temperature reservoirs, parti－
cles wit h different softening temperatures must be selected .
④ Effect of cement slurry after plugging ring formed : T able 4 - 10 shows that t he effect of cement
slurry after plugging ring formed .

Ta b l e 4 - 10 E f f e c t o f c e m e n t s l u r ry af t e r p l u g g i n g r i n g f o rm e d
Plugged condition (dynamic)
Core . Ko Kw 1 Kw 2 Cut K
- 3 2 - 3 2 - 3 2 - 3 2
No ( 10 μm ) ( 10 μm ) ( 10 μm ) lengt h (10 μm ) Δp Shear Time Filtrate
( cm) ( MPa) - 1
( min) ( ml )
rate( s )

143 1265 .38 410 .84 0 2 .02 406 .72 3 .5 180 1 0 .9

70 119 .95 57 .17 0 1 .96 56 .35 3 .5 100 1 0 .4

　 　 Note : ( 1) Mud compoations : 3 % bentonite + 2% QS + 2% QS - 2 + 2 % 250 screen CaCO3 + 1 .5% 300

screen CaCO3 ;
( 2) Cement slurry

Experiments show t hat the formation which has been damaged by drilling fluids can be re - damaged
by cement slurry by up to 20 % ～ 40 % . However , t he formation w hich has been plugged by t he temporary
plugging technology cannot be re - damaged by cement slurry because the lengt h of the plugged zone is
about 2～3 cm . This means t hat the temporary plugging technology can eliminate the damage due to ce－
ment slurry .
⑤ Effect of underbalance on back flow: The plugging ring formed under overbalance can be destroyed
under t he backflow w hen underbalance is generated . The permeability recovery can be as high as 70 % ～
80 % w hich depends on the dept h of t he plugged zone . Table 4 - 11 shows the experimen tal results .
Table 4 - 11 shows that the plugging ring formed under overbalance can be eliminated by backflow .
This means t hat the underbalance should be prevented during drilling when the temporary plugging technol－
ogy is used .

1 34
 T a b l e 4 - 11 Experimental results of recovery permeability
Plugged condition( dynamic )
Core K∞ Kw K1 Backflow K2 Recovery
R
No . ( 10 μm2 )
- 3
( 10 μm ) (10 μm ) pressure ( 10 μm2 )
- 3 2 - 3 2 - 3
rate Δp Time Filtrate
(%) (μm )
( MPa ) ( %) ( MPa) ( min ) ( ml)

8 -3 519 .3 34 .57 2 .9 442 .68 0 .87 0 .295 427 .33 96 .6 3 .0 30 2 .0

8 -2 310 .93 32 .80 2 .3 238 .16 0 .86 0 .713 227 .39 99 .8 1 .0 10 1 .2

　 　 Note : Composition of test fluid : 3 % ben tonite + 1 % QS - 2 + 2% HL - 2 .

K1 : Permeability measured by 1% KCl at 0 .15 MPa .
K2 : Permeability measured by fresh water after backflow .

4 .3 .3 Program and application of temporary plugging technology

The assumptions of temporary plugging technology have been verified by experiments . The following
explains how to use temporary plugging technology .
( 1) Measure the pore size distribution and mean diameter ( D t ) of the pore throats , which can be done
by mercury injection or other met hods .
( 2) Measure the par ticle size distribution , solid contents of various levels and total solid con ten t in the
drilling fluid .
( 3) Ensure t hat the particles of w hich the diameter median is equal to ( 1/ 2～ 2/ 3 ) D t in the drilling
fluid have a concen tration of 2 % ～3 % by weight .
(4 ) The con tent of small par ticles of which t he size is less than t he plugging particles is abou t 1 % ～
2 % by weigh t .
(5 ) Adding some soft particles in to the drilling fluid , such as sulfated asphalt , deformable resin . The
softening temperat ure should agree with the formation temperature .
(6 ) Evaluating the system .
The evaluation steps are as follows:
① T he result of t he plugging ring : The permeabilit y after plugging should be zero . No fines migration .
Filtration loss is zero .
②Plugging dept h less than 3 cm .
③Plugging time less t han 10 min .
④Effect of Δp . The larger the Δp , the better the result . Δp > 3 .0 MPa .
⑤Effect of T . At the dow nhole temperature , it has no effect .
⑥Effect of annulus velocity : The higher the velocity , the better the result . The plugging ring can be
formed under t he drill collar annulus ret urn velocity .
⑦Effect of cemen t slurry . Cement slurry has no effect after plugging ring formed .
⑧Permeabilit y recovery: Larger than 70 % ～80 % .
(7 ) Op timizing perforating technology
①U nderbalance perforating , deep penet rating to penet rate the plugged zone t hrough .
②Optimizing perforating parameters , reducing geometrical skin factor .
③Perforating fluid compatible wit h reservoir .
The temporary plugging technology has been used in 13 oil fields , 1300 wells in China . Excellent re－
sults have been achieved . For example, single well production rate has been increased by 45 % in Xiazijie
reservoir , Xinjiang . The Wemi reservoir in Tuha, Xinjiang is a low porosit y and permeability reservoir .
The reservoir needed to be fract ured before putting into production according to the development design .
The flowing production was achieved for all 167 wells drilled by using this temporary plugging technology ,
and the single - well production rates were 20 % ～30 % higher t han t he designed values .

4 .4 Drilling and Completion Fluids for Complicated Reservoirs

The complication of drilling and completion fluids for complicated reservoirs is shown in two ways .
1 35
One is t he downhole formations w hich cause lost circulation , blowout , sloughing , and pipe sticking . Also,
some special drilling techniques require a higher standard for drilling and drilling fluids . Anot her complica－
tion is formation damage con trol in the complicated reservoirs . More often , the complicated drilling prob－
lems and formation damage control are cross - linked and make the problems complicated furt her . Practices
show t hat the drilling and completion fluids used for these problems are modified drilling and completion
fluids .
4 .4 .1 Drilling and completion fluids for lost circulation and sloughing hole
Lost circulation and hole sloughing are difficult problems which need to be solved during drilling . They
require that the drilling and completion fluids must have properties to stabilize hole, prevent lost circulation
and cont rol formation damage . The first is safely drilling the reservoir , that is the drilling fluid must pre－
vent lost circulation , stabilize hole and prevent blowou t . The second problem is how to control formation
damage on t he basis of preventing downhole problems . Therefore , the density of t he drilling fluid is the
most importan t factor . The pressure of the drilling fluid must be larger t han t he side stress (or hole instabil－
ity stress) , but less than t he fracturing pressure . At t he same time, t he drilling fluid must have good rheo－
logical properties which can be adjusted and coordinate with drilling techniques ( such as reasonable hy－
draulic parameters, drilling tool assembly and pipe travel speed) to prevent hole sloughing and lost circula－
tion caused by pressure swabbing . Second , the inhibitive property w hich is required by hole stability and
formation damage cont rol must be high . The ways to increase the inhibitive proper ty of drilling fluids are
inorganic salt , polymer ( inorganic polymer) , etc . . However , it is not easy to meet requirements both of
hole stability and formation damage cont rol . So , the drilling fluid must be evaluated by both hole stability
and formation damage con trol to meet both require men ts . Third , t he drilling fluid must have good filt ration
con trol property . The best way to do this is, based on t he formation characteristics , to choose a method not
only preven ting hole instabilit y bu t also con trolling formation damage . I t is possible to increase formation
fracture pressure and reduce the possibility of lost circulation for t he temporary plugging technology .
Fourt h, if the pay zone is a lost circulation zone, preven tion of lost circulation is the first consideration .
The best way is to combine bot h lost circulation prevention and formation damage cont rol technology to－
get her . Based on preventing lost circulation , t he temporary plugging technology is applied . Fifth , proper
drilling technology should be conducted . Obviously , the drill - in fluid for t his kind of reservoir is modified
drilling and completion fluid and the temporary plugging technology must be applied .
4 .4 .2 Drilling and completion fluids for fill - in drilling
The formation properties for filled - in wells have been changed , so when using t he drilling and forma－
tion damage cont rol technology must consider t hese changes . There are two kinds of pressure conditions;
one is t he abnormally high pressure zone ( such as waterflooded reservoir ) , and ot her is abnormally low
pressure zone ( such as dissolved gas drive reservoir at late phase ) . Sometimes , both t he abnormally high
pressure water zone and low pressure reservoir are in one well . T he densit y of the drilling fluid must be high
to prevent water flowing in , bu t higher density can cause the drilling fluid to be lost in t he reservoir and
cause serious formation damage . From a drilling engineering point of view , t here is a successful way to solve
t his problem ; but sometimes to control formation damage is not easy . I t is more difficult to consider to low－
er the cost and simplify application process at same time to solve t he problem and cont rol formation damage .
Practices in China have shown that the temporary plugging technology can solve above problems wit h mini－
mum cost and simple application process . Of course, this drilling and completion fluid must be deigned
based on upon low pressure reservoir proper ties .
4 .4 .3 Drilling and completion fluids for deep wells
The drilling and completion fluids for deep wells must sustain high temperat ure . At most times , the
3
drilling and completion fluids are weigh ted ( sometimes the density exceeds 2 .00g/ cm ) and the overbal－
ance is high . It must be the first consideration of t he effect of temperature on t he drilling fluids . This in－
cludes the changes and destruction of t he drilling fluids . Since t he complicated reaction of mud compositions
at high temperature ( drilling fluid properties and t hermal stability ) , special evaluation met hods and addi－
tives are needed to form a special technology . This subject had been discussed in detail in the papers and
books for deep well drilling fluids , so this book does not need to discuss t his subject . On t he other hand ,
1 36
some special completion fluids , such as air based completion fluids , clean salt water and clay free salt water
system , can not be used due to t he high temperature . As a result , the modified drilling fluids as completion
fluids are t he best choice . Due to high temperat ure, high overbalance and long exposure time, t he tempo－
rary plugging technology is the best one w hich can be used to preven t formation damage . However , t here
are two technological problems w hich need to be solved . O ne is t he soft particles which can only soften at
high temperature ( such as 150℃～180 ℃ ) , and , t here are no such products in China; t he ot her is the e－
valuation met hods for evaluating t he results of t he plugging at the high temperature and high pressure .
Then t he application can be guided .
4 .4 .4 Drilling and completion fluids for directional and horizontal wells
Wih the drilling and completion fluids for directional and horizontal wells , t here are t hree technological
difficulties w hich need to be solved before drilling in a reservoir : carrying capacity , hole stability for high
angle or horizon tal section and lubrication . All t hese problems are solved in cluster and horizon tal well
drilling technology . The formation damage con trol during drilling process of these wells will be discussed
below . The formation dam age mechanisms for horizon tal wells are t he same as that of the vertical wells ,
but evaluation met hods are different because t hree - phase permeability need to be considered in horizon tal
wells . There is no such apparat us to measure the three - phase permeability in China . Therefore, t he for－
mation damage con trol technology lacks a reliable foundation .
The main differences of factors affecting formation damage between horizontal and vertical wells are as
follows:
(1 ) The con tact area between a reservoir rock and a completion fluid for horizon tal well is larger than
t hat of vertical well, t he possibility for formation damage is high , and it is difficult to control t he damage .
( 2) The time for exposure of a reservoir to drilling fluids is long because t he time needed to drill a hori－
zontal well is much longer than a vertical well .
(3 ) Differential pressure at a reservoir section is high . While drilling through a horizon tal section in a
reservoir , as t he lengt h of t he horizon tal section increases , t he flowing additional pressure acts at t he reser－
voir and the differential pressure increases .

4 .5 Perforating Fluids
Perforating fluids are working fluids during perforating operation ; t hey also can be used for well com－
pletion operation . Since t he perforated channels penetrate some depth into a reservoir , the effect of perfo－
rating fluids on the permeability impairmen t is larger t han that of drilling fluids . In order to get t he opti－
mum perforating effects , a perforating fluid must be selected to suit reservoir and fluid in t he reservoir . The
basic requirement of perforating fluids is t he compatibilit y wit h the reservoir and the fluids , in order to pre－
vent formation damage during and after perforating operation . At same time , they must meet the require－
ment of t he perforating operation and must be low in cost and simple in mixing .
4 .5 .1 Damage mechanism of perforating fluids
The damage mechanism of perforating fluids is the same as that of the completion fluids . However ,
since t he perforating fluids m ake con tact wit h the reservoir at perforation channels , the perforating fluids
must be evaluated to suit t he rock and t he fluids of the reservoir . The permeability impairment of a perfo－
rating fluid can be classified into t he following three categories .
4 .5 .1 .1 Damage due to solid particles in perforating fluids
If perforating fluids con tain solids , t he solids can enter form ation or cracks t hrough t he perforated
channels . Some fines may en ter the reservoir deeply , causing permeability impairment at t hat depth .
4 .5 .1 .2 Damage due to filtrate of perforating fluids
The filt rate of a perforating fluid can en ter reservoir under an overbalance and cause different kinds of
damage .
(1 ) Clay swelling , dispersion and migration .
(2 ) Scale formation due to incompatibility of the perforating fluid with formation fluids .
1 37
 (3 ) Water blockage w hich leads to oil/ gas relative permeabilities reduction due to an increase in water
saturation .
( 4) Emulsion formation between perforating fluid and oil or wettabilit y reversal increases t he resistance
of oil flow .
( 5) A polymer in t he perforating fluids en ters a reservoir and deposits on t he pore t hroats to reduce the
effective radius .
4 .5 .1 .3 Damage due to the filtration velocity
U nder a high overbalance , the filtration velocity of perforating fluids can be very high if the permeabil－
ity of t he reservoir is high . The particles in the reservoir and in t he perforating fluids are disturbed and form
a bridge to plug the pores . For a velocity sensitive formation , t he overbalance must be cont rolled and the
viscosity of t he perforating fluid must be increased .
4 .5 .2 Selection and uses of perforating fluids
There are four perforating fluids normally used .

4 .5 .2 .1 Solid free, salt water perforating fluid

This type of perforating fluid consists of salts , fresh water and some additives . The mechanisms of for－
mation damage control of t his system are t he compatibility of ions in the perforating fluid and in t he forma－
tion fluids . Lons in t he system change t he ion activit y and reduce t he ability of clay adsorp tion . The clay
par ticles can still be stable after invasion of t he perforating fluid . Since t here is no solids for t he system ,
t here is no invasion of solid particles . This type of perforating fluid has the characteristics of being low in
cost, easy to mix and safe to use . But for a fract ured formation or velocity sensitive formation wit h high
permeability , this system can not be used .
The type and concent ration of the salt shoud be considered , and a clay stabilizer , demulsifier and cor－
rosion inhibitors should be used .
When selecting a salt , clay inhibition , perforating pressure and economics shoud be considered . When
considering a clay inhibitor , KCl, MgCl2 and CaCl2 are good choices . But t he prices of t he first two are
high , CaCl2 cannot be used if t he reservoir contains Na - kaolin . The density of t he KCl solu tion may be as
3 3
high as 1 .0 7 g/ cm at 2 1 ℃ ( 2 6 % by weigh t ) , NaCl solution 1 . 1 7 g/ cm ( 2 6 % ) and CaCl2 solu tion
3 3
1 .37g/ cm ( 38 % ) . Mixing of CaCl2/ CaBr2 can raise the densit y of solu tion to 2 .3 0 g/ cm (77 % ) , how－
ever , the costs of CaBr2 and ZnBr2 are very high . For the above reasons , NaCl and KCl should be selected
if the density of t he perforating fluid is not high .
The salt concen tration can be determined from a core flooding test . I t should be kept in mind that for－
mation water analysis data may not reflect t he real formation water compositions; it may represen t t he fil－
trate of the drilling fluid or injected water composition . Therefore, t he best concent ration may not be t he so
- called salinity of“formation water”.
For highly water sensitive reservoir , clay inhibitors must be used because K + , Na + , NH4 + , ions may
not be good enough to stabilize the clay , such as some inorganic polymers ( hydrox - aluminium , Zr( OH ) n ,
etc .) , organic polymers ( polyquaternary ammonium salt , polyquaternary phosphate salt , polyquaternary
sulphate salt, etc . ) . The type and concent ration of a clay inhibitor which should be used may be deter－
mined by a core flooding test .
Demulsifier can be selected from mixing oil and perforating fluid .
A corrosion inhibitor should be added into t he perforating fluid if t he concen tration or reservoir temper－
at ure is high . The type and concentration of t he inhibitor w hich should be used may be determined by using
N 80 or P110 steel test .
After selecting all t he additives and determining the concent rations , compatibility and damage tests
should be performed to ensure t hat t here are no reaction and precipitates between t he formation fluid and
perforating fluid . The permeability recovery should be over 80 % of t he original permeability .
There are two things w hich should be carefully noted w hen solid free , salt water perforating fluids are
used . One is to ensure no solids exist .To ensure t his, the fluid should be filtered and t he con tainers , pipes
and wellbore need to be cleaned . The ot her thing is , t he density may need to be adjusted to meet the re－
1 38
quiremen t of perforating operation . The downhole hole temperat ure should be considered because it affects
t he solubilit y of the salt and t he density of the perforating fluids .
4 .5 .2 .2 Polymer perforating fluids
Polymer perforating fluids are used in fract ured reservoirs , high permeability reservoirs or high perfo－
rating pressure and velocity sensitive formations . The base fluid of t he system is t he solid free, salt water
perforating fluid and some polymer is added to adjust its rheological , and filtration cont rol properties . In
order to con trol filt ration , some solid particles are also added in to the system , such as acid soluble particles
( CaCO3 , MgCO3 ) , water soluble par ticles ( salt particle ) and oil soluble par ticles ( oil soluble resin ) . The
polymer used are H EC , modified H EC , XC polymer, PAM ,
The type and concent ration of polymer to be used should be determined by filtration loss volume and
damage percent . The basic requirements are low filtration loss and less damage .
4 .5 .2 .3 Oil based perforating fluid
The oil based perforating fluids can be invert - emulsion and crude or diesel oil wit h some additives
added to them . Because t he filt rate of an oil based perforating fluid is oil, water sensitive action in forma－
tion is avoided . However , since some surfactants are added , wettability reversal may occur , or may form a
emulsion with the formation water and cause permeabilit y impairmen t . Therefore , before using , the demul－
sification test should be conducted and a demulsifier should be added .
Asphalt , wax and ot her solid particles should be checked to prevent blocking the perforation channels
or formation .
4 .5 .2 .4 Acid based perforating fluids
This system consists of acetic acid and diluted HCl and some additives . Since acetic acid and HCl are
able to dissolve some minerals, t he crushed zone around a perforation channel can be somewhat dissolved ,
t hus preven ting permeability reduction of the crushed zone and preven ting particles from blocking t he chan－
nels . Normally , 10 % acetic acid solu tion or 5 % HCl solution are used .
Like t he water based perforating fluids , t he acid based perforating fluids consist of clay inhibitors ,
3+
demulsifiers and corrosion inhibitors , . In addition , Fe stabilizer, acid precipitate preven ter should be
used . The key point of t his system is to decide what type of acid and concen tration should be used .
When applying this system , two poin ts should be considered . One is to prevent precipitates while acid
reacts wit h formation fluids, especially in acid sensitive formation . The ot her is to consider t he corrosion of
equipment and pipes , especially for reservoirs wit h high H2 S con ten t w hich may cause serious corrosion and
embrittlement of steel .

References
[1 ] Zhang Shaohuai and Luo Pingya “ : Techniques of per tecting formation from damage”, Beijing ,
Petroleum Industry Press , 1993 .( In Chinese )
[2 ] Luo Zhitan et al .: Pore structure of oil/ gas formations , Beijing , Science P ress , 1986 ( In Chinese )
[3 ] Xutengjunnan( Japanese) , : Clay Mineralogy ( in Japanese)
[4 ] Amacfule J .O ., Kersey D .G .: Advances in formation damage asscssment and con trol st rategies ,
CI M88 - 39 - 65( 1988 )
[5 ] Brons , et al .:“ The effect of restriected fluid ent ry on well productivity”, Trans , AI M E(1961)
[6 ] Houchin et al .:“ Evaluation and t reat ment of formation damage caused by organic deposition”,
SPE 14818 , 1986
[7 ] Keelan, et al .:“ The role of cores and core analysis in evaluation of formation damage”, SPE5696 ,
1976
[8 ] Monaghan , P .H ., et al .:“ Laboratory st udies of formation damage in sands containing clays .”J .
P .T ., 1959
[9 ] Sharmar , et al .:“ Release and deposition of clays in sandstones”. SP E 13562 , 1985

1 39
 Chapter 5 Production Casing and Cementing Operation

During the drilling and completion of oil/ gas wells , one or several casing st rings may be used . The cas－
ing used for oil/ gas production is called production casing . The major functions of production casing are to
protect wellbore, seal and isolate oil/ gas pay zones so as to achieve the purposes of treating the pay zones in
a well separately in production , stimulation , water flooding, well logging and testing operations .
Production casing should be able to ensure a long term trial . The casing has to bear t hree t ypes of load :
collapse, burst and tension while running casing and cementing . The casing used in perforating completion
requires to bear an instan t impact load wit h high energy and temperature w hen perforating gun fires . Dur－
ing a long period of oil/ gas production , in addition to bearing collapse load the casing must wit hstand for a
long term of water flooding , repeated acidizing and fracturing , different corrosive medium and so on .
Therefore , troubles of casing deform ation , shear fract ure and failure will cause the oil/ gas well shu t - in to
stop producing and result in abnomal reservoir development . More attention has been paid to t his problem .
According to t he systematic thinking of completion engineering , Chapter 3 discusses t he size selection
of t ubing and casing . On the basis of Chapter 3 , the con tent of t his chap ter is production casing design after
t he wellbore struct ure is determined according to type of well, type of reservoir , rock properties , petro－
physical proper ties , reservoir fluids proper ties and in - sit u formation st ress .

5 .1 Production Casing

5 .1 .1 Basis of production casing design

5 .1 .1 .1 Safety criteria
Safety and economics are two design criteria for production casing . In ot her words , equilibrium rela－
tions between casing st reng th and loads on casing st ring should be set up under dow nhole working condi－
tions of casing st ring to secure safety first . However , the load on casing string is various in different engi－
neering and geological conditions . For example, collapse load on casing string is much higher t han normal
formation pressure in salt bed; dynamic load during casing running does not exist when cemen ting ; burst
pressure on casing st ring in fract uring and acidizing is differen t to t hat in normal production ; collapse load
on casing st ring in cave oil reservoir is different in early, medium and final stages of production . F urt her－
more , casing strength is also various . For example , in downhole corrosive environmen t, casing failure may
occur because of t he st rengt h decrease caused by corrosion ; in t hermal production well, t he st rengt h de－
creases since t he steam wit h high temperature leads to repeated tensile of t he casing ; and in horizontal and
high deviation angle well, t he strength decreases because of a long term of wear and tear . Therefore , t here
are certain technical difficulties for ensuring safety criteria in production casing design .
In order to guarantee t he safety of casing st ring, existing solutions mainly determine the loads accord－
ing to the most dangerous working conditions of casing st ring and select suitable design for casing st ring
strength to secure its safety .
5 .1 .1 .2 Requirements of well completion
Perforation completion method is used in about 90 % of oil/ gas wells since it can improve t he problem
of interlayer interference to a maximum in multi - zone reservoirs . H owever , because perforation has cer－
tain influence on streng th and service life of production casing , high quality casings t hat do not crack or only
sligh tly crack after perforation should be selected .
Gas wells with tubing packer have the problem of gas en tering in to t he annular space between casing
and t ubing . For t his reason packer or casing t hread seal failure should be taken in to account during long
term of production . In this case, burst strength of the casing should be strictly checked since it will bear
very high burst pressure .
1 40
 Tubing conveyed perforating technique widely used at presen t requires 50～100m of pocket lengt h for
gun releasing in order to easily perform join t operation of perforation and well testing . The lengt h is much
longer than 10～ 15 meters of t hat provided by common standard . The longer pocket should also be used in
wells having serious sand production problems and producing heavy oil to easily settle sand and set oil well
pump . In steam flooding production well , heavy oil is not only displaced into wellbore but also is accompa－
nied by lot of steam and natural gas after t he displacing front breaks through heavy oil pay zone . If an oil
well pump can be lowered into the pocket , t he fill factor of the pump is improved by taking advan tage of
steam ( or gas) in t he annular space between tubing and casing . In addition , increasing the sinking dept h of
t he pump can improve pumping efficiency . The above met hod has been widely used in heavy oil reservoir in
foreign coun tries . Because of low producing fluid level in low permeability reservoir , longer pocket should
be used to increase t he sinking depth of oil well pump . Considering t he above cases , the pocket lengt h may
be selected as 50 ～60m long or more, and the economic consideration of cutting down engineering cost may
be ignored .
5 .1 .1 .3 Production requirements
Production met hod is determined by types of oil/ gas reservoir . Formation fluid properties are different
in different type of oil/ gas reservoir , but t he salinity of formation water is considerably high in general .
Production casing can easily corrode and be damaged in a long period of contact wit h the formation water at
high dow nhole temperature and pressure . In recent years , corrosion problem of production casing in oil well
is getting more serious in some oil fields in China . Besides a direct cost increase of tubular goods , this prob－
lem affects production of oil/ gas well and leads to tremendous economic loss . For example , t he salinit y of
4
formation water in Zhongyuan oil field is so high ( total salinity 30 ×10 mg/ l) t hat corrosive damage may
take place during production so long as t he problem is sligh tly ignored in any production operation during
reservoir developmen t . Prevention of production casing from corrosive damage and ex tension of production
life of oil/ gas well, therefore, have been most importan t for increasing oil/ gas production , cu ting dow n
production cost and improving production efficiency . Foreign countries and China began to investigate and
study casing corrosion in oil/ gas well from 1950s , conducted mechanism analysis and many kinds of anti -
corrosion tests and have obtained some results .
1) Corrosion Mechanism
According to t he principle of metal electrochemical corrosion , the high salinity ( sometimes exceeding
4
to 3×10 mg/ l) of bottom water , edge water or formation water, t he sour gas such as , H2 S, CO2 in natural
gas or associated gas , the decreasing of pH value resulted from the sulphate reducing bacteria which will
promote the polarization of hydrogen , will accelarate the corrosion . Main reasons for dow nhole casing cor－
rosion are as follows .
(1 ) H 2 S corrosion : H2 S corrosion will occur following a reaction under t he condition of having water
and at certain temperat ure,
+ -
H2 S H + HS
HS - H + + S2 -
2 -
The S will cause elctron transference on t he surface of metal and form some needle holes , spots and
eclipse pits on t he metal surface, which leads to degradation or punching . A nother form of H2 S corrosion is
hydrogen embrittlement , which results from the H + induced by above reaction get ting an ext ra electron and
becoming a hydrogen atom . The hydrogen atom goes in to some crystal lat tice defects and adheres to the ac－
cumulated hydrogen atoms forming hydrogen molecules . As the volume of hydrogen molecules is enlarged
great inner stress occurs in t he steel products and forms some fract ures in it , finally making t he steel prod－
ucts brittle . This is called hydrogen brittle . If t he steel products are heat t reated improperly , the cold
working and welding residual st ress and the hydrogen embrittlement will result in sulfide st ress corrosion
cracks( SSCC) of steel .
In Weiyuan gas field of Sichuan , China, t here are 8 wells with 9 times of cracks of N - 80 tubing . In
Wei23 well, t he joint place between bottom flange and casing at wellhead , was wrong treated by welding at
t his place . After well completion t he corrosion due to the potential differen tial occured .
( 2) CO2 corrosion . There generally exist free CO2 in oil/ gas field water , t he solubility of free CO2 in－
creases wit h t he enhancing of CO2 fractional pressure . The free CO2 will form H2 CO3 in solu tion and result
1 41
in the decreasing of pH value and show weak acidity , t hus stimulate the depolarizing affection of hydrogen ,
-
t he corrosion velocity will increase in times . The HCO3 is unstable in solution , w hich can convert each ot h－
+ 2 - 2+
er , and t he formed H will accelerate the corrosion , t he CO3 will combine with Ca and form scale .
Natural gas contains not only CO2 but also H2 S, t he comprehensive corrosion of CO2 and H2 S will be pro－
duced , and its features are show n as spot corrosion and brit tleness cracks .
(3 ) Sulfate reducing bacteria corrosion . The affection of microbes will result in corrosion of oil field
surface pipelines and tubing and casing . There exist many kinds of corrosion bacteria in t he oil field water ,
among t hem , the sulfate reducing bacteria are the most prominen t , which are anaerobic bacteria .Their pro－
creation will occur on some condition , according to research the suitable conditions for bacteria procreation
are with a pH value of 5 ～ 7 , temperat ure of 30 ～ 50 degrees cen tigrade and total salinity of ( 1 ～ 6 .6 ) ×
4
10 mg/ l . In addition , t he stagnant area is suitable to its procreation . The process of metal corrosion in－
duced by sulfate reducing bacteria is as follows .
2+
Anodic reaction : 4 Fe→ 4Fe + 8e
+ -
Water electrolysis: 8 H2 O→8 H + 8 OH
+
Cat hodic reaction : 8H + 8e→ 8H
2 - bacte ria 2 -
Process of depolarizing : SO4 + 8H S - + 4 H2 O
2+
Corrosion products: Fe + H 2 S→FeS
2 + -
3 Fe + 6( OH ) → 3Fe( OH ) 2
2 - -
Total reaction : 4 Fe + SO4 + 4 H2 O→3 Fe( OH ) 2 + FeS + 2OH
Sulfate reducing bacteria consume hydrogen thus accelareating t he depolarizing effect of hydrogen . In
addition t he produced H2 S becomes a new corrosion source and thus accelarating the anodic solu tion of iron .
The corrosion product FeS behaves conductibility and also forms a new anode, w hich will form a strong
couple, the elect rodynamic potential is up to 0 .4 V, and finally result in the casing corrosion from fester to
punching .
(4 ) Electrochemical corrosion . Electrochemical corrosion is caused by current transformation when a
system like battery is essentially formed . Elect roche mical corrosion mainly occurs at t he wall of the outer
casing . Most of downhole casing corrosion results from t his type of corrosion . Elect rochemical corrosion has
four kinds of mechanism :
① Current corrosion : It m ay occur if there is a couple of anode and cat hode . Anode is current emitter
w hose mass reduces as time goes on and cat hode is current receiving pole . If an electrochemical reaction is to
take place there must be different metals and conductive dielect ric . The first condition is very easy to be met
because of different composition bet ween casing and casing , casing and its collar , and even in the same cas－
ing ; the second condition is met w hen saline - alkali formation water exists . This occurs in the Middle East
especially . Therefore, current corrosion is regarded as t he most common corrosive form . A cat hodic protec－
tion met hod is usually used to prevent it .
② Fracture or differen tial aeration corrosion : This corrosion may take place when adjacen t par ts of the
casing are in different fluid or part of the casing is in corrosive fluid and t he adjacent part is not . The anode
and cat hode may t urn up in those two cases . The existence of chlorion speeds up t he corrosion . Usually ,
t his type of corrosion happens in t he interval without good cement bond and wit h non - uniform cement
bond and at tie point on top of cement .
③ Spot corrosion : This is t he most dangerous corrosive form which usually leads to casing boring . The
electrochemical mechanism is similar to fract ure corrosion . The procedure of spot corrosion is caused by a
little scratch , defect and foreign matter in the casing metal .
④ Corrosion among particles: This is a microcosmic curren t corrosive form . The lattice st ruct ure simi－
lar to crystal is formed in atoms when metal is curing during casting . In boundary layer the crystal has the
lowest ability for preventing corrosion . O ne reason is that the crystal contains some foreign mat ter , such as
oxide accumulation at crystal boundary when melted metal is cooling dow n . Therefore, the non - uniform
metal composition activates small curren t corrosive reaction so long as t he casing con tacts with a corrosive
saline - alkali fluid .
(5 ) Chemical corrosion . This t ype of corrosion refers to the chemical reactions wit hou t obvious volt－
age . The largest effect is that t he corrosion procedure primarily takes place on t he inner wall of casing .
Chemical corrosion can be divided in to five types:
1 42
 ① Chemical erosion : This is the result of direct chemical reaction between casing and corrosive fluid .
Spen t acid and drilling and completion fluids are t he most common factors to cause this corrosion .
② H ydrogen sulfide corrosion : This is the most common acid corrosion . When hydrogen exists in wa－
ter in wellbore this corrosion may occur . An anode transformed on t he casing is related to sulfite scale
formed on metal surface , and curren t corrosion occurs .
③ Carbon dioxide corrosion : This corrosion occurs as a result of a series of complex reactions with car－
bon dioxide w hose reactan ts can erode the casing w hen carbon dioxide dissolves in water .
④ Chemical corrosion caused by microbes in injecting sea water .
⑤ H ydrogen erosion : Hydrogen erosion has several forms . H ydrogen embrittlement and rup ture are
t he two most disast rous forms . Hydrogen embrittlement refers to change of metal molecular structure . And
hydrogen rup ture is caused by bigger hydrogen molecule w hich is formed by hydrogen atoms at boundary of
crystal grains diffusing in to metal .
(6 ) Mechanical corrosion . It has t he following types:
① Stress corrosion : This corrosion is caused by stress between casing collar and connection . St ress cor－
rosion may increase corrosive speed of casing . I t is realized t hat anode formation under t he condition of
saline - alkali fluid is due to metal st reng th decrease from distor tion of metal crystal in stress field .
② Washout corrosion : This is caused by rapid movement of fluid and solid par ticles . Washou t can slab
oxide protection film from casing wall and speed up corrosion .
2) Corrosion Forms
Corrosion forms of dow nhole casing mainly have t wo kinds: direct corrosion and indirect corrosion . Di－
rect corrosion occurs at inner wall of casing and ou ter wall without cement bond . In t hose places t he casing
directly exposes to corrosive medium resulting in various corrosive dest ruction . Direct corrosion happens at a
comparatively high corrosive speed .
Indirect corrosion occurs at ou ter wall of the casing with cemen t bond . In t hose places t he corrosive
medium con tacts wit h casing t hrough certain special ways and results in various corrosive dest ruction . From
t he results of recent research , the main reasons that cement in terval can not completely seal casing are as
follows:
(1 ) Primary pores existing in cement concrete .
Cemen t concrete formed by oil well cement hydration can not be like an iron plate and has primary
pores in varying degrees , therefore, it has some permeability . U nder this condition , corrosive medium is
able to act on t he outer wall of the casing t hrough cement concrete and results in corrosive dest ruction .
(2 ) Low cementing quality .
Downhole conditions are so complex and cemen ting is so easily to be in terferred by various factors that
t here are cemen ting qualit y problems in varying degrees , such as channeling due to low displacemen t effi－
ciency , a decrease of bonding streng th between t he casing wall and cement concrete due to thermal proper－
ties of expansion and cont raction of t he casing, etc . In these cases , corrosive medium can make contact
wit h casing by flowing through cemen t concrete .
(3 ) Destruction of passivating film .
Fluid in pores of Por tland cement has high concen tration of Ca( OH ) 2 ( pH > 10 ) . A passivating film for
preven ting casing from corroding can be formed on casing surface wit h this kind of fluid . So , oil well casing
usually has cer tain durability . However , fluid in the pores is neut ralized and CaCO3 scale is formed as ce－
ment concrete makes contact wit h water wit h a high concent ration of CO2 . Direct dest ruction of passivating
film in such situation makes casing exposed to corrosive environment having electroly tes such as chlorions ,
sulfate ions and so on .
(4 ) Rupture of cement concrete .
A reaction of cement concrete wit h sulfate ions from a formation ( gypsum layer or formation water)
results in forming of ett ringite . One of the main feat ures of forming procedure of ettringite is that its crystal
lat tice occupies more space than the original compound does . This is the reason expansion effect may take
2
place in pure cement . The ett ringite crystals can create 340 Newton/ mm of burst pressure on set cemen t .
If formation such as fractured porous limestone can not provide enough ex ternal pressure to prevent cement
from furt her expansion , cement concrete may finally rupt ure . As a result , t he casing will be directly ex－
posed to a corrosive environment and its corrosion speed will increase .
3) Anti - corrosion measures
1 43
 On t he basis of improving cementing quality to meet the st rengt h require men ts under downhole condi－
tions , the following measures should be included in casing protection method :
(1 ) Correct selection of casing material .
Casing material must be selected in accordance wit h corrosion protection . National Association of Cor－
rosion Engineers( NACE) hold t hat t he casing made by sulfide resistan t steel must be selected to avoid brit－
tle failure caused by hydrogen corrosion if existing gas pressure is equal to or higher t han 448 .16 k Pa and
t he fractional pressure of hydrogen sulfide in the gas is higher t han 0 .34474 k Pa . Among 10 grades of AP I
casing t here are 6 grades used for hydrogen sulfide resistance: H - 40 , J - 55 , K - 55 , C - 75 , L - 80 and
C - 90 ; t here are 3 grades of non - API casing used for t hat: S - 80 , SS - 95 and RY - 85 . T hose casing
grades may be selected and used according to the actual sit uation . In high pressure wells with acidic gas
( CO2 ) , corrosion resistant alloy casing ( CRA) may be chosen t hat has elemen ts such as chromium , molyb－
denum , nickel and so on .
(2 ) Change of environment .
During production of sour oil/ gas wells and those wit h serious corrosion , the working environment of
casing can be changed by using packer to avoid contact of casing wit h sour gas or corrosive medium . The
packer is put at t he top of oil/ gas pay zones and t he tubing st ring is connected to t he packer . Then , corro－
sion inhibitor is charged in t he casing annulus or circulated in through corrosion inhibitor injecting valve lo－
cated at tubing st ring on top of the packer( shown in Fig .8 - 60) to ensure casing safety .
Practice shows t hat ret urning cement to surface could retard casing corrosion in bot h sour oil/ gas wells
and those wit h corrosive formation water .
(3 ) Chemical met hods: Chemical met hods include using corrosion inhibitors , bactericidal agents and
deoxidizers .
Corrosion inhibitors: A merican Patent recommends to use polyvinyl alcohol , alkyl et her cellulose and
sodium aliphatic wit h 12 ～18 carbon atoms to prevent casing from corrosion .
Bactericidal agents: Serious casing corrosion is often caused by sulfate reducing bacteria when no oxy－
gen exists . They have two actions on corrosion : decreasing oxidation - reduction potential of metal and pro－
ducing corrosive hydrogen sulfate . Injection of ammonia has suppressive effect on the bacteria and t hen re－
duces corrosive degree on outer wall of t he casing .
Deoxidizers: Deoxidizers , usually reducibility matter such as sodium sulfite, ferric chloride , tin chlo－
ride and so on , must be added in drilling and completion fluids to suppress oxygen corrosion .
(4 ) Cat hodic protection .
Even though protection measures that increase cement ret urning heigh t to seal main water - bearing in－
tervals has been widely applied in oil fields, it can not stop casing corrosion . Now, foreign count ries and in
China mainly apply casing cathodic protection met hods . Casing cat hodic protection can be divided in to two
met hods: sacrificial anode and impressed curren t protection from ways of electrochemical an ti - corrosion .
From t he view of operation , it can be divided into three types: multi - well deep anode and single - well
deep anode protection ; single - well shallow anode protection ; and joint protection for surface pipeline and
casing that is also called regional protection . Whet her cathodic protection is to be used should be determined
based on casing corrosion sit uation after a period of time of oil/ gas well production . This is a long term of
protection measure and should be completed during oil/ gas well production .
(5 ) Waste water t reatment .
When water flooding in Zhongyuan Oil field , t he corrosion of water injection well pipes and surface e－
quipmen t that result from waste water was very serious . The waste water has some properties such as high
4 -
salinity[ ( 4～16) ×10 mg/ L] , high con ten t of free CO2 and HCO3 , high con ten t of sulfate reducing bacte－
4 5 2 + 2+ 3 2 +
ria (10 ～ 10 / mg) , high con ten t of metal [ Ca , Mg ( 4～6 ) ×10 mg/ L, Fe 20× 30mg/ L] , low pH
value( 5 .5～6 .5 ) .The water qualit y additives which are uesd in lime - base emulsion as t he main additives
can adjust t he ion conten ts in water , can change the water proper ties , and optimize t he water quality . O ne
set of advanced technology of waste water t reatmen t has been established, which was one new way to treat
3
waste water . The practice of daily t reatmen t capacity of 120000m water in Zhongyuan Oil field shows that
t he measures decreased the economic loss caused by t he corrosion and scale, improve the environment pro－
tection , and guarateed t he water injection effectiveness .
5 .1 .2 Types and properties of casings

1 44
5 .1 .2 .1 Size series
API has provided the size series standard for casing which has been received by international oil produc－
tion industry . Casing series provided by different manufact urers is based on t his standard . For non - stan－
dardized casing , users can ask t he manufact urers for special quotation .
API standard for casing size series mainly has three aspects of stipulations:
1
(1 ) Ou ter diameter of casing : Ou ter diameter of casing has 14 size series from 114 .3 mm ( 4 / 2 in) to
508 mm (20 in) . There are four size series of outer diameter commonly used for production casing : 127 .0
1 5 5
mm ( 5 in) , 139 .7 mm (5 / 2 in) , 177 .8 mm (7 in) and 193 .7 mm ( 7 / 8 in ) . 168 .3 mm ( 6 / 8 in ) is only
used in a few cases .
( 2 ) Wall thickness: API standard stipulates some wall thickness sizes for the casing wit h t he same out－
er diameter . Those sizes form various strengt h grades for selection . For instance, API standard stipulates
1
t hat 139 .7 mm ( 5 / 2 in) casing has a wall thickness series: 6 .20 , 6 .98 , 7 .72 , 9 .17 and 10 .54 mm .
(3 ) Size coordination : Size coordination has two aspects: one is size coordination between casing and
wellbore, the other is t hat between in ternal and external casings .
There should be suitable clearance between casing and wellbore . Much larger clearance may make well－
bore size much bigger and result in a drilling cost increase . On t he other hand, much smaller clearance may
m ake running casing and cemen ting much difficult and result in cemen t channeling . Sizes of casing and drill
bit manufactured at home and abroad have been standardized and serialized at present . Therefore, size coor－
dination has been basically fixed or only changed in a narrow range . Fig . 5 - 1 is t he selection table of size
coordination between casing and wellbore . As the table is used, the first step is to determine casing ( or lin－
er ) size; then to find out wellbore size required by t he casing size following the arrow in the table ( real line
stands for common coordination and dotted line stands for uncommon small clearance coordination) ; finally
to find out drilling bit size ( i .e . next wellbore size )
allowed by the casing in which t he bit runs . For exam－
ple, if 177 .8 mm ( 7 in ) casing is selected , the required
1
wellbore size should be 215 .9 mm ( 8 / 2 in ) or 222 .3
mm ( 8 /3 4 in ) in w hich the casing can easily run
t hrough ; t he allowed drill bit size should be 149 .2 mm
(5 7/ 8 in) or 155 .6 mm ( 6 1/ 8 in ) w hich can easily pass
t hrough t he casing and form t he next wellbore size .
The size coordination between in ternal and external
casing has not had reasonable unified standard at present
because of many factors . 127 .0 mm ( 5 in ) , 177 .8 mm
5
(7 in ) and 244 .5 mm (9 / 8 in ) of size coordination be－
tween in ternal and external casing is mainly used by
China’s oil fields .
Production practice proves that t here is certain
problem in size coordination which is widely used now .
1
For instance, size coordination of 215 .9 mm ( 8 / 2 in)
wellbore and 177 .8 mm ( 7 in) casing has being used in
t he world , bu t t he cementing qualit y is so difficult to be
guaranteed t hat casing cen tralizer has to be installed on
casing string to make it cent ralizing . If 127 .0 mm ( 5
in ) casing to be hanged in 177 .8 mm ( 7 in ) casing has
to be run in 152 .4 mm (6 in) wellbore, only reaming in
t he wellbore can improve cemen ting quality .
5 .1 .2 .2 Steel grade
　
Because of very adverse working conditions for cas－
Fi g . 5 - 1 Selection Table for Casing and
ing, t he requirements for steel quality are extremely
Wellbore Size
strict . The steel must be manufactured and inspected
1 45
according to special standards and technical conditions . In order to guarantee casing’s qualit y, API submits
licenses to some large enterprises and organizes t heir manufacturing . T able 5 - 1 lists casing manufacturers
confirmed by API at present .

Ta b l e 5 - 1 Foreign manufacturers and their codes ( trade names)

Coun try Manufact urer Code Coun try manufacturer Code
USA Armco Sumitomo SM
B & W ARMCO Sou th Hyundai
Central Korea Pusan
CF & 1 CF 　 U TM
Copperlol Austria Voest Alpine
For t Wor th Belgian Tubemeuse
LTV LT V France Vallourec VK
Lone Star S .SS Germany Ben teler
Maruichi Fuchs
Newpor t Hoesch
USS U SS 　 Mannesmann MW
Wheeling Britain British Steel HC .WHC
　 Pittsburgh 　 I taly Allesio
Brazli Confab Arvedi
Canada Algoma SOO Dalmine DHC .D
　 IP SCO 　 　 S .E .T .A 　
Venezuela CVG Spain Tubacex
Japan Kawasaki K .T .KO Sweden Uddeholm
Nippon NKLT .NT Argen tina Siderca SEC
　 N KK NK Mexico TAMSA TAMSA

T a b l e 5 - 2 Application scope of special casings

Application Special casing grade

Ultra high strength SM - 125G～127G , MW - 125～155 , N K - 125～150

　 NT - 125DS～150DS, SD125～150DW

Acid corrosion resistance SM - 80S～95S , SM - 85SS～100SS , NK - AC90MS～95MS

　 N K - AC85S～95S, NT - 80SS～105SS, MW - 80SS～95SS, T RC - 80～95 , SEC - FR

High collapse strength MW - 95NC～125 HC , MW - 80CYHC～110CYHC , SM - 95 T～110 ,

NT - 95HS～125HS , NT - 80CYHC～95CYHC , SD80～125HC , SD90～95HCS,
　 TAC - 95～140

Ultra cold high st rengt h S M - 80 L～110 L , N K - LT 95～125 , NT - 80LS～110 LS , SD55～125LS

High sulfite resistance MW - 80SSHC～95SSHC , NT - 85 HSS～105HSS,

SD80～100S, SD90～110SS

API Spec . 5CT stipulates casing grade standard to unify strength properties of casing . A casing grade
is composed of letter and numeral . The letter is randomly chosen and no special meaning . The numeral
stands for strength property of t he casing . As stipulated by AP I standard , t he value of t he numeral multi－
plied by 1000 psi ( 6894 .7 57 k Pa ) is minimum yield st rengt h of casing in psi . Now there are 10 common
API standard casings: H - 40 , J - 55 , K - 55 N - 80 , C - 75 , L - 80 , C - 90 , C - 95 , P - 110 and Q -
1 46
125 . For example , N - 80 is a casing grade and the minimum yield strength of t he casing is 80000 psi
(562 .4 MPa ) . The casing st rengt h proper ties are related to t he composition of steel and technologies of
processing , moulding and heat t reatment . Chemical composition of casing is selected by manufacturers since
API only stipulates casing grade . For the same grade and sa me specification of t ubular goods , steel type se－
lected by manufacturers may not be t he same . It is repor ted by related references t hat most of high and su－
per high strengt h casings are made by manganese, chromium - manganese - nickel and chromium - man－
ganese - vanadium steel . Besides t he above AP I standard casings , foreign count ries have paid much atten－
tion to research and developmen t non - API standard casings to meet special working conditions , including
super high strength casing used for deep wells , casing used in sour environment , high collapsing strengt h
casing, super high st rengt h casing used for oil/ gas well wit h low temperature, casing for carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulfite and chlorion resistance, etc . . Applications of t hose special casings can solve difficult prob－
lems to a certain degree during the developmen t of deep well, high pressure well, high corrosion well, ma－
rine, offshore and desert oil/ gas reservoirs . They also lay a foundation for popularizing such high and new
technologies as horizon tal drilling and t hermal production well . References show t hat propor tion of using
special casings has being increased year by year . Some applications of special casings are showed in T able 5
-2 .
5 .1 .2 .3 Thread types
Casing t hread and t hread connection are the key points to guarantee casing quality and streng th .
Therefore, it is an essential trend to improve processing qualit y of casing t hread and develop varied types of
t hread .
Basic connections of casing t hread can be divided in to four types: short round thread ( STC ) , long
round t hread ( LTC) , bu ttress thread ( BTC) and ex treme line thread ( XL) . Non - API standard special
t hreads recommended by some manufacturers get their ow n codes different from ot hers .
Coun tries in t he world have been ent husiastically developing casings wit h special thread connections to
meet t he needs of reservoir exploitation in high pressure wells , deep wells, ult ra deep wells , t hermal pro－
duction wells , high - angle directional wells , horizontal wells and high corrosion wells , especially high pres－
sure gas wells and thermal production wells in which AP I standard t hread cannot meet t he requiremen ts for
connection streng th , antiwear ability and airtigh tness . More than 100 kinds of those special t hreads have
been developed at present and made by dozens of manufact urers . However , only a few of them have been
widely applied and manufact ured in large quantities for a variet y of reasons . They are VAM , BDS, NSCC ,
NK series , FOX, HYdril, etc . . VAM t hread was developed earlier and applied more widely . VAM ,
NSCC , FOX and N K - 3SB special threads made in Japan have been used on trial in China in recen t years
and good results have been obtained .
Since but tress t hread has a comparatively high connecting st rengt h , it is used for most special t hreads .
The only slight difference is thread shape . A survey of t hread types is given in Table 5 - 3 .
Mechanism research on t he seals of casing t hread has gat hered obvious results . Theoretical analyses
show t hat seal of a casing t hread has three kinds of basic forms:
(1 ) Tapered t hread . Seal of this t hread relies on metal - to - metal compressive engagement and solid
par ticles in a thread dope fill in the clearance between threads . A typical example is AP I round thread .
Compressive engagement is caused bet ween pin and box t hread when t hey are made up . Allowable tolerance
on t he clearance in thread manufacturing stipulated by API standard is 0 .0 76 mm . Where such clearance is
between two engaged surfaces or at the top and root of t he t hread, metal - to - metal seal can not be done .
However , t he reason t he thread can be still sealed is t hat metal particles in t he thread dope form bridging in
t he clearance .
(2 ) A shoulder press seal is created by two metal - to - metal even surfaces in certain precision . Most
of the special threads emplay t his kind of seal . A press seal is formed in between two metal - to - metal even
surfaces, t herefore, t here is more clearance in those thread designs . So t he t hreads do not have abilit y of
leak resistance . However , since the con tact surface for metal seal is designed so small that low torque can
produce high bearing stress and a seal can be easily made .
( 3) Elastic seal . Typical examples are seals provided by taper thread and polytetrafluoroethylene teflon
sealing ring . This is an additional sealing form that is mainly used for corrosion resistance .
Some threads are shown in Fig .5 - 2～ 5 - 6 .
1 47
 T a b l e 5 - 3 Survey table of types of casing thread
Thread type and its Name and explanation Manufact urer Size range and t hread
code number per inch .

1
STC (CSG or C .1) A PI Short Round T hread 4 / 2 ～20 in , 8
Every manufacturer of
API standard casing
1 5
L TC ( LCS or C2) AP I Long Round T hread 4 / 2 ～8 / 8 in And 20 In , 8
1
BT C (BCSG or C33 ) A PI Bu ttress T hread 4 / 2 ～20 in , 5

5～75/ 8 in , 6
XL ( XCDG or C11) API Ex treme LineT hread 　
5 3
8 / 8 ～10 / 4 in , 5

SL ( Seal - Lock) Seal - Lock Thread Armco 41 / 2 ～133 / 8 in , 5

5
Hydril 5～6 / 8 in , 6
SEU Super Dualintegral Join t T hread
7～103 / 4 in , 4
1 5
4 / 2 ～7 / 8 in , 6
TS ( Tripleseal ) Triple Seal Integral Joint
85 / 8 ～113 / 4 in , 4
T hread
133 / 8 in , 3
CTS Coupling Triple Seal T hread 41 / 2 ～103 / 4 in , 6

Flush Quadruple Seal Thread 41 / 2 ～75 / 8 in , 6

FJ - P
( F J - WP is another type of
85 / 8 ～133 / 8 in , 4
special washing pipe head)

Super Flush Quadruple Seal 41 / 2 ～75 / 8 in , 6

SFJ - P
5 3
T hread 8 / 8 ～13 / 8 in , 4

Flush Dual Seal T hread wit h

FJ - 40 41 / 2 ～103 / 4 in , 6
40% Joint Efficiency

1
Multiple Seal Double Non - 5 / 2 ～7 in , 6
HCS
tapered t hread Hydril 85 / 8 ～95 / 8 in , 4

MAC Multiple Seal At taching Thread 5～95 / 8 in

Non - thread Alternating Joint

NCTK 20 in
Double Thread ( wit h O Ring) 　

Non - thread Alternating Joint 20 in

NC TS
Double T hread (100 % of Pipe
Body Yield St rengt h) 　
5
5～7 / 8 in , 5
BDS (BDS - TC) Double T hread Butt ress Mannesmann
85/ 8 in 5 , 3
Double Seal Join t
5 3
9 / 8 ～13 / 8 in , 3

Butt ress Double Seal In tegral

BDS ( BDS - IJ ) 5～133 / 8 in , 5
Joint

In tegral T hread Shoulder 　 5

Omega 5～9 / 8 in , 4
Housing Seal

1 48
 (continued)
Thread type and its Name and explanation Manufact urer Size range and t hread
code number per inch .

Moolified Seal Ring Modified Joint U sed for API , LT C

NL Atlas
Bradford
Quadruple Double - coupling 1 3
T C - 4S 4 / 2 ～10 / 4 in , 6
Thread Seal

In ternal and External Flush

FL - 4S 41 / 2 ～85 / 8 in , 6
Washing Joint T hread

Quadruple In tegral T hread 　 1 5

IJ - 4S 4 / 2 ～9 / 8 in , 6
Joint

VAM VAM , ( CTAC , A F, AG ) Vallourec 41 / 2 in , 6

5
( ATAC) ATAC - Regular Torque 5～8 / 8 in , 5
5 3
( AG) AG - Stainless Steel, Low 9 / 8 ～13 / 8 in , 5
T orque
(A F) A F - Hydrogen Sulfide
　 Resistance , Low Torque 　 　

VETL L - T ype Bu ttress T hread 14～24 in

Vetco offshore
VE TR R - Type Butt ress T hread 14～30 in

PE Plain ends 14～36 in

Double Seal , Torque Flange - 5～75/ 8 in , 6

NK - 2SC N KK
5 3
Shoulder Coupling T hread 8 / 8 ～10 / 4 in , 5

NK - 3SB T riple Seal T hread 41 / 2 ～133 / 8 in , 5

5
Integral T riple Metal Seal 5～7 / 8 in , 6
NK - EL
T hread 85 / 8 ～103 / 4 in , 5
1 3
TAMSA TAMSA, Shor t Round T hread , TAMSA 4 / 2 ～13 / 8 in , 5
Long Round T hread , Bu ttress
　 T hread , Limit T hread 　 　
3
SEC - SD SEC , In ternal Flush and Siderca 5～13 / 8 in , 5
Eccent ric Bu ttress T hread ,
Metal - to - metal Sealing Form
　 Siderca 　 　

Production casing can make its fixed functions as long as t he thread joint is of leak resistance . The seal
of casing thread depends on contact pressure , contact surface shape and surface t reatment w hose affecting
law is quite complicated and is difficult to use t heoretical analyzing method for quan titative description . The
requirements for gasr - tight ness of casing t hread become more st rict not only as the amoun t of gas wells in－
creases , but also when gas or steam flooding well does especially in recen t years . In order to solve t his prob－
lem , a lot of manufacturers pay much atten tion to fundamental research on thread seals in addition to devel－
oping special threads . Lots of lab equipment and facilities for special use have been made, and some research
results of practical impor tance have been obtained .
　 　 Research references show t hat even if a suitable special t hread is selected , two proble ms need to be

1 49
 addressed for a good t hread seal: one is optimal
m ake - up torque and the ot her is selection of a
suitable t hread dope .
Since the metal - to - metal sealing technique
is primarily applied in casing thread , requirements
on make - up torque are very strict . If make - up
torque is insufficient , t he contact area and st ress
produced on t he metal contact plane may not be
sufficien t, resulting in incomplete seal . On the
other hand , if make - up torque is too high , strain
sliding m ay occur on t he metal con tact plane, re－
sulting in seal failure . Determining t he optimal
m ake - up torque is very difficult for a variet y of
reasons . The API RPSCI standard ( see related
drilling manual ) recommends op timal make - up
torque values for round t hread casing with different
sizes, wall t hickness and steel grade . For special
t hreads t here is no range of optimal make - up
torque value at present , however , manufacturers
give recommendations based on their ow n lab re－
sults . Table 5 - 4 gives out make - up torque values
for 3SB special t hread recommended by Japanese
NK K Co . for reference .
Fi g . 5 - 2 BDS thread (mannesmann) Experimental results in oil fields have really
( a) - BDS - TC coupling joint ; proved that pressure seals provided only by t hread
( b) - BDS - IJ integral joint engagement is not reliable, t herefore, a suitable
t hread dope should be developed . At API annual
conference in 1947 , Subcommittee of Special Research on Tubular Goods in Committee on Standardization
of Tubular Goods suggests API sponsor a research project to develop a satisfactory t hread dope . The main
requirements for the dope are as follows:
(1 ) Good lubricity of make - up to
preven t thread gluing .
( 2 ) No deterioration and obvious
volume change when temperature rises to
148 .9℃ .
(3 ) Not too much liquidation w hen
temperature rises to 148 .9℃ .
(4 ) Good sealing function for leak
resistance w hen temperat ure rises to
148 .9℃ .
(5 ) Stable properties , no hardening
caused by evaporation and oxidation .
(6 ) Not easy to absorb moisture .
(7 ) Containing inert filler t hat can
completely preven t API round t hread cas－
ing and join t from leaking .
(8 ) Easy to spread on by brush in
cold weat her .
In terms of t heory , casing dope is
composed of t hree kinds of compounds:
sealing layer for forming pressure seal
connection ; t hread lubricant for prevent－
ing thread gluing and wearing and for Fi g . 5 - 3 Vallourec VAM thread
1 50
 Fi g . 5 - 4( a) NK - 2SC thread
1 - improved Buttress Thread;
2 - main sealing point of tang -
ency ; 3 - inner Integral Joint
sealing
Fi g . 5 - 4( b ) NKK NK - 3SB
thread
1 - Thread; 2 - main sealing
point of tangency ; 3 - inner
4 - Integral Joint sealing
Fi g . 5 - 4(c) NKK NK EL thread
1 - outer Integral Joint sealing;
2 - Thread; 3 - main sealing point
of tangency ; 4 - inner Integral Joint
sealing

confirming complete connection and m ake - up under a suitable torque; medium carrier for keeping the
above compounds in suspension and for helping t hem stick to the t hread surface . Those components seem to
have dual function but have differen t starting poin t .
Regarding to t he effect and function of casing sealing dope, Becker t and Frame pointed out t hat t he lu－
bricating proper ty of graphite grease is superior to t hat of zinc - base t hread grease . Zweifel pointed out that
compound composed of lead , copper and graphite in certain propor tions has good effect on lubricating and
sealing connection . In order to obtain additional data about the effect of related components on lubricating ,
sealing and stabilizing properties of casing sealing dope, some famous research institu tes have conducted
screening tests for typical commercial sealing dopes . The purpose of t he research was to determine t he effect
of exposure in air on the dopes , effect of time and temperature on t hread joint seals , and t he effect of the
dopes on lubricating property . Many useful results were gat hered . For instance , testes showed that sealing
dope primarily composed of zinc powder dispersing in to lubrican t can not often provide enough thread lubri－
cation , in other words , it can not provide permanent sealing for leak resistence . Zinc particles seem to part－
ly accumulate on t hread engagement plane in each connection joint , but does not continuously form in to its
entirety . Another example illust rates , if graphite is added to zinc sealing dope, lubricity can be improved .
However, in most of cases graphite is not able to improve sealing proper ty . Investigation on joint t hread
plane made up by using the dope show t hat dist ribu tion of filler is not uniform on w hole thread engagement
plane , continuous and uniform zinc cannot be formed . This phenomenon provides a reasonable excuse to ex－
plain join t leakage in high pressure well .
Those tests furt her pointed out that using grease as a lubricant is not valuable, t he main function of
grease is as a dispersion medium ( i .e . carrier) for filler component . Therefore, it must be able to keep a
filler in stable suspension condition . There is a limitation on its consistency because its homogeneity is af－
fected by temperature . In t he temperature range of - 17 .8 ～ 48 .9℃ , sealing dope can be spread on and
stuck to metal to preven t it from scraping as join t is screwed in . The media t hat can meet above require－
ments are: mixture of naph t henic base oil and Dow Corning’s XF - 60 silica fluid , and mix ture of alu－
minum stearate and gelled silica pow der . An oil based lubricating product wit h 3 % ～ 3 .5 % aluminum
stearate or 2 .5 % ～ 3 % lithium stearate may be used as qualified medium as well . Compared with XF - 60
silica fluid, it has poor adhesion and poor moist ure permeation resistance . However , it is still widely used
due to its cheap price .
Investigation showed t hat an iner t filler mixed with aluminum , zinc, copper and graphite can provide
good thread lubrication and a long - term seal for leak resistence . Hydrostatic tests on casing join t made up
1 51
 F i g . 5 - 5 SEC special thread tubing

by t his kind of thread dope

show t he leak of the seal has no
change by a wide margin as
time and temperat ure change .
The tested join ts experience
wit h a hydrostatic burst pres－
sure of 62 ～ 71 M Pa for more
t han 65 days still have no leak－
age at t he end of t he testing pe－
riod . The sealing proper ty is
not affected even if the joints
are heated to 182 . 2℃ for 21
Fi g . 5 - 6 NL Atlas brad ford TC - 4S thread days .
Accordingly , API has pro－
1 52
vided 5 kinds of sealing dopes , see Table 5 - 5 .
Domestic and in ternational companies have developed some non - API advanced sealing dopes such as
〔í 〕
t he Seallube produced by T UBEMAS TER S of U .S ., CAT TS101 produced in China belonged to the
anaerobic sealing dopes and contains modified propylene resin . When making up , t he heat produced by fric－
tion will result in a polymerization reaction and the formed polymer has both some strengh and some elastici－
ty , which pluggs the leakoff channel of t hread . These sealing dopes have a good sealing function of an ti -
high temperature and are being applied in pet roleum indust ry .
[ ] : Li Baojing et al :“Comparision research on t he anaerobic sealing dopes and API sealing dopes of tubing and cas－
ing .”, Journal of Oil Special Pipes, 1996 (3) .

Ta b l e 5 - 4 Make - up torque values for 3SB special thread

Pipe body Steel grade

Outside Nominal Wall J55 N80 AC90 P110 Q125 N K140

diameter weigh t thickness K55 L80 AC95 , T95 HC110 N K125 HC140
mm ( kg/ m ) ( mm ) AC80 AC95 LT110 HC125 V150
( in) AC80 T HC95 LT125
　 　 　 　 HC80 LT95 　 　 　

114 .3 ＊ 17 .28 6 .35 4 .300 4 .700 4 .900 5 .300 5 .600 6 .000

1
(4 / 2 ) 20 .11 7 .37 5 .200 5 .700 6 .000 6 .200 6 .500 7 .100
22 .49 8 .56 6 .400 6 .900 7 .200 7 .700 8 .100 8 .800
25 .17 9 .65 6 .900 7 .900 8 .100 8 .800 9 .200 10 .000
　 32 .17 12 .70 9 .200 9 .200 9 .500 10 .200 10 .600 10 .800

127 .0 22 .34 7 .52 6 .000 6 .600 6 .900 7 .300 7 .700 8 .400

(5) 26 .81 9 .19 7 .200 8 .000 8 .300 8 .900 9 .500 10 .300
30 .24 10 .36 8 .500 9 .500 9 .900 10 .700 11 .300 12 .200
34 .56 12 .14 9 .100 10 .200 10 .600 11 .300 11 .900 12 .200
　 36 .05 12 .70 9 .500 10 .400 10 .800 11 .700 12 .200 12 .200

139 .7 ＊ 23 .09 6 .98 6 .100 6 .800 7 .100 7 .600 8 .000 8 .500

1
(5 / 2 ) 25 .32 7 .72 7 .200 7 .900 8 .100 8 .700 9 .200 9 .800
29 .79 9 .17 8 .400 9 .400 9 .800 10 .600 11 .300 12 .200
34 .26 10 .54 9 .800 11 .000 11 .400 12 .300 13 .000 13 .000
　 38 .73 12 .09 10 .800 11 .900 12 .500 12 .900 13 .000 13 .000

168 .3 35 .75 8 .94 10 .200 11 .400 11 .900 12 .700 13 .300 13 .300

5
(6 / 8 ) 41 .71 10 .59 12 .100 13 .600 13 .600 14 .200 14 .900 14 .900
　 47 .66 12 .07 12 .600 13 .600 14 .200 14 .900 14 .900 14 .900

177 .8 ＊ 34 .26 8 .05 8 .900 9 .500 9 .800 10 .600 11 .300 11 .300

(7) 38 .73 9 .19 10 .800 11 .700 12 .100 12 .900 13 .600 13 .600
43 .20 10 .36 12 .200 13 .200 13 .600 14 .200 14 .900 14 .900
47 .66 11 .51 12 .200 14 .200 14 .900 15 .600 16 .300 16 .300
52 .13 12 .65 13 .600 15 .600 16 .300 17 .600 19 .000 19 .000
56 .60 13 .72 14 .900 16 .300 16 .900 18 .300 19 .700 19 .700
　 61 .07 14 .99 　 16 .300 17 .600 19 .000 19 .700 19 .700

1 53
 ( continued )
Pipe body Steel grade
Outside Nominal Wall J55 N80 AC90 P110 Q125 N K140
diameter weigh t thickness K55 L80 AC95 , T95 HC110 N K125 HC140
mm ( kg/ m ) ( mm ) AC80 AC95 LT110 HC125 V150
( in) AC80 T HC95 LT125
　 　 　 　 HC80 LT95 　 　 　
193 .7 ＊ 39 .32 8 .33 9 .800 10 .700 11 .300 12 .200 12 .500 12 .500
5
(7 / 8 ) 44 .24 9 .52 12 .100 13 .600 13 .600 14 .900 15 .600 15 .600
50 .20 10 .92 13 .600 14 .900 15 .900 16 .900 18 .300 18 .300
58 .09 12 .70 14 .900 17 .600 17 .600 19 .700 20 .300 20 .300
63 .75 14 .27 17 .600 18 .300 20 .300 21 .000 21 .000
　 70 .16 15 .85 　 19 .000 20 .300 21 .000 22 .400 21 .400
219 .1 47 .66 8 .94 13 .600 14 .900 16 .300 17 .600 18 .300 18 .300
5
(8 / 8 ) 53 .62 10 .16 14 .900 16 .300 17 .600 19 .000 20 .300 20 .300
59 .58 11 .43 16 .300 17 .600 19 .000 20 .300 21 .700 21 .700
65 .54 12 .70 17 .600 20 .300 21 .000 23 .000 25 .100 25 .100
72 .99 14 .15 18 .600 21 .000 21 .700 23 .700 25 .100 25 .100
　 77 .45 15 .11 19 .000 21 .700 22 .400 24 .400 25 .100 25 .100
244 .5 ＊ 53 .62 8 .94 13 .300 14 .000 14 .500 15 .700 16 .400 16 .400
5
(9 / 8 ) 59 .58 10 .03 17 .600 16 .900 17 .600 19 .000 20 .300 20 .300
64 .79 11 .05 17 .600 18 .300 19 .000 20 .300 21 .700 21 .700
70 .01 11 .99 19 .000 19 .700 20 .300 21 .700 23 .000 23 .000
79 .69 13 .84 20 .300 21 .700 22 .400 23 .700 25 .800 25 .800
86 .99 15 .11 21 .700 22 .400 23 .000 24 .400 25 .800 25 .800
　 91 .01 15 .88 21 .700 22 .400 23 .000 25 .100 25 .800 25 .800
273 .1 ＊ 60 .32 8 .89 13 .400 15 .300 15 .900 17 .100 17 .100 17 .100
3
( 10 / 4 ) 67 .77 10 .16 16 .300 18 .300 19 .000 21 .700 21 .700 21 .700
75 .96 11 .43 17 .600 20 .300 21 .000 23 .000 23 .000 23 .000
82 .67 12 .57 19 .700 22 .400 23 .000 25 .800 25 .800 25 .800
90 .41 13 .84 20 .300 22 .400 23 .700 25 .800 25 .800 25 .800
　 97 .86 15 .11 20 .300 23 .000 24 .400 25 .800 25 .800 25 .800
298 .5 70 .01 9 .52 16 .300 19 .000 19 .000 21 .700 21 .700 21 .700
3
( 11 / 4 ) 80 .43 11 .05 17 .600 21 .700 23 .000 24 .400 24 .400 24 .400
　 89 .37 12 .42 19 .000 23 .000 24 .400 25 .800 25 .800 25 .800

339 .7 81 .18 9 .65 17 .600 20 .300 21 .700 23 .000 23 .000 23 .000

( 133/ 8 ) 90 .86 10 .92 19 .700 23 .000 24 .400 25 .100 25 .100 25 .100
101 .29 12 .19 21 .700 27 .100 27 .100 27 .100 27 .100 27 .100
　 107 .24 13 .06 21 .700 27 .100 27 .100 27 .100 27 .100 27 .100

　 　 Notes: Sizes with ＊ : maximum torque equal to 110% of optimal torque, minimum torque equal to 90 % of optimal
torque . Ot her sizes : maximum torque equal to 120 % of optimal torque , minimum torque equal to 80% of optimal
torque .Collar wit h special clearance = 0 .95×standard .

5 .1 .2 .4 Casing strength
Casing itself has a certain ability to resist applied loads , t he ability is called casing st reng th . The load
- bearing abilit y of casing for burst pressure is called burst strengt h ; for t he collapse pressure called collaps－
1 54
ing st rengt h and for axial load the tensile strengt h ( also called yield st rengt h) . Since casing is composed of
two par ts: pipe body and joint , every par t has differen t yield st rengt h .

Ta b l e 5 - 5 API standard sealing dopes

No . Lubricating grease type Wearing ultimate pressure ( MPa)
1 Ca 2 .6
2 Li 2 .7
3 Li 1 .6
4 Li 2 .3
5 Li + Ca 3 .3

The factors which affect on casing st rengt h are: steel grade, manufact uring precision, casing size, wall
t hickness , type of casing t hread , connecting way, applied load action condition , failure pattern and so on .
The common method is to calculate the overall average casing streng th by using semiempirical and semit heo－
retical statistical law which is set up mainly from a large number of testing data combined with working
conditions and secondarily from t heoretical analysis . Practice proves this is an effective met hod . AP I has
defined strengths of API standard casings by applying modern experimental facilities and met hods , and an－
nounced t hem in bulletin for convenient use . St rengt hs of non - API standard casings are announced by
m anufacturers separately .
Production casing strings in wellbore are commonly acted on by a compound load . Some are in joint ac－
tion of collapse and tension and some in joint action of burst and tension . Since casing st rengt hs defined by
API bulletin are got under single load action , t hey are obviously affected by a compound load .
According to the Fourt h St reng th Theory in mechanics of materials , varying law of casing streng th un－
der biaxial stress can be expressed as a stress ellipse . The changed casing strength is called biaxial st ress
strength that reflects the actual st rengt h of t he casing under biaxial st ress . I t is found by analysis t hat the
existence of axial load may reduce tensile st rengt h of casing and bring up bad effect on t he safet y of produc－
tion casing st ring . Therefore, much attention should be paid to biaxial stress streng th when designing a
production casing st ring . Specific calculating methods and procedures refer to relative monographs .
5 .1 .3 Strength design of production casing strings
Two major problems need to be solved w hen designing a production casing st ring : one is exact analysis
of applied loads on production casing string in wellbore ; the ot her is selection of a suitable st rengt h design
met hod . Obviously , the more correct t he analysis of applied loads is and the more reasonable t he design
met hod is, t he more safe and reliable t he st ring is .
5 .1 .3 .1 Analysis of applied loads
The applied loads on t he casing st ring are different during different periods such as casing st ring run－
ning in , cemen ting and production of oil/ gas wells . However , it has been proved by production practice
over a long period of time that t he applied loads on the string can be divided into t hree basic types even
t hough t hey are very complicated : burst, collapse and axial tension . Their action mechanism and numerical
values are differen t in differen t conditions . If t he applied loads on production casing string need to be cor－
rectly analyzed , t he state of applied loads on it should be comprehensively investigated under different sit ua－
tions . The analysis methods at present is to determine how much applied loads on t he st ring are related to
t he most dangerous working conditions, t hat is to grab main problem .
1) Burst Pressure
Burst pressure action on production casing mainly comes from formation fluid pressure ( oil, gas or wa－
ter) and pressure provided by special operations ( such as fracturing , acidizing and cemen t squeezing) . If a
liquid head outside t he casing is not taken in to account , burst pressure acting on casing at any well dept h
m ay be calculated by t he below formula:

pi = p s + ph ( 5 - 1)
1 55
w here : pi = burst pressure at any well dep th , kPa;
ps = pressure at well head, kPa;
p h = liquid head at any well dept h , k Pa .
In wellbore - formation in terconnection system , burst pressure pi not only depends on formation pres－
sure but also relates to fluid properties , well completion methods , special operations and so on . The value of
burst pressure varied in different working conditions . Dangerous working conditions wit h t he highest burst
pressure are emphasized in production practice .
(1 ) High pressure gas well producing without packer .
In t his working condition , since natural gas fills up the entire well and t he gas column pressure is low,
t he high well bottom pressure is able to t ransfer to the well head and causes a high well head pressure . Ac－
cording to the perfect gas state equation , relations between well head and well bottom pressures may be ap－
proximately expressed by t he below equation :

( 0 .0 0 0 1 1 1 5 5 4 G H )
ps = p b / e ( 5 - 2)

w here : p b = well bottom pressure, k Pa ;

H = well dep th , m ;
3
G = Nat ural gas relative density , usually using methane density 0 .5 5g/ cm if no data .
Gas column pressure at any well dept h may be calculated by below equation :

ph = 9 .81γg Z ( 5 - 3)

w here : Z = well depth , 0 at well head , H at well bottom , m ;

3
γg = average gas density , g/ cm .
Burst pressure pi at any well dep th in t his working condition may be calculated by substitu ting equa－
tions(5 - 2) and ( 5 - 3 ) for ( 5 - 1 ) . It should be pointed ou t t hat equation( 5 - 2 ) makes quite big errors
for deep wells , so real gas state equation can be used in t his sit uation .
(2 ) Oil and gas well with packer and annulus filled with gas .
Fig . 5 - 7 shows the typical structure . If a tubing thread leaks in early stage of oil and gas well pro－
duction or t he packer is no longer effective in later stage of production , high pressure natural gas en ters the
annulus between t ubing and casing through where leakage occurs . U nder t he condition of a sealed annulus ,
gas wit h original well bottom pressure slips and rises to t he well head . Therefore , the well head pressure in－
creases and finally is equal to formation pressure . That is:

ps = p b ( 5 - 4)

Ignoring gas column pressure, liquid column pressure can be calculated by equation (5 - 5) :

p h = 9 .81γm ( Z - V k α) ( 5 - 5)

3
w here : γm = density of completion fluid , g/ cm ;
V k = gas volume invading in well, m3 ;
α= conversion coefficient , i .e . heigh t in annulus occupied by 1 m3 of gas .
(3 ) Oil and gas well to be fractured and acidized wit hout packer .
In this working condition , , since the fracturing pressure acting on t he well bottom is higher t han the
formation fracture pressure, t he well head pressure certainly increases resulting in a high burst pressure
w hich acts on the production casing . Equation ( 5 - 6 ) may be used to calculate well head pressure:

ps = pf - p h ( 5 - 6)

1 56
w here : pf = Formation fracture pressure , kPa .
Liquid column pressure at any well dept h may be calculated by equation ( 5 - 7 ) :

p h = 9 .81γm Z ( 5 - 7)

In act ual application , maximum burst pressure is calculated in the closest working condition according
to certain situation .
2) Collapse Pressure
Collapse pressure acting on casing st ring is mainly caused by hydrostatic pressure of drilling mud and
cement slurry; oil, gas and water pressures in formation ; and lateral pressure of formation rock outside the
casing . The situations of collapse pressure acting on casing st ring are quite complicated as oil/ gas wells are
in differen t working conditions under different condition and time . These will be discussed separately .
(1 ) Common sit uation .
Effective collapse pressure after t he balance of burst and collapse pressure is calculated by equations
(5 - 8) and (5 - 9) . For heavy wall casing :

2 2 2
p o′= p o - pi ( R + r )/ ( 2 R ) ( 5 - 8)

w here : po′= effective collapse pressure , kPa;

po = collapse pressure, k Pa ;
R = Ou ter diamter of casing , mm ;
r = Inner diameter of casing , mm .For thin wall casing:

po′= po - pi ( 5 - 9)

As t he inner diameter of casing is much larger than the wall thickness , so t he common reduced equa－
tion is:

po′= po - pi (5 - 10)

In common situations , t he most dangerous working condition of collapse pressure acting on production
casing is in t he last stage of oil well production . Because burst pressure acting on casing reduces as oil/ gas
formation pressure exhausts, t he increasing effective collapse pressure is close or equal to t he liquid column
pressure outside t he casing . Therefore, collapse pressure is usually calculated by using liquid column pres－
sure of drilling fluid outside t he casing which is totally emptied inside .

po′= po = 9 .81γm H (5 - 11)

(2 ) Special sit uations .

Production practices show that t he production of oil/ gas over a long period of time makes original for－
mation pressure change after an oil/ gas well has been pu t into production . Applying various forced produc－
tion measures makes lateral pressure of formation rock rapidly increase . Moreover, plastic flow and expan－
sion deformation occur in some formations because of their int rinsic proper ties . Existence of the above sit ua－
tions makes working environmen t of production casing in wellbore continuously worse and collapse pressure
acting on casing continuously to increase . Collapse pressure calculated according to common situation is only
suitable to well completion operation and common production procedure . It is on the low side for such com－
plex special sit uations . Most of casing failures in oil/ gas wells are caused by above loads , t herefore , much
atten tion should be paid to applied loads analysis for casing st ring . The following are several special sit ua－
tions .
①High pressure water flooding .
Water flooding is one of many oil field development measures widely used by oil companies at presen t .
When water injection pressure is equal to or higher t han overburden pressure, a large amount of high pres－
1 57
sure water may invade in to shale intercalation , crushed zone in bed boundary and fault plane to make rock
properties and geomechanics elements change and cause abnormal collapse pressure in production well . The
m ain expression forms are as follows:
Expansion of shale by absorbing water can cause creeping and sliding to squeeze and press t he casing .
In t his case, t he casing bears whole overburden pressure . Dispersing mon tmorillonite has t he highest water
- bearing abilit y . For example, the water - bearing content of shale with 50 % dispersing mont morillonite
m ay be more t han 10 % ; and the water - bearing content of a bentonite bed with 95 % mon tmorillonite may
be more than 15 % . Therefore, the more mon tmorillonite the shale interval has , the more possibly t he cas－
ing is squeezed and pressed . Obviously , water - bearing con tent causing water absorbing expansion of shale
after high injection water invades is much higher than t hat of shale itself . As a result, various form of later－
al pressure is impor tant factor w hich influences casing to be squeezed and pressed after injection water in－
vades in
High pressure injection water opens t he original microfract ures in t he shale bed or causes shale in terca－
lation to interconnect and form collapse pressure on casing because of t he“ water wedge”effect . As long as
t his force reaches a certain value , t he shale begins to squeeze t he casing because of its creeping and sliding .
This kind of sliding first occurs at t he top of st ructure, a zone wit h a high st ratigraphic dip and fault devel－
oped zone .
Injection water invading in crushed zone of shale bed spurs crushed fragments and hard phacoids to
“slide”along the direction of water flowing to squeeze the casing . For example , in Fuyu Oil Field , shale at
t he bottom boundary of Qinshankou formation con tains well natural fractures , clear bedding and hard“ pha－
coids”formed by hard siderite intercalation . Hard“ phacoids”and formation fragmen ts produce a tremen－
dous force along t he direction of water flowing under the effect of water injection pressure . According to the
result of calculation , if water injection pressure is 7～ 7 .5 MPa and force action area of a“ phacoid”is 2 m2 ,
3 3
t he force can be 1400 × 10 ～ 1500 ×10 kg which is enough to make squeezed casing bend , deform and
offset t . Act ual data reported t hat t here were 32 cases of casing deformation in 3600 m casing pulled out
from 9 wells , among t hem t here are 17 cases of one - side deformation , concave and axial translation ; 4
cases of offset ; 6 cases of bending and 5 cases of semiellipse and undergauge . Those data are persuasive evi－
dences .
Injection water invading in fault plane reduces interlayer friction resistance, resulting in rock stratum
sliding and then casing collapse . When high pressure water is filled in a fault plane, the plane gets“lubrica－
tion”t hat is helpful to fault movement . The fault may be revived when formation pressures on bot h sides of
it no longer have an equilibrium and gather a certain amount of energy . For example , in Daqing Oil Field ,
No . 1 fault in Nan 1 - 3 - 35 well was a reviving fault . There were 36 wells drilled in t he fault and 17 wells
among t hem had casing failures during 1974～1980 . Five of 17 wells had casing failures in six months after
putting into production among the 17 wells . Casing failure dept h is the same wit h fault dept h . Thus it is
clear t hat revival of the fault may produce high collapse pressure on casing .
②“ Plastic flow”of a salt bed .
If salt bed is buried to a certain dept h , it can produce“ plastic flow”and t hen press t he casing . The re－
sults of simulation tests using pure salt in lab show salt bed begins to deform at 10 MPa pressure and room
temperature . In ot her words , salt may“ flow”at 450～ 500 m well depth . The Coast Basin in the Gulf of
Mexico is an area of salt dome development . Researches indicated t hat salt bed interval in a well may auto－
matically close if depth drilled into a salt bed was deeper t han 3000ft ( 914 m ) and didn’t run t he casing
and ce men ting on time .
The mechanism of“ plastic flow”of a salt bed is quite complicated , and t he main factor is creeping
propert y of rock as showed in Fig . 5 - 8 .
The initial creeping rate of a salt bed is quite high . Salt bed is at initial stage of creeping and has a ten－
dence of closing wellbore so long as wellbore is formed . However , since suitable engineering measures are
applied during drilling such as adjusting properties of drilling mud and multi - reaming , the initial stage of
rock creeping is disrupted . That guarantees wellbore safety and creates a good condition for subsequent op－
erations ( such as cementing and completion) . When time passes by , a salt bed enters t he secondary stage of
creeping that has low creeping rate and cannot make a high collapse pressure on casing st ring in the well .
This situation is quite safe . A salt bed enters t he third stage of creeping after the well is put into production
over a period of time . The creeping rate rapidly increases in t his stage and t he salt bed finally begins to
1 58
 Fi g . 5 - 7 Production with tubing packer Fi g . 5 - 8 Generalized creeping curve of rock
1 - Production casing ; 1 - fracture ; 2 - Stress relaxation; 3 - Third stage
2 , 3 - Drilling fluid ; of creeping; 4 - Secondary stage of creeping;
4 - Well completion fluid 5 - Initial stage of creeping

“plast ic f low”and produces a high collapse pressure on casing string . This is the most dangerous condit ion .
The time for each rock to en ter t he t hird stage of creeping is different . The second stage of creeping
can last a long period of time for some hard rocks such as limestone, sandstone and so on , therefore,“ plas－
tic flow”hardly occurs . However, t he second stage of creeping is very short for some softer rocks such as
shale , especially salt bed . They rapidly enter the third stage of creeping ,“ plastic flow”occurs and t he cas－
ing is squeezed .
Whet her“ plastic flow”occurs is also related to the eart h st ress in which t he struct ure is situated . The
existence of t he st ress relaxation effect in formation occurs because of creeping over a very long period of ge－
ologic age makes a zero axial st ress in somewhere over a distance from maximum t riaxial stress point on
borehole wall . Thus , t he phenomenon of“ plastic flow”of rock does not occur any more . That is w hy some
casing strings pass t hrough salt bed but do not suffer from ultra - high collapse pressure . On the ot her
hand , complete st ress relaxation state is hardly met in normal drilling conditions .
③ Sand production in unconsolidated sandstone reservoir .
The phenomenon of sand production takes place in sandstone reservoirs wit h weak structure during oil
production . Con tinuous sand production creates caves in t he formation and dest roys normal distribution of
stress around wellbore and finally causes partial formation caving and submerging . The action of inhomoge－
neous radial collapse pressure acting on casing is caused by sand production combined wit h overburden pres－
sure . This makes casing collapse and offset . For instance , during a conversion operation of Zhong 34 - 6
well in Gudao Oil field in October , 1975 , a serious lost circulation took place w hen sand washing , block
was met w hen washing to 1188 .51 m . After that a lead stamp was run to 1188 .59 m . A casing piece being
70 mm long and 55 mm wide was carried out after the lead stamp was pulled out . This proved that casing
in oil payzone was damaged by excessively high collapse pressure caused by serious sand production .
Vertical overburden pressure can be entirely t ransferred to a casing under certain conditions in a forma－
tion in terval wit h serious formation caving , expanding , creeping and sliding . Thus , collapse pressure acting
on casing st ring should be calculated according to overburden pressure :

p o = Go H (5 - 12)

w here : Go = Overburden pressure gradien t, value range is 23～27 kPa/ m .

Formation pore pressure in the horizontal direction in a good permeability formation can entirely act on
casing under cer tain conditions . Thus , collapse pressure acting on casing st ring can be calculated according
to formation pore pressure:
1 59
 po = p’oc (5 - 13)

w here : p’oc = Formation pore pressure, kPa .

Collapse pressure acting on casing determined in special situations is higher than t hat in common sit ua－
tions . Therefore, it results in higher casing st rengt h to be selected and higher cost but it is practicable from
an economic standpoint .
3) Axial tension
Axial tension acting on casing string mainly comes from its dead weight and is affected by buoyant
force of drilling fluid in wellbore at the same time . And there are additional axial tensions produced under
certain conditions .
(1 ) Axial tensions caused by dead weigh t casing .
Axial tension caused by the dead weigh t of casing gradually increases from bottom to top along the cas－
ing string and reaches a maximum value at the well head . If casing st ring is m ade up of n sections , axial
tension acting on the top of i t h section ( i = 1 , 2 , . . ., n , from bottom to top) is expressed in :

Ti = ∑T k = ∑q k × Lk (5 - 14)

w here : T i = Axial tension on t he top of i t h section of casing , N ;

T k = Dead weight of k t h section of casing ( k = 1 , 2 , . . ., i ) , N/ m ;
L k = Leng th of k th section of casing , m .
Obviously , T i = T n = ∑ T k at well head , t he sum of dead weight of all sections of the casing ; T i = T n
= ∑ T k on t he top of the last section of casing , dead weight of the first section of casing . Equation (5 -
14 ) is convenien t to calculate axial tension on top of every section of casing .
(2 ) Axial tension affected by buoyan t force .
Since a casing string is acted by the buoyant force of a drilling fluid , dist ribution of axial tension ough t
to change . According to Archimedes principle, the value of buoyant force is equal to t he product of drilling
fluid column pressure at the same well depth and exposed cross section area of casing . It is stipulated that
t he acting force in up ward direction is negative and dow nwards is positive . Fig . 5 - 9 shows t he calculation
met hod of axial tension of casing affected by buoyant force .
It is derived from above figure that axial tension acting on t he top of i th section of t he casing under
action of buoyancy is calculated as follows:

T i′= ∑( T ± F ) k k

= ∑( q × L ± p
k k k × Ak ) (5 - 15)

w here : T i = Axial tension on t he top of i t h section of casing under action of buoyant force, N ;
Fk = Buoyant force acting on casing shoulder of k t h section of casing , N ;
pk = H ydrostatic pressure of drilling fluid acting on shoulder of k t h section of casing , Pa;
2
A k = Exposed area of casing shoulder of k t h section of casing in horizon tal direction , m .
Obviously , the maximum axial tension is at t he well head , and the maximum axial compression is at
t he bottom of casing string .
The recognition is not unified w hether buoyant force should be considered w hen determining axial ten－
sion . Some recognizes t hat the buoyan t force is counteracted by t he friction between casing st ring and the
borehole wall during casing running and movement ; t herefore, it needs not to be considered . Ot hers believe
t hat it should be considered because it can be calculated accurately and has relation to t he d－ensity of drilling
fluid . Practice in China indicates that different safety factors should be under taken to deal with t he effect of
t he buoyan t force .
(3 ) Axial tension produced by wellbore bending .
Casing bending may occur when a casing is run in a wellbore with certain changes of hole deviation and
curvature . Inhomogeneous axial tension is produced on t he cross section of t he casing because of the effect
of the bending at this moment . An increase of axial tension caused by excessive bending deformation may
1 60
 reduce join t strengt h of casing resulting in t hread sealing failure . A simple
calculation assumes t hat positive bending st ress on the outside of t he bending casing
extends to t he w hole cross section of casing . The additional axial tension is calcu－
lated by equation ( 5 - 16) :

6
T d = EθπrA/ ( 180 × 10 L ) (5 - 16)

w here : T d = additional axial tension caused by bending, kN ;

8
E = elastic modulus of steel, E = 2 .1×10 k Pa ;
r = radius of casing, cm ;
L = length of bending section , m ;
θ= rate of change of full 3 - D deviation angle ;
2
A = cross section of casing , cm .
Rate of change of well deviation angle commonly substitu tes that of full 3 - D
deviation angle for simplifying , then equation is changed as:

T d = 0 .0733 D Aα (5 - 17)
Fi g . 5 - 9 Effect of
buoyant force
on casing w here : D = Ou tside diameter of casing , cm ;
1 - Hook load; α= Rate of change of well deviation angle, (°)/ 25 m .
2 - Outer diameter ; It is clear that additional axial tension caused by t he bending of large size casing is
3 - Inner diameter ; higher t han t hat of small size casing with the same rate of change of well deviation
4 - Depth 1 ; angleα . For casing w hich is t he same size, t he more t he rate is , t he higher the
5 - Depth 2 ; additional axial tension caused by bending is . When designing a casing string , e－
6 - Depth 3 quation (5 - 17 ) may be used for estimating effect of bending st ress , t hen t he ten－
sile safet y factor is suitably increased .
A weak link of common round t hread casing for tension resistance is at t he root of t he last perfect
t hread on pin joint . For reference, API Bulletin 5C4 repor ts the relation of join t strengt h with casing outer
t hread and hole curvature .
(4 ) Axial tension produced during cemen ting .
A high additional axial tension may be added to a casing string when t he cement slurry does not ret urn
from casing shoe . As t he volume of cemen t slurry to be pumped is large , density of cemen t slurry is higher
t han t hat of drilling fluid for ce men ting in deep or ult ra deep wells . It is calculated by using equation (5 -
18 )

2
Tc = h( γc - γm ) d π/ 4000 (5 - 18)

w here : Tc = addition axial tension caused by density differential of cement slurry and drilling fluid , kN ;
h = height of cement slurry inside casing , m ;
3
γc = densit y of cemen t slurry , g/ cm ;
3
γm = density of drilling fluid , g/ cm ;
d = inside diameter of casing , cm .
The additional axial tension has its maximum value when cemen t slurry is returning from the casing
shoe . If the buoyan t force of drilling fluid is considered in t he design of casing st ring , and casing movement
is made according to the need of technology, the additional axial tension ough t to be taken into account . In
anot her case of the cemen ting plug hitting a container ring , additional axial tension caused by hydraulic im－
pact load is added to t he casing . I t is calculated using the simplified equation below :

T ch = 0 .07854 d2 p b (5 - 19)

w here : Tc h = additional axial tension as cementing plug hits floating collar , k N ;

d = inside diameter of casing where the plug hits container ring , cm ;
1 61
 p b = increment of pump pressure as impingemen t occurs , Pa .
(5 ) Ot her additional axial tensions .
Additional axial tension produced by impact load during casing running is a function of change of the
casing string running speed ; friction of casing string on a hole wall produces a high additional axial tension
w hen t he st ring goes through caving and undergauge formation , or meets obst ruction ; reciprocating motion
of the casing st ring scraping a mud cake during cementing also causes high additional axial tension ; etc .
However , above additional axial tensions are included in t he safet y coefficient in design of t he casing st ring
due to t heir t remendous change .
In conclusion , t he sressed state of t he production casing is quite complicated . Loads that can be accu－
rately calculated should be carefully calculated . For t hose that cannot be accurately calculated , allow a mar－
gin for selecting casing strengt h , and determine a reasonable safet y factor in w hich all loads t hat cannot be
accurately calculated are included to guaran tee safety of t he casing st ring in the wellbore .
5 .1 .3 .2 Design method
1) Design coefficient
Determination of a design coefficien t directly concerns w het her the casing design is safe and economic .
(1 ) Design coefficient of burst resistance .
Its value range is commonly 1 .0 ～1 .1 . Amoco Co . recommends 1 .0 according to the reasons below :
① Maximum burst pressure has been taken into account when calculating burst pressure .
② Advantageous factor of cemen t sheat h equilibrating burst pressure has not been taken in to account
w hen calculating equilibrium pressure outside casing .
③ Equation of casing streng th for burst pressure resistance has used a conservative factor of 12 .5 % .
(2 ) Design coefficient of collapse resistance .
Its value commonly ranges from 1 .0 to 1 .1 . Amoco Co . and Sichuan Gas Field recommend 0 .85 for
t he casing st ring below cement surface, and 1 .0 for t hat above cemen t surface . The main reasons for t hose
recommendations are below:
① A series of tests in lab and field prove t hat casing strengt h for collapse resistance increases due to ce－
ment support after cementing outside casing .
② Casing is acted on by a compressive load due to the action of t he buoyant force of drilling fluid . Ac－
tion of compressive stress may increase casing collapse st rengt h .
③ Casing collapse st rengt h given by AP I bulletin is t he minimum value , but 95 % of casings exceed
t he value .
(3 ) Design coefficient of tension resistance .
Its value is commonly 1 .6 . Thread joint and body tensile st rengt hs should be checked according to dif－
feren t t ypes of thread . Thread joint strength is checked for common round thread casing , and body yield
strength is checked for bu ttress or special thread casing .
To design a casing string in practice, determination of a design coefficient should be based on above
principles and act ual experience in a par ticular region . If st rengt h of API standard casing does not meet the
requirement of design coefficien t, one must consider applying a special casing st ring st ructure ( such as dual
casing ) , or specially placing an order for high strengt h casings such as fine precision , special wall thickness ,
and special t hread casing .
2) Selection of Casing
Selection of a suitable casing is t he foundation for making the design of t he casing string strength . A
large number of API standard and non - API standard casings provide the possibilit y for op timal selection .
The following principles for selection are often used in practice :
(1 ) If allowed under certain conditions , casing grade is selected as low as possible , t hus achieving the
purpose of optimizing design and cutting cost . Using K - 55 and C - 75 casing as an example, t he price of
K - 55 casing is only about 1/ 3 of t hat of C - 75 casing .
( 2) Hydrogen sulfite has t remendous effect on steel materials . There are 6 kinds of casing wit h the a－
bility to resist hydrogen sulfite in API standard : H - 40 , J - 55 , K - 55 , C - 75 , L - 80 and C - 90 .
( 3) Corrosion resistance alloy casing (CRA) is substitu ted for mild steel casing in a high pressure well
wit h sour gas ( CO2 ) , such as high pressure gas wells in the Sichuan region . CRA steel contains elements of
chromium , molybdenum and nickel . The higher the percentage of those elemen ts , t he better its corrosion
1 62
resistance is , bu t the higher its price is . However , in general, economic benefit for using corrosion resis－
tance casing is still good .
( 4) Special type of threads ( such as bu ttress and so on ) should be applied for the casing st ring of large
size of casing string in deep well and thermal production well to increase t hread yield streng th , w hich
should be close to casing body yield st rengt h t hus guaran teeing safet y of casing .
(5 ) Special type of threads with good sealing property such as NK3SB thread and so on should be ap－
plied in a high pressure gas well to prevent gas leakage due to poor sealing at casing thread joint . API stan－
dard sealing dope is coordinatively used to minimize harmful result from gas leakage .
3) Procedure of Design
St rengt h design of casing string generally follows t he steps listed below :
(1 ) Clarify basic requirements , design , and operation parameters for st rengt h design of casing string ;
(2 ) Initially determine type of casing and t hread according to working environmen t and storage condi－
tion of casing string ;
(3 ) Design casing collapse st reng th based on applied loads to determine casing grade and wall t hick－
ness;
(4 ) Design and check casing burst st reng th ;
(5 ) Design and check casing tension st reng th .
Design met hod of casing string is discussed in detail in cemen ting monographs and t here are many de－
signing examples for reference . Several illust rations are below :
( 1) The above is a regular design met hod of casing string . Values of collapse pressure ough t to be con－
sidered again to accoun t for special situations in a complex region such as creeping of salt bed , or pressure
in terconnection during water flooding . In some regions overburden pressure is even taken as t he collapse
pressure standard to guaran tee t he safety of production .
(2 ) Effect of environmental factors, such as pressure and temperat ure, on t he change of axial tension
after cementing should be considered for special conditions in t hermal and geothermal wells . Bending
strength should be checked in a directional well .
(3 ) Casing act ually is in 3 - D stress state in wellbore . There is certain error w hen the casing is de－
scribed wit h 2 - D st ress model, especially in deep wells . Theoretical analysis and calculation with act ual
examples show that value difference between results of two methods is about 5 % . Therefore, st reng th de－
sign of casing string is conducted under 3 - D condition only in such wells wit h strict requiremen ts .
5 .1 .4 Direct welded seam casing and its properties
Since 1970 , ERW ( electric resistance welding) direct welded seam steel pipe has been developed and
gradually int roduced into t he area w hich had been previously monopolized by VOE steel pipe and seamless
steel pipe . This kind of casing had been developed much faster . Since 1980 , U .S .A and Canada, etc,
widespread use of t his casing in the wells below 3000 meters , and t he numbers have con tinually increased .
Since 1985 , China developed this type of casing , which was suitable to t he properties of its oil fields . Good
results have been obtained . Nowadays , t his casing is used in some oil field in China .
The qualit y properties of direct welded seam casing are as follows .
5 .1 .4 .1 High size precision
The blank of this casing is the rolled steel plank , and its precision is strictly cont rolled , especially t he
t hickness error at less than 5 % . During the process of forming and welding , t he outer diameter of t he cas－
ing is always controlled by the roller , which has a very high designed precision , t hus the size precision of
t he casing is much higher than t hat of seamless steel casing . For example , t he error of the ou ter diameter is
often less t han 0 .5 % .
5 .1 .4 .2 Good toughness
As t he rolled steel plank is generally designed with steel of low carbon and minimal contain ts alloy
( which is super - cleanly smelted) , t he casing has much higher toughness t han other types . In addition , it
is welded soundly , t hus both t he blank and welded seam are guaranteed . The crosswise Charpy ( Vtype
gap) punching energy is higher than 27J , and t he longtitudinal value is several times t he crosswise value .
Moreover , t he good quality guarantees that t he perforating holes will not crack .
1 63
5 .1 .4 .3 Excellent anti - extrusion and anti - disruptive quality
As wit h the high precision of size and good toughness , the anti - ext rusion abilit y of t his casing is 30 %
higher t han t hat of seamless steel casing , and the anti - disruptive ability is 50 % higher t han that of seam－
less steel casing .
5 .1 .4 .4 Low cost
The price of this casing is about 10 % lower t han that of seamless steel casing .

5 .2 Cementing Operation

5 .2 .1 Basic foundations for cementing design

5 .2 .1 .1 Operation requirements
The basic requiremen ts for cementing quality are: perfect cement sheath formation after t he cementing
operation ; good bonding bet ween cement and casing and bet ween cement and hole wall; high cement bond－
ing streng th ; good seal and isolation against oil, gas , and water - bearing formations without any leakage or
channeling . To meet t hose requiremen ts , the cementing job should be carefully designed and performed on
t he basis of comprehensive and detailed analysis of every affecting factor . The following procedure is com－
monly applied :
( 1) Carry ou t initial design based on know n and estimated parameters in t he wellbore according to pur－
pose and requirements of cemen ting proposed by t he geological and engineering depart ment . This includes
such lab jobs as choosing type of cemen t, defining composition of cement slurry , and conducting rheology
and st rengt h tests .
(2 ) Collect such data as hole diameter , formation and reservoir logging , act ual drilling fluid proper－
ties , and pore and fracture pressure of formation . Next , decide casing setting dept h and combination of cas－
ing hardware and proposed in terval sealed wit h cement . Then accomplish a practical cemen ting design , in－
cluding actual volume of cemen t slurry to be pumped in , flow pat tern of displaced drilling fluid , critical ve－
locit y, critical flow rate , flowing pressure change during en tire cemen ting operation , and operation time
calculation . In addition , check the pressure equilibrium of cementing safety of operation time , and t hicken－
ing time of cement slurry . Finally design pumping procedure, flow rate, pressure con trol , etc . .
(3 ) Evaluate the cementing quality using temperature logging , acoustic amplitude logging , variable
density logging, and casing pressure testing, etc . If there is a cementing qualit y problem , appropriate re－
medial measure should be applied , such as squeeze cemen ting to guarantee the qualit y and meet the need of
every stimulation measure .
5 .2 .1 .2 Completion requirements
Cemen t slurry , which is a mixed fluid of cer tain density , is composed of cement , water , and various
chemical additives . No matter what kind of cementing method is used , cement slurry certainly will contact
t he reservoir . Since filter loss of cemen t slurry is much higher t han that of drilling fluid , it is inevitable that
cement slurry causes formation damage in various types of reservoir . There are many research results on
mechanism of reservoir damage caused by cement slurry . The highligh ts are as follows .
(1 ) Da mage caused by particles of cement slurry . Cemen t slurry con tains solid particles . Since parti－
cles whose diameter ranges from 5 μm to 30 μm is about 15 % of total volume, particles of cement slurry
m ay enter formation and plug pores and throats because of t heir hydration in those place, t hus causing a
permanent plug in an oil/ gas reservoir .
( 2) Formation da mage caused by filter loss of cement slurry . Generally , t he hydrostatic pressure of ce－
ment slurry during cemen ting is higher t han t hat of drilling fluid . So differen tial pressure on t he well bot－
tom is higher . In addition , filter loss of slurry is higher t han t hat of drilling fluid . U nder these conditions
t he filt rate wit h high alkalinity and various ions will enter a formation more easily . The filtrate may speed
up cleavage, dispersion , and migration of clay minerals to reduce permeability of an oil/ gas reservoir .
(3 ) Formation damage caused by crystallization and precipitation of inorganic substance in cement fil－
1 64
trate . Many ions of inorganic substance are freed and dissolved during hydration of cemen t slurry . In static
condition t hose ions are dissolved in t he oversaturation state due to t he high pH value . After entering forma－
tion , t hey may drop ou t or precipitate crystalline solids ( precipitates) to plug pores and damage an oil/ gas
reservoir .
Research shows formation damage caused by cemen t slurry mainly depends on t he cont rol of filter loss
of cemen t slurry , properties of completion fluid , and hydrostatic differen tial pressure . Therefore , proper－
ties of completion fluid should be improved to enhance its wall protecting action , suitable differen tial pres－
sure should be applied to avoid lost circulation of cemen t slurry , and displacemen t efficiency of cement slurry
also must be improved . Application of above syn thetical measures has show n positive effects .
5 .2 .1 .3 Requirements of oil and gas well production
Cemen t sheath is exposed to an ex tremely hostile environmen t over a long term of production of oil/ gas
wells . In order to extend t heir production life, t he following requirements need to be met during cementing
design :
(1 ) To meet t he minimum suppor ting strengt h . Compressive st rengt h of a cemen t sheath is related to
its curing time . It is generally accepted t hat t he operation for putting wells into production is carried out on－
ly after compressive strength of t he cemen t sheath is at least 3 .5 MPa in an effective time . The measures
used to achieve this purpose are : increasing density of tail cement slurry , fixing the minimum setting time,
decreasing the casing pressure inside during setting time, and adding t he correct amount of accelerant .
( 2) To improve thermal stabilit y . Cement sheat h may lose its streng th in a high temperature environ－
ment . Silica pow der and quartz sand are added as t hermal stabilizers w hen static temperat ure in a well bot－
tom is over 110 ℃ , to avoid such a situation . Added amoun t must be controlled among 28 % ～ 40 % , the
SiO2 content don’t less than 90 % . The high temperat ure oil well cement must be selected and used in
steam injection well .
(3 ) To enhance capacit y for corrosion resistance . Suitable additives or special cemen ts are selected to
minimize corrosive harm .
(4 ) To add a gas block agen t in natural gas well to avoid channeling .
5 .2 .2 Types and properties of cement

5 .2 .2 .1 Compositions of oil well cements

Oil well cemen ts contain four major compounds: t ricalcium aluminate ( C3 A ) , tricalcium silicate
( C3 S ) , dicalcium silicate (C2 S) and tetracalcium ferroaluminate ( C4 AF ) . They have significan t effects on
physical proper ties of cemen t during their hydration . Therefore, they are called“active compositions”in ce－
ment . Taking advan tage of that , proportion of those four active compositions and t heir fineness may be ar－
tificially con trolled, t hen basic properties of oil well cements can be effectively changed, as shown in T able
5-6

T a b l e 5 - 6 Properties of oil well cements

Early Long Term Hydration Hydration Shrinkage Property of
Compound
st rengt h st rengt h speed heat sulfide resistance

C3 S Good Good Medium Medium Medium —

C2 S Poor Good Low Low Medium —
C3 A Good Poor High High Big Low
C4 A F Good Poor Low Low Small —

5 .2 .2 .2 API standard for oil well cements

Proper ties of cements such as flowability , setting and t hickening time, streng th and thermal stability ,
are closely related to the temperature and pressure in t he place where they are displaced , especially tempera－
1 65
ture having an ex treme effect . The AP I oil well cemen t series provides 9 t ypes of cemen t for selection to
adapt to condition changes . Today, t here are over 40 manufact urers in t he world permitted to produce oil
well cements according to t he API standard , which has become t he basic foundation for t ransiting oil well
cement to international standard ( ISO ) . Application range of API standard oil well cements is shown in
Table 5 - 7 .

Ta b l e 5 - 7 Application range of oil well cements

T ype
A PI Applied dept h
Grade range Common Sulfide resistance Note
( m) Medium High

A ＊ — — Common cement

B 0～1830 — ＊ ＊ Medium heat cement

C ＊ ＊ ＊ Early strength cement

D 1830～3050 — ＊ ＊ For medium temperature and pressure

E 3050～4270 — ＊ ＊ For ultrahigh temperature and pressure

F 3050～4880 — ＊ ＊ for ultrahigh temperature and pressure

G 0～2440 — ＊ ＊ Basic cement

H 0～2440 — ＊ ＊ Basic cement

J 3660～4880 ＊ — — For ultrahigh temperature and pressure

In recen t years the following changes have been made in t he API standard : one is cancellation of dept h
range for A～H grade cemen ts; anot her is cancellation of J grade cement . Statistics from all over the world
show t hat the most commonly used cements are G and H grade , nex t are A, B and C grade, and F grade
cement is hardly used at all . Today , G and H grade cements mixed with sands and additives ( mainly re－
tarders) may be used in deep wells . China laid dow n and issued“Oil Well Cemen t Standard”( GB1023) in
1988 , and“Application P roperties of Oil Well Cements and Additives”( SY5546 - 92 ) in 1992 . These new
standards entirely absorb the newest achievemen ts of the AP I , and research results on rheology made by
Chinese instit utes .
5 .2 .2 .3 Special cements
In recent years some non - API standard cements called special cements ( effective in certain special
conditions) are widely used in oil fields .
1) Fiber Cemen t
It is common knowledge t hat cemen t sheath damage caused by perforation is ex tremely serious . Fiber
cement is an elastic cement with good abilit y of deformation recovery , and impact resistance that can reduce
3
perforation damage . Halliburton Co . has done a comparative test : two groups of 2 / 4 in cement curing sam－
ples were taken to be broken in t he same pattern and loading rate; pure cement sa mples were broken to
1
pieces , but fiber cement samples were not , even if their deformation reached / 4 in ( 6 .23 % of total heigh t
of t he samples) . This proves fiber cement has tenacity . Fiber cement is a cement mixed wit h high strengt h
syn thetic fiber . The addition of fiber not only increases st rengt h , but also changes elasticit y of cemen t con－
crete . Fiber uniformly transfers a load to the entire cemen t sheath as the action of stress on cement con－
crete . Since pre - st ress fiber cemen t has high breaking and yield st rengt h , and is able to elastically regain
its initial shape in most of cases , properties of cement for impact and crush resistance can be improved under
perforation condition .
The key technique for fiber cemen t is to select optimal t ype and size of the fiber . The principles are as
follows:
1 66
 (1 ) The equirement for maximum fiber size is
being easily mixed and pumped through cementing
assemblies in t he wellbore such as casing float and
multi - stage cementing collar .
(2 ) The equirement for minimum fiber size is a－
bility to resist impact and breaking forces produced by
perforating .
2) Ultra - fine Cements
Ultra - fine cemen t is a fine ground cement of 6
μm average particle size and 15μm maximum particle
size . Particle size of API standard cement is 5 ～ 7
times larger than that of ult ra - fine cemen t . Fig . 5
Fi g . 5 - 10 Particle size distribution of - 10 shows a comparison between particle size distri－
ultra fine and H grade cement bu tions in ultra - fine ce men t and H grade cement .
1 - Ultra fine cement ; 2 - Hgrade cement Due to its extremely fine particle size, ult ra -
fine cement easily penet rates into narrow crevices to
seal leakage of casing and coupling . This requires that ultra - fine cemen t have t he following characters:
(1 ) Maximum particle diameter is smaller t han 30 μm .
(2 ) Diameter of 90 % of par ticles smaller than 27 μm .
(3 ) Diameter of at least 50 % of particles smaller t han 10 μm .
2
(4 ) Surface area per unit mass less t han 6000 cm / g .
The compositions of ult ra - fine cemen t used for squeezing cementing operation are 20 % ～ 30 % of fine
ground cemen t and 70 % ～80 % of hydraulic slag . Hydraulic slag wit h a high concen tration of silica acting
as cementation has high thermal stabilit y w hen the te mperature is over 135℃ . In consideration of chemical
properties of hydraulic slag, t here is no need to add silica pow der to prevent strengt h retrogression . Lab
tests show that ultra - fine cement can be pumped several times and has good flowabilit y and compressive
strength .
Mechanism research shows that regular AP I cemen t only forms a bridging plug on t he sealing zone but
ultra - fine cement is able to penetrate t he sealing zone and forms a better sealing condition . This point of
view has been proven by sealing casing coupling and narrow zone leakage . There are more successful cases of
t his each day .
Ultra - fine cement has ot her applications such as isolation of fluid or water - bearing formation by
penetrating in to gravel pack , sealing high permeability formations and“channels , ”etc . .
5 .2 .3 Cement additives
Certain types of oil well cemen t cannot meet all the differen t requiremen ts of various complicated con－
ditions . The solution is to add one or several types of additives to the cemen t slurry which suit the cement－
ing operation and qualit y requiremen ts under differen t conditions . Additives are used for adjusting t hicken－
ing time, densit y, filter loss , and rheological proper ties of cement slurry , w hich increasing its volume,
strength and thermal stability . In recen t years, research on additives for oil well cemen ts develops rapidly ,
and many new additives are discovered . Table 5 - 8 summarizes the survey of additives in the world .
5 .2 .4 Cementing quality detection
Cemen ting quality must be checked after the cemen ting operation is finished to determine whether it is
satisfactory, or if remedial measure need to be applied . Regular detection for cementing quality is as fol－
lows:
5 .2 .4 .1 Bonding force of cement concrete
Two major forces in wellbore, shear bonding and hydraulic binding forces of cement , should be consid－
ered in order to effectively seal a formation on the contact surfaces of the cement - casing - formation . Shear
bonding force supports casing weight . Shear bonding force per unit area is called shear bonding streng th .
H ydraulic bonding force can prevent fluids or gas from channeling in the cemen t sheath in annular space .
On the standpoin t of effectively isolating formations , the effect of t he hydraulic bonding force is higher than
1 67
 T a b l e 5 - 8 Survey of additives in the world
Type Main chemical composition Code

1 . Accelerant ( 1) Calcium Chloride CaCl2

( 2) Potassium Chloride KCl

( 3) Sodium Chloride NaCl

( 4) Sodium Carbonate Na2 CO3

( 5) Sodium Silicate Na2 SiO3

( 6) Sodium Hydrxide NaO H

( 7) Formamite

　 ( 8) Chlorion - free Accelerant

2 . Retarder ( 1) Ferrochrome Lignosulfonate FCLS

( 2) Lignosulfonate UC

( 3) Tannic Acid

( 4) Sodium Tannin NaT

( 5) Sulfonated - methyl - tannin SMT

( 6) Sulfonated - methyl - quebracho SM K

( 7) Sulfonated - methyl Brown Coal SMC

( 8) Iron Humate FeHm

( 9) Boric Acid H3 BO3

( 10 ) Tart taric Acid

( 11 ) Potassium - sodium Tar ttarate

2 .Retarder ( 12 ) Carboxymet hyl Cellulose CMC or SY - 8

( 13 ) Calcium Gluconate

( 14 ) Organophosphonates H - 1 or HEP PA

( 15 ) Mix ture of Boric Acid , Sodium Borate and Natural Polymer HR - A

( 16 )β- Hydroxy Gluconate S1 2

( 17 ) CR - 3

　 ( 18 ) PCP

3 . Fluid Loss ( 1) Carboxymethylhydroxyet hyl Cellulose

Add tive ( 2) Hydroxyet hyl Cellulose HEC

( 3) Artificial Hydroxyet hyl Biopolymer

( 4) Copolymer of Acrylamide and Acrylic Acid LW - 1

( 5) Mixt ure of Carboxymethyl Cellulose and Carboxylate S2 4

( 6) FC - 03

Sulfonated Phenol Formaldehyde Resin SP

　 ( 8) LW - 2

1 68
 ( continued )

Type Main chemical composition Code

( 9) PA - 1

( 10 ) SK - 1

4 . Dispersant ( 1)β- Albocarbon Sulfonate Polymer SM - 88

( 2) Oxalic Acid FDN

( 3) Sodium Lignosulfonate

( 4) Calcium Lignosulfonate

( 5)β- Albocarbon Sulfonate Polymer UN F - 2

　 ( 6)β- Albocarbon Sulfonate Polymer NF

( 1) Ben tonite
5 . Lightweight
( 2) Asphalt Powder
Additive
( 2) Asphalt Powder

( 3) Diatomite

( 4) Expanded Perlite

( 5) Fly Ash WZ

( 6) Glass Microspheres PZ

( 7) Sodium Silicate Base SNC

　
( 8) SU

6 . Heavyweight ( 1) Barite BaSO4

Additive ( 2) Ilmenite Powder TiO2・Fe3 O4

7 . Defoamer ( 1) Octanol - 2

( 2) Glycerine Polyet her

( 3) Organosilicon GX - 2

　 ( 4) CD CD

8 . Strengt hening Silica Powder

Agen t 　

9 . Gas Channeling ( 1) Aluminum KQ - A

Agen t ( 2) Aluminum ZG - 2

( 3) Aluminum DG29

( 4) Organic High Molecular Polymer , Chelate and so on G6 0

　 ( 5) Organic High Molecular Polymer , Chelate and so on G6 9

10 .Spacer Additive SNC

t hat of shear bonding force, because most oil well cements can provide enough bonding force to support the
casing weigh t .
Research shows t hat t he bonding force between cement and casing is affected by the following factors:
( 1) Change of burst pressure in casing can cause corresponding changes of hydraulic and shear bonding

1 69
strength . If the casing rem ains closed during the cement setting process , hydration heat of the cement caus－
es burst pressure inside t he casing to increase , w hich can reduce bonding streng th and may form micro -
annlus for gas to easily leak from .
(2 ) Hydraulic and shear bonding streng th increase as surface roughness of casing increases .
( 3) Oil - wet coating material on the surface of casing reduces the hydraulic bonding force between ce－
ment and casing .
(4 ) Hydraulic bonding failure is mainly related to expansion and shrinkage of casing .
Whet her fluids and gas channeling take place in annular space of the wellbore depends on how surface
bonding between cement and formation is . Bonding force between cemen t and casing is affected by the fol－
lowing factors:
(1 ) Good hydraulic bonding for formation depends on close contact between cement and casing .
(2 ) A thick mud cake between t he contact plane of cemen t and t he casing seriously reduces the hy－
draulic bonding force .
(3 ) Considerably high bonding st rengt h may be ob tained against high permeabilit y formation if t hick－
ness of mud cake is uniform .
( 4) Inadequate displacement of drilling has more harmful effects on bonding strength of formation than
on casing .
To summarize t he above discussion , well completion met hod should be carefully considered under vari－
ous conditions in t he wellbore, t hen relevan t measures applied to guarantee cementing quality during ce－
menting process ( such as applying a resinous mixed sand coating on casing, opening well head during set－
ting , etc .)
5 .2 .4 .2 Cement bond logging
Acoustic logging ( CBL ) is one of the most widely used cemen t bond logging met hods . Using this
met hod sonic waves or vibration signals are transmitted to t he formation , t hen the two - way time of signals
will be received and recorded based on the sonics principle . Since two - way time and amplitude of sonic
waves are differen t w hen they are t ransmit ted through casing and formation , the condition of cement bond－
ing outside t he casing could be detected by measuring the change of sonic amplitude and two - way time .
Free casing wit hou t cemen t bonding can vibrate and produce a strong signal; if t here is good cemen t bond－
ing on both casing and formation , t he vibration signal of casing cannot be received except by formation sigal
at t he casing . When there is good ce men t bonding wit h t he casing
but no bonding wit h formation , the signal also can be received in
a simple curve of acoustic logging , but t he received signal is weak
due to interference of the mud cake between cement and forma－
tion . Therefore, t he condition of cement bonding with t he forma－
tion is difficult to judge .
Thus it can be seen t hat acoustic logging along the wellbore
can quite accurately determine bonding qualit y between cement
sheat h and casing ( t he first interface ) , but bonding quality be－
tween cemen t sheat h and formation ( t he second interface) has not
been properly judged . Fig . 5 - 11 shows t he downhole inst rument
for acoustic logging .
The variable density record logging met hod must be com－
bined wit h sonic wave train and acoustic logging to accurately
judge cement bonding st rengt h , especially at the second interface .
Variable density logging ( VDL) provides full wave display of son－
ic wave signal . I t requires long spacing , t herefore, double receiv－
Fi g . 5 - 11 Downhole instrument er equipmen t is needed . Recording equipment can directly record
of acoustic logging VDL and CBL signals on t he same film , which can more correctly
1 - Electric cable; 2 - Electronic in terpret cement bonding qualit y and identify micro - annulus and
circuit ; 3 - Receiver ; 4 - Transmitter channeling . Fig . 5 - 12 shows t he CBL - VDL combination
5 - Casing; 6 - Cement sheath; recording inst rument .
7 - Travel path of sonic wave In recen t years , Jianghan Logging Research Institu te has
1 70
successfully developed the ult rasonic logging instrumen t ( UCT - 1 ) , and have ob tained good application
effects . Ultrasonic logging uses ult rasonic wave as a sound source . Since an ultrasonic wave has high pene－
tration abilit y and sensitivity for change in properties of transmission medium , it can well respond to the ex－
isting microannulus and channeling , and identify bonding conditions on t he first and second interfaces . Ap－
plication in Jianghan Oil Field proved that t he ult rasonic logging met hod has better judgment for cement
bonding quality compared to acoustic logging ; and it is more detailed and reliable for identification of two
in terfaces compared to acoustic and variable density combination logging .
However , today t here still are many problems of testing technique for t he second interface of the ce－
ment sheat h as a result of extremely complex downhole conditions . Fields often employ some direct met hods
to evaluate cementing qualit y such as perforating 1～2 shots on the in terval t hat is suspected to have cement
quality problems , then conducting pressure testing by using a packer to detect cementing quality .

5 .3 Production Casing and Cementing Operation for Complex Type of Wells

Summarization of production casing and cemen ting techniques for complex t ypes of wells will be pre－
sented in this section , and major problems t hat need to be considered, basic t rain - of - thought , and met h－
ods to solve t hose problems are poin ted out .
5 .3 .1 High pressure gas well

5 .3 .1 .1 Major problems
Interzonal cross - flow and gas channeling to the well head after cemen tation has been conducted in
high pressure gas wells , are t he major problems of cementing quality that have not yet been solved any－
where . It is generally known that hydrostatic pressure of t he cemen t slurry acting on formation fluids dur－
ing cement setting con tinuously decreases to , or even lower than , the water column pressure . When hydro－
static pressure of the cement slurry is lower t han formation fluid pressure , formation fluids can invade annu－
lar space and form channeling , w hich damages t he sealing effect of cement concrete . Form ation fluids may
also bypass to a lower pressure reservoir . The phenomenon of a decrease in hydrostatic pressure during ce－
ment set ting is called weigh tlessness of cemen t slurry . Oil/ gas channeling in a high pressure well is mainly
caused by weigh tlessness of cement slurry .
High gas reservoir pressure in a high pressure gas well is one of t he factors t hat should be considered in
design . For example, gas reservoir pressure is 126 MPa at 6020 m well dep th and well head pressure is over
104 M Pa in Sichuan Long 4 well . Extremely strict requirement for burst st rengt h of casing is needed in
such a high pressure well . Therefore, special specification casings should be selected since regular API spec－
ification casings will not meet t hat requiremen t . Heavy weight additives must be added to cement slurry
wit h high densit y , mean while, its rheological properties and operation parameters should be adjusted . Ob－
viously , effects of high pressure are substan tial .
Due to t he characteristics of gas higher requiremen ts are needed for leakproofness of the casing thread .
Data show t hat casing t hread that can bear 20 M Pa water pressure testing , cannot guarantee gas sealing un－
der 10 MPa pressure . In recent years , non - AP I standard thread joints have been continuously applied in
some gas fields in the world , and good results have been obtained in combination wit h t he uses of t hread
dopes t hat suit the application standards . Features concerning special casings and threads are covered in the
first section of t his chapter .
5 .3 .1 .2 Solving methods
Weigh tlessness of cemen t slurry may occur because it is a gelling substance . Therefore, channeling of
oil, gas and water in ce men t sheat h is inevitable without any special technological measure . There are many
research results concerned wit h t he reasons and laws of weigh tlessness of cement slurry .
Practical met hods for preventing cement slurry from weightlessness are as follows:
(1 ) To limit returning height of cement slurry;
(2 ) To apply cement slurry wit h different t hickening time ( setting time ) w hen cementing in a long
1 71
 in terval;
(3 ) To pressurize in annular space ;
( 4 ) To increase densit y of drilling
fluid in annular space before cemen ting ;
(5 ) To apply multi - stage cement－
ing technology ;
( 6) To increase the densit y of mixed
water for cemen t slurry ;
(7 ) To use modified ce men t ( com－
pressive cemen t and non - permeable ce－
ment ) .
Using modified cements for remedy－
ing weightlessness of cement slurry is a
commonly used method at present . Mod－
ified cements have the following types:
1) Expanding Cements
Expanding cements seal micro - an－
nulus by t heir volume expansion during
setting . They are prepared by mixing
regular Portland cemen t wit h sulfonated
calcium aluminate, calcium sulfate, and
lime . Their expanding capacities are over
10 times higher t han salt - bearing Port－
land cements . The origination of t heir
expanding capacities is t he formation of a
type of calcium vanadium crystal . Calci－
um vanadium crystal is formed by reac－
tion of sulfate wit h t ricalcium aluminate
in Portland cemen t . The crystal whose
volume is much larger than calcium alu－
Fi g . 5 - 12 CBL - VDL combination instrument minate replaces the lat tice structure of ce－
1 - 3′CBL - 5′ VDL logical circuit ; 2 - Cathode - ray ment, produces an in ternal st ress , t hen
pipe; 3 - To CBL circuit ; 4 - Standard optical camera; causes t he cement to expand largely .
5 - 3′signal ; 6 - 5′
signal ; 7 - Cement ; 8 - Formation;
Volume expansion rate of this type of ce－
9 - Transmitting sonic pulse at the rate of 10～12
pulses/ s ; 10 - Transmitter ; 11 - 3′receiver ; 12 - 5′ ments is from 0 .05 % ～ 0 .2 % . Anot her
receiver ; 13 - Casing type of expanding cements is made of
API standard A grade cement mixed wit h
sulfate ( hemihydrate gypsum) , salt, and other additives . Expanding capacity of t his cemen t is even higher
t han the former type, and its cost is reasonable . Lab experiments show t hat expanding cemen t may have
t he ability to resist sulfate corrosion if the propor tion of expanding reactan t ( sulfate ) and tricalcium alumi－
nate remains at 2∶1 . Expanding cemen ts are helpful for controlling gas channeling , bu t are not absolu tely
effective; t herefore , additional measures must be applied . Amoco Co . completely cont rolled gas channeling
by using good cementing met hod , expanding cement , and an outside casing packer in 14 wells located in
New Mexico State of the U nited States .
2) Non - permeable Cemen ts
Non - permeable cemen t prevents gas channeling by forming a non - permeable separating layer as a
result of chemical and physical change of cemen t struct ure during the t ransition period from initial setting to
final setting of cemen t slurry . West services Co . obtained over 90 % success rate by using non - permeable
cement in 84 cementing operations in the U nited States .
Foaming active agen t is added to regular cement and acts upon gas invading t he cement slurry from the
formation , to form foaming cemen t, which in turn acts as a non - permeable separating layer for other gas－
es , to preven t gas channeling . Tests discovered that resistance force against gas migration may increases 5
times if foaming active agen t is added to cemen t slurry . It is reported that Hulliburton Co . and Dow－
1 72
ellSchlumberger Co . and some others have successfully applied this
met hod .
3) Cemen ts wit h Silica Fines
This is a low densit y gastigh t cement developed by Statoil Co .
in mid 1980s for solving gas channeling in t he shallow gas reservoir
of Nor th Sea Oil Field in Britain Mechanism . Silica fines preven t gas
channeling : first they can bind to water in t he cemen t mat rix ; sec－
ond t hey can be packed in among cement particles , as show n in Fig .
5 - 13 .
In addition to effectively preven ting gas channeling, silica fines
added to cement may reduce free water and filter loss of cement slur－
ry , increase cement streng th and bonding proper ty , extend cement
durabilit y, may be used as light weight additive for cement . Those
characteristic feat ures of silica fines are summarized from many lab Fi g . 5 - 13 Silica fines packing
1 - Silica Fines ;
tests and 70 successful cementing operations . In recen t years , its 2 - Cement particles
popularization and application in Changqing Oil Field have obtained
good effects as well .
4) Thixotropic Cements
Anot her met hod for preventing gas channeling is to change static gel st reng th , w hich should be rapidly
formed as long as cement slurry stops flowing . It is reported t hat the more rapidly the cemen t slurry forms
239 Pa gel strengt h after overbalance pressure is lost, t he more the possibility for cemen t slurry to prevent
gas channeling . Thixot ropic cemen ts have been used in many regions abroad for this purpose . D600 made
by Dowell Schlumberger and Thixset 31 made by Hallibur ton , are a few examples .
5) Cemen ts wit h Delayed Gel Strength
Cemen t wit h delayed gel streng th made by Halliburton Co . is t he newest development for preventing
gas channeling . A cemen t additive t hat can reduce filter loss and improve development of static gel strengt h
is mainly added to t his kind of cement . When most of the filter loss occurs , developmen t of static gel
strength of cement slurry is delayed . But as t he delay period passes , filter loss of cement slurry reduces, and
t he slurry rapidly passes through its transition time in w hich static gel streng th increases from 47 .8 Pa to
239 Pa . The two processes of filter loss and static gel strengt h do not occur at the same time , so that act ual
pressure loss will be moderated by a big margin , thus preven ting gas channeling . This method has been ap－
plied in fields , and achieved success .
6) Compressive Cements
Compressive cement is manufactured by mixing common cemen t with an additive that can produce gas
after it is pumped in t he wellbore . Volume of the gas is small, about 3 % of volume of cemen t slurry column
under downhole condition . P roduced bubbles are ex tremely small and dispersed , t herefore buoyant force
cannot cause bubbles to float up , accumulating and forming channeling . Gaschek made by Halliburton Co .
and Gasbloke made by Dowell Schcumberger belong to this type; it has been successfully applied in fields ,
and reduced occurrence of gas channeling . K Q serial additives made in China have achieved apparen t effect
in their application . Table 5 - 9 gives the basic proper ties of similar products abroad .

Ta b l e 5 - 9 Properties of some gas channeling addit ives

Product KQ Gaschek D29 XA - 1 - 17 - 0
I tem
Cemen t JiahuaG Jiahua95 JiahuaG Jiahua95 JiahuaG Jiahua95 JiahuaG Jia hua95

Initial time ( min) 48 60 16 24 24 31 7 18

Continuing Time 85 102 30 38 16 21 12 14

Al equivalency ( % ) 23 .2 23 .6 8 .5 22 .4

　 　 Notes: ( 1) Water - cemen t ratio : 0 .44 . For API mixing method , Concen tration of additive is about 0 .5 % ;
( 2) Testing temperature for initial foaming time is 35℃ ;
( 3) Testing temperature for con tinuing foaming time is: 75℃ and 95℃ for G grade cement .

1 73
5 .3 .2 Sour Gas Wells

5 .3 .2 .1 Major problems
Some gas reservoirs in China con tain sour gas , especially H2 S . For example, t he highest concent ration
of hydrogen sulfite in the Triassic gas reservoir of Wolonghe Gas Field in East Sichuan is 32 % ( 493 kg/
3
m ) ; t hat in Zhaonanzhuang Gas Field in Hebei is 92 % . Ot her gas fields not only have high concent ration
of H2 S sulfide but also CO2 dioxide, etc .
H2 S is a gas with drastic toxicity , strong acidity and no color . Low concen tration of H2 S smells of rot－
ten egg . H2 S can be dissolved in water and forms a weak acid . I ts corrosive effects on metal are electro－
chemical weigh t - loss corrosion , hydrogen embrittlement , and sulfide stress cracking . Hydrogen embrittle－
ment often causes production t ubing string to suddenly break and fall, so t hat t he gas well cannot produce
normally . I ts harm is ex tremely great .
Carbon dioxide is a leuco - gas , easy dissolved in water to form carbonic acid . I ts aqueous solution as－
sumes acidity and causes corrosion of metal . Major corrosion effects are pitting corrosion , moss－like corro－
sion , step corrosion and weigh t - loss corrosion . Fatigue st rengt h of pipe st ring may reduce 40 % after it
suffers carbon dioxide corrosion . Three wells in Huabei Oil Field could not produce because of t his corro－
sion . Therefore , its harmful effect also is great .
5 .3 .2 .2 Solving methods
Careful design of production casing st ring in a sour gas well is an importan t measure for cutting drilling
cost and guaranteeing production safet y . Selection of anticorrosive casing is a more importan t, as well as
considering characteristics of formation profile, drilling purposes , wellbore life, casing setting dept h , and
amount of casing to be used . A merican Pet roleum Institu te and American Society for T esting Materials rec－
ommended an applied specification for pipe goods in sour gas environment , as shown in Table 5 - 10 .

T ab l e 5 - 10 　 Specification for pipe goods in sour gas environment

Under Various Temperature Under 65℃ or over 65℃ Under 80℃ or over 80℃
T emperature Temperat ure

API Standard 5A : H - 40 , A PI Standard 5A: N - 80 ( Q and T )

API Standard 5A: H - 40 , N - 80
J - 55 , K - 55 AP I Standard 5AC : C - 95( Q and T ) A PI Standard 5AX: P - 105
A PI Standard 5AC : C - 75 , L - 80

Casing should be selected according to st ress analysis in an actual design in addition to referring to
above recommendation table . H ulogan discovered that steel whose Rock well Hardness is 22 or over is easily
damaged by hydrogen embrittlement if exposed to a water - bearing pressure environmen t and sligh t amount
of hydrogen sulfite . The reason is t hat hydrogen atoms penet rate steel and cause great damage to steel
strength . Therefore, consider not only w hich type of an ticorrosive casing should be selected , bu t also the
propert y of its yield streng th , w hen designing a production casing string .
Corrosion problems of cemen t concrete caused by carbon dioxide should be considered w hen cementing
in a CO2 - bearing gas well . The former Soviet U nion did research on t his problem and obtained successful
experience . For example, cemen t concrete suffered such severe CO2 corrosion after cementing in a Western
Syberia region that t he leakproofness in annulus behind t he casing failed , and in terzonal cross - flow oc－
curred . The research shows that in a variet y of compounds in cement concrete, free calcium hydroxide has
t he lowest corrosion resistance ; noychite type of compounds such as calcium silicide , hard calcium silicate
hydrate, and calcium aluminate hydrate have t he highest corrosion resistance . Therefore, a special formula－
tion wit h a converging additive is applied to improve corrosion resistance of cement concrete . This method
moderates corrosion by causing crystalline solids to miantain thermal stability after their hardening period ,
or by slow solution and hydrate formation due to reaction of hydrolytic cement concrete and acid . Lignin
can be added to original cement slurry to improve carbonic acid corrosion resistance of oil well cements that
1 74
basically are Portland , gypsum and alumina cements . Since monose and lignosulfonate have good adsorptivi－
ty , they can form a firm film over the surface of the new products to preven t contact with surrounding
medium . Fifteen percen t concen tration of t hose additives in cemen t slurry may produce the ideal effect .
5 .3 .3 Oil and gas wells with low pressure and permeability

5 .3 .3 .1 Major problems
Basic characteristics of a reservoir with low pressure and permeability are: many series of st rata , many
t hin in terbeds , heterogeneous lit hology and physical proper ties , low formation pressure coefficient , low
permeability and low porosit y . For example, in an oil reservoir wit h low pressure and permeability in Erlian
Oil Field in China, its pressure coefficient is in a range of 0 .92～0 .98 ; average permeability is from ( 3 .27
- 3 2
～82 .6 ) ×10 μm ; there are many shale interbeds in sandstone oil payzones buried at shallow dept h ; and
t here is bottom (or edge ) water in t his reservoir .
If regular density cement slurry is used in the cementing operation for t his low pressure and permeabili－
ty reservoir , formation pressure of such a reservoir is so low t hat the formation may be fract ured as a result
of high hydrostatic pressure of cement slurry . Leakage of a large volume of cemen t slurry may cause ce－
menting to fail . I t is possible for cement par ticles to en ter formation pores and plug the flowing channels to
furt her reduce permeabilit y . Invasion of cement filtrate in such a reservoir can cause more serious damage
t han in a high permeability reservoir . Due to above reasons , there are many cementing quality problems for
low pressure and permeability wells . Those affecting factors should be considered when designing produc－
tion casing and cementing for such reservoirs .
5 .3 .3 .2 Solution methods
Using a suitable type of multiple stage cementing collar to divide whole cement sealing interval into 2
or 3 stages for cementing separately can reduce t he leng th of cemen t sealing interval each time . In doing so,
hydrostatic pressure of t he slurry may drop . Also, multiple stage cementing and ECP can be used as a com－
bination . The packer isolates or separates upper and lower stages of cement slurry , or isolates leakage for－
mation to preven t further leakage .
In addition to t he above methods , t he most effective way to solve problems of cemen ting operation in
oil/ gas reservoir with low pressure and permeability is to apply light - weigh t additives to reduce densit y of
t he cement slurry ( also called low density cement ) . Major light - weigh t additives used in China for mixing
low density cement slurry are as follows:
(1 ) Ben tonite . Density of cement slurry mixed with ben tonite as a light - weigh t additive is between
3
1 .5 ～1 .6g / cm . Cemen t slurry wit h a differen t blending ratio of bentonite has good properties ( except its
strength ) , and is suitable to sealing a low pressure zone or leakage zone .
(2 ) O xidized asphalt . Particle size of oxidized asphalt used in fields is under 500μm , and its density is
3 3
in a range of 1 .17 ～1 .25 g/ cm . Density of cement slurry mixed wit h it is between 1 .35 ～1 .50 g/ cm .
The slurry has such advantages as stable performance , good plugging and anticorrosive abilit y, and is suit－
able for a cemen ting operation in medium deep or shallow wells wit h low pressure oil/ gas reservoirs . How－
ever , its field operation has a certain degree of difficult y due to high cost, low softening point , and cohesive
phenomenon under high temperature .
(3 ) Microspheres . Chemical components of microspheres are oxidates of silica , aluminum , and iron .
Microspheres made by differen t manufacturer have t he same basic chemical componen ts and physical proper－
ties , but t he amoun t , quality , composition and particle size of microspheres are somehow differen t because
of the difference of coal type, coal quality , fineness of coal powder and combustion technology in different
places . Microspheres have features of light mass , low adsorbed water ( surface of microspheres can be wet－
ted by a lit tle volume of water) , certain activity , and good compatibility with cement . Two kinds of micro－
spheres are used in the field : one is hollow microspheres , wit h which cement slurry with 1 .20 ～ 1 .60 g/
3
cm density can be mixed ; t he other is solid microspheres wit h which cement slurry with 1 .57 ～ 1 .61 g/
3
cm can be mixed . P ractice proves t hat low density cement with microspheres has higher compressive
strength than other types of low density cements , and is suitable for use in wells 3000～4000m dept h .
( 4) Foam ce men t . Foam cement is a kind of cement slurry mixed (or produced) wit h a certain volume
1 75
of gas t hat homogeneously dist ribu tes in the slurry to reduce its density . In order to make foam stable in ce－
ment slurry , foam stabilizer ( see T able 8 - 14 and Table 8 - 15 in Chapter 8) wit h high performance made
by certified manufacturers is applied . Foam cement has t he following advan tages: its density is low , 0 .84
～ 1 .32 g/ cm 3 in general, t he lowest range is 0 .5 ～0 .6 g/ cm3 ; its rheological properties are good enough to
meet the requirements of cementing operation ; its streng th is higher than ot her low density cements . Since
t here are compressible and elastic micro - bubbles in cement slurry, they can compensate for water volume
reduction during hydration process when weightlessness occurs . Foam cement can limit invasion of forma－
tion fluids , avoid channeling occurrence, improve cemen t bonding wit h casing and borehole wall, and im－
prove cementing quality . In consideration of its advantages , foam cement is one of t he first measures to be
chosen for cemen ting operation in oil/ gas reservoir with low pressure and permeabilit y .
5 .3 .4 Thermal production wells

5 .3 .4 .1 Major problems
Steam injection is one of the most effective met hods for heavy oil production . Since a thermal produc－
tion well is at high temperat ure during its production period , casing and cement will face a severe environ－
ment .
(1 ) Casing string is in a high temperature t hermodynamic field , as steam wit h 360℃ maximum tem－
perat ure is injected in heavy oil well . Heated casing expands to produce internal stress in the casing . When
t he compressive st ress is higher than yield limit of the material, casing will rupt ure or damage .
(2 ) Normal tensile load changes to compressive load due to expansion of casing st ring during steam in－
jection . On t he ot her hand , since temperat ure decreases by a large margin when steam injection halts , ten－
sile force begins to act . This repeated change may lead coupling to leak , and t hread to pull out .
( 3) A large number of tests done on t he effects of temperat ure on cement st reng th show that compres－
sive strengt h of every kind of cemen t decreases by a large margin w hen temperat ure is over 110℃ . Calving
disaggregation of cement concrete st rengt h will take place w hen temperat ure continuously increases to criti－
cal poin t and causes t he cement to lose its functions of supporting and sealing the casing . F rom t he standing
point of technology , t he temperat ure t hat cement suffers in a t hermal production well almost reaches the
critical point , therefore, examples of cemen t streng th failure are nothing new in such wells .
5 .3 .4 .2 Solution methods
In conclusion , effects of high temperature on casing and cemen t should be fully emphasized in design－
ing the production casing and cementing operation for a thermal production well . A set of effective met hods
has been discovered t hrough production practice over a long period of time .
1) Pre - st ress Cemen ting
Pre - stress treat ment for casing string during cementing in t hermal production wells is an ideal method
for protecting casing from t herm al st ress damage . Practice in Liaohe Oil Field shows t hat pre - stress ce－
menting effectively avoided casing dam age caused by t hermal stress in thermal production wells, and ex－
tended service life of the wells . This met hod lays a good foundation for heavy oil production .
Below is a calculation method for pre - st ress caused by pulling t he casing st ring in Liaohe Oil Field .
The value of pre - st ress to be applied on the casing string is calculated on the basis of finding out allowable
stress of casing , and maximum t hermal stress ( compressive stress) caused by casing expansion as tempera－
ture increases , t hen t he total pulling loads to be applied on t he well head during casing pre - st ress opera－
tion . The equation is as follows:

F1 = F f + Go + G1 + F′= σf S + Go + qL1 (1 - rv1/ rc ) + F′ (5 - 20)

w here : F1 = total pulling load , N ;

Ff = pulling load for casing pre - stress , N ;
σf = pre - st ress to be applied on casing , Pa;
2
S = area of cross section of casing wall, m ;
Go = suspending weigh t of traveling block and rotary hook , N;
1 76
 G1 = weigh t of casing in cement slurry, N ;
F′= friction force of cemen ted interval against casing w hen t he string is pulled , N ;
q = average weigh t in air per meter of casing , N/ m ;
L 1 = leng th of casing in retarded cement interval, m ;
3
rv1 = average density of retarded cement slurry , kg/ m ;
rc = steel densit y of casing , kg/ m3 .
Among t hose, F′is very little and may be ignored in calculation according to sample pulling tests in
lab .
Elongation of casing under total pulling load to be applied on well head is expressed by :

ΔL = [ F1 - Go - q L1 ( 1 - r v 1/ r c ) ] L 1/ ( ES ) (5 - 21)

w here : ΔL = Elongation of casing , m ;

E = Elasticit y modulus of casing , Pa .
One - trip eart h anchor used for pulling pre - st ress of casing is popularized in Liaohe Oil Field . The
first step of its procedure is to connect an eart h anchor at t he bottom of the production casing string and
lower it in to t he well bottom , then carry out the regular cemen ting operation . The casing st ring may be
moved during cemen ting according to technical regulation . After t he cemen ting plug hits t he float collar , 15
～20 M Pa pressure is injected in to casing by cementing truck . Under action of t his burst pressure, certain
axial tensile stress is applied on casing string . Mean while, a man - made cementing rubber plug pushes the
upper propping rod of the anchor down under action of pump pressure to shear hanging pin . Then braces
are opened by t he propping rod and a set of connecting rods t hrough w hich t hrust on t he rubber plug is
t ransferred to embedment pressure on brace . Therefore, t he brace can be embeded into t he formation and
t he anchored on borehole wall . Finally , the casing st ring is lifted by rotary hook to apply axial tensile pre -
stress . The applied pre - st ress on casing is t he sum of t he axial tensile st resses applied by burst pressure
and pulling t he casing st ring . Once cemen t slurry sets , t he pre - stress will en tirely remain in t he casing
string after releasing pressure for well head installation .

Fi g . 5 - 14 The structure of WA - 1 slip - type

earth anchor Fi g . 5 - 15 NS - CC special thread joint
1 - Rubber plug; 2 - Upper propping pole;
1 - Reversed Torque Shoulder ;
3 - Sealing boot ; 4 - Nylon ball; 5 - Hang -
2 - Metal - metal radial seal;
ing pin; 6 - Propping rod; 7 - Anchor
3 - Original torque shoulder
body ; 8 - Set of connection rod; 9 - Brace;
10 - Guide shoe

1 77
 Practice proves t hat 1000 k N pull force and 15～ 20 MPa burst pressure can be applied to t his type of
anchor to produce sufficien t pre - st ress in casing . Usual specification of casing used in a t hermal production
well is 177 .8 mm ( 7 in) in dia meter , 8 .05～11 .51 mm in wall thickness, and N - 80 grade . Such casing
is able to bear t hermal stress caused by steam whose temperature is about 360℃ . This met hod resolves the
casing damage problem caused by t hermal st ress at high temperature .
Anot her method for applying pre - stress on casing is to use separable set ting cemen t slurry during ce－
menting . Retarded cement slurry ( mixed wit h retarder and drag reducer) is placed on upper part of cement－
ing in terval, early st rengt h accelerated cement slurry ( mixed with early strength accelerant ) is placed on
lower part of cementing in terval . Accelerated slurry will set wit hin 1 .5 hours and its developed strength is
enough to fix t he lower part of casing ; retarded slurry can reduce friction drag bet ween casing and the slur－
ry to minimum in 4 ～ 6 hours after t he cementing operation ends . In t his period of time, casing can be
pulled to apply pre - st ress on it .
In brief, pre - st ress treat ment for production casing string in t hermal production well is an effective
met hod proved by many operations .
Later practice will prove what happens if pre - stress treatmen t for casing is not used .
2) Sealing Threads for Heat Resistance
According to a great number of investigations and statistics ( especially proved by multiple feeler caliper
logging ) , most casing failures in t hermal production wells take place at or near join ts . Therefore, study and
selection of casing thread sealing are urgent considerations .
NS - CC special t hread joint made in Japan is selected by Liaohe Oil Field from several manufacturers .
It has such features as sufficient leakproff ability , high joint strengt h , and low circular stress . It is show n
in Fig . 5 - 15 .
NS - CC is a kind of joint with two stage shoulders . There is a radial seal between t he original and re－
versed torque shoulders . Since t he compressive load acts on original torque shoulder , deformation of the
shoulder does not affect seal part . If higher compressive load acts on t he join t, the reversed torque shoulder
can bear this load to ensure that the joint will be leakproof . Therefore, NS - CC can guaran tee its stable
sealing property under conditions of repeated tension and compression . Comparative tests show t hat NS -
CC t hread does have good sealing ability at high te mperature , as shown in Table 5 - 11 .

Ta b l e 5 - 11 Gas sealing property of 7 in bending casing

Testing condition for Leakage
T hread
Specification
No . type and Result
( mm× mm) Bending Tension Temp . Burst Times
grade

1 NS - CC 177 .8×8 .05 18°

/ 100 m 80%δ 160℃
80%δ 25 No Leakage
N - 80 7 in

NS - CC 177 .8×8 .05 18°

/ 100 m 160℃
2 80%δ 80%δ 45 No Leakage
L - 80 7 in

　 　 Note: δ= Pipe yield st rengt h .

Liaohe Oil Field has developed an NS - CC - M special thread suitable for t hermal production wells in
oil field , and it finds sufficient application . NS - CC - M is a t ype of thread on which relevant improvement
( according to risk working condition and safety requiremen ts of casing string in thermal production well)
has been made on NS - CC , which already has good sealing ability at high temperatures .
3) High Temperat ure Cements
In order to improve t hermal stability of cement , high temperature cemen t ( a mix ture of G grade ce－
ment and 30 % silica sand ( 80 meshs ) of total weight ) should be selected . Bentonite should not be used
w hile designing and selecting cement additives . If low density cemen t slurry is needed , microspheres can be
used as a ligh t weight additive . Pozzolan and lime cement series will resist high temperature wit h no obvious
strength reduction . If possible, one may consider using those cemen ts .
Practice shows that the entire annular space in t hermal production wells should be sealed . Multi - stage
1 78
cementing technique is applied if t he interval that needs sealing is long . A certain volume of cement slurry
3
( 4～8m ) must ret urn to the surface during cementing to eliminate con taminated slurry for ensuring cement
sheat h quality in t he well head interval . In doing so, the proper environmen t can be created for application
of pre - st ress . Moreover , casing cen tralizers are properly installed on casing st ring to improve displacement
coefficient and cemen ting quality .
5 .3 .5 Wells with salt beds

5 .3 .5 .1 Major problems
Salt beds includes potassium salt and gypsum beds , which are called solubilit y or plasticit y formation .
A plastic compound salt bed is ext remely unstable due to its large area . It is easy to cause wellbore under－
gauge under t he action of overburden pressure, wit h borehole washou t as its result . Consequen tly , not only
do accidents such as well slough , drill pipe sticking , etc, easily occur during the drilling operation , but also
t he well completion operation will meet wit h more difficulties . Examples are as follows:
( 1) High collapse pressure caused by salt bed creeping may lead to casing deformation and collapse . If
t hose happen , the oil/ gas well may be ou t of use . For example, casing collapse frequen tly takes place in S1
salt bed in Dongpu depression region of Zhongyuan Oil Field . According to data regression provided by
Schlumberger Logging Co ., pressure gradien t of the salt bed at 2400 m dept h or so is 0 .0217 MPa/ m ,
w hich far exceeds normal formation pressure gradien t .
(2 ) Cement slurry is easily contaminated , which causes its rheological properties to change , during ce－
menting due to of salt bed solution . That is t he reason for low displacement efficiency, and low bonding
strength of cement sheath on casing and borehole wall . Cemen ting quality is so poor that oil or gas may by－
pass to t he well head . As a matter of fact , low qualification rate of cemen ting in a salt bed is one of the most
difficult problems encoun tered in oil/ gas fields all over t he world .
5 .3 .5 .2 Solution methods
Oil companies have developed a set of effective methods for improving cementing quality in wells wit h
salt bed . The highlights are as follows:
1) Casing Design
(1) Biaxial st resses approach is used to design t he strength of production casing string . Stress loads
considered by this approach are more closely related to the complex st ress state in wellbore . St rengt h design
met hod under 3 - D st resses state developed in recent years is also widely applied in wells wit h salt bed .
(2 ) Design condition of collapsing safety factor for the casing in a salt bed in terval should be based on
overburden pressure gradient , and high collapsing strength casing should be chosen . Lengt h of t he designed
casing section should cover the total t hickness of a salt bed, and exceed 50 m above the top and below the
bot tom of the salt bed .
(3 ) The setting dept h of technical casing should exceed 100 m below the bottom depth of salt bed .
While a well is completed with production casing , cement slurry should be re - ret urned to t he top of salt
bed to form a double casing - cement sheath sealing , whose collapsing st rengt h is higher t han the sum of the
double casing collapsing st rengt h .
(4 ) Special thread casings of metal - metal sealing type takes priorit y over ot hers in preventing reduc－
tion of t hread sealing ability at casing joint ( caused by casing bending) .
2) Cemen ting Design
(1 ) Oversaturated salt - water cement slurry ( generally having precipitation of crystal salt grains)
should be mixed on t he basis of t he know n relationship of salt bed solution and temperat ure . Salt - water
slurry should be in an oversat uration state under the conditions of downhole temperature and pressure, in an
attempt to reduce solution ex tension of salt bed .
(2 ) Densit y of sat urated salt - water cement slurry should be cont rolled in t he range of 0 .05 ～0 .2 g/
3
cm higher t han t hat of drilling fluid . Fluid loss of the slurry should be 50～150 mL or less .
(3 ) Bubbles easily produced during mixing saturated salt water and cemen t may affect pump suction
efficiency , and density of mixed cement slurry . Therefore, heavy weigh t additive , defoaming agent , and
salt - t ype dispersan t should be added to the slurry during its mixing process . Meanw hile , such additives as
fluid - loss additive , salt resister , early st rengt h agen t and drag reducer should be added according to act ual
1 79
conditions to improve properties of the slurry and meet the requirements of rheological design of t he slurry .
5 .3 .6 Liner completion wells

5 .3 .6 .1 Major problems
Liner has been widely used for production casing completion in deep well . Struct ure of liner string has
been improved as well, and its application has brough t about considerable economic benefit .
Advantages of liner used as production casing are: cutting the quan tity of casing , ease of lowering larg－
er size of tubing above the top of t he liner , and increased protection of oil pay zones . On t he other hand ,
t here are some disadvan tages , such as small annular clearance in liner completion well, complex st ructure of
liner hanger and operation procedure , limited pumping rate of cemen t slurry , and high requirements for op－
eration .
5 .3 .6 .2 Solution methods
( 1) Burst strength of upper casing is checked under m aximum shut - in pressure at the well head w hen
a heavy load liner will be used .
(2 ) Annular clearance at collar must be greater t han 5/ 8in ( 16 mm) to ensure sufficient thickness of
cement sheat h . Wellbore may be reamed by hydraulic reaming bit . Experience shows that 7in (177 .8 mm)
liner requires an average hole diameter larger than 230 mm; 5 in (127 mm) liner requires average hole diam－
eter larger t han 170 mm .
(3 ) Running time per casing should not be greater than 1～ 1 .5 minutes w hile running a liner to avoid
lost circulation , and damage of springs and slip segmen ts on the hanger .
(4 ) Volume of pre - flush and additional volume of cement slurry should be enough to guaran tee that
con tact time at main isolation in terval is greater than 10 minutes .
(5 ) Importance should be attached to t he requirements for cement slurry properties , especially to im－
prove its flowability and reduce fluid loss . Pre - mix method can ensure homogeneity of t he slurry .
(6 ) Lengt h of overlay segmen t of the liner and upper casing is controlled between 50 ～100 m ; even in
special condition , the overlay leng th should not be too long . The most important key point for t he lengt h is
not to cover upper oil/ gas pay zones .
(7 ) For final open hole completion well with liner , in general way , a cement cap is placed at 3～ 5 m
below liner shoe . If there is any lost circulation in liner operation well, it must be treated before running a
liner .
( 8) If cemen ting rubber plug is not to be used to bump in t he float collar as an indication for ending ce－
menting operation , specialized measuring tank must be allocated for accurate volume measurement . Howev－
er , even if the plug is used, displacing volume of the slurry should not exceed the design volume too greatly
w hen pressure jump still has not taken place , as displacing volume exceeds the volume with compressibility .
(9 ) If permitted , liner may be rotated during cemen ting to improve cemen t qualit y .
5 .3 .7 Horizontal wells

5 .3 .7 .1 Major problems
A horizon tal well that has been popularized in oil fields abroad can extend an exposed area of pay zone,
t herefore, it is an effective approach to develop such oil/ gas reservoirs as with heavy oil, ver tical fractures ,
bot tom water and low permeability . Design of production casing and cementing for a horizon tal well has the
following distinctive characteristics as compared to a vertical well:
(1 ) Casing bending . Casing bears an additional axial tensile force caused by its bending in a crooked
hole in terval besides axial tension , so it must have higher tensile st rengt h and bet ter sealing proper ty of
t hread .
(2 ) Drilling fluid channeling . Results of cementing tests have shown t hat drilling fluid channeling in
cement sheath at t he lower part of t he annular space takes place in almost every inclined well . I t is generally
considered t hat settling of barite and accumulation of cuttings are t he main causes of drilling fluid channel－
ing . Obviously , a high concent ration of solid particles can make viscosity of drilling fluid increase , as a re－
sult , drilling fluid will have difficulty being entirely displaced up to t he surface . Rheological properties of
1 80
drilling fluid and hole deviation have certain effect on this matter as well .
(3 ) Free water migration . To reduce t he free water in slurry and stop its migration are important as－
pects of improving cemen ting qualit y . In highly deviated or horizontal wells , free water easily accumulates
at the upper side of t he borehole wall ( due to a shor ter pat h in lateral or inclined migration) , then forms a
con tinuous water channel or zone through w hich oil/ gas can go up and dow n . Therefore , more atten tion
should be paid to t he problem of free water migration in the horizon tal in terval .
(4 ) Casing eccen tricity . Casing eccent ricity in deviated wellbore can affect cuttings carrying and dis－
placemen t efficiency of cemen ting . Generally , casing eccent ric degree in the annulus is expressed by a mini－
mum standoff ratio . In order to guarantee cementing quality , the minimum standoff ratio stipulated by AP I
10 D standard should be over 0 .66 , however , t his standoff ratio is almost impossible in high deviation angle
and horizontal wells .
(5 ) Ot hers . Additional axial tension acting on casing string as a result of wellbore deviation also is a
factor influencing cementing quality in such wells .
5 .3 .7 .2 Solution methods
Results of experimen tal investigations and field practice have concluded t hat t he following essen tial
measures are effective for cementing operation in highly deviated and horizon tal wells:
(1 ) Addition of fluid loss additives . The ideal conten t of free water in t he slurry is zero . It should be
men tioned that cement slurry wit h free water of 1 % measured by API standard vertical graduate under nor－
mal at mospheric temperat ure, m ay have free water of 7 % measured under inclined and heated conditions .
Therefore, existing measuring method for free water must be changed for highly deviated wells . First , ce－
ment slurry is preheated to bottom - hole circulating temperature, t hen its free water content is measured in
a graduate wit h at least 45°inclined angle .
( 2) Increase of viscosity of liquid phase . For example, latex e mulsion may be added to t he slurry to in－
crease viscosity of liquid phase, thus increasing resisting force against free water migration .
(3 ) Addition of solid fines . Recent research conducted by Statoil Co . in Norway has shown that very
fine silica pow der can distribute in cement slurry and pack pores among cemen t particles to partially plug
t hose pores and t hereby stop or reduce flowing of free water . Fine silica powder must be well dispersed in
t he slurry in order to m ake full use of it .
(4 ) Spacers . Research has shown that t urbulent flow has good displacement efficiency in highly deviat－
ed wells . Effect of density differen tial exists while low speed displacement is applied . Wedging action may
take place inside and outside casing when density differen tial between two fluids reaches to a cer tain value,
resulting in heavier fluid bypassing t he ligh ter one . This phenomenon occurring between drilling fluid and
spacer has much effect , but should be avoided between cemen t slurry and drilling fluid to prevent t he slurry
from being con taminated , or part of drilling fluid from remaining in t he slurry . The density of spacer , for
t his reason , should be close to t hat of drilling fluid and its rheological properties situated between drilling
fluid and cemen t slurry . Applied volume of spacer should fill up 200 ～250 m of annulus height .
(5 ) Application of rigid casing cen tralizer . Tests have show n t hat compressional deformation of spring
leaves occurs if regular spring leaf cent ralizer is applied in high angle wells with over 70°～75°deviation an－
gle . As a result , 50 % of the wells need squeeze cemen ting operation because of serious cement slurry chan－
neling . However , application of rigid cen tralizers in such wells ensures that minimum standoff ratio is
67 % , t hus it can improve cementing quality , and only 20 % of t he wells need remedial squeezing operation .
( 6) Casing movement . Simulating tests conducted by Hallibur ton Co . in a wellbore wit h 80°deviation
angle has shown t hat rotation and reciprocation of casing string can increase displacement efficiency . If ot h－
er conditions are basically the same, displacemen t efficiencies of cemen ting operations in 3 wells without any
movemen t of casing are 23 % , 14 % and 50 % ; however , t hose with rotation or reciprocation of casing
string are close to 100 % .
5 .3 .8 Injection - production adjustment wells

5 .3 .8 .1 Major problems
The number of adjust ment wells to be drilled has become greater along water injection development of
a reservoir . Pay zone pressure generally increases due to a long term of water injection , especially for pro－
1 81
duction payzone through water injection with high pressure in recen t years ( water injection pressures in
some regions have been close to or over formation fracture pressure) . In addition , local super high pressure
t rap can be formed because of poor connectivity and heterogeneity of pay zone . All of t hose circumstances
bring many difficulties for a cementing operation . Examples are as follows:
(1 ) Oil, gas, and water bypassing behind casing after cementing .
(2 ) Poor cemen t setting in flooding - response zones .
( 3 ) Vertical channeling of cement slurry and unacceptable sealing against production zone, or poor iso－
lation of interlayers .
(4 ) Lost circulation during cementing and insufficient ret urning heigh t of the slurry .
In conclusion , effects of high pressure zone and in terporosity flow of injected water on cementing quali－
ty are the most serious; such effects include interlayer in terference during zonal production , complexity of
production technology , low usage factor of oil wells and short working life of oil well . Therefore , to care－
fully summarize experiences and lessons in design jobs of production casing and cementing for injection -
production adjustmen t wells is of momen tous significance to provide high qualit y oil wells for production de－
part ment .
5 .3 .8 .2 Solution methods
( 1) Cementing under static condition . Since cement setting requires an undisturbed environment after
cement slurry fills up the designed in terval during cementing , water injection must be stopped in a large
area ( as far as it is possible) to improve cemen t setting quality .
(2 ) Combining static and dynamic conditions . Cementing in adjustment well for some medium and
small size reservoirs not only requires static conditions , but also gives consideration to achieve targets for oil
production and water injection . Specific practice to solve t his cont radiction is to shut down production and
injection wells within a certain radius range, w hile keeping the wells outside of the range producing , w hich
creates combined state dynamic and static conditions . To do so may improve cemen ting quality while main－
taining production .
(3 ) Racing wit h oil, gas and water invasion against time . In some oil fields wit h shallow oil and water
formations ( such as Jilin and Yumen oil fields) , hydrostatic pressure is not enough to con trol t he production
zone, even with high density of cement slurry, because of a shallow injected zone nex t to shut down injec－
tion wells . Fluid quickly rises up to well head . In t his circumstance , separable setting cemen t slurry can be
used ; in other words , accelerated slurry ( w hose initial setting time is shorter t han invasion time of oil, gas
and water) is pumped to cover oil/ gas zones in lower interval of t he wellbore . Common cement slurry is
pumped through upper interval of t he wellbore to keep hydrostatic pressure in annulus after t he slurry be－
gins to lose weight .
(4 ) Local shutoff and anti - channeling in en tire well . External casing packer is used to set above or
straddle of main oil zones . After t hat , cemen t slurry is pumped such t hat oil, gas and water will have no
way up to channel , or down to interfere . That is“local shu toff and anti - channeling in entire well”.
(5 ) Improve men t of rheological proper ties of cement slurry and displacement efficiency . In order to
ensure t hat density of cement slurry is suitably higher t han drilling fluid, density of t he slurry commonly is
3
over 2 .0 g/ cm , which may make rheological properties of t he slurry worse, and is unfavorable for im－
provemen t of displacement efficiency . Proper dispersan t can be used for reducing free water liberation , en－
hancing water invasion resistance of cement slurry , and improving its rheological properties , so that the
slurry may be easily displaced under t urbulent flow state .
(6 ) Selection of a high collapse strengt h casing . While designing a production casing string for an ad－
justmen t well, formation pressure change data after water injection should be exactly recorded , and
strength design can be performed on the basis of those data . Comprehensive consideration for corrosion re－
sistance of casing is required to extend working life of the oil well .
Casing running and cementing met hods in eight types of complex wells , as stated above , are only sev－
eral common examples and do not cover all t ypes of complex wells . As an example of a lost circulation well
wit h low formation pressure ( its leakage formation also is an oil - bearing zone ) , an oil pay zone of buried
hill in H uabei Oil Field which is situated at a weathering crust of a nonconforming surface between
Palaeointensity and T ertiary formations . As a result, the formation pressure was low, and its solutional
voids and cavities easily caused lost circulation . If the hydrostatic pressure of cement slurry was so high that
1 82
lost circulation might occur , oil well productivity would be reduced . Gaosheng Oil Field in Liaohe applied
steam injection production technology . The formation pressure decreased quite low since production through
steam huff and puff is a production process of pressure relief . When drilling additional wells in t his field ,
high hydrostatic pressure of cement slurry brought about eit her leakage of t he slurry during cemen ting oper－
ation , or a drop in t he cement level to a low mark and cement slurry contamination discovered by acoustic
logging after cemen t setting ( even though cement slurry ret urned to the surface during cemen ting) . A pay
zone in Huoshaoshan Oil Field of Xinjiang had vertical fract ures w hich caused lost circulation of drilling fluid
in a large volume during t he drilling operation . At that time , since understanding of formation properties
was not quite clear , a regular cementing method was used in such a pay zone , resulting in leakage of cement
slurry and poor cementing quality . There are many ot her occurrence similar to the above examples . There－
fore, t he completion pattern and cementing met hod for various t ype of complex wells should be selected ac－
cording to each situation . External casing packer , w hich has been commonly used in foreign coun tries and
popularized in China at present , may be recommended in complex wells wit h differen t conditions . Its appli－
cation may change t he cementing state in some complex wells .
A brief int roduction to t he ex ternal casing packer ( ECP ) is as follows:
(1 ) Multiple stage cementing . After ECP is expanded and set , cement slurry is pumped t hrough a
multiple stage collar and returns up outside t he casing . This met hod is mainly applied in wells where the
lower interval is a lost circulation zone and upper interval must be cemented .
( 2) To seal and isolate a leakage zone, high pressure oil/ gas pay zone and cavey formation in t he mid－
dle interval of an oil/ gas well . ECP is set against t hose zones and shuts off them . A dual packer can be used
to seal and isolate those zones at top and bottom .
(3 ) When liner perforation completion is applied in vertical, directional, and horizon tal wells , ECP is
connected at t he bottom section of liner hanger for sealing t he annulus between the liner and upper technical
casing .
(4 ) If t he horizontal interval is ex tremely long in a slotted liner completion horizon tal well, EC P can
be used to divide t he interval in to several sections in order to easily separate zone production and staged test－
ing .
( 5) In a directional or horizontal well, the weigh t of casing string is so heavy t hat it often lays on the
borehole wall or drops down to lower side of t he horizon tal wellbore . If a spring cen tralizer exists in the
well, the spring leaves will compress and break since their st rengt h is not enough . If using a rigid cen traliz－
er , its cen tralizing blocks will easily wedge in the formation . Therefore, ECP is used to cent ralize casing
before cementing .
(6 ) To solve t he interzonal cross - flow problem existing under high differential pressure between two
formations . ECP that is set between two formations can prevent coun terflow of high pressure formation flu－
ids to low pressure formation w hen cement slurry begins to lose its weigh t during setting ( after cementing) .
(7 ) Cementing of high pressure gas wells . An ECP is set at t he top of a high pressure gas formation
before cementing to prevent gas channeling during cement setting , and to guaran tee cementing quality .
A majority of complex wells are suitable for using in accordance with cer tain sit uations .
ECP has a special inflatable rubber sleeve , as shown in Fig . 5 - 16 .
An ECP maintains an uninflated state during cementing . Then , its rubber sleeve for packing off is in－
flated by being filled with cemen t ( under maximum allowable differen tial pressure ) before cement setting
after t he top cementing plug lands . Its valve unit includes two one - way valves and one adjustable con trol
valve . The cont rol valve can be opened by breaking off t he pin with given size under predetermined pres－
sure . I t closes as long as t he pressure is automatically released . In addition , a knock - off rod may be in－
stalled at t he bottom of the packer as an additional cont rol mechanism for filling cement in t he sleeve, to
preven t drilling fluid from entering t he control valve .
The following basic functions of ECP are based on application experience :
(1 ) To set up a layer as a reliable and permanent vertical barrier for fluids flowing in to or out of the
formation t hrough the borehole wall . The barrier is composed of two parts . O ne is a cemen t sheath , set by
t he best uncon taminated and high qualit y cement outside the casing; the ot her is an inflated rubber sleeve
placed closely against t he wellbore, resulting in the most effective sealing performance, just like an“ O”
type seal ring .
(2 ) To provide a load acting on t he formation through mechanical support by a packer unit filled up
1 83
wit h cemen t . Meanw hile, some aspects affecting cement suppor t, such as remaining channeled drilling fluid
getting to borehole wall, can be eliminated during inflation of the packer .
Use of ECP , therefore, is an important element to maintain the wellbore in an optimal state for later
operations, such as chemical sand consolidation , selective acidizing , perforating close to water - bearing
zone or against thin pay zone , water intake profile con trol, small scale hydraulic fracturing, etc . Moreover ,
a lateral load applied on the formation can protect weak formations . After formation fluids are produced ,
t hose weak formations may break and collapse , or apply a harmful heterogeneous load on casing . ECP,
however , is of protecting function to a great extent for those formation .
Some other available materials hold t hat t hough cemen t sheath is shocked during perforating , t he seal－
ing function of a rubber elemen t can stop most oil/ gas interzonal cross - flow in adjacen t layers . Moreover ,
t he sealing function also may prevent t he interface of cement and formation from solu tion , by acid to form
cross - flow channels .
In addition to t he st ruct ure of ECP being improved , its reliability being strengthened , its application
field being extended, and its being used to improve cemen ting quality , it also serves as an important com－
pletion tool effective in preventing interference of various types of formation fluids to an oil/ gas formation .
It is repor ted that Ranchmen’s Oil and Gas Resource Incorporated Company used a 6 m long EC P set above
an oil - water in terface and successfully preven ted bottom water coring in a cluster of development wells in
oil/ gas fields near sout hwest of Edmonton , Alberta, Canada . Fig . 5 - 17 shows the packer .
The average top dept h of oil pay zones in t he oil field was 900 m , and t hose pay zones belonged to high
porosit y and high permeabilit y sandstone reservoirs . Those wells were completed by perforating in 127 mm
(5 in ) production casing , and wellbore diameter was 200 .66 mm (7 .9in) . The perforating interval ranged

Fi g . 5 - 16 Structure of external casing packer Fi g . 5 - 17 Application example of

1 - Collar ; 2 - Central pipe ; 3 - Sealing collar ; 4 - Rubber
external casing packer
sleeve ; 5 - Middle Collar ; 6 , 16 - Breakoff pin; 7 - Nipple joint ;
1 - 8 in casing; 2 - Perforating interval; 3 - Pack－
8 ,15 - Locking valve; 9 , 14 - One - way valve ; 10 , 13 - Ad－ 1
er ; 4 - 5 / 2 in casing; 5 - Top sandstone formation; 6
justable controlvalve ; 11 - expansion organization; 12 - annular
- Oi l; 7 - Water ; 8 , 9 - Oi l/ water boundary
space; 17 - filter screen

1 84
from 3 ～5 m , and perforating density was from 10～ 13 shots per meter . Seven groups of cluster wells were
drilled which totalled 35 wells - including 5 ver tical wells and 30 directional wells . These wells produced
regularly at t he beginning , but sealing failure of cemen t sheat h in the annulus ( caused by casing eccentricity
in directional in terval between pay zone and bottom water - bearing zone) resulted in channeling and bot tom
water coning . A solution met hod was to set an ECP at the oil - water interface to block access for bot tom
water coning , thus the wells produced regularly again
An external casing packer , as a new type of effective tool, has a bright fu ture for its application .

References
[1 ] В .Д Г . ОРОПНОВ: The physical - chemical met hod for predicting t he complicated problems in
drilling , 1984 . ( In Russian)
[ 2] Sheng Zhonghou:“ The basis and calculation of well design .”, Beijing , Pet roleum Industry Press ,
1988 .( In Chinese) .
[ 3] Li rongfu et al .:“ Technology of deep well drilling both at home and abroad in 1980’s”, Beijing ,
Petroleum Industry Press, 1992 . ( In Chinese )
[4 ] Liu Huixing and Meng Yingfeng :“Calculation programm of Casing string design and its applica－
tion ,”Journal of Drilling and Production Technology , Vol .4 , 1982 . ( In Chinese )
[5 ] Li Heling et al:“Discuss on t he developping oil well pipes manufactured at home from t he current
situation and its developping of oil well pipes bot h at home and abroad , ”Journal of Oil Specially -
used Pipes , Vol .1 , 1994 . ( In Chinese )
[6 ] M . G . Meibaili: “ The developping of AP I lamination lipid, ”Journal of Oil Specially - used
Pipes , Vol .3 , 1991 . ( In Chinese)
[7 ] C . Algary :“ Formation Packers Stop Water Channeling behind Pipe ,”World Oil, Nov . 1993 .
[8 ] W . J . Clarke :“ Ultrafine Cement for Oilwell Cementing , ”SPE 25868
[9 ] Lei Jianzhong ,“Cementing technology and t he problems should be solved in adjustmen t wells ,”
Journal of Oil Drilling and Production , Vol .1 , 1986 . ( In Chinese )
[10] Li Baoqing , Zhang F uyan :“ Prestress techniques using basis cementing and eart h anchor to lift
and pull casing , ”Journal of Oil Drilling and P roduction , Vol .4 , 1990 . ( In Chinese )

1 85
 Chapter 6 　 Perforating

Perforating well completion has recently been the most widely used well completion method bot h
abroad and in China . The importance of the perforating well completion to the petroleum exploration and
development is att racting increasingly more and more attention and interest .
In oil/ gas wells completed by perforating , bottomhole perforations are t he only channels between
reservoir and wellbore . If appropriate perforating technology and proper design are adopted , the damage to
reservoir caused by perforating may be minimized wit h a high completeness ratio , t hus offering satisfactory
productivity .
Over the years there have been a great many theoretical, experimen tal, and field studies on perforating
technologies, perforating gun cart ridge and instrumen ts , perforating damage mechanism and evaluation
met hods, perforating optimization design , perforating underbalance , and perforating fluid . Particularly ,
perforating techniques have been rapidly developed in recen t years . It is known that perforating is a key link
of well completion engineering . For t his reason , to adopt advanced t heories and methods , to aim at the
reservoir proper ties and practical engineering as a systematic engineering, and to select perforating design ,
are t he essential conditions for proper perforating .

6 .1 Perforating Technology
Proper perforating technologies should be selected in accordance with the reservoir and fluid properties ,
formation damage conditions, casing program , and production conditions .
6 .1 .1 Wireline casing gun perforating ( WCG)
In view of perforating pressure differential, the wireline casing gun perforating can be divided into the
following two t ypes .
6 .1 .1 .1 Conventional overbalance wireline casing gun perforating
A state of bottomhole pressure being higher than formation pressure is created by high density perfo－
rating fluid prior to perforating . The casing perforating gun is run on an electric wireline under open well－
head condition . T he gun depth is set by using correlation curve for locating t he casing collar which is mea－
sured by the magnetic locator on the electric wireline . When the horizon to be perforated is aimed at , the
oil/ gas reservoir is perforated under the overbalance condition . After ret rieving gun , the t ubing is run and
t he wellhead is installed . Then t he well is put into production by met hods such as displacing to flow , swab－
bing or gas - lifting , or by directly using an artificial lifting met hod .
The conven tional overbalance casing gun perforating is simple in operation , with low cost , high perfo－
rating density , and deep penetration . However , t he overbalance may induce invasion of solids and liquid
phase of perforating fluid into reservoir , thus causing serious reservoir damage . In order to reduce this dam－
age, t he qualit y perforating fluid is especially required .
6 .1 .1 .2 Underbalance casing gun perforating
The technology is basically the same as t he overbalance casing gun perforating except that an appropri－
ate underbalance is established . This met hod is mainly used for t he low formation pressure reservoir wit h
bot h favors of underbalance cleaning and deep penet ration . For the t hick oil/ gas reservoir , however , multi－
ple runs of guns for perforating are required , and the underbalance required for fur ther perforating can not
be main tained .
6 .1 .2 Tubing - conveyed perforating ( TCP)
Wirelineless tubing - conveyed perforating uses tubing to convey perforating guns to t he reservoir loca－
tion for perforating . The differential pressure type packer , por ted nipple, and detonating system are at－
1 86
tached at t he lower part of tubing . There is only a part of liquid column in the t ubing , and the underbalance
for perforating is created . The explosion of perforating cartridges is caused by detonation which is generated
by t hrowing a bar from t he surface or pressure or differential pressure t ype detonation , or wireline wet type
adapter detonation . T his will entirely perforate all oil/ gas reservoirs for once .
The precision radioactive depth correction met hod is used for t he dept h correction of tubing - conveyed
perforating . A grain of radioactive isotope is placed in a locating nipple of t he string assembly . The dept h
correction inst rument is set at the pre - determined dept h ( about 100m above locating nipple ) , and a ra－
dioactivit y curve wit h magnetic locating is measured dow n to abou t 15m below t he locating nipple . The ra－
dioactivit y curves measured are correlated wit h t hose measured before for correction , t hen the dept h of the
locator nipple is obtained by conversion . The dept h is set by using a tubing pup join t at t he wellhead .
There are many t ypes of detonation for t ubing - conveyed perforating . The simplest is gravitational
detonation . A cylindrical metallic bar is previously placed in the lubricator on the wellhead . The bar is re－
leased w hen perforating . The dropping bar with high velocit y hits t he detonator at the head of the gun . A
standard , roller type, or tandem dropping bar may be used . For gravitational detonation , t he string should
be drifted , and the well should not be over - deviated .
The second is t ubing pressurization detonation . Nitrogen is generally used as t he pressure transmitting
media since t he t ubing is partly filled with liquid at the instan t of perforating . High pressure nit rogen
should be released from t he wellhead before detonation . Thus , a long enough secular duration after nit rogen
pressurization before detonation for perforating is required to release t he nitrogen . This is called delay deto－
nation .
The t hird is annulus pressurization detonation ( pressure differen tial detonation ) . By using crossover
assembly or hydraulic bypass in the packer , t he pressure systems for t he annulus and t he tubing are formed
separately . The piston pin is sheared w hen the increase of pressure differential between t he annulus and
t ubing caused by pressurization in the annulus is up to preset value . Then , t he wire rope actuated by the
piston and its clamp plate move rapidly up to push the tie - rod of t he ignition head upward . Thus , the im－
pact needle is released and the detonating tube is detonated .
Anot her is electric energy detonation . An electric wireline - conveyed elect ric curren t ignition head and
battery drop bar ignition head may be used .
Tubing - conveyed perforating gran ts high perforating density and deep penetration , as well as a high
underbalance value . The reservoir damage caused by perforating may easily be removed . The thickness of a
perforated interval for once is large , and may be more than 800m . This met hod is par ticularly suitable to
t he deviation well, horizon tal well and viscous oil well, in w hich it is difficult to run an electric wireline . It
is suitable for high pressure formations and gas wells due to the pre - installed Christ mas t ree with high
safety . Perforating is just followed by oil/ gas production , t herefore , it is easy to combine testing , fractur－
ing, or acidizing wit h perforating , and t he times of killing well and tripping st ring can be decreased , t hus
decreasing reservoir da mage and operation costs .
More bottomhole ex tension during drilling is required for t ubing - conveyed perforating in order to
store dropping perforating guns . Sometimes , t he perforating guns are too long due to a long perforating in－
terval to drop into t he bottomhole . In this case, it is not possible to drop guns , and ot her approaches are
taken .
6 .1 .3 Tubing - conveyed perforating combination technology

6 .1 .3 .1 Combined tubing - conveyed perforating and formation testing technology

The perforating gun , ignition head and shooter of t ubing - conveyed assembly are connected to t he bot－
tom of t he single - packer testing string . After the st ring is run to t he in terval to be perforated and tested ,
t he perforating dept h is corrected , t he packer is set and the testing valve is opened . The detonation and per－
forating are followed by usual testing procedures . This technology is par ticularly suitable to flowing wells .
6 .1 .3 .2 Combined tubing - conveyed perforating and fracturing or acidizing technology
This technology has been successfully applied in Sichuan gas field and Changqing oil field . Perforating ,
testing , acidizing , fracturing and well testing, etc . can be conducted by running st ring once for well com－
pletion . See Fig . 6 - 1 .
1 87
 Fi g .6 - 1 　 Combined tubing - conveyed perforating and fracturing or acidizing technology
1 - Run tubing string ; 2 - Sealing with packer ; 3 - Perforating; 4 - Falling gun and fracturing( acdizing) ; 5 - Production

6 .1 .3 .3 Combined non - flowing well tubing - conveyed perforating and testing technology
This technology has been developed by Marat hon Petroleum Corporation . The workstring consists of
perforating gun , packer , underbalance valve, au tomatic pressure gauge mandrel, standing valve and
counter - current jet pump wit h a special hollow sleeve .
1 88
 Before perforating , the hollow sleeve is closed , and the inner of t he t ubing is par tly caved to create an
underbalance . After annulus pressurization , detonation and perforating, t he fluid en ters t he work string .
As t he fluid enters , the bottomhole pressure gradually increases , and the oil well may stop producing . The
safety pin of t he hollow sleeve is sheared due to pressure in t he st ring, t hus the sleeve is rotated and
opened . At t his time, the jet pump initiates flowing back and flow testing is conducted . After a stable pro－
duction rate is gained, t he well is shut in , and pressure build - up data can be acquired . After stopping the
pump, t he standing valve is shut in due to t he hydrostatic pressure on it . Thus dow nhole shut - in is
achieved , wellbore storage effect eliminated , and data acquisition improved .
6 .1 .4 Wireline through - tubing perforating ( TTP)

6 .1 .4 .1 Conventional through - tubing perforating

This is t he earliest used underbalance perforating technology . First , t he tubing is run to the top of the
reservoir , and the Christ mas tree and lubricator are installed . The perforating gun and wireline adapter are
placed in t he lubricator . Then the paraffin valve is opened and the wireline is run in . The perforating gun is
run dow n t he t ubing and out the tubing shoe . The magnetic locator on the wireline adapter is used to mea－
sure the location of t he shor t casing . Then ignition and perforating are conducted .
The T T P wit h underbalance minimizes the reservoir damage . It is particularly suitable for t he on -
production reperforating and t he opening of new horizon in a producing well, and well killing and tubing
t ripping operations can be avoided . On t he other hand , t he through - tubing perforating gun diameter is re－
st ricted by the inner diameter of the t ubing , and it is impossible to achieve high perforating density and
deep penetration due to t he small size of car tridge and t he oversize of gap bet ween perforating gun and cas－
ing . The lengt h of guns run for once is limited by the heigh t of the lubricator . For a t hick oil/ gas reservoir ,
multiple running of guns is required , and it is difficult to ensure the underbalance for later guns . The un－
derbalance should not be excessive in order to avoid wireline nodding , w hich may cause the wireline un－
abling to be retrieved due to oil/ gas upt hrusting . For t hese reasons, the conven tional t hrough - t ubing per－
forating is rarely used at presen t , and is only used for offshore perforating and the wells which should be on - pro－
duction reperforated .
6 .1 .4 .2 Rotating axis type ( open type) TTP
The main shortcoming of T T P, as mentioned above, is small gun and cart ridge size, hence shallow
penetration . For t his reason , it is difficult for T T P to have penet rating depth more than 100mm . Thus , a
new T T P technology , called rotating axis type T T P gun , has been developed . The technology was first de－
veloped by Schlumberger Co . in 1992 . The rotating axis gun consists of a cont rol head and a perforating
gun . The cont rol head is used for opening prior to perforating, t herefore the perforating car tridge can be
enlarged and the gap to the casing can be decreased . I t is retrieved to the surface just after perforating . The
perforating gun is composed of cart ridge frame, rotating axis perforating car tridges , two starting levers ,
connector w hich connects rotating axis perforating car tridges, igniter wire and detonating tube .
Two American companies developed t he t hrough - t ubing open type perforating gun in 1994 , thus im－
proving the rotating axis t ype T T P technology . A perforating cart ridge wit h a large diameter which has an
explosive load of more 24g can be run in tubing . I ts penet rating dept h is more than 4 times t hat of the orig－
inal through - t ubing gun . In China in 1994 , experiments were conducted by Sichuan Oil field in t hree
wells for which an explosive load of 27g for penetrating cart ridge was used , penet rating dept h of the con－
crete target was 500mm , and the diameter of shot was 11mm ; good results were gained .
6 .1 .5 Super - high pressure overbalance perforating ( forward impact)
This coun ter - conventional technology developed by American Orgx Energy Co . in 1990 ～ 1993
adopted super - high pressure overbalance to perforate . It uses local high - pressure ( 30000 ～ 40000MPa)
and velocity ( about 2000 m/ s) of jet flow during shaped jet perforating . The following favorable results can
be obtained . First, exerting high pressure for long time favors perforation stability . Second , the fract ures
of the perforation are spread and effective channels of t he perforation are increased . Third , the injection of
acid ( liquid nitrogen) after perforating may cause stimulating effects . Also resin can be injected to achieve
sand consolidating .
1 89
 Since t he above - mentioned technology is a high pressure operation , t he pressure - bearing abilities of
t he downhole string, wellhead and equipment should be considered , and safety measures should be in tensi－
fied . Moreover, due to the liquid entering into the formation , the proper perforating fluid should be select－
ed to prevent new induced formation damage .
6 .1 .6 Horizontal well perforating
In a horizontal well of hard formation w hich is not easy to collapse , perforating completion may be used
to effectively prevent gas/ water coning , and to easily separate t he in tervals for production and operation .
Tubing - conveyed perforating is used for all horizon tal wells to be perforated . The downhole assembly con－
sists generally of detonating device, underbalance accessories , packer , and orien tating device . Pressure det－
onation is used . Maximum scale horizontal well perforating was performed for a gas producing well in the
Netherlands sector of the Nort h Sea in 1990 . It was a 85°horizon tal well wit h a horizon tal in terval of
907m , a total perforating lengt h of 848m , a well dep th of 5060m , and a production casing of 7 in . The
packer was set above the completed interval . The outside diameter of TCP gun was 117mm (4 in ) . There
were 4 threaded holes at t he adapter of the gun . The centralization of the gun was ensured by a spiral cen－
tralizer . Each gun was 4 .57m (15ft ) in length , and perforating density was 13 shots/ m . About 11000 car－
tridges were loaded in total, 5 weeks were necessary just for loading cartridges and guns . Nit rogen was used
for pressurization to delay detonation and perforating .
Moreover, the perforating azimut h for horizontal well may be 360°, 180°and 120°. See Fig .6 - 2 .
The selection of the azimut h depends mainly upon t he hardness of the formation . In general, 180°～120°
phase angle is used , in particular for heavy oil unconsolidated formation , in order to preven t the cuttings in
t he upper part of t he horizontal interval from dropping and blocking t he wellbore due to perforating .
As an example, the Baker PSI system ( combined Perforating, Stimulating , and Isolating System ) for
a horizontal well is show n as follows . The system is composed of t hree basic parts . The first is a perm anent
sump packer with a blank plug ; the second is a downhole part for isolating an in terval, and selective pro－
ducing and stimulating after reservoir t reat ment . The third part is for perforating and fracturing operations .
This part for the operations is basically placed in t he string of the dow nhole part and simultaneously run in
t he well . After perforating and fracturing, the dow nhole part is located in order to isolate the perforated in－
terval, and t he part for t he operations is retrieved from t he wellbore .
6 .1 .7 High - pressure jet and sandblasting perforating
They are t he perforating technologies en tirely differen t from t he cart ridge perforating and shaped jet
perforating .
6 .1 .7 .1 High - pressure liquid jet perforating
A high - pressure liquid jet , in combination with a mechanical punching device, is applied to drill holes
on t he casing, and the formation is penetrated by t he high - pressure jet . A hose with nozzle goes ahead
during jetting , and is retrieved after perforating . The hole diameter is 14～ 25 mm and maximum penetrat－
ing dept h is up to 3m . This tool was first developed by Penetrators Co . In 1989 , it pu t t he high - pressure
jet tool called Lance ( spear t ype ) Perforator , successfully into t he commercial application . Later , anot her
high - pressure jet tool called Punch - Jet ( hole - drilling & jet ) tool, w hich has a penetrating dep th of 0 .15
～0 .9m , was developed . The principles and configurations of bot h tools are shown in Fig .6 - 3 , 6 - 4 and
6 - 5 , respectively .
6 .1 .7 .2 Hydraulic sandblasting perforating
The poin t of t his met hod is high - pressure liquid which carries sand . The sand - carrying ratio is
about 5 % . A high - pressure sand - jetting liquid is used to penet rate casing t hrough , and t hen to jet to the
formation . Due to high jet pressure, the formation is jetted in to a cave rat her than a hole if the formation is
not firm and hard, w hich is unfavorable for subsequent normal production . Therefore, this method is not
generally used under usual conditions unless specially required .
6 .1 .8 Perforating technology selection
The selection and design of appropriate perforating technology is an important aspect of perforating
1 90
 Fi g .6 - 2 　 Horizontal well perforating phasing . - 3 　 High - pressure fluid jet perforating
Fig 6
1 - Tubing ; 2 - Hydraulic anchor ; 3 - Perforater ; 4
- Damage zone; 5 - Jet ; 6 - Jet pipe

design . T he op timum perforating technology required should be selected in accordance with t he characters
of various perforating technologies , in consideration of the overall developmen t requiremen ts of t he oil/ gas
field and t he geological and technical conditions of t he particular well and formation .

6 .2 Optimum Selection of Perforating Parameters

In order to obtain desired perforating results , perforating parameters should be optimally designed .
Proper and effective selection of perforating para meters depends on : (1 ) the understanding of productivity
regularities of t he perforated well under various reservoir and underground fluid conditions; ( 2) the degree
of accuracy acquiring t he perforating parameters , da mage parameters , and reservoir and fluid parameters;
(3 ) t he degree of seriation in t he types of guns and cartridges which can be selected . The perforating pa－
rameter optimization here - mentioned means the optimal perforating parameter matching and combination ,
w hich can achieve the highest well productivity for particular reservoir under existing conditions , and also
deals with the technological requirements of achieving these parameters . T he productivity ratio is an objec－
tive function .

6 .2 .1 Effects of perforating parameters on productivity of various oil/ gas reservoirs

The effects of perforating parameters on t he productivity of various oil/ gas reservoirs have been st udied
in China by using electric simulation and finite element numerical simulation .
6 .2 .1 .1 Porous oil reservoir
1) Effect of perforating depth and density
As show n in Fig .6 - 6 , t he productivity ratio of an oil well increases wit h perforating dept h and densi－
ty , but t he rate of increase gradually decreases; t hat is , the increase in productivity created by increasing
t he perforating depth and densit y is limited . Economically , t he effect by t he increase of perforating dept h
and density is significant before t he perforating dept h and density reach 800mm and 24 shots/ m , respec－
tively . Presently in China, t he sandstone penetrating dept h of cartridge is about 450～700mm , and perfo－
rating densit y is normally 16 shots/ m or 20 shots/ m . The development of t he perforating cart ridges wit h
deep penetration and perforating technology wit h high perforating density still has great potential . Cer tainly
t he const rain ts , such as cost , failure of casing , technological and downhole conditions , etc . should be com－
prehensively considered in practice, and perforating dept h and density should be scientifically selected . As
show n in Fig .6 - 6 , after t he perforating dept h exceeds t he formation da mage area, the productivit y ratio
clearly increases , therefore , t he drilling fluid damage depth should be cont rolled as shallow as possible by
using temporary plugging technology , etc .
1 91
 Fi g .6 - 4 　 High - pressure fluid jet downhole per－
forating
1 - Casing; 2 - Spacer plate; 3 - Perforating tool; 4 -
Damage zone; 5 - Puncher ; 6 - Jet pipe; 7 - Nozzle; 8 -
Jet ; 9 - Hole ; 10 - Original shot ; 11 - Compaction damage
zone ; 12 - Non - damage zone ; 13 - Cement
Fi g .6 - 5 　 High - pressure fluid jet perforat ing
tool and principle
1 - Workstring ; 2 - Circulating valve ; 3 - Anchor ; 4 - Fi l－
ter ; 5 , 12 - Control section; 6 , 13 - Lance section; 7 , 14 -
Punch section; 8 - Punch & lance outlet ; 9 - Spacer plate;
10 - Low pressure; 11 - High pressure ; 15 - 95 .3 or 114 .
3mm

Research shows t hat w hen t he anisotropy is not serious (0 .5 K z/ K r 1 .0) , if the damage area can
not be penetrated, the perforating dep th is more impor tant than t he perforating density . See Fig .6 - 7 . At
t his time, it is advisable to apply deep penet ration and medium perforating density ( about 16 shots/ m ) . If
t he damage area is so shallow that it can be penet rated t hrough , t he perforating density is more impor tant
t han t he perforating dep th . In t his case, high perforating density ( more than 22 shots/ m ) should be ap－
plied .
The research also shows t hat w hen anisot ropy is serious ( K z/ K r < 0 .5) , the effect of high perforating
density is obvious . High perforating densit y ( more t han 20 shots/ m) should be applied whether t he damage
area can be penetrated through or not . See Fig .6 - 7 .
2) Effect of phasing
The relationship bet ween anisot ropy and phase exists as show n in Fig .6 - 8 . When anisotropy is not
serious ( 0 .7 K z/ K r 1 .0) , the phase of 90°is most superior
and 0°is most inferior . In accordance wit h t he order of productivity ratio from high to low , the phases in or－
der of precedence are 90°, 120°, 60°, 45°, 180° and 0°. For medium anisotropy (0 .3 < K z/ K r < 0 .7) , the
1 92
 Fi g .6 - 6 　 Perforating depth and density vs . well Fi g .6 - 7 　 Effect of perforating density on pro－
productivity ratio curve ductivity rat io for oil reservoirs with various
anisotropies

phases wit h t he highest and lowest are 120°and 0°, respectively . For serious anisotropy ( K z/ K r 0 .2 ) ,
t he phases are 180°, 120°, 90°, 60°, 45°, and 0°in order of precedence .
We call 120°and 180°the high phase . When anisot ropy is serious , t he high productivity ratio for high
phase is due to shortening t he longit udinal distance between two adjacent perforations in the same orien ta－
tion for some perforating density , t hus minimizing the effect of anisot ropy . For homogeneous formation ,
planar dist ribu ting is more impor tan t t han the longitudinal distance between two adjacent perforations in the
same orientation . In t his case, the low phases of 90°and 60°are superior to 180°because phasing in multi－
ple orientations along a phase can be achieved for t he low phase . One may note t hat t he effect of anisotropy
for t he high phase (180°for instance ) is insignificant and the effect of anisotropy for the low phase ( such as
90°, 60°) is serious .
As shown in Fig .6 - 8 , the effect
of anisotropy on productivity ratio of a
perforated well is significant , and the
phase should be selected in accordance
wit h t he degree of anisotropy .
3) Perforation diameter
The perforation diameter is not an
impor tan t factor , but a perforation di－
ameter larger t han 10mm is advisable .
In analysis for single factor , the
basic parameters are perforating dept h
Lp = 100mm, perforating density
DE N = 20shots/ m , perforation diame－
ter d p = 10mm , phase PH A = 90 ,
compaction thickness CZH = 12 .
5mm , compaction degree CZC = 0 .2 ,
damage dept h DH = 165mm , damage
degree DC = 0 .5 , and anisotropy K z/
K r = 1 . The productivit y ratio may be
changed for different parameters , 　 Fi g .6 - 8 　 Effect of phase and anisotropy on productivity ra－
however, t he above - mentioned are tio of oil well
constan t .

1 93
 Fi g .6 - 9 　 Effect of perforation diameter on pro－
ductivity ratio of oil well
Fi g .6 - 10 　 Relation between product ivity rat io
of gas well and formation permeability ( by M .J .I
[1]
Chara )
1 - Open hole well; 2 - Non - turbulent ( Perforation densi－
ty : 13shots/ m ; Phase angle: 0°; Production pressure
drop: 10 .5MPa; Anisotropic formation)

6 .2 .1 .2 Porous gas reservoir

High filt ration rate of gas may create t he non - Darcy effect, and t he difference in gas filt ration rate
between t he perforated well and the open hole causes t urbulen t effect; thus t he productivit y ratio of a gas
well is influenced by formation permeability and producing pressure drawdown , which significantly influ－
ence t he filt ration rate . The relation between t he productivity ratio of a gas well and formation permeability
is show n in Fig .6 - 10 . I t is indicated t hat t he turbulen t effect of t he perforated well gradually becomes sig－
nificant , t he productivit y ratio is progressively reduced and t he effect of perforating dept h is weakened as
t he gas reservior permeability increases . An increase in producing pressure drawdow n also leads to decrease
in productivity ratio .
1) Effect of perforating depth and density
The relationship between t he productivit y ratio of a gas well and t he perforating depth and density is
show n in Fig .6 - 11 . When the drilling damage zone is not penet rated t hrough , t he effect of perforating
dept h is obvious , w hereas the effect is not obvious ( particularly wit h low perforating density ) after the
drilling damage zone is penet rated through , however , the effect of perforating density is significan t w het her
or not t he damage zone is penetrated through . In par ticular , after t he damage area is penet rated t hrough ,
t he increase in productivity caused by t he increase in perforating density is still significant even though per－
forating density is up to 40 shots/ m . Thus , a result wit h high perforating density is better for a gas well
t han for an oil well .
2) Effect of perforation diameter
The effect of perforation dia meter is obvious, after the drilling damage zone is penetrated through in
par ticular , as shown in Fig .6 - 12 .
3) Effect of phasing
The relationship between phase and productivity ratio is related not only to anisotropy , but also to
1 94
 Fi g .6 - 11 　 Non - correlation be－
tween product ivity ratio of gas well
and perforating depth and densi ty

producing pressure drawdow n, and whet her t he damage zone is penetrated through or not . Table 6 - 1
shows t he order of t he relation between phase and productivit y ratio for t he conditions wit h some parameters
given . The parameters given are: perforation diameter d p = 13mm , perforating density DEN = 20 shots/
m , perforating depth Lp = 300mm or Lp = 200mm , damage depth DH = 250mm, damage degree Dc = 0 .5 ,
compaction thickness CZN = 12mm and compaction degree CZC = 0 .2 .
6 .2 .1 .3 Fractured reservoir
The productivit y of perforating well completion for nat ural fractured formation depends on t he condi－
tions of t he hydrodynamic communications bet ween perforation and fract ure , which relates to fracture t ype,
azimut h, and density , and perforation dept h and densit y . The following four situations have been re－
searched by S .M .T ariq . The relations between productivity and perforating are shown in Fig .6 - 13 .
1) A set of vertical fract ures
It is advisable to accomplish perforating in t he orien tation perpendicular to the fract ure face, as show n
in Fig .6 - 13 (1 ) .
2) Two sets of mu tually ort hogonal vertical fract ures
Deeply penet rating perforating is required , and t he effect of perforating density is insignifican t, as
show n in Fig .6 - 13 (4 ) .
3) A set of horizon tal fractures
The effects of perforating depth and density on productivity ratio are significan t, as shown in Fig .6 -
13 (7 ) and Fig .6 - 14 . The additional pressure drop caused by vertical confluence can only be reduced by
increasing perforating density .

. - 12 　 Relat ion between pro－

Fi g 6
ductivity ratio of gaswell and perfo－
ration diameter

1 95
 Ta b l e 6 - 1 　 Relation between phase and product ivity ratio in various condi tions

Producing
Whet her drilling
pressure Order of phase from high to low (number in
No . Kz/ K r damage zone is
drawdown paren theses is productivity ratio PR )
penet rated through
Δp( M Pa )

1 No 180°(0 .953) , 120°(0 .807 ) , 90°(0 .725) , 60°(0 .637) , 0°(0 .433)
1
2 Yes 180°(1 .415) , 120°(1 .401 ) , 90°(1 .336) , 60°(1 .232) , 0°(0 .907)

3 No 180°(0 .686) , 120°(0 .622 ) , 90°(0 .599) , 60°(0 .564) , 0°(0 .420)
0 .525
4 Yes 120°(1 .175) , 90°( 1 .164) , 60°( 1 .115 ) , 180°(1 .080) , 0°(0 .898)
5
5 No 120°( 0 .463) , 90°( 0 .459 ) , 180°(0 .454) , 60°(0 .449) , 0°(0 .41 )
0 .1
6 Yes 90°(1 .007 ) , 60°(1 .006) , 120°( 0 .970 ) , 0°( 0 .887) , 180°(0 .777)

7 No 90°(0 .425 ) , 60°(0 .423) , 120°( 0 .422 ) , 0°( 0 .400) , 180°(0 .397)
0 .01
8 Yes 60°(0 .974 ) , 90°(0 .965) , 120°( 0 .917 ) , 0°( 0 .875) , 180°(0 .704)

9 No 180°(0 .827) , 120°(0 .708 ) , 90°(0 .640) , 60°(0 .565) , 0°(0 .399)
1
10 Yes 180°(1 .351) , 120°(1 .337 ) , 90°(1 .272) , 60°(1 .168) , 0°(0 .843)

11 No 180°(0 .656) , 120°(0 .619 ) , 90°(0 .592) , 60°(0 .559) , 0°(0 .389)
0 .525
12 Yes 120°( 1 .110) , 90°( 1 .099 ) , 60°(1 .05) , 180°(1 .015) , 0°(0 .833 )
10
13 No 60°( 0 .439 ) , 90°(0 .436) , 0°(0 .380) , 120°( 0 .376 ) , 180°(0 .355)
0 .1
14 Yes 90°(0 .941 ) , 60°(0 .940) , 120°( 0 .904 ) , 0°( 0 .821) , 180°(0 .711)

15 No 0°(0 .370) , 60°(0 .365) , 90°(0 .354) , 120°( 0 .337 ) , 180°(0 .285)
0 .01
16 Yes 60°(0 .91 ) , 90°(0 .901 ) , 120°( 0 .853) , 0°(0 .810) , 180°(0 .640 )

17 No 180°(0 .669) , 120°(0 .605 ) , 90°(0 .564) , 60°(0 .517) , 0°(0 .368)
1
18 Yes 180°(1 .272) , 120°(1 .259) , 90°(1 .194) , 60°(1 .09) , 0°(0 .765)

19 No 120°( 0 .396) , 90°( 0 .396 ) , 60°(0 .39) , 180°(0 .379) , 0°(0 .360 )
0 .525
20 Yes 120°( 1 .013) , 90°( 1 .020 ) , 60°(0 .97) , 180°(0 .936) , 0°(0 .754 )
20
21 No 0°( 0 .350 ) , 60°(0 .306 ) , 90°(0 .276) , 120°( 0 .24) , 180°(0 .149 )
0 .1
22 Yes 90°(0 .864 ) , 60°(0 .863) , 120°( 0 .826 ) , 0°( 0 .744) , 180°(0 .634)

23 No 0°(0 .340) , 60°(0 .281) , 90°(0 .243) , 120°( 0 .199 ) , 180°(0 .101)
0 .10
24 Yes 60°( 0 .832 ) , 90°(0 .823) , 120°( 0 .774 ) , 0°(0 .733) , 180°(0 .562)

　 　 Note : Above char ts and tables are t he research results of elect ric and numerical simulation by Sout hwestern - China
Petroleum Institute .

1 96
 　 　 4) Three sets of mu tually perpendicular fract ures
Deeply penet rating perforating should be applied , and t he effect of perforating density is insignifican t,
as show n in Fig .6 - 13 (8 ) .
6 .2 .1 .4 Mudstone ( intercalated with thin sandstone)
Productivity of well completion significantly depends on t he in ternal structure of t he reservoir . Mud－
stone is normally in tercalated wit h a thin interbed of sandstone and carbonate rock , which is generally im－
permeable or less permeable . Foreign research shows t hat t he effect on productivity can be reduced by in－
creasing perforating density and high phase . The effect of perforating depth on productivity is not as obvi－
ous as sandstone .
6 .2 .1 .5 Unconsolidated sandstone
The effect of perforating parameters on productivity is the same as t hose of common sandstone, bu t the
par ticular equipment shoud be considered for selection of perforating parameters . They mainly include me－
chanical stabilit y of perforation , sand plugging of perforation and additional pressure drop loss , etc .
When reservoir pressure is low and rock stress is high , shear breaking may be caused during unconsoli－
dated sandstone perforating . When production rate or pressure draw down is high , t he pressure gradient
around perforation is increased , t hus creating tensional breaking of perforation . The instability of mechani－
cal properties of perforation leads to serious sanding - out of the reservoir , even to rock collapse . In addition
to rest ricting t he producing pressure drawdow n and adop ting the reasonable downhole sand cont rol struc－
tures, t he geometrical sizes and the spacing of perforations are also impor tant consideration . Studies were
conducted by N .Morita, etc . in 1989 . The relation between critical sanding - out pressure drawdow n and
perforating density and phase for an unconsolidated formation is show n in Fig .6 - 15 . At low perforating
density , 90°phase has the higher critical pressure drawdown than 60°phase . At high perforating density
( > 20 shots/ m) , perforation stability for 60°phase is obviously superior to 90°phase . The increase in per－
forating density for 90°phasing may cause significant decrease in perforation stability ; however , for 60°

Fi g .6 - 13 　 Fracture - matrix type ( S . M . Fi g .6 - 14 　 Perforating performance of horizontal

[2] [2]
Tariq ) fracture system( S .M .Tariq)
1 - A set of vertical fractures ; 2 , 5 - Fractures ; 3 , 6 - Per－ 1 - 20 shots/ m; 2 - 5 shots / m ; 3 - Interval of 0 .2m be－
forations ; 4 - Two sets of vertical fractures which are mu－ tween fractures ; 4 - Interval of 1m between fractures
tually perpendicular ; 7 - A set of horizontal fractures ; 8 -
Orthogonal fractures ; 9 - Perforations paral lel to fracture
face; 10 - Perforations orthogonal to fracture face

1 97
 phase, t he perforation stability is not de－
creased un til perforating density is increased
to 40 shots/ m . Large perforation diameter
and sm all perforating dept h con tribute to
t he increase in perforation stability .
6 .2 .2 Effect of formation damage on the
productivity of perforated wells

6 .2 .2 .1 Perforating compaction damage

A crushed or compacted zone may be
formed by t he high - temperat ure and high
- pressure impact wave created by jet per－
forating . The micro struct ure of t he com－
pacted zone around perforation of Berea per－
forating core target is shown by R .J .Sauci－
er in Fig .6 - 16 .
Fi g .6 - 15 　 Relation between critical sanding - out pres－ M .Asedi and F .W .Preston studied the
sure drawdown and perforating density and phase ( Mori－ perforated core by using SEM and image
[3]
ta) analysis in 1991 , and it is indicated that
predominant small channels exist around
perforation and the original large channels are just outside . Porosity and permeabilit y around t he perforation
are significan tly decreased , as show n in Fig .6 - 17 b .
Domestic study of t he effect of a perforating compacted zone on productivity of the perforated well indi－
cates t hat the increase in thickness of t he compacted zone causes decrease in productivity ratio . Core target
testing by Huabei Oil Field and Sout hwestern Pet roleum Institute of China in 1989 showed that the com－
paction t hickness is wit hin 10～17mm ( approximating to 1/ 2 in . in the foreign report ) . The effect of the
compaction damage degree CZC ( K cz/ Ko ) on productivit y is more obvious , in particular after penetrating
t he drilling damage zone t hrough by perforation , t he effect is significantly enhanced , as show n in Fig .6 -
18 . At t his time, it is necessary to select perforating car tridges with high core flow efficiency ( CF E) .
6 .2 .2 .2 Drilling damage zone
Drilling damage degree is defined as Kd/
Ko . The relation between drilling degree and
productivity ratio is shown in Fig .6 - 19 . If the
drilling damage zone can be penet rated t hrough ,
t he effect of drilling da mage degree on productiv－
ity ratio is not serious; if t he drilling damage
zone can not be penet rated through , the effect of
drilling damage degree is very serious .
Drilling damage depth DH means t he dis－
tance between t he outside boundary of damage
zone and t he cement sheath . The effect of
drilling damage dept h on oil well productivity ra－
tio is show n in Fig .6 - 20 .
From above - mentioned , one may note
t hat t he approaches to enhancing productivit y are Fi g .6 - 16 　 Perforating compaction damage zone mi－
[4]
use of good quality drilling fluid to cont rol the crostructure( Saucier)
damage dept h and use of perforating cartridges 1 - Perforation; 2 - Non - damage core; 3 - Crushed explosive
wit h deep penetration to penet rate the damage charge and core; 4 - Compaction crushed zone; 5 - Fracture zone
zone through . with particles; 6 - Permeabi lity damaged zone

1 98
 Fi g .6 - 17 　 Porosity and
permeability distribution
around perforation( Asedi) [ 5 ]

6 .2 .3 Perforating parameter optimization design

For perforating parameter op timization design , casing dam age condition and mechanical stability of
perforation ( unconsolidated formation) for various perforating parameter combinations should be primarily
considered . T he productivit y ratio is an optimization objective function , while the two lat ters are con－
st raints . Special considerations should be taken for special wells , such as fractured , horizontal, and gravel
packed wells , etc .
6 .2 .3 .1 Data preparation for perforating optimization design
1) Collection of basic data of perforating guns and cart ridges
China National Perforating Monitoring Center issues t he basic data of various perforating cart ridges ,
including perforation diameter of concrete target, Berea core target , and flow efficiency CF E of Berea core
target every year . Since the market of perforating cartridges varies , perforating cart ridges will not be listed
here , and the new data of perforating cart ridges issued every year should be used . In China, the character－
istic data of various perforating cartridges have been entered in to t he data base“Software system for perfo－
rating optimization design of oil/ gas wells”, w hich can be amended and called by users at all times .
For optimization design , the compaction damage parameters CZH and CZC are necessary , and should
be calculated by using core targeting perforating dep th Lp and perforation diameter d p of various perforating

Fi g .6 - 18 　 Relation between oil well perforat ing Fi g .6 - 19 　 Relation between drilling damage de－
compaction degree and productivi ty ratio gree and productivity ratio of oil well

1 99
 cart ridges , Berea core target lengt h Lc , core diameter dc and flow efficiency of perforated core CFE .
According to above - mentioned facts , design and prediction are not greatly influenced by compaction
t hickness CZH of 10～17mm , t hus 12 .5 mm is generally used for various perforating cart ridges . CZH of
10mm and 17mm may also be used for perforation diameter d p of 10mm and 20mm , respectively . CZH
m ay also be taken for a particular d p by using the linear relation .
The effect of compaction degree CZC( Kcz/ Ko ) on perforating optimization design is significant . CZC
can be calculated by using the two - dimensional calculation soft ware of perforated core target , and the vari－
ous data ( perforating dept h , perforation diameter , and flow efficiency , etc .) of penetrating Berea sandstone
target by perforating cartridge .
Domestic“Software for perforating op timization design”has been formulated in t he above - men tioned
met hod , and the accurate compaction damage degree CZC for various perforating cartridges can be rapidly
calculated .
For perforating parameter optimization design , the parameters of perforating gun , including ou ter di－
ameter of gun , proper perforating density , phase , working pressure of gun and outside diameter after
shooting( including burrs) and proper model number of perforating car tridge, should also be investigated .
2) Correction of Penet rating Dept h and Perforation Diameter of Perforating Cartridge
(1 ) Conver ting penetration data of concrete target in to the data of Berea sandstone target .
A simple and easy concrete target has been established in some oil fields to monitor t he proper ties of a
perforating car tridge . The penetration data of concrete target should be converted in to t he data of sandstone
target , w hich are useful for t he optimization design and productivit y prediction and analysis .
The data published by Daqing Monitoring Cen ter in 1987 , 1988 , and 1993 indicate t hat correlation
exists between the penetration data of concrete target and t he penet ration data of Berea sandstone target ex－
ists . Figures 6 - 21 and 6 - 22 are t he domestic calculation charts by which the penetration dept h and perfo－
ration diameter of Berea sandstone may be estimated .
(2 ) Correction of downhole penet rating depth and perforation diameter of perforating car tridge .
In act ual dow nhole conditions, penetrating dept h and perforation diameter may differ greatly from the
data of Berea sandstone target at the surface .
① Correction for gap σ between gun and casing . The optimum gap is 0～ 13mm . If σ= 16 ～24mm ,
t he perforating depth and perforation diameter at the surface should be multiplied by 0 .95 . If σ> 25mm ,
t hey should be fur ther multiplied by 0 .9 5 .

Fi g .6 - 20 　 Effect of drilling damage depth on Fi g .6 - 21 　 Perforating diameter of concrete tar－

productivity ratio of oil well get is converted into perforation diameter of
Berea sandstone target

2 00
 Fi g .6 - 22 　 Perforating depth
of concrete target is converted
into perforating depth of Berea
sandstone target

② Corrections for running duration and dow nhole temperat ure . The temperature - resisting and dura－
tion - proof curves for normal explosive are show n in Fig .6 - 23 . If the temperat ure - resisting and duration
- proof ranges are exceeded , perforating dept h at t he surface should be multiplied by 0 .8 5～0 .9 5 .
③ Correction for hydrostatic pressure of perforating fluid . The research results obtained by G regory
( former Soviet U nion) and L .A .Behrman ( U .S .) , etc . indicated that the increase in pressure of perforat－
ing fluid leads to decrease in perforating depth and perforation diameter . This is due to t he cavit y formation
during passing of jet through the liquid layer . The greater the pressure of perforating fluid , the shorter the
duration for cont racting of cavity to the
original state, thus reducing the
penetrating ability .
Recen t domestic laboratory core tar－
get testing has been conducted under a
well pressure of 10 .5 M Pa , and correc－
tion should be made if t he actual dow n－
hole pressure is different from the labora－
tory pressure adopted . When bottomhole
pressure pw < 10 .5MPa, t he penetrating
dept h and perforation diameter at the
surface should be multiplied by 1 . 05 .
When p w = 15 ～ 24MPa, the multiplier
of 0 . 95 should be applied . If p w ≥
25M Pa, it should be furt her multiplied
by 0 .95 .
④ Corrections for grade and number
of production casing st rings . The data at
t he surface for N80 and P110 casings Fi g .6 - 23 　 Temperature - resisting and duration - proof
should be multiplied by 0 .95 and 0 .90 , curves for normal explosive
respectively . For double production cas－
2 01
ing strings , perforating dept h and perforation diameter at t he surface should be multiplied by 0 .6 and 0 .
85 , respectively . For triple production casing st rings , the perforating dept h and perforation diameter at the
surface should be multiplied by 0 .4 and 0 .6 , respectively .
⑤ Correction for rock porosity . The penetrating ability of perforating cart ridge decreases as rock
porosit y decreases ( compression st rengt h increased) . The corrective relation is given as follows by using the
nomograms of foreign companies and the regression analysis met hod .

1 .5 0 .5
f 19
　 　 When ( f/ b ) < 1, C = ・ ( 6 - 1)
b f

f
　 　 When = 1, C = 1 ( 6 - 2)
b

1 .5 0 .5
f f b
　 　 When > 1 and b < 19 , C = ・ ( 6 - 3)
b b 19

1 .5
f f
　 　 When > 1 and b 19 , C = ( 6 - 4)
b b

w here : C = Perforating dept h and perforation diameter correction coefficient ;

f = reservoir rock porosity , % ;

b = Berea Core target porosity w hen cart ridge targeting testing , % .

In addition , t he car tridge storing duration and environment also influence penet ration properties .
3) Drilling damage parameter calculation
Drilling damage parameters ( da mage dep th and damage degree ) are important parameters which influ－
ence t he perforating op timization design . At present , t he met hods for determining drilling damage parame－
ters are open hole DST , logging , coun ter evaluation , and empirical method , etc . If practical, open hole
DST should be applied , or open hole DST of the offset well wit h same strata and same drilling conditions
should be quoted . If DST is impossible, they may be determined by using the drilling data and empirical
met hod . Domestic perforating design software has provided t he empirical calculation method .
6 .2 .3 .2 Perforating parameter optimization design method
Perforating parameter optimization should be based on proper understanding of perforating productivity
regularities in various geological and fluid conditions . In other words , t he proper model should be estab－
lished to obtain t he quan titative relation . The effects of perforating parameters on productivity ( single - fac－
tor analysis) in various reservoir conditions have been discussed above . Domestic quan titative relations of the
perforating well completion productivity ratio of oil/ gas wells in a porous reservoir are given as follows:
Figs . 6 - 24 , 6 - 25 and 6 - 26 are oil well nomograms for the ideal perforating ( no drilling damage,
nor perforating compaction) , the perforating wit h a damage zone having not been penet rated through and
t he perforating wit h a damage zone having been penetrated t hrough , respectively .
Fig .6 - 27 and Fig .6 - 28 are gas well monographs for perforating wit h damage zone having not been
penetrated through and perforating with damage zone having been penetrated through , respectively .
It should be noted t hat the gas well productivit y ratio is t he ratio of t he perforated gas well production
rate to t he ideal open hole gas well production rate with t he non - Darcy effect considered under same pres－
sure drawdow n .
Table 6 - 2 shows t he relative importance order of various perforating factors for sandstone reservoir
oil/ gas well .
When optimizing the parameters in accordance with the above - mentioned quantitative relations , pro－
ductivity ratios for the various possible matches of perforating densit y , phase and cart ridge are calculated ,
and the casing anti - collapse abilit y reducing coefficient for each match is also calculated . On the premise of
ensuring t hat the casing an ti - collapse ability reduction will not exceed 5 % , t he perforating parameter
m atch wit h a maximum productivity ratio is selected .
2 02
 F i g .6 - 24 　 Oil well productivity rat io momograph for ideal perforating

Ta b l e 6 - 2 　 Relative importance order of various perforating factors for oil/ gas wells
Oil well Gas well

Damage zone having Damage zone having Damage zone having Damage zone having
Influencing factor not been penetrated been penet rated not been penet rated been penetrated
t hrough t hrough t hrough t hrough

Perforating dept h 2 2 2 7

Perforating densit y 3 1 3 1

Perforation diameter 8 8 4 2

Phase 6 6 8 10

Compaction t hickness 9 9 11 11

Compaction degree 5 3 5 9

Damage dep th 7 5 10 12

Damage degree 1 7 1 3

Anisotropy 4 4 7 4

Permeability No influence No influence 12 8

Wellbore radius 10 10 6 5

Producing pressure
No influence No influence 9 6
drawdown
　 　 Note: T he smaller t he number in table, t he more impor tant the factor .

2 03
 Fi g .6 - 25 　 Oil well product ivity ratio monograph for perforating with damage zone having not been
penetrated through

Fract ured reservoir, sandstone - mudstone interbed and unconsolidated sandstone reservoir , etc ., must
each have t heir own respective productivit y models , parameters are selected on t he basis of reservoir perfo－
rating particularities .
In brief, t he perforating parameter op timization procedures are as follows:
(1 ) Establish mat hematical model for perforating well completion productivity in relation to various
reservoir and reservoir fluid conditions , and obtain quantitative relation of perforating productivit y ratio;
( 2) Collect relevan t inform ation and data of local area, offset and design wells to modify t he model and
optimize t he design ;
(3 ) Investigate model numbers and performance testing data of perforating guns and cartridges;
(4 ) Correct downhole penet rating dep ths and perforation diameters of various cart ridges;
(5 ) Calculate compaction damage parameters of various cart ridges;
(6 ) Calculate drilling damage parameters of the design well;
( 7) Calculate and compare productivity ratios and casing an ti - collapse ability reducing coefficien ts for
various possible parameter matches to select the optimum perforating parameter match ;
(8 ) Predict production rate and skin factor for the program selected .
The work loads of above calculations are serious , and t he accuracy for using nomograms are also limit－
ed . The optimization design can be provided conveniently, accurately , and quickly by using“ oil/ gas well
perforating op timization design software”.

2 04
 Fi g .6 - 26 　 Oil well product ivity ratio monograph for perforating with damage zone having not been
penetrated through

6 .3 Underbalance Pressure Design of Perforating

Well completion design requires achieving a minimum pressure loss along the completed interval and a
m aximum production rate, safely and economically . U nderbalance perforating can improve well productivi－
ty , and has been applied worldwide .
U nderbalance perforating means perforating under such a condition that t he bottomhole pressure caused
is lower t han reservoir pressure . The underbalance value is a key factor for underbalance design . I t should
ensure t hat t he perforations are cleaned and t he fine particles in t he crushed and compacted zone around per－
foration are flushed . The underbalance satisfactory to this requirement is called the minimum underbalance .
On t he other hand , t he underbalance must not exceed a certain value in order to prevent formation sanding
- out and collapse, casing collapse, packer deactivation , and ot her problems . The critical value is called
m aximum underbalance . The reasonable perforating underbalance value selected should be higher t han the
minimum underbalance and lower t han t he maximum underbalance .
6 .3 .1 Empirical methods for underbalance pressure design

6 .3 .1 .1 Rule of thumb by W .T .Bell

Table 6 - 3 shows t he required underbalance values depending on reservoir permeability and type given
by W .T .Bell, on t he basis of t he experiences of many thousands of perforated wells worldwide .
2 05
 Fi g .6 - 27 　 Gas well productivi ty ratio monograph for perforating with damage zone having not been
penetrated through

Ta b l e 6 - 3 　 Rule of thumb for perforating underbalance design by W .T .Bell

Permeability Underbalance value Δp range ( MPa)
- 3 2
(10 μm ) Oil reservoir Gas reservoir

K > 100 1 .4～3 .5 6 .9～13 .8

10 < K≤100 6 .9～13 .8 13 .8～34 .5

K≤10 > 13 .8 > 34 .5

6 .3 .1 .2 Empirical formula for oil reservoir by Core Lab

Based on t he data from 45 wells , t he Core Lab has given t he empirical formula for selecting oil well
perforating underbalance value as follows .

lnΔpmi n = 5 .471 - 0 .3668ln K ( 6 - 5)

- 1
w here : Δpmi n = Minimum underbalance for oil well perforating , 10 MPa;
- 3 2
K = Oil reservoir permeability , 10 μm .

2 06
 Fi g .6 - 28 　 Gas well productivity ratio monograph for perforating with damage zone having been pen－
etrated through

6 .3 .1 .3 Calculation method by Conoco

On the basis of the minimum underbalance formula by G .E .King and t he maximum underbalance for－
mula by Colle, H .R .Crawford of Conoco published an underbalance design method in 1989 .
From t he practices on 90 wells, King , etc . have obtained a minimum underbalance relation , indicated
t hat the perforations are clean , and t hat t he corresponding underbalance value is sufficient if t he increase in
productivity created by acidizing after sandstone reservoir perforating is insignificant ( increase in productivi－
ty less than 10 % ) . Certainly , in King’s analysis , t he wells with problems in acidizing are excluded .
The following empirical formula has been ob tained by King , etc .

Δpmi n (oil ) = 17 .24/ K0 .3 ( 6 - 6)

-3 2
Δpmi n ( gas) = 17 .24/ K 　 ( K < 1 × 10 μm ) ( 6 - 7)

0 .1 8 -3 2
Δpmi n ( gas) = 17 .2 4/ K 　( K 1 × 10 μm ) ( 6 - 8)

w here : Δpmi n ( oil) = Minimum underbalance for oil reservoir , MPa ;

Δpmi n ( gas) = Minimum underbalance for gas reservoir , MPa;
- 3 2
K = Rreservoir permeability , 10 μm .
2 07
 A met hod for calculating maximum underbalance Δpm a x has been developed by Colle based on experi－
ences in Venezuela and t he Gulf Area, and t he relationship between Δpm a x and interval t ransit time or bulk
density of adjacen t mudstone has been established . The formulas based on interval t ransit time are estab－
lished , and are as follows:

Δpm a x (oil ) = 24 .132 - 0 .0 399ΔT as 　 ( ΔTas 300μs/ m) ( 6 - 9)

Δpm ax ( gas) = 33 .095 - 0 .0524 ΔTas 　 ( ΔTas 300μs/ m) (6 - 10)

Δpm ax = Δpt ub , ma x 　 ( ΔT as < 300μs/ m) (6 - 11)

The formulas based on bulk densit y of adjacen t mudstone are as follows:

3
Δpma x ( oil) = 16 .13ρas - 27 .5 8 　 (ρas 2 .4g/ cm ) (6 - 12)

3
Δpm ax ( gas) = 20ρas - 32 .4 　 (ρas 2 .4g/ cm ) (6 - 13)

3
Δpm ax = Δ pt u b , m ax 　 (ρas > 2 .4g/ cm ) (6 - 14)

w here : Δpm a x = Maximum underbalance, MPa;

ΔT as = Interval t ransit time of adjacen t mudstone, μm/ s;
Δp as = Bulk densit y of adjacen t mudstone , g/ cm3 ;
Δpt u b , m a x = Maximum safet y underbalance for dow nhole string or cemen t sheath , MPa .
The subscripts“ oil”and “ gas”show the“ oil reservoir”and“ gas reservoir”, respectively . By generalizing
t he above formulas , Crawford has recommended the following formulas for selecting the proper underbal－
ance value Δpr ec .

Δpr ec = 0 .8 Δpmi n + 0 .2Δpm a x (6 - 15)

if the reservoir has sanding - out or high water saturation .

Δpr ec = 0 .2 Δpmi n + 0 .8Δpm a x (6 - 16)

if the reservoir has not t he sanding - out history .

6 .3 .2 Theoretical method for underbalance pressure design
The above methods are simple and convenien t in use, however , not all of factors are considered ; only
permeability and in terval transit time are used for determining t he minimum and maximum underbalances .
Moreover, t he met hods are mostly regional, empirical, and statistical; lacking t heoretical basis , t hey are
not certainly suitable for every oil/ gas reservoir . Theoretical studies in this aspect have been conducted bot h
abroad and in China , and t he new met hods are int roduced below .
6 .3 .2 .1 Numerical simulation calculation method for minimum underbalanceΔpmin by Tariq

The most accurate met hod is to establish the finite elemen t numerical simulation program for t he un－
steady percolation flow under t he effect of underbalance after perforating ; t he flow, in model, follows the
Forchheimer non - Darey percolation flow rule . Calculations indicate t hat t he pressure and flow velocity are
related to t he location , time, underbalance value , perforation sizes, compaction degree, formation perme－
abilit y and fluid viscosity , etc . The simulation calculations by S .M .T ariq show t hat the effect of underbal－
ance arrives at or crosses the outer boundary of t he compaction zone w hen the dimensionless time tD〔tD =
Kt/ ( μCt r2cz ) , r cz is radius of compaction zone〕 reaches tD = 0 .1 . The larger t he underbalance value, the
greater the velocity , and more significant t he non - Darcy effect . The Reynolds numbers Re of compaction
2 08
 Fi g . 6 - 29 　 Relations be－
tween underbalanceΔp and
Re of outer boundary of com－
paction zone ( tD = 0 .1 )

zone when tD = 0 .1 for various compaction zone permeabilities have been calculated by Tariq for various un－
derbalance Δp supposed in model .

βΚρv c
Re = (6 - 17)
μ

w here : β= Turbulence factor ;

K = Formation permeability ;
ρ= Fluid densit y;
v c = Velocity of outer boundary of compaction zone when tD = 0 .1 ;
μ= fluid viscosity .
Fig .6 - 29 shows t he curves of permeability ( K ) , underbalance ( Δp) and Reynolds number ( Re) for
an oil well (oil viscosity = 1 .0mPa・s) calculated by Tariq .
In order to obtain t he critical Reynolds number ( Rec ) required for cleaning perforations , T ariq has
read out t he corresponding underbalance ( Δp) and permeability K for given Re from above diagram , and
drawn on the field statistical chart by G .E .King . For an oil well, T ariq has found t hat t he relation curve of
Δp versus K just falls on t he King’s minimum underbalance curve when Re = 0 .05 , t hus obtaining Rec =
0 .05 for an oil well . And Tariq has ob tained the critical Reynolds number Re = 0 .1 for a gas well .
For practical calculation , the numerical simulation method requires entering fluid, formation , perforat－
ing and damage parameters , repeatly supposing underbalance value Δp to calculate t he Reynolds number of
t he outer boundary of the compaction zone when t D = 0 .1 . Whenever Re reaches Rec , the Δp supposed is
just t he minimum underbalance .
Therefore , this met hod essentially uses field data as t he standard . If the practical fluid physical proper－
ties ( e .g .viscosity μ) and t he formation pressure p r differen tiate greatly from King’s statistical well aver－
age, it will inevitably lead to errors and mistakes . T ariq’s oil well critical Reynolds number Rec = 0 .05 is
suitable for μo = 0 .7 ～1 .2 m Pa・s . The Reynolds number for a gas well should vary with t he permeability .
Still, Tariq’s pioneer work of the quantitative theoretical calculation of minimum underbalance is of great
impor tance .
6 .3 .2 .2 Analytical calculation formula for minimum underbalance Δpmin of oil well perforating by
Tariq
　 　 T ariq t heorizes that the effect of underbalance has crossed the ou ter boundary of t he compaction zone
w hen t D = 0 .1 , and it is allowable to approximately suppose t hat pressure at compaction radius ( r c ) is pr ,
and the pressure at t he perforation wall ( rp ) is p wf . Suppose t he underbalance Δp is enough to cause non -
Darcy flow and t he Reynolds number at r c reaches the critical value Rec , t hen t his underbalance is just the
minimum underbalance Δpmin . By using Forchheimer’s binomial equation , and integrating from rp to r c ,
2 09
t he analytical equation for calculating Δpmi n (oil) has been obtained t hrough derivation . The original equa－
tion , after unit conversion , becomes:

2
130 .8μo Rec rcz rcz 1 1
Δpmi n ( oil) = 0 .4 ln + Rec ・ r cz r - r (6 - 18)
K cz ρo rp p cz

w here : μo = Oil viscosity , mPa・s;

Rec = Critical Reynolds number required for cleaning perforations, taken as 0 .05 ;
rcz = Radius of compaction zone, cm;
rp = Radius of perforation , cm ;
3
ρo = Oil density , g/ cm ;
- 3 2
K cz = Permeability of compaction zone, 10 μm .
Since Rec = 0 .05 is obtained at μo = 0 .7～1 .2 mPa・s by matching King’s field data, it can not repre－
sent the actual condition of high viscosity . When μo = 2mPa・s, by using t he above equation , t he underbal－
ance Δp min ( oil) will be 4 times t he underbalance at μo = 1mPa・s . When μo = 8mPa・s , t he underbalance
will be 64 times the underbalance at μo = 1mPa・s . Obviously it is unreasonable . Thus , w hen T ariq’s equa－
tion is recommended , if μo > 1 .2 mPa・s , t he value should be taken as μo = 1 .2 m Pa・s
Therefore, t he minimum underbalance of oil well perforating relates not only to formation permeabili－
t y, but also to the physical properties of oil, perforation sizes , compacton radius and compaction damage de－
gree .
6 .3 .2 .3 Minimum underbalance calculation formula for gas well perforating by Southwest Petroleum
Institute of China
　 　 The analy tical equation Δp min ( gas) for a gas well has been derived by Tariq in a manner similar to the
oil well . I t is found , however , t hat Tariq’s equation differ greatly from the curves made from t he equation .
Consequen tly, t he equation can not be applied . The critical Reynolds number of T ariq’s minimum under－
balance for gas well perforating is bot h constant and too small, t hus is unreasonable . The aut hor has
m atched King’s minimum underbalance curve by using the following typical data : formation pressure p r =
20M Pa, gas viscosity 珔 μg = 0 .03mPa・s , formation temperature 　T r = 373 K, gas deviation coefficient 珔Z = 1,
r cz = 1 .78cm, rp = 0 .51cm , gas relative density γg = 0 .6 . In compliance with Forchheimei’s binomial for－
mula and the gas state equation , t he following minimum underbalance equation for a gas well is derived :

2
2 2 珔g 　T r 珔
μ Zrcz Recg rcz 1 1
珔
p - p
r wf = 75 .088 0 .8 ・ 0 .8 ln + Recg r cz r - r (6 - 19)
γg CZC K rp p cz

0 .4 0 .5
Recg = (0 .061 pr K r - 0 .571) - 0 .251 (6 - 20)

w here : 珔
p r = Mean formation pressure , MPa;
　 r = Mean formation temperat ure, K ;
T
p wf = Bottomhole pressure w hen perforating , MPa;
- 3 2
K = Reservoir permeabilit y, 10 μm ;
μg = Gas viscosity at p and T
珔 　 r , m Pa・s;
珔
Z = Gas deviation factor at 珔 p and 　T r ;
γg = Relative densit y of gas;
CZC = Compaction damage degree ( K cz/ K ) , fraction ;
rcz = Radius of compaction zone, cm;
rp = Radius of perforation , cm ;
Recg = Critical Reynolds number of minimum underbalance for gas well perforating .
0 .5
If pr K r ≤15 or calculated p wf < 0 , it is indicated that t he formation has no enough energy to gain the
minimum underbalance , thus Δpmi n = 珔 p r is recommended .
2 10
 The above equation can be used by programming . The parameters given are entered and t he 珔 μg and 珔
Z
are preliminarily supposed . p wf and 珔 p , t he mean pressure ( arithmetic mean , simply ) , are calculated by us－
ing the above equation . The 珔μg and 珔 Z are corrected in accordance wit h t he relevant formula and a new p wf
value is calculated . After multiple iteration calculations the accurate p wf is ob tained , thus t he minimum un－
derbalance is as follows:

Δpmi n ( gas) = pr - p wf (6 - 21)

6 .3 .2 .4 Theoretical method for calculating maximum underbalanceΔpmax

On t he basis of foreign data and t he studies of Sout hwest Petroleum Institute of China, the order of
t hough t and block diagram are given below . The formula is given in Section 5 of this chapter .
Suppose a bottomhole pressure p wf , i .e . suppose an underbalance Δp(珔 pr - 珔p w f ) , to calculate w het her
p p
t he equivalent plastic st rain εei of perforation wall in this stress field exceeds t he critical plastic strain εei
p
( EPS ) . The underbalance corresponding to εe i reaching EPS is just the critical underbalance of t he design
well, called the maximum underbalance Δpm a x .
p p
In order to calculate the equivalent plastic strain εei , the tangential plastic strain of perforation wall εθi ,
w hich relates to the elastic - plastic boundary radius r c and pore st ress pc at rc , should be calculated . pc can
p
be ob tained , and εθi can furt her be calculated only when r c is shown . thus , r c is a key parameter for calcu－
lation .
The flow chart for calculation is shown in Fig .6 - 30 .
The well production rate may be calculated in accordance with t he steady or pseudo - steady production
rate formula and by using the predicted productivity of the perforated well since a long duration will likely
lead to the mechanical break of perforations caused by underbalance . This production rate divided by the
number of perforations designed , may be used as the value Q in the percolation equation .
6 .3 .2 .5 Determination of rational perforating underbalance Δprec

The underbalance ( Δpr ec ) necessary for a perforating operation should be designed after designing the
minimum underbalance ( Δpmim ) and maximum underbalance ( Δp ma x ) in accordance with t he new t heoreti－
cal method . Comprehensive consideration of the various factors should be followed by formulating the
met hod for determining the rational perforating underbalance Δp rec .
1) Rest raint conditions of rational underbalance
Because the safety of dow nhole casing has not been considered for Δpmi n and Δpm a x studied above , it is
required that

Δpr ec 0 .8 ( Δpt u b , ma x ) (6 - 22)

w here Δpt u b , m a x is t he maximum safety underbalance ( M Pa ) w hich can be born by the dow nhole st ring .
For oil reservoir wit h low pressure, t he underbalance value required can not be obtained even though
t he entire well is cavitated . Thus , it is required that

Δpr ec pr (6 - 23)

2) Methods for selecting op timum underbalance

For two cases:
(1 ) when Δpm a x Δpmin
Generally , Δpm a x Δpmin , at this time , if no sanding - out history, t hen ,

Δpr ec = 0 .2 ( Δpmi n ) + 0 .8( Δpm ax ) (6 - 24)

if sanding - out history or water sat uration S w > 50 % , t hen ,

2 11
 Fi g .6 - 30 　 Block diagram for calculating maximum underbalance Δpmax

2 12
 Δpr ec = 0 .8 ( Δpmi n ) + 0 .2( Δpm ax ) (6 - 25)

(2 ) when Δpm a x < Δpmin

This case seldom occurs since Δpm ax means the allowable maximum underbalance for preventing sand -
out and Δpm ax may possibly be smaller than t he minimum underbalance ( Δpmi n ) required to ensure cleaning
perforations . I t is inadvisable to consider that Δpm a x must be larger than Δpmi n in consideration of t he signs .
At this time , Δpm a x practically becomes the restraint condition for applying underbalance . In order to en－
sure safety ,
Δp rec = 0 .8 Δpm ax (6 - 26)

The above - men tioned underbalance design method can be compiled into computer software to be com－
pleted automatically .
6 .3 .2 .6 Comparison between the empirical methods and the new theoretical methods for conventional
underbalance design
　 　 Conventional underbalance calculation methods include W .T .Bell’s method , Core Lab’s method and
Conoco’s method . Since they are empirical, t heir applications are rest ricted . At t he same time, it is diffi－
cult to relate underbalance calculation to t he mechanical properties of rock and t he fluid properties . The un－
derbalance calculation can not reflect the effects of cartridge size and type, and mostly can not predict
w het her t he maximum underbalance will prevent sanding - out . By comparison , t he new methods consider
t he effects of cartridge size and type, mechanical properties of rock , proper ties of fluid of oil reservoir and
physical properties of reservoir . They are suitable widely for various reservoirs , and are based on a sound
t heoretical basis .
Table 6 - 4 shows t he cont rasts of t he parameters necessary for the various met hods . The New - min
and New - max indicate respectively t he new methods for evaluating minimum and maximum underbal－
ances . In addition , t he USA - CORE shows the Core Lab’s met hod .

T ab l e 6 - 4 　 Contrasts of parameters necessary for various underbalance design methods

Met hod W .T .Bell USA - COR E CON OCO New - min New - max

Per meabili－ Permeabili－ Per meability , in terval Per meabilit y , viscosity , Per meabilit y porosit y
ty ty t ransit time , casing densit y , compaction de－ compressibility poison’s
safety pressure , sanding gree, compaction t hick－ ratio elasticity modules
- out history ness, damage degree , shaliness for mation pres－
series of gun & car－ sure for mation tempera－
t ridge ture casing safet y pres－
sure series of gun & car－
t ridge

6 .4 Check and Appraisal of Perforating Quality

The check and appraisal of perforating quality are important steps in perforating system engineering ,
and have a great significance in enhancing well completion efficiency and prolonging production well life .
The technology includes: check and appraisal of t he proper ties of perforator , check at t he surface for deto－
nation of perforating , logging check of dow nhole casing perforated and well testing appraisal of perforating
completeness ratio .
6 .4 .1 Check and appraisal of the perforator properties
The check and appraisal of the perforator proper ties mainly aim at : first , appraising t he properties and
related indices of t he various perforators by testing and checking under the same objective standards; sec－
ond , comparing merits and defects of t he various perforators to provide basis for field selection and use;
t hird , finding t he quantitative regularities of t he various factors influencing perforator which are simulated
2 13
by using surface testing, in order to provide scientific basis for the perforating op timization design and pro－
ductivity prediction , etc .
Obviously , check and appraisal of t he perforator proper ties relate not only to checking orangs and man－
ufactures , bu t also to field use directly . Oil field conditions and requiremen ts vary . Curren t checking and
testing means are incomplete, and differ greatly from the actual downhole performance . In an oil field , eco－
nomical and applicable checking devices should be prepared in accordance wit h t he requiremen ts and possi－
bilities in order to scien tifically select materials , operate properly , and ensure perforating quality .
At presen t , perforator checking and appraising techniques are still developing . Surface checking ,
w hich simulates downhole conditions , was conducted in the U .S . in 1952 . Fourteen American manufactur－
ing companies and ten service companies discussed toget her the perforator appraising and testing program in
1955 , and began proper checking of perforators under the supervision of members appointed by t he perfo－
rating committee or API . In 1962 , the first edition of API R P 43 standard , of w hich t he full name is“ AP I
RP 43 Recommended P ractical Standard Regulations for Perforator Appraisal”, was published . The fift h
edition of RP43 , greatly amended , was issued in January 1991 .
In China, the former Petroleum Minist ry issued the ministerial standard U ni versal techn ical condi－
tions f or oil/ gas well shaped charge ( SY 5182—86) in September 1986 . The first comprehensive proper ty
testing and appraising were conducted for 25 categories of perforating car tridges on the entire count ry in
1987 . Later , several additional checks and appraisals were further performed on perforating cart ridges in
1989 ～1994 .
The following is a description of several important problems relating to perforator checking and ap－
praising , based on the new fifth edition of AP I RP43 and the latest related foreign literatures .
6 .4 .1 .1 Appraising perforator system by using concrete target
This is a convenient economic checking met hod , used to check mean penet rating dept h , perforation di－
ameter, percentage of detonating, penet rating ratio , percentage of poking plugging, and heigh t of burr ,
etc ., of t he perforator system packed with multiple car tridges at normal temperature and pressure . It is
necessary testing for API R P43 .
The target is composed of one part API Grade A cement , 2 parts clean sor ted sand, and 0 .5 parts
clean water . The sieving indices of sand are shown in Table 6 - 5 .

Ta b l e 6 - 5 　 Sand grain sieving indices

Sieve nu mber Passing percentage
U .S .Sieve mesh number Mesh diameter ( mm ) (%)

3/ 8 in 9 .51 100
4 4 .76 95～100
8 2 .38 80～100
16 1 .19 50～85
30 0 .589 25～60
50 0 .297 10～30
100 0 .149 2～10

The ou tline of the target is circular , as shown in Fig .6 - 31 . I ts size is determined in accordance wit h
t he perforation arrangement pattern of t he perforating system , and the predicted penet rating ability . A
penetrating dept h of t he shaped charge wit hin 76 .2mm from t he housing is considered effective . The target
should be cured above 0℃ for at least 28d for use . Wit hin 24 h after finishing t he perforating check or earli－
3 3
er , compression st rengt h is measured by using t he standard concrete specimen of 32 .8 cm ( 2in ) , t he value
should be less t han 34 .5 MPa . Compression st rengt h is determined in accordance wit h API SPEC 10 Oil
Well Cemen t Testi ng and M aterial Descrip tion . Tubing and casing used for the target are of AP I Grade
L 8 0 with outer diameter of 2 38 , 2 78 , 3 12 , 4 12 , 5 , 5 12 , 7 , 7 58 , 8 58 , 9 58 , 1 0 34 , 1 1 34 and 1 3 38
in .
2 14
 Fi g .6 - 31 　 Concrete target
1 - Casing or tubing; 2 - Steel housing; 3 - Concrete

Water is used as t he testing media . At least 12

cart ridges should be detonated by the multi - azimut h
perforating gun system for once . The perforating gun
is cen trically located in the wellbore .
The explosive interference during t he perforating
of multiple car tridges may be studied by using the
concrete target , and t he optimum perforating density
can be selected in combination wit h the perforating
productivity prediction of t he op timization design . Fi g .6 - 32 　 Berea sandstone target configurat ion
Explosive interference means that both the explosion under stress condition
in the perforating system and t he effects of t he geo－ 1 - Minimum vessel diameter 304 .8mm ; 2 - Supporting
metric factors lead to reduction of the performance of plate at emission end; 3 - Emission target plate; 4 - Ce－
t he original single cart ridge . Serious explosive inter－ ment pad of 19 .1mm ; 5 - Rubber sleeve with a thickness of
ference can decrease the penetration dept h by more 6 .6mm ; 6 - Core of 101 .6mm or 177 .8mm diameter ; 7 -
Unsealed plate of discharge pipe; 8 - Supporting plate of
t han 50 % .
discharge pipe; 9 - Rod with fine thread; 10 - NPT thread－
Part One ( Concrete Target ) of t he Fifth Edition ed pipe adapter (25 .4mm in outer diameter , 6 .4mm in in－
of API R P43 Regulations was modified by D .S .Wes－ ner diameter) ; 11 - Core outlet; 12 - inlet for liquid
son and B .C .Gill, etc . of Halliburton Co . and Jet
Flow Research Cen ter in 1991 . According to this , t he upper part of the perforator is only loaded wit h half
of t he maximum perforating density , w hile t he lower part is loaded with t he maximum perforating density .
The comparision of t he mean penet ration value of perforating cart ridges of t he upper part wit h that of the
lower part is used to show whether explosive interference is generated .
The flow efficiency of perforating C FE can not be checked by using t his type of target .
6 .4 .1 .2 Appraising perforator by using Berea sandstone target under stress condition
　 　 This t ype of check and appraisal is used to measure t he performance of a perforated Berea sandstone
target under st ress condition . It is a necessary testing according to API R P .
The porosity of Berea sandstone is between 19 % and 21 % . For t he shaped charge with an explosive
load less t han 15g, t he core with a diameter of 102mm ( 4in ) is used ; if t he explosive load is more than
15g , t he core wit h a diameter of 178mm ( 7in) is used . The cores wit h leng ths of 304 .8 , 381 , 457 .2 ,
533 .4 , 609 .6 and 685 .8mm ( i .e . 12 , 15 , 18 , 21 , 24 , and 27 in) are supplied for selection . An unpene－
trated part of 76 .2 mm ( 3in) is required for an effective testing result .
The core , after being taken by drilling , should be stoved at 93 .3～ 98 .9℃ for more than 24h . After
2 15
evacuating for 6h , t he core is saturated with 3 % NaCl salt water . Then core porosit y is measured .
The rubber sleeve for t he core is respectively 1 0 2 mm and 1 7 8 mm in inner diameter , and is 6 . 4 mm
( 0 .26in) in thickness . The emission end surface of t he target is fixed by a low carbon steel panel of Grade
AST MA - 36 with a t hickness of 9 .5mm ( 3/ 8in) , and a H ydrostate cement isolation layer wit h a t hickness
of 19 .1mm (3/ 4 in ) . The configuration of a Berea sandstone target under stress condition is show n in Fig .
6 - 32 .
The pressure vessel is pressurized to 20 .7M Pa by using water as t he pressure t ransmission media wit h－
out exerting t he core pore pressure . Generally , perforating is conducted with a gap of 12 .7mm for single
cart ridge section . At least three cartridges are tested . The flow test is not conducted for the perforating .
6 .4 .1 .3 Core target perforating and flow tests under simulated wellbore conditions
The test is conducted to au then tically appraise more downhole flow properties after perforating .
This is also a special testing of API R P43 , but is not mandatory . The Berea core is still used , wit h a
diameter of 102mm (4 in ) for a shaped charge load less t han or equal to 15g , and a diameter of 178mm
(7in) for a shaped charge load more than 15g . An unpenetrated part of t he core target after perforating
must be greater t han or equal to the core diameter .
In order to simulate act ual downhole pressure conditions and flow pattern, linear ( axial ) and radial
flow targets may be selected , as shown in Figs .6 - 33 and 6 - 34 . The confining pressure when perforating
is 31 .0MPa ( 4500psi) , and t he core is internally pressurized by 10 .3 MPa (1500psi ) , i .e . the simulated
pore pressure . The simulated wellbore pressure is 6 .9MPa ( 1000psi ) . Thus , t he effective overburden
stress of 20 .7MPa ( 3000psi) and underblance of 3 .4MPa ( 500psi) are achieved w hen perforating .
The core is perforated under the overburden stress and underbalance . Then flow testing is conducted at
a pressure differential of Δp = 0 .34M Pa (50psi) . Thus , core flow efficiency and compaction degree can be
obtained .
The 3 % NaCl salt water is used as the testing fluid during the en tire test . The perforating gap is 12 .
7mm (0 .5 in) . Perforating directly against t he axis of the core is required , wit h an offset distance of not
more t han 1/ 4 of the target diameter .

Fi g .6 - 33 　 Typical axial flow core target
1 - Flowrate distribution device; 2 - Elastic Pad ; 3 - Gyp－
sum cement; 4 - Panel
Fi g .6 - 34 　 Typical radial flow core target
1 - Flowrate distribution device; 2 - Selective baffle ; 3 -
Selective pad ; 4 - Elastic highly - permeable packed lay－
er ; 5 - Selective pad ; 6 - Elastic pad; 7 - Gypsum ce－
ment ; 8 - Panel

2 16
 Fi g .6 - 35 　 The rela－
A kV
tionship between
σy
of perforated casing
and the fracture tenden－
cy of perforated cas－
ing .
〔Sample size : 5 × 10 × 55
×2V ( mm)〕

6 .4 .2 Surface check of casing crack induced by perforating and detonation of downhole perforating
In recen t years, according to the stress analysis and t he crack failure of casing w hen dow nhole perfo－
rating , and on the basis of dynamic deforming principle of metal, in order to develop t he mechanics princi－
ple of stable - loss fracture of thin wall pipe , China has developed an important toughness criterion of perfo－
rated casing , as show n in Fig .6 - 35 . After matching t he data of t his figure, t he formula is gotten as fol－
lows:

Akυ
SA ( % ) = 1388 .21 - 14 .828
σy

When using casing of a differen t steel class and specification , and using differen t sa mple size and direc－
tion , we will obtain t he critical punching toughness values as show n in Table 6 - 6 . If we use t he values
above t he data, t he casing will not fracture after perforating .
In order to ensure the operation safely , and to discover whet her all downhole perforations are com－
plete, a surface sonic check device is commonly used . The sonic wave is t ransmit ted at t he wellhead through
t he st ring , and is checked and converted in to audio by the sensor at the wellhead . Then it is transmitted by
t he sensor cable to the recording inst rument , and the sound is recorded by t he recorder . While recording the
signals, two trains of signals are recorded on the checking recording paper using an oscillometer ( pulse
recording instrumen t ) . Moreover , t he ot her supporting checking tools , such as dynamic pressure sensor ,
static pressure sensor and x - y accelerometer , may also be used . In the x - y accelerometer , the metallic
block on the pipe or wellhead is held by nippers , and two accelerometers are internally installed . The x -
accelerometer and y - accelerometer are used to measure t he lateral longitudinal shock , respectively . The
domestic PMD - 360 perforating surface checking instrumen t is an improved dual - channel sound recorder
and player wit h amplified quartz - type dynamic sensors , high - sensitivity biaxial accelerometer, high -
sensitivity pressure sensor and AE sensor .
Anot her dow nhole condition checking method includes installing a delay device at the tail of t he perfo－
rating gun . The tail sonic cart ridge has been developed by t he Huabei Oil Field in China . After shooting the
final cartridge at the tail of the perforating gun , t he detonating t ube of the tail sonic car tridge explodes , the
shear pin is sheared , t he piston is pushed to hit the needle, t hus causing t he needle to drop and to hit the
firing cap , which leads to firing and igniting t he delay charge . After a delay of 10～ 15s . t hrough t he delay
t ube, t he main explosive charge explodes . The sonic signals generated by explosion of t he perforating car－
2 17
tridge, and by explosion of the tail sonic cartridge after a delay of 10～15s , are transmit ted to t he wellhead
t hrough t he media ( including well fluid , casing and tubing, etc .) , and are conver ted into electric signals by
phonoscope . Then , They are sent to the sonic signal amplifying recording inst rument by the shielded cable,
and are recorded on the paper tape after reshaping and amplification . Determination of w het her all perforat－
ing guns have been shot is completed by analyzing the explosive signals of t he perforating cart ridges on the
recording paper .

Ta b l e 6 - 6 　 The smallest crit ical values of punching toughne anti - perforating fracture of
different casing samples
sample size
direction H - 40 J - 55 K - 55 N - 80 C - 75 L - 80 C - 90 T - 95 P - 110 Q - 125
( mm )

10×10 longitudinal 40 45 45 64 55 64 65 67 84 90

crosswise 20 23 23 32 28 32 33 34 42 45

7 .5×10 longitudinal 32 36 36 54 44 51 52 54 67 72

crosswise 16 18 18 26 22 26 26 27 34 36

5×10 longitudinal 22 25 25 35 30 35 36 37 46 50

crosswise 11 13 13 18 15 18 18 19 23 25

3 .3×10 longitudinal 16 18 18 25 22 25 26 27 34 36

crosswise 8 9 9 13 11 13 13 14 17 18

2 .5×10 longitudinal 12 14 14 19 17 19 20 20 25 27

crosswise 6 7 7 10 8 10 10 10 13 14

6 .4 .3 Check method by well logs for downhole

perforated casing quality

This met hod is mainly used to determine if

Fi g .6 - 36 　 Schlumberger’s four - arm caliper
1 - Cable head; 2 - Centralizer ; 3 - Caliper nipple;
4 - Inclinometer nipple ; 5 - Mechanical device
t here is any obvious deformation and break of
casing after perforating .
6 .4 .3 .1 Multi - arm caliper
The arms symmet rically installed in multi－
ple orien tations are used to measure variation in
casing diameter after perforating . At presen t,
m any combination production logging systems
are equipped with a caliper w hich gives t he well
diameter record . The measuring arms will
stretch ou t in their st retching orientations as far
as possible due to t he loaded springs acting on
t he well diameter arms .The multi - arm caliper
wit h 48 arms has been recently developed , so
t hat casing shape and volume inside t he hole can
be accurately measured , thus t he deformation or
damage conditions of the casing after perforating
can be judged . Schlumberger ’s four - arm
caliper (BG T) is shown in Fig .6 - 36 . The data
can be recorded on film or magnetic tape .

2 18
 Fi g .6 - 37 　 Opt ical fiber cable borehole tele－
viewerer system developed by Arco and Hallibur－
ton( 1992 )
1 - Optical fiber cable; 2 - Fishing neck ; 3 - Cable head;
4 - Weighting rod; 5 - Bow - shaped spring; 6 - Transmit－
ter and electronic section; 7 - Bow - shaped spring; 8 -
Weighting rod ; 9 - Camera box assembly ; 10 - Camera
lens ; 1 1 - Blank plug ; 1 2 - Lamp holder supporting bar ;
13 - Quartz lamp

6 .4 .3 .2 Borehole televiewerer ( BHTV )

This is a more advanced visual logging method
for checking perforating sit uation of downhole casing
surface . The basic principle of t he borehole teleview－
erer is similar to that of sonar . I t is actually an acous－
tic logging syste m generating a borehole wall acoustic
“ image”and is also called acoustic scanner . Similar to Fi g .6 - 38 　 Back - to - light borehole televiewer
other acoustic logging systems , it can only measure camera system improved by Arco and Halliburton
t he well full of liquid . Overabundance of suspended ( 1994 )
solids in the well fluid may create spots on the log 1 - Optical fiber cable ; 2 - Cable head; 3 - Optical fiber
chart, t herefore clean , transparen t well fluid is re－ transmitter ( electronic section) ; 4 - Sliding protection hoop
assembly ; 5 - Light source; 6 - Camera
quired .
The downhole television logging system consists
of piezoelectric transducer, electric motor , electronic
chamber, azimu th sliding ring and cent ralizer . The
excitation voltage pulse of 1500 folds/ pulse is added to the transducer to generate ultrasonic signals of 1～2
M Hz perpendicular to the borehole wall . Therefore , this system is also called ult rasonic electromagnetic log－
2 19
ging system . Dow nhole perforating quality and casing damage can be observed by using black - and - white
or color monitor at the surface . The monitor simultaneously displays t he casing location dept h value moni－
tored . The whole process can be recorded for a permanen t record .
In addition to t he method of using acoustic scan principle to obtain the downhole image , t he direct
dow nhole televiewerer detection met hod , by which the image can be obtained by using a downhole camera
wit h lens , may also be used .
A new type of optical fiber cable borehole televiewerer , real time detecting syste m was developed by
Arco Alaska and Halliburton Energy Service in 1991～ 1994 , and used for downhole diagnosis in Prudhoe
Bay . It can clearly view t he flow - in condition of t he perforation , the oil/ water profile and the integrities
of tubing and casing . Its optical fiber cable, downhole photographic system is shown in Fig .6 - 37 . This
new t ype of cable is composed of multimode optical fibers 50～125μm long . The optical fibers are w rapped
in stainless steel pipe wit h a diameter of 0 .0 4 6 in . The cable ’s diameter is 7/ 3 2 in , 6 0 % sm aller than the
9/ 16in . diameter of t he concen tric cable of the conventional borehole televiewerer . The weight of the
weigh ting rod is decreased by 80 % . I t can be used in a high - pressure wellhead environment with no need
for well killing test . Moreover , a type of surfactan t, specifically developed for this purpose, is painted on
t he lens and luminous chamber of the camera to prevent the crude oil adhering on t he lens and the luminous
chamber and it is possible to conduct measurement in t he opaque produced fluid environment for 8hrs . Di－
rect current electricit y at the surface will light t he lamps wit h a bright ness which can be regulated by the
voltage . The distance between the lens and the ligh t source is adjustable . The switches of t he upper and
lower lamps can be cont rolled by t he voltage at t he surface . The upper lamp is used for t he t ubing of small
diameter, w hile t he lower lamp is used for t he t ubing of large diameter . The operating temperature should
be lower t han 80℃ , and it is necessary to pump t he cooling fluid into t he hole to ensure quality of t he image
if the temperature exceeds 80 ℃ .
A recent borehole televiewerer system improved by Arco and Hallibur ton , called t he back - to - ligh t
borehole televiewer camera , is show n in Fig .6 - 38 . A ligh ting lamp of 100 w is installed at the rear of the
camera, and provides indirect ligh ting , reduces t he dizzy light and produces an in tegral image . In a clean
liquid environment or the environmen t with gas , the viewing distance can be increased by about 1m . At
present , the improved borehole televiewer camera syste m will work at 107 ℃ , and there have been many
successful operations at 121℃ .
In addition to t he above - mentioned perforating quality checking and appraising methods , t he well
testing met hods can also be used to appraise the perforating well completion efficiency , t hat is detailed in
Chapter 7 of this book .

6 .5 Stress/ Strain Models and Percolation Model for Calculating Δpmax

　 　 The surrounding rock con trolled by the perforation can be divided in to two areas under the effect of un－
derbalance . T he first is the plastic area from t he perforation wall rp to the elastic - plastic boundary r c , and
t he second is the elastic area from r c to t he middle ro between t he two perforations . First , t he st ress field
around the perforation , w hich relates to the pressure distribution ( percolaton field ) , should be studied .
Then the equivalent plastic strain corresponding to the stress field of the plastic area , at the perforation wall
in particular , should be studied . Finally , t he maximum underbalance can only be determined in accordance
wit h whet her t he critical plastic st rain is exceeded .
6 .5 .1 Total stress distribution of perforation
Whet her the area around the perforation is the plastic area should be judged by using t he Mohr -
Coulomb’s yield function . Supposing t he axis of the perforation is z direction of the cylindrical coordinate
system , we can write t he following formula:

2 2
f = σθ - σr N + ( N - 1 ) p - 2 S o N (6 - 27)

N = t g(π/ 4 + / 2 ) (6 - 28)

w here : S o = Cohesive force of rock , M Pa ;

2 20
 = In ternal friction angle of rock , radian ;
p = Pore fluid pressure , MPa;
σr , σθ = radial stress and tangential st ress of perforation , respectively, M Pa .
The plastic area and t he elastic - plastic boundary should satisfy

f = 0 (6 - 29)

(1 ) Plastic area ( rp r rθ) .

In accordance wit h t he equation (6 - 29 ) , by using t he perforation symmetry , force balance principle,
definition of plastic strain and Hook’s law for porous rock , t he dist ribution of the total st ress is as follows .

2
r N -1
2 So N 2 So N r
∫
2 2
2 N -1 - N
σr = ( 1 - N ) r p r dr - 2 + σri + 2 ( 6 - 30a)
r p 1 - N N - 1 rp

2
r N -1
2 So N 2 So N r
∫
2 2
2 2 N - 1 - N 2
σθ = N (1 - N ) r pr dr + 2 + σri + 2 + (1 - N ) p
rp 1 - N N - 1 rp
( 6 - 30b)

2
r N - 1
2 So N 2 So N r
∫
2 2
2 2 N -1 - N 2
σz = (1 + N ) ( 1 - N ) vr pr dr + 2v 2 + ( N - 1 ) v σr i + 2
r p 1 - N N - 1 rp
2
+ (1 - N ) vp + ( 1 - 2 v )βp (6 - 30c)

w here : σri = Radial st ress of inner wall of perforation , MPa;

v = Poisson’s ratio ;
β= Compressibility of formation rock , 1/ MPa .
It may be noted that σr ,σθ,σ2 are related to the rock properties , location , and pore pressure distribu－
tion .
(2 ) Elastic area ( rc r ro ) ( ro is t he distance bet ween t he middle of t he two perforations and the
perforation axis) .
By using the displacemen t equation for elastic deformation of porous media, supposing no axial defor－
mation of perforation and in combination with the boundary conditions , t he following can be derived .

1 - ( rc/ r ) 2 1 - 2vβ r

σr = σr c + (σro - σr c )
1 - ( r c/ ro )
2 -
1 - v r2 ∫ prd rr
c
2 r 2
1 - ( r c/ r ) 1 - ( r c/ r )
∫
o
+ 2 prd r + 2β( p - pc ) 2 ( 6 - 31a)
1 - ( rc/ ro ) r
c
1 - ( rc/ ro )

2 r
1 + ( r c/ r ) 1 - 2v β
σθ = σr c + (σro - σr c )
1 - ( rc/ ro )
2 -
1 - v r2 ∫ p dr r
c
r

2 r
1 + ( rc/ r) 1 - 2v β
∫
o
+ 2 × pr d r - 2βpc
1 - ( r c/ ro ) 1 - v r2 r
c
2
1 + ( rc/ r) v
- 2β( po - pc ) 2 + βp ( 6 - 31b)
1 - ( r c/ ro ) 1 - v

σz = v (σr + σθ) + (1 - 2 v )βp (6 - 31c)

w here : σro , σr c = Radial stresses at ou ter boundary and inner boundary of elastic area, respectively ;
po , pc = Pore pressures at ou ter boundary and inner boundary of elastic area, respectively .
It may be noted t hat the stress distribution of the elastic area relates to boundary stresses and pres－
2 21
sures , rock properties , and pressure distribution .
Based on t he above information , t he elastic - plastic boundary ( r c ) can be calculated . From the equa－
tion ( 6 - 31) , the radial st ress σro at t he elastic outer boundary , and t he radial stress (σr c ) at the elastic -
plastic boundary , can be derived .

2 2 2 r
ro - r c rc 1 - 2v β
∫
o
σro = 2 σzo - 2σrc - prd r 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　
2 vro ro 1 - v r2o r
c
2 2 2 2
v 1 - 2 v ro - r c ro + r c
+ 2βpc - βp o - βp o 2 + 2 β( po - pc ) (6 - 32)
1 - v v 2 ro ro

r
2 So N 2 So N rc N 2 - 1
∫
2 c 2
2 N -1 - N
σr c = ( 1 - N ) r c + p r dr+ 2 + (σri + 2 )( ) (6 - 33)
r
p
1 - N N - 1 rp

w here : σri = pi = pw f , σzo is t he rock stress in z direction ( perforation axis direction ) at ro , which is the
original formation horizontal stress , and can be calculated by using t he calculation method for a general
stress field ( same as t he horizontal st ress calculation for fract uring design) .
Whet her any supposed value is the elastic - plastic boundary ( rc ) can be checked by t he following
equation obtained from t he simultaneous equations (6 - 29 ) , (6 - 30 ) and (6 - 31 ) :

2
2 r2o 2 ro r

∫
c 2
T - N
2 2σro - T+ 2 2 { - T rc pr dr
ro - rc ro - rc r
p
T T 2 r
rc 2 So N rc 2 ro 1 - 2 v β
∫ p dr
o
+ pi + ・ - 1 } - 2 So N - 2 2 2 r
rp T rp ro - r c 1 - v rc r
c
2
v 2 ro
+ T - 2β+ β pc - 2β( p o - p c ) 2 2 = 0 (6 - 34)
1 - v ro - r c

2
w here T = N - 1 .
6 .5 .2 Equivalent plastic strain

In accordance wit h the definition of the equivalent plastic strain , the equialen t plastic strain (εepi ) at
t he perforation wall surface is related to the tangen tial plastic strain (εθip ) .

p 1/ 2 4 1/ 2 p
εei = (2/ 3 ) ( N + 1) εθi (6 - 35)

p 1 4 2 So N
εθi = 2 { ( 1 - v ) (1 - N ) σri + 2
2 G・2 N N - 1
2
2 2 - ( N + 1)
- 2 N [ ( 1 - v ) (1 - N ) - ( 1 - 2 v )β] pi + Crp } (6 - 36)

∫
2 2 c 2
N +1 4 2 N -1 - N 4
C = - r c { ( 1 - v ) (1 - N ) ( 1 - N ) r c pr dr+ [ N +1
r
p
r

∫
c 2
2 2 2 2 - N 2 2 2
- v ( N + 1) ] + ( N - 1 ) rc - ( N + 1 ) pr dr - 2N [ N ( N - 1)
r
p
r

∫
2 c 2
4 2 - ( N +1) -N
- v ( N - 1) + ( N + 1 ) ( 1 - 2 v )β] r c pr d r + (1 - v )
r
p
2
N -1
4 2 So N rc 2 2
・ ( 1 - N ) σri + 2 - 2 N [ ( 1 - v ) (1 - N ) - ( 1 - 2 v )β] pc }
N - 1 rp
(6 - 37)

2 22
w here G is Lame’s constant .
6 .5 .3 Critical equivalent plastic strain
The critical equivalen t plastic st rain is the maximum equivalent plastic strain under the condition of no
perforation being sanded - out . That is , if the equivalent plastic st rain exceeds its critical value, t he perfo－
ration becomes unstable . The pressure draw down under t he critical equivalen t plastic st rain is called allow－
able maximum pressure drawdown wit hout sanding - out . The corresponding production rate is the maxi－
mum production rate wit hou t sanding - out .
The critical equivalen t plastic strain is defined as:

p
εec = Bo + B1 [ 2 S o N ( 1 + v ) ] (6 - 38)

w here Bo and B1 are constant . Bo = 0 .02 , B1 = 0 .008 .

6 .5 .4 Calculation of pore pressure distribution around perforation

When calculating the maximum underbalance value, t he corresponding flow is generally t he non - Dar－
cy flow . For the single - perforation model, the following equation can be used for an oil well:

184 .2μQ r 3 .393 × 10 - 7 βρo Q2 1 1

p - p wf = ln( ) + 2 - (6 - 39)
K Lp rp Lp rp r

and the following equation can be used for a gas well:

2 2 -1 　Tμ珔ZQ r - 13 βγg 　T珔ZQ2 1 1

p - p wf = 1 .273 × 10 ln + 2 .828 × 10 2 - (6 - 40)
K Lp rp Lp rp r

w here : p = Formation pressure at radius r , MPa;

p wf = Bottomhole pressure , MPa;
μ= Oil or gas viscosity , mPa・s;
Q = Oil or gas flow rate ( under t he standard state ) through each perforation, m3/ d ;
- 3 2
K = Rock permeability , 10 μm , a correction factor of ( 0 .1～0 .3 ) may be taken due to existence
of compaction zone in partial area ;
β= Turbulence coefficient , 1/ cm ;
L p = Perforation lengt h , cm ;
rp = Perforation radius , cm ;
3 3
ρo = Crude oil densit y , 10 kg/ m ;
γg = Gas specific gravity ;
　 = Mean formation temperature, K ;
T
珔
Z = Deviation factor .

References
[ 1] Ichara , M .J .:“ The Performance of Perforated Completion in Gas Reservoirs”, Paper SPE 16384 ,
Presented at the SPE California Regional Meeting , Ventura, California ( April 8 - 10 )
[2 ] T ariq, S .M , Ichara, M .J , and Ayestaran , L .:“ Perform ance of Perforated Completions in the
Presence of common Heterogeneities: Anisotropy , Laminations , or Nat ral F ract ure”, Paper SPE
14320 Presented at The 1985 SPE A nnual Technical Conference and Exhibition , Las Vegas ,
Nevada, Sept 22 - 25
[ 3] Morita , N . and Boyd , P .A .:“ Typical sand Production Problems - Case Studies and Strategies for
Sand Con trol”, Paper 22739 P resen ted at The 1991 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibi－
tion , Dallas , Oct .6 - 9
[4 ] Saucier , R .J . and Lands, J .F .:“ A Laboratory Study of Perforations in Stressed Rocks”, Trans
2 23
 AI M E (1978) vol 265 , 1347
[5 ] Asadi, M , Preston , F .W .:“ Characterization of the Crushed Zone Formed during Jet Perforation
by Q ualitative Scanning Elect ron Microscopy and Quntitative Image Analysis”, Paper SPE 22812
Presented at The 1991 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition , Dallas , T x, Oct 6 - 9
[6] T ang Y ula , Pan Yingde, Wang qing “ : Optimal Design of Perforating Conpletion for Gas Well”,
Paper SPE 29274 Presented at 1995 SPE Asia and Pacific Oil & Gas conference and Exhibition ,
Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia , Mar 20 - 22
[7 ]Zhang shao huai, Luo ping ya etc ., Reservoir protection Techniques , Petroleum Indust ry press ,
Beijing , 1993
[8 ] Tang Yula, Pan Yingde, etc .:“ Productivity P rediction of Oil/ Gas Well Perforating Completion
and Op timization Perforating Design”, Oil/ Gas Well Testing , No .2 , 1991
[9 ] T ang Y ula, Pan Yingde, etc .:“ Finite Element N umerical Simulation St udy of Perforating Well
Completion under non - Darcy Flow Conditions”, Petroleum Journal, No .4 , 1994
[10] Pan Yingde , Tang Yula:“ Flow Properties of perforating Core Target and Perforating Efficiency
Appraisal Standards”, Pet roleum drilling & production T echnology , No .3 , 1990
[11] Zong Youwan , Hu Jianzhou , Li Changyuan , Chen Yiping , etc .:“ Application of One - Trip
String Formation Testing & Well Completion Technology in Moxi Gas Field”, Nat ural Gas Idus－
try , No .4 , 1993

2 24
 Chapter 7 　 Well Completion Evaluation by Well Testing

7 .1 General

7 .1 .1 Well test analysis is a principal method for on - site well completion evaluation

　 　 Is the reservoir damaged during well completion ? And if so, how serious is t he damage ? To answer
t hese two questions , on - site evaluation must be carried ou t . For a damaged well, stimulation treat ment
should be taken in order to relieve the damage and increase well yield . Fur thermore, t he questions of what
kind of treat ment should be taken and how efficient t he t reatmen t is should be answered by t he on - site
evaluation .
In addition to well test analysis , well log analysis can also be used in on - site evaluation ; but unfor tu－
nately none of well log analysis met hods can directly give t he dept h and degree of da mage caused by the in－
vasion of drilling mud or/ and completion fluid .
The information from micro electric logging , time - lapse logging , or resistivity logging can indicate
w het her the formation is invaded by drilling fluid . Amplitude difference on the micro elect ric log curve , the
hole size shrinkage on the well radius curve, t he amplitude difference on t he time - lapse log curve, or the
amplit ude difference on t he induction curve, can indicate whether t he formation is permeable . Either dual
laterolog or micro - spherical focused log can give t he diameter of t he invasion zone , but none of t hem can
indicate whet her t he formation is damaged .
Well test analysis can directly give information about the degree of damage to a well .
Skin factor S , can be calculated from transient test data . The value of S should be 0 for an undamaged
well, and greater than 0 for a damaged one . The greater the value of S is , the greater degree of damage . S
should be less than 0 for a stimulated well, and t he lower the value of S is , the more efficient t he stimula－
tion is . Therefore t he value of S becomes a quantitative criterion for damage degree in formation evaluation .
Many parameters are defined in describing damage degree in well test analysis , among t hem are dam－
age factor ( DF ) , flow efficiency ( FE ) , damage ratio ( DR ) , additional pressure drop ( ΔpS ) , effec－
tive radius ( rw e ) , completion index ( CI ) , condition ratio ( CR ) and perfection factor ( PF ) etc . All
t hese parameters describe , from different poin ts of view , the damage degree of t he well . Essen tially , they
are all the same, and can be expressed quan titatively by S .
Well test analysis is the only effective met hod for evaluating formation damage degree . In t his chap ter ,
various evaluation methods for different types of formations will be in troduced and illustrated wit h field ex－
amples .
7 .1 .2 Comparison between on - site and laboratory evaluation
As far as t he scope of evaluation is concerned , much work is done in laboratory ; t hus it is necessary to
men tion t he relationship between laboratory and on - site evaluation .
Some forms of reservoir damage in laboratory evaluation met hods have been illustrated in Chapter 1 of
t his book .
The following goals can be achieved by using t he results of laboratory evaluation :
( 1) To discover t he causes of formation damage , including those damage created by t he fluids invading
in to the reservoir and t hose created by technological procedures .
(2 ) To choose reasonable measures to preven t formation damage .
(3 ) To discover appropriate remedial measures to relieve t he resulted damage .
Due to t he differing conditions between laboratory and real reservoir , t he quan titative results of labora－
tory experimen t are only relatively reliable .
It should be mentioned that , for a real well and reservoir , t he results of laboratory experiment are only
a possibility prediction of damage , an analysis of causes creating the damage and a measurement of damage
degree under some cer tain simulated test conditions . Thus we can not take only those experiment results in－
2 25
to account , bu t must also rely on t he on - site evaluation . One must determine whet her a well is damaged ,
and w hether t he well must be stimulated , based on t he value of S . One judges the effect of stimulation af－
ter treat ment on the basis of the new value of S . Therefore laboratory and on - site evaluation are supple－
mented and complement by each ot her .
7 .1 .3 Development of formation damage evaluation by well test analysis
Well test analysis was first used to evaluate formation damage in t he 1930’s . At t hat time, a reservoir
was judged only by its output . Later it was noticed t hat some reservoirs whose core appeared to be fine
could not properly produce oil or/ and gas , t hus it became necessary to study the drilling qualit y . The Re－
search of bot tom hole pressure is undoubtedly t he simplest and most effective means for doing t his .
[1]
The first developmen t of pressure con tinuous - recording gauges , such as Amerada, pu t the research
[2]
forward . Ten differen t pressure gauges were put in to operation in 1933 .
[3] [4] [5]
Then Muskat Method , MDH Met hod and Horner Method for transient test analysis were in tro－
duced one after another , thus forming what we call“conventional well test met hods”today .
[6] [7]
In 1953 Van Everdingen and Hurst first proposed t he concep t of“skin zone”. They assumed that
a zone wit h lower permeabilit y at t he borehole wall, named skin zone, is formed as a result of t he damage
incurred during drilling and completion . In t his zone , as t he permeability becomes lower , t he skin effect
appears , i .e . an additional pressure drop ( ΔpS ) , is formed . ΔpS can be expressed in Darcy U nit System :

qμB
ΔpS = S ( 7 - 1)
2πKh

w here : S = Skin factor ;

q = Production rate of the well, cm3/ s;
μ = Viscosity of formation fluid, cP ;
K = Formation permeability , Darcy ;
h = Formation thickness, cm ;
3 3
B = Oil formation volume factor , cm / cm ;
Note : 1 D≈1μm2 , 1cP = 1mPa・s .
The concep t of skin zone has been used in well test analysis since t hen . The value of S can be obtained
by t he t ransien t test analysis - pressure drawdown analysis or pressure buildup analysis .
The physical concep t of t he additional
pressure drop is shown in Fig . 7 - 1 .
Many researchers have been m aking
furt her studies on skin factor S , and recog－
nized t hat S value includes many aspects .
First of all, t he main meaning of S val－
ue is formation damage itself causing addi－
tional pressure drop . In addition , partial
penetration , effect of perforation technique,
hole deviation , turbulen t flow zone near
bot tom hole, or releasing of dissolved gas
m ay cause an additional pressure drop , and
can also be reflected by S . F urt her under－
standing of S was acquired from all of t hese
facts .
The other methods for describing for－
mation damage will be discussed in the fol－
lowing sections .
In 1970 , type curve match met hod for
　 Fi g .7 - 1 　 Additional pressure drop in skin zone
t ransient pressure analysis was in tro－
1 - Wellbore; 2 - Skin area [8]
duced . The type curve (see Fig . 7 - 2 ) ,
2 26
 F i g .7 - 2 　 Agarwal’s type curve

w hich was developed by Agarwal et al . and included several families of curves wit h wellbore storage coeffi－
cien t ( C ) and skin factor ( S ) as the cross parameters , revealed a clear relationship between formation
damage near the wellbore and the shape of t he transient pressure curve .
[9] 2S
Later Gringarten improved Agarwal’s Type Curve, advanced a parameter group ( C D e ) affecting
t he shape of pressure cure, integrated many families of curves in to one family, and created a new type
curve . G ringarten’s Type Curve is widely used around the world now . In the shape parameter group
2S
( C D e ) , skin factor ( S ) is in the position of componen t, which means that formation damage affects
much more than wellbore storage on the shape of t he curve .
It is clear from above analysis t hat S dominates the shape of a transient pressure curve . Conversely ,
degree of formation damage can be determined clearly and efficien tly from t he shape and characteristics of
t he t ransien t pressure curve . This is one of t he keys to modern well test in terpretation .
7 .1 .4 Modern well test analysis method
Modern well test consists of three parts:
(1 ) Ob tain pressure data with high accuracy downhole gauges;
(2 ) Apply a complete set of data analysis met hod w hose main part is type curve matching ;
(3 ) Use advanced well test interpretation softwares .
The modern well test analysis is based on t he accurate pressure data . This is because log - log analysis ,
[ 11 ]
including Bourdet’s pressure derivative t ype curve matching , w hich is the key of t he analysis , is used .
It is impossible to get an in terpretable derivative curve wit h low accuracy pressure data .
The accuracy of accurate pressure gauges manufactured abroad at present has reached 0 .025 % of t heir
full scale, and their resolution is 0 .01psi or 0 .00007MPa . Their full scale is as large as 200MPa, and oper－
ation temperat ure is 200℃ . This type of gauge can operate in almost any oil or gas well .
As far as in terpretation method is concerned , log - log type curves applied to various reservoirs wit h
different conditions have been consummated successively . The conventional interpretation met hod , i .e . se－
mi - log analysis method , such as Horner’s Met hod , MDH Met hod etc . which has been developing for
decades , is still being used . The solution of t he well test interpretation is usually not unique . A set of simu－
lation and verification met hods has been developed to avoid mis - interpretation or error due to this problem .
Every aspect of well test interpretation men tioned above can be completed by a computer wit h well test
in terpretation softwares . The soft wares can be used to input directly all pressure data measured by an elec－
tronic pressure gauge, edit t hem for interpretation , provide various type curves of different in terpretation
models for different reservoirs , match test data wit h t he best one of the type curves in an interactive way ,
2 27
and calculate the concerned parameters . The software can also be used to make various figures and data ta－
bles , perhaps even the entire well test report as well . The test and in terpretation can be completely carried
out on well site , and t he data and test results can be provided in a timely manner .

7 .2 　 Principle of Formation Damage Evaluation by Well Test Analysis

7 .2 .1 Measurment of formation damage degree by the value of S and disintegration of the value of S
Fig . 7 - 1 and equation ( 7 - 1 ) show t he additional pressure drop ( ΔpS ) caused by formation damage
near the borehole wall . Equation ( 7 - 1 ) is in Darcy Unit System , and w hen changed to t he Legal U nit
System , it would be

1．842 qμB
ΔpS = S ( 7 - 2)
Kh

w here : ΔpS = Additional pressure drop , MPa;

μ = Viscosity of formation fluid, mPa・s;
3
q = Production rate, m / d ;
K = Permeabilit y, 10 - 3μm2 ;
h = Formation thickness, m ;
3 3
B = Oil formation volume factor , m / m .
As show n in Fig . 7 - 1 , pressure dist ribution at the boundary of damage zone ( r = rS ) has not been
affected by the damage, and permeabilit y near t he wellbore decreases from normal value K to K S as a result
of the damage, t hus t he pressure drop is greater than normal .
The pressure drop from r = rS to borehole wall ( r = r w ) , in Darcy U nit System , is:

qμB rS
( Δp wf ) 1 = ln
2πKh rw

w hen not damaged, and

qμB rS
( Δpw f ) 2 = ln
2πKS h rw

w hen damaged . The difference of the two pressure drops should be the pressure drop caused by formation
damage, i .e . ΔpS [see equation (7 - 1) ]

qμB K - 1 rS
ΔpS = ( Δp wf ) 2 - ( Δp wf ) 1 = ln ( 7 - 3)
2πK h K S rw

After simplifying :

K rs
S = - 1 ln ( 7 - 4)
KS rw

Note from equation (7 - 4) t hat if a formation is damaged , KS < K , S value is positive; if t he forma－
tion is stimulated, t hen KS > K , S value is negative ; and if K S = K t hen S = 0 .
Equation ( 7 - 3 ) can be re - written as

1．842 qμB
ΔpS = S = 0．868 m S ( 7 - 5)
Kh

2 28
w here : m = Slope of t he straight line on semi - log curve, M Pa/ cycle .
Bot h equations ( 7 - 4 ) and (7 - 5) remain the same in different unit systems .
It should be poin ted out t hat the S value calculated from well test data is a composite parameter , not
caused only by formation damage during drilling and completion . There are many factors causing the addi－
tional pressure drop which results in a so - called“ pseudo skin” S p , and among them are t he following
items:
(1 ) Pseudo - skin caused by penet ration . Usually only par t of formation is penet rated to avoid bot tom
water or gas coning in some t hick oil - bearing formations wit h bottom water or/ and gas cap , and so conflu－
ence occurs near the penetrated in terval and causes an additional pressure drop .
( 2 ) Pseudo skin caused by perforation procedure . Any factor of perforating density , perforating
dept h, perforation phase angle and compassion zone at pore wall created by perforation would affect the
flow of oil or/ and gas , and cause an additional pressure drop . Each of these factors varies greatly for differ－
ent perforating systems . To calculate t he perforating skin , some char ts must be consulted first .
(3 ) Pseudo skin caused by hole deviation .
(4 ) Pseudo skin caused by degassing at bottom hole .
(5 ) Pseudo skin caused by t urbulen t gas flow .
After deducting pseudo skin ( S p ) from the skin factor calculated in well test analysis , we obtain the
real skin reflecting formation damage .
S p calculation is illust rated in some books and papers , and can be done by a computer with softwares
used for nodal analysis . It should be noted that the calculation of skin is quite complicated since pseudo skin
varies with differen t completion .
7 .2 .2 Other parameters for describing formation damage
In addition to S , there are other parameters for describing formation damage .
7 .2 .2 .1 Flow efficiency ( FE)
Flow efficiency is defined as a ratio of productivit y indices:

Jact u al
FE = ( 7 - 6)
Ji dea l

q
w here : 　 Jac t ua l = ＊ ( 7 - 7)
p - p wf

q
Jid eal = ＊ ( 7 - 8)
p - p wf - ΔpS

＊
and p = Formation pressure ( act ual measurement , or ext rapolation wit h pressure buildup curve ) .
Jact ual is the act ual productivity index , and Jid eal is t he productivity index calculated after reducing addi－
tional pressure difference ( i .e . additional pressure drop) caused by formation damage , or the productivity
index w hen t here is no formation da mage . Therefore

＊
p - p wf - ΔpS
FE = ( 7 - 9)
p ＊ - p wf

i .e . flow efficiency is equal to the ratio of t he pressure difference without damage to that wit h damage .
Some aut hors called flow efficiency ( F E ) , productivity ratio( PR ) or condition ratio ( CR ) or per－
fection factor ( P F ) , and all of them have different names w hereas t he same meaning .
7 .2 .2 .2 Damage ratio ( DR)
Damage ratio is defined as the reciprocal of flow efficiency :
2 29
 1
DR = (7 - 10)
FE

By combining t his equation wit h ( 7 - 9 ) , damage ratio is written as t he ratio of pressure difference
wit h formation damage to t hat without damage :

＊
p - p wf
DR = ＊ (7 - 11)
p - p wf - ΔpS

7 .2 .2 .3 Damage factor ( DF)

Damage factor is defined as the ratio of t he additional pressure difference ( i .e . t he additional pressure
drop) caused by damage to the total pressure difference:

ΔpS
DF = ＊ (7 - 12)
p - p wf

It is seen from ( 7 - 9 ) and (7 - 12 ) t hat

DF = 1 - FE (7 - 13)

7 .2 .2 .4 Completion index ( CI)

Tong xian - zhang[ 1 2 ] created a parameter named“ completion index”and“ t he Rule of 7”for judging
t he damage . Completion index is defined as

＊
p - p wf
CI = (7 - 14)
m

w here m is the slope of st raigh t line of radial flow region on semi - log pressure buildup curve .
Tong pointed ou t:
0．117 A
if CI > 2 , t he well is damaged;
rw
0．117 A
if CI = 2 , t he well is completely penet rated ; and
rw
0．117 A
if CI < 2 , t he well is not damaged .
rw
w here A is t he drainage area . After making a statistics of drainage areas of developed oil fields at that time,
0．117 A
Tong estimated ≈ 7 , and took 7 as a criterion of judgment and named it“ t he Rule of 7”. Accord－
r2w
ing to Tong , t his rule is valid for the reservoirs with drainage radius of about 0 .5 km .
Substituting ( 7 - 14) in to (7 - 5) , we get

1 S
CI = ・ (7 - 15)
DF 1 .1513

or

S = 1 .1513 DF・ CI (7 - 16)

or
2 30
 DR - 1
S = 1 .1 513( 1 - FE ) CI = 1 .1513 CI (7 - 17)
DR

and so on . All t he parameters have cer tain relationship wit h t he skin factor S .
7 .2 .2 .5 Effective radius rwe

Effective radius is defined as

- S
rw e = r w ・e (7 - 18)

Its physical meaning is show n in Fig . 7 - 1 . If S = 0 , then rwe = rw , i .e . t he effective radius is equal to
t he actual completion radius; if S > 0 then rwe < rw , i .e . the effective radius is less t han t he actual com－
pletion radius or the radius is reduced ; and if S < 0 then rwe > rw , which means t he radius is expanded .
General speaking , S value itself is enough to evaluate the damage of a well . Well test reports usually
give only S value . However , in order to analyze t he damage of a well from different aspects , the other pa－
[ 13 ]
rameters are used , the details are shown in Table 7 - 1 .

Ta b l e 7 - 1 　 Criterion for judging homogeneous formation damage

No . Item Symbol Damage Normal Stimulation

1 Skin S >0 =0 <0

2 Additional pressure drop ΔpS >0 =0 <0

3 Damage factor DF >0 =0 <0

4 Flow efficiency FE <1 =1 >1

5 Productivity ratio PR <1 =1 >1

6 Condition ratio CR <1 =1 >1

7 Perfection factor PF <1 =1 >1

8 Damage ratio DR >1 =1 <1

9 Completion index CI >8 =7 <6

10 Effective radius rw e < rw = rw > rw

7 .3 Judgement of Damage Degree in Homogeneous Reservoirs by Graphic

Characteristics
Well test analysis has been closely integrated with graphic analysis since auto - recording pressure gauges
were used and transient pressure data were studied in t he 1940s .
Horner discovered in t he 1950s that the radial flow in formation was corresponding to a straigh t line on
semi - log plot , and proposed to calculate permeability by using the slope of t he straigh t line . This is a very
good use of graphical analysis . Log - log type curve match met hod created by Agarwal in the 1960s and de－
veloped by Gringarten later has formed another method of parameter calculation by type curve matching .
Application of well test software provides a very powerful means for well test analysis . However , be－
cause well test in terpretation is a reverse problem in information theory and so t he solution of it is usually
not unique . Therefore well test engineers need first to combine t he well test information with geophysics ,
2 31
geology , well logging and even more information , to do“graphic diagnosis”and to find ou t proper reservoir
model w hen using t he software . Graphic diagnosis has become an importan t part in in teractive analysis .
Graph analysis is very important not only for well test engineers, but also for reservoir engineers, ex－
ploration or developmen t technicians at t he well - site and managerial personnels .
For the above reasons , graphic characteristics analysis is emphasized in t his chapter and illust rated in 3
sections( § 7 .3 , § 7 .4 and§ 7 .5) . The purposes are:
( 1) To illustrate t he effect of each parameter ( especially skin factor S ) on t he shape or the feat ure of
well test curves , so t hat the type of the reservoir and t he range of each concerned parameter can be identi－
fied immediately from t he shape or feature of t he curves;
(2 ) To show the characteristics of each type of reservoir by a simple“ normalized graph”with typical
formation parameters;
(3 ) To int roduce some simple and usable methods for estimating t he approximate values of formation
parameters , especially skin factor S immediately by t he shape or the feat ure of the curve only ( well test
software is not needed) . Wit h t he results can t he in terpretation carried out by computer wit h a certain soft－
ware be checked and the well site operation be guided in time .
Many kinds of graphs have been created for well test analysis so far , but only two convenien t and us－
able ones are chosen in t his book . They are:
(1 ) Composite graph or type curve created by Gringar ten and Bourdet ;
( 2) Semi - log plot of pressure, including pressure drawdow n semi - log plot , MDH plot and pressure
vs . superposition function plot etc .
These graphs will be illustrated in t his section and t he next two( § 7 .4 and §7 .5) .
The graphs of ot her kind are classified and illust rated in literat ure [ 14 ] , not necessary to be repeated
here .
7 .3 .1 Graphic characteristics of homogeneous reservoirs
Most sandstone reservoirs in Tertiary system in Eastern China area behave with characteristics of ho－
mogeneous reservoir . Some carbonate or sandstone reservoirs wit h only one type of uniform fissures distri－
bu tion behave wit h characteristics of homogeneous reservoir too . Homogeneous media is a assumed t heoreti－
cal interpretation model with isot ropy and t he same permeability everywhere in the area affected by the test－
ing . Under t his assumption an equation can be w ritten to describe the percolation flow .
7 .3 .1 .1 Composite log - log plot
Composite log - log Plot is a t ypical characteristic graph for iden tifying homogeneous reservoir . I t looks
like a fork wit h two teet h and can be divided into t hree regimes to be analyzed ( Fig . 7 - 3 ) .
(1 ) Regimes Ⅰ is t he handle of t he fork . The pressure and pressure derivative curves merge into one
and become a unit - slope straigh t line, w hich means the effect of wellbore storage, or afterflow .
(2 ) Regimes Ⅱ is t he t ransition regime . Derivative curve reaches a maximum and then goes down .
2S 2S
The height of maximum depends on t he value of parameter group C D e . C D in C D e is dimensionless well－
2S
bore storage coefficien t, and S skin factor ; because S is in the position of componen t, its effect to CD e is
2 S
greater than that of C . The greater t he value of CD e is, the higher the heigh t of maximum is, and the
steeper the curve goes down , and the later t he maximum appears as well .
The relation of the distance between t he maximum and t he horizon tal straigh t line H and the value of S
is

8 .6 5 H + 6 .1 4 - 2 .7 5
S = 10 D - 0 .5ln C D (7 - 19)

w here : H D = H/ L C ;
L C = The length of one log cycle on the log - log paper .
For example, t he measured distance between the maximum and the horizon tal st raigh t line in t he test－
ed curve is H = 80mm , the lengt h of one log cycle on used log - log paper is L C = 75mm, t hen HD = 80/
75 = 1 .07 .
CD = 100 is obtained from early data of buildup . Substit uting t hem in to ( 7 - 19) we get
2 32
 Fi g . 7 - 3 Pressure log - log plot of homogeneous reservoir

S = 12 .61

( 3) In regime Ⅲ t he derivative curve becomes a horizontal st raight line . This is the typical characteris－
tics of radial flow in formation . The coordinate of t he horizontal straigh t line is 0 .5 on dimensionless log -
log plot, wit h which t he radial flow straigh t line on semi - log plot ( Horner plot, MHD plot , superposition
function plot etc .) can be verified .
In regime Ⅱ t he pressure and t he pressure derivative curves separate from each other and form a shape
2S
looked like a fork . The distance between t he two teet h of t he fork , A , is related to CD e :

5 .5 3 A - 3 .3 7 - 1 .1 2
S = 10 D - 0 .5ln CD (7 - 20)

w here : A D = A/ Lc . In t he above example , A = 117mm is measured , and from ( 7 - 20) we get the same
value of S :

S ≈ 12 .58

Equations (7 - 19 ) and (7 - 20 ) contain a parameter CD named dimensionless wellbore storage coeffi－

cien t, and defined as:

C
C D = 0 .15916 2 (7 - 21)
Ct hrw

w here : C = Wellbore storage coefficient , m 3/ MPa;

= Porosit y;
Ct = Total compressibility , 1/ MPa;
h = Formation thickness, m ;
rw = Radius of the well, m .
It can be seen t hat all t he parameters , except C , in equation ( 7 - 21) are know n . Calculation method
for C will be illustrated in this chapter .
2 33
 F i g . 7 - 4 Pressure buildup ( or drawdown) curve for homogenous reservoir

7 .3 .1 .2 Semi - log plot

Once homogeneous reservoir and flow regimes have been recognized from composite log - log plot , fur－
ther analysis is mainly done by using semi - log plot . There are several semi - log plots , but only MDH plot
of pressure buildup will be mainly discussed here .
1) Characteristics of the Semi - log Plot Shape
Semi - log curve of pressure buildup looks like a ladle , t he segment of t he curve corresponding to
regime Ⅰ ( after flow regime) and regime Ⅱ ( t ransition regime) looks like the head of t he ladle, and the
segment corresponding to regime Ⅲ becomes a straigh t line, and looks like the handle of the ladle .
The characteristics of semi - log plot is show n on Fig .7 - 4 .
On Fig . 7 .4 there is:
(1 ) A radial flow straigh t line with slope m ;
(2 ) A pseudo straigh t line of the late - afterflow regime wit h t he maximum slope m′ .
This segmen t in most of measured curve looks like a st raight line wit h t he slope m′and so is called
“ pseudo st raigh t line”( bu t not really a straigh t line ) ;
(3 ) An in tersection point D, of two straight lines wit h the slopes m and m′, the corresponding time
＊
of poin t D is Δt ;
(4 ) An angleβ formed by the two intersecting straight lines with the slopes m and m′;
(5 ) A pressure difference bet ween t he measured pressure and t he ex trapolation of t he radial flow
straigh t line to a very small Δt value; t his pressure difference indicates the additional pressure drop caused
by skin S .
The effects of t hese parameters on t he shape and characteristics of t he graph will be discussed below .
2) Slope m of the Straight Line
The relation between t he slope m and the formation parameters is

-3 qBμ
m = 2 .121 × 10 (7 - 22)
Kh

It can be seen from this equation t hat the value of m is inversely proportional to t he K/ μand direstly
proportional to the production rate per unit thickness , qB/ h .
2 34
 2S
Fi g . 7 - 5 Effect of C D e on the shape of semi - log plot

3) Ratio of t he Slopes , m′/ m , and In tersection Angle between t he Two St raigh t Lines , β
2S 2S
m′ / m and βare mainly affected by C D e . Generally speaking , t he greater t he value of C D e is, the
2S
greater the m′/ m is , and the more approaching to 90°βis; and conversely the lower t he CD e is , the
more approaching to 1 m′ / m is , and t he more approaching to 180°βis , as show n on Fig .7 - 5 .
2 S
Usually 1 < m′ / m < 20 , 90°< β < 180°w hen CD e > 1 .
Equation ( 7 - 23) shows the relation of S and m′ / m :

m′ 1
S = 1 .417 - 1 - ln C D (7 - 23)
m 2

After measuring t he value of m′and m , S can also be calculated .

＊
4) The Time Corresponding to t he Turning Point , Δt
＊
Δt is approximately the start time of the straight line, and is usually 0 .5 log cycle earlier than it .The
m ain factor affecting Δt ＊ is wellbore storage coefficient C ; other parameters such as S also affect Δt ＊ , and
t he expression is

2
＊ Ct μrw
Δt = CD ( 3 .1 S + 3 .5 7lg CD + 11 .6 ) (7 - 24)
3 .6 K

If CD is very high and K/ μvery low ( corresponding situation is low permeability formation and shut－
＊
ting in the well at surface) Δt may be greater than the limit of data acquisition ( or t he range of clock ) ,
possibly only afterflow regime can be recorded ; whereas If CD is very low and K/ μvery high , the time of
t he first recorded datum may be greater than Δt ＊ ( especially possible for tests run by mechanical pressure
gauge with low accuracy) , it m ay occur that only radial flow regime can be ob tained and afterflow regime
lost , t his did happen in some oil wells of buried hill reservoir in Huabei Oil field in China .
5) ΔpS 　 Caused by Skin S
The equation for calculating ΔpS has been men tioned above [ see equation (7 - 2) ] . It is seen t hat ΔpS
is mainly affected by S , and inversely proportional to K/ μ but directly proportional to qB/ h .
To sum up all men tioned above, it is known t hat
2 35
 (1 ) The slope of t he radial flow straight line on semi - log plot, m , is inversely propor tional to the
mobility K/ μ , and directly proportional to t he flow rate per unit thickness qB/ h .
2S
( 2) When C D e > 1 t he ratio of t he slope of t he afterflow pseudo - st raigh t line to that of radial flow
straigh t line, m′/ m , and t he angle βdepend mainly on S value and are affected sligh tly by CD as well .
(3 ) The time corresponding to t he turning poin t depends mainly on C and K/ μ , and slightly on S .
The time is directly proportional to C and inversely proportional to K/ μ .
(4 ) The dow nwards deviation amplitude of afferflow regime curve from the straight line ( i .e . t he val－
ue of ΔpS ) depends on and is directly proportional to S .
Combining different values of K/ μ, S , C and qB/ h will form a series of curves wit h different shapes .
These curves will be illustrated later with field examples in t his section .
7 .3 .1 .3 Classification of K/ μ, S , and C
In order to discuss the effects of parameters K/ μ, S , and C more clearly , they are graded according
to t heir values .
1) Grade of K/ μ
The value of K/ μindicates t he flow ability of the fluid in t he formation . I t is graded into 7 levels for
- 3 2
discussing convenien tly [ in 10 μm / ( m Pa・s) ] :
4
very high : 　 　 　 　 　 K/ μ > 10 ;
4 3
high : 10 > K/ μ > 10 ;
3 2
fairly high : 10 > K/ μ > 10 ;
2
medium : 10 > K/ μ > 10 ;
fairly low : 10 > K/ μ > 1 ;
low : 1 > K/ μ > 0 .1 ;
very low : K/ μ < 0 .1 .
2) Grade of C
Wellbore storage coefficien t C depends on many factors such as t he position of the shu t - in valve,
propert y of the fluid in t he wellbore, and if there is free liquid level existing or not in the wellbore etc .
Therefore to calculate C is quite difficult . Even so C can be estimated according to the condition of t he well
( see T able 7 - 2) , and doing so is helpful not only to t he verification and analysis of the pressure data, but
also to the well test designing .

Ta b l e 7 - 2 　 The grade of wellbore storage coefficient C

Range of C
Grade 3 Condition of the well
( m / M Pa )

Very high > 10 Deep gas well , surface shut - in

High 1～10 High GOR , or liquid level in tubing and casing builds - up simultaneously

Fairly high 0 .1～1 Gas colum n exits in oil well , surface shu t - in , or liquid level buildup in t ubing

Medium 0 .05～0 .1 Shu t - in at tubing head , medium or low GOR

Shu t - in at tubing head , only pure oil or water in wellbore , or downhole shut - in , pock－
Fairly low 0 .01～0 .05
et is long

low 0 .001～0 .01 downhole shut - in

Very low < 0 .001 Downhole shut - in , pocket is very short

If the value of C calculated from well test curve analysis is in accordance wit h t he conditions described
in Table 7 - 2 , t hen the results are correct ; if t hey are very differen t then eit her some mistakes occur during
analyzing process, or some operation factors ( e .g . packer leaking ) or formation factors ( e .g . some un－
2 36
know n gas intermediate layers exist ) hadn′t been taken in to account . Therefore analyzing t he value of C is
closely related to analyzing t he result verification and discovering new problems about tested well and/ or
tested reservoir . Furt hermore, t he value of C affects greatly the shape of the curve and the time w hen radial
flow starts , so C is a very important parameter .
3) Grade of S
The value of S indicates degree of formation damage but it always relates to penet ration or perforation ,
turbulence formed by high speed gas flow and fracture created by acidizing and / or fracturing etc . We don ′t
distinguish t hese factors bu t grade S roughly by its value .

Ta b l e 7 - 3 The Grade of skin factor S

2S
Grade Range of S Approximate value of corresponding CD e

15
Very high > 20 > 10

High 5～20 103 ～101 5

Medium 1～5 10～103

Low - 1～1 5～10

Fairly low - 3～ - 1 0 .5～5

Very low < - 3 < 0 .5

Because ΔpS is directly proportional to S and qB/ h , and inversely proportional to K/ μ , so t he pres－
sure difference caused by damage doesn′t totally depend on the value of S . ΔpS may be less than 1 MPa in
high permeability reservoir alt hough its S is very high .
7 .3 .2 Location analysis method for well test curves in homogeneous reservoirs

7 .3 .2 .1 Meaning of location analysis

Due to differen t values of t he parameters of K/ μ, S , C , qB and h etc ., t he semi - log plot of measured
pressure in homogeneous reservoir varies and forms so many shapes t hat data verification , analysis and
recognition become quite difficult .
Fig .7 - 6 is t he dimensionless semi - log plot in a homogeneous reservoir . Actual measured semi - log
plot should be one portion of one curve in Fig .7 - 6 . After iden tifying the corresponding portion , it can be
t ransformed back to dimension plot according to the parameters of t he tested reservoir .
It should be poin ted ou t specially that when t ransforming a dimensionless plot back to dimension one,
t he leng ths of t he curve are limited . The reasons are as follows:
( 1) Data acquisition time has a lower limit . The time of t he first acquired datum point can only be sec－
ond( s) for electronic pressure gauges , or minu te ( s) for mechanical gauges because of the sampling rate limi－
tation for acquiring pressure data of the gauges;
( 2) Pressure data acquisition time has a upper limit . Mechanical pressure gauges can only work several
or tens hours , and electronic gauges can work longer for one run . Pressure readou t elect ronic gauges , in
principle, may work downhole for an infinite duration , bu t in fact can′t work longer t han several hundred
hours because of the limit of field conditions;
(3 ) Pressure acquisition has a lower limit . The measurable minimum of pressure change is limited due
to t he resolution of t he gauges . Generally speaking t he resolution is as high as 0 .00007～0 .00014MPa for
electronic gauges and only 0 .01～ 0 .001MPa for mechanical gauges .
To determine the location of the tested curve in Fig .7 - 6 according to t he acquisition limitation of the
used gauge, to describe the curve in dimension form and t hen to identify the shape of t he curve: this is
called“location analysis”.

2 37
 Fi g . 7 - 6 Dimensionless semi - log plot for drawdown test in homogeneous reservoir

7 .3 .2 .2 Time locating
First locate t he initial time . Time for first dat um poin t recorded by elect ronic gauges is about 1～ 3 sec－
onds; considering the necessary time for shu tting in operation , 10 seconds is taken as t he first datum point
for elect ronic gauges . And for mechanical gauges 1 minu te is ten tatively taken as t he first reliable datum
point . In t his way , dimensionless time of the initial datum point for a well in a reservoir can be calculated
by

tD Kh
= 22 .62 ・Δti (7 - 25)
CD i μC

tD
here the subscript“i”stands for initial poin t . The equation for calculating t he value of for the end
CD e
point is t he same as ( 7 - 25) wit h t he only exception of t hat Δti must be replaced by Δte , and t he subscript
2 3
“e”stands for t he end point . For example , if K/ μ = 0 .1μm / m Pa・s , h = 10m C = 0 .1m / MPa, qB =
3
10m / d , Δti = 1min , then ( tD/ C D ) i = 3 .77 . And if te = 4h , t hen ( tD/ CD ) e = 904 .8 .
7 .3 .2 .3 Pressure locating
Differen t pressure gauges have differen t resolutions . If mechanical gauge was used for testing , and its
resolu tion was 0 .01 M Pa , t hen the initial pressure point is calculated by

2 38
 Kh 1 1 1
( p D ) i = 542 .87 ・ ・Δp = 542 .8 7 × × 10 × × 0 .01 = 0 .543
μ qB 10 10

There is usually no pressure upper limit .

7 .3 .2 .4 Curve locating
The values of S and C can be estimated from t he completion information and wellbore structure . Com－
bining S , C with located time and located pressure ob tained by above calculations the shape of t he tested
curve can be identified . Well test design can be carried out by using the location analysis , and verification
and iden tification of tested data ( wit h know n S and C from well test curve analysis in t his case) can also be
carried ou t by using this met hod .
7 .3 .2 .5 Examples of location analysis
Fig .7 - 7 and 7 - 8 indicate t he curve shapes of field examples after locating , and T able 7 - 4 lists pa－
rameters of these field examples .
In Fig . 7 - 7 , the portion b - e of the curve, indicates t he location of example 1 . It can be seen that
t his is a complete pressure buildup curve including afterflow regime b - d and radial flow regime straight line
d - e, w hich can be used to calculate formation parameters .
Example 2 is for t he case wit h high permeability , high GO R and surface shut - in ; its curve is located
in the portion c - f of t he location frame ; it lacks afterflow regime but has a long radial flow straight line .
Example 3 is for t he case with medium mobility and surface shut - in , t he curve is located in t he por－
tion a - d . This is a curve wit h only afterflow regime but without radial flow straight line , from which pa－
rameters can not be calculated by conven tional interpretation method .
Example 4 is for t he case of high permeability , seriously damaged and with fairly high wellbore storage
coefficient C . It formsГ - shaped curve, and in some cases of low permeability gas reservoirs t he curves are
Г - shaped because of t he small μof gas . The angle βis closed to 90°. This type of curves indicates serious
damage, and stimulation is necessary .

F i g . 7 - 7 Schematic drawing of location analysis method

2 39
 F i g . 7 - 8 Examples of location analysis

Ta b l e 7 - 4 　 Examples of location analysis

Parameters for the example Position of t he curves

No . K/ μ C
2 S 2 h 3 Δti Δte Δpi qB tD tD
CD e μm m 3 ( )i ( )e ( pD ) i
( ) (m) ( ) ( min ) ( h) ( M Pa ) ( m / d) CD CD
mPa・s M Pa

6
1 10 0 .1 10 0 .1 1 4 0 .01 10 3 .77 904 .8 0 .543

2 106 1 .5 30 0 .5 1 4 0 .01 100 33 .93 8140 2 .44

3 106 0 .05 1 0 .1 1 4 0 .01 10 0 .188 45 .24 0 .027

30
4 10 1 1 0 .5 1 4 0 .01 10 7 .5 1500 0 .543

7 .3 .2 .6 Application of location analysis

The location analysis met hod can be used to :
(1 ) Verify and analyze t he results of well test in terpretation ;
(2 ) Design well test . Choose parameters and then simulate quantitatively wit h following steps:
①Estimate K and μfrom logging data or adjacent well( s) , and calculate K/ μ ;
②Find porosit y from core or logging analysis;
③Estimate S and rw from completion information ;
2 40
 ④Find C from wellbore st ructure of the well to be tested ;
⑤Calculate

0 .159 C
CD = 2
Ct hrw

2S
　 　 and C D e ;
qB tD tD
⑥Assume a value of , and calculate ( )i , ( ) , and ( p D ) i by location analysis , and t hen
h CD CD e
frame the dimensionless simulated curve on Fig . 7 - 7 ;
⑦ Transform t he simulated dimensionless curve to a dimensional one by using equations ( 7 - 25 ) and
tD
(7 - 26 ) for p D and calculation , and get the designed simulated curve .
CD
If the obtained curve satisfies the requiremen t of well test analysis ( such as a good radial flow straigh t
line exists) , t hen t he test can be run according to the design ; other wise t he design should be revised ; test
duration , pressure gauge or/ and t he manner of shu tting - in etc . should be adjusted to meet the expected
requirements .
7 .4 Graphic Characteristics of Double Porosity Reservoirs and Reservoirs
with Fractures
7 .4 .1 Graphic characteristics of double porosity reservoirs
　 　 A double porosity reservoir may also be called nat ural fracture reservoir . It was formed in a long long
geologic period : many crevices appeared in the reservoir because of ground stress , and then became net -
like fracture system due to weathering and leaching . The rock pieces divided by fissures are permeable but
t heir permeabilities are ex tremely low , so most of oil and/ or gas is stored in t he rock pieces ( mat rix ) but
t hey can flow to wellbore only t hrough fissures . The st ruct ure of this kind of reservoir looks like w hat we
see on Fig .7 - 9 .
[ 15 ]
The first study of t his kind of reservoir was done by Barewtlatt and then perfected by many re－
[ 16 , 17 , 18 ]
searchers and now quite complete theory about it has been formed .
Define following parameter groups:
2S
Graph parameter of fissure system ( C D e ) f ;
2S
Graph parameter of total system ( C D e ) f + m ;
( Ct h) f
Storativity ratio ω = ;
( Ct h) f + ( Ct h) m
2
αKm rw
In terporosity flow coefficien t λ = ;
Kf
Kf h
Location parameter of the curve ;
μC
2S
1 .89 ( C D e ) f+ m
In terporosity t ransien t flow parameter β = 2 S .
λe
ω and λ can also be written as

( C D e2 S ) f + m
ω= 2 S (7 - 26)
( CD e ) f

λe - 2 S
λ= -2 S (7 - 27)
e
2S -2 S
and C D e and λe can be figured out from type curve matching .
Note that each parameter group affecting t he well test curve of a double porosity reservoir is related to
2 41
 Fi g . 7 - 9 Schematic
drawing of elements
and structure of dou－
ble porosity reservoir
1 - Real formation; 2 , 5
- Matrix ; 3 ,6 - Fissure;
4 - Formation model; 7
- Formation unit

skin factor S , and t his affection is much more complicated than t hat of a homogeneous reservoir .
It should be pointed out especially t hat t he fissures in double porosity reservoirs are passageways to the
wellbore in the reservoirs , and t hus making a bet ter connection near the wellbore . When distinguishing for－
mation damage near the wellbore, - 3 is taken as t he criterion :
Formation is stimulated if S < - 3 ;
Formation is undamaged if S = - 3 ;
Formation is damaged if S > - 3 .
It will be illust rated later wit h field examples .
[ 19 ]
7 .4 .1 .1 Normalized graph 1 of double porosity reservoir
Following is a t ypical combination of parameters and conditions:
(1 ) Double porosity reservoir , t ransien t flow from mat rix to fissure systems , wit h wellbore storage co－
efficien t C and skin factor S ;
2 S 2 2S
(2 ) ( CD e ) f = 10 , ( CD e ) f + m = 10 , , w hich indicate t he shape parameter or skin factor S is
small;
( 3 ) ω= 0 .1 , which indicates elastic storativity is high , i .e . quite a lot of fluid is stored in t he fissure
system .
-7
(4 ) λ = 10 . The value is very small, indicating the flow from matrix to fissure system is blocked .
Fig . 7 - 10 is a composite log - log plot of t he case with above conditions . Following are some descrip－
tions of each flow regime:
Segmen t a—b is of afterflow regime and similar to that of a homogeneous reservoir . The shape of the
curve depends on ( CD e2 S ) f ;
Segmen t b—c corresponds to radial flow in fissure system , t he derivative curve becomes horizon tal
straigh t line with the ordinate of 0 .5 ;
Segmen t c— d is transition regime from matrix to fissure system . The derivative curve goes down and
t hen goes up to t he 0 .5 horizontal straight line . How t he curve is going dow n depends on t he parameter
λCD λC D
group and how going up depends on .
ω( 1 - ω) 1 - ω
Segmen t d - e corresponds to t he radial flow of t he total system .
The semi - log plot in accordance with these conditions is in Fig .7 - 11 .
The existence of this kind of curve has been proven, but no t ypical field example has been found out in
China so far .
2 42
 Fi g . 7 - 10 Normalized
log - log graph wi th two
radial flow regimes in
double porosi ty reservoir

7 .4 .1 .2 Normalized graph 2 of double porosity reservoirs— A case of having only radial flow of the
[ 20 ]
total system
　 　 This is a typical graph commonly seen in oil or gas fields . The typical conditions and parameters form－
ing this kind of curves are as follows .
(1 ) Pseudo steady - state flow from mat rix to fissure system , with skin factor S and wellbore storage
coefficient C ;
2S 4 2S 2
( 2 ) ( C D e ) f = 10 , ( C D e ) f + m = 10 , CD is fairly high , effect of afterflow covers radial flow of fis－
sure system and makes the first radial flow concealed .
(3 ) Storativity ratio ω = 0 .01 . The small value indicates t hat most fluid is stored in matrix rock , so
t hat the flow from fissure system to wellbore lasts a short time and is easily covered by afterflow .
( 4) λ= 10 - 8 , t he value is medium , t hus afterflow can cover radial flow of fissure system , and transi－
tion flow will be main tain . Composite log - log graph in accordance wit h t hese conditions is in Fig . 7 - 12 .
In which :
Segmen t a— b—c is afterflow and transition flow from mat rix to fissure; afterflow dominates during
t he period of segmen t a— b, and t ransition flow during the period of b—c . The derivative curve goes dow n
to below 0 .5 horizon tal straigh t line, w hich indicates the effect of flow from mat rix to fissure systems;
In segment c— d the derivative curve becomes a 0 .5 horizon tal st raigh t line , w hich indicates the radial
flow of t he total system .

Fi g . 7 - 11 Normalized
semi - log graph wi th two
radial flow regimes in
double porosi ty reservoir

2 43
 Fi g . 7 - 12 Normalized
log - log graph with only
radial flow of total system
in double porosity reser－
voir

Fig . 7 - 13 is the corresponding semi - log plot , in w hich :

Segmen t a′—b′—c′is“S”- shaped afterflow and transition regimes .
The difference between the curves in a double porosit y reservoir and a homogeneous one is that , the
segment before b′usually lies above the extrapolation of radial flow st raight line in t he former , and below
t hat ex trapolation in the latter .
Segmen t c′—d′is for the radial flow of t he total system , and can be used to calculate formation param－
eters .
Example 1
(1 ) Well test conditions:
The well penet rated to a formation of dolomite in Sinian system , its dept h was 3090m and formation
4 3
t hickness 19 .5m . Dry gas was produced wit h a flow rate of 9 .9× 10 m / d .
(2 ) Well test curves are show n in Fig . 7 - 14 .
It is seen t hat t he characteristics of Fig . 7 - 14 are in accordance wit h t hose of t he normalized graph .
The interpretation results are as follows:

Fi g . 7 - 13 Normalized
semi - log graph with only
radial flow of total system
in double porosity reser－
voir

2 44
 Fi g . 7 - 14 Compos－
ite log - log plot of
Example 1
- 3 2
Fissure permeabilit y K f = 1 .9 7×10 μm ;
Skin factor S = - 2 .3 ;
Wellbore storage coefficient 　 C = 2 .5m3/ MPa ;
2S
Graph parameter ( C D e ) f = 30 .05 ;
2S
( C D e ) f + m = 1 .8 ;
Storativity ratio ω = 0 .06 ;
- 6
In terporosity flow coefficien t λ = 0 .96 ×10 .
The skin factor S = - 2 .3 is close to - 3 , which means that t his double porosity reservoir is basically
undamaged .
Example 2
(1 ) Well test conditions:
The well penet rated to a formation of dolomite in carboniferous system ; well dep th was 4000m and
4 3
formation t hickness 19 .4 m . Dry gas was produced and t he flow rate was 8 .3 ×10 m / d . Surface shutting
- in was performed to measure the pressure buildup with a mechanical gauge .
(2 ) Well test curves are show n in Fig .7 - 15 .
Note t hat t he characteristics of Fig .7 - 15 is basically in accordance wit h those of the normalized
graph . U nfor tunately , the test didn′t last a little longer , so better curves wit h clearer radial flow of total
system could notbe obtained .
In terpretation results are as follows:
-3 2
　 　 　 　 Kf = 4 .97 × 10 μm ;
S = - 0 .7 ;
C = 1 .72m 3/ MPa;
( CD e2 S ) f = 2220 ;
2 S
( CD e ) f + m = 222 ;
ω = 0 .01 ;
- 6
λ = 6 .57×10 .
The value of S = - 0 .7 indicates formation damaged .
Example 3
(1 ) Well test conditions:
2 45
 Fi g . 7 - 15 Com－
posite log - log
plot of Example 2

The well penetrated to the formation of dolomite in Ordovician system . Fissure was observed from the
core of t he formation . The dep th of the well was 3660m, t he formation thickness was 156m . Oil was pro－
3
duced with a flow rate of 340m / d . DST was run wit h DS T tool, and the well was shut - in at bottom hole
so had little effect of afterflow .
(2 ) Well test curves are show n in Fig . 7 - 16 .
In terpretation results are as follows .
-3 2
　 　 　 　 Kf = 0 .27 × 10 μm ;
S = - 0 .77 ;
ω = 0 .08 ;
- 4
λ = 9 .4× 10 ;
- 2 3
C = 7 .18 ×10 m / M Pa ;
2 S
( CD e ) f = 37 .5 ;
2 S
( CD e ) f + m = 3 .
The value of S ( - 0 .7 7) indicates t hat t he double porosity reservoir is damaged , and that t he forma－
tion is possible to be improved by acidizing .
Here is a simple ω - evaluation method from log - log plot :

Fi g . 7 - 16 Composite log - log plot of Example 3

2 46
 -2L
ω = 10 D (7 - 28)

Lw
LD =
L

w here : L D = Dimensionless depth of afterflow ;

L w = Depth of going dow n of the derivative curve;
L = Lengt h of one log cycle on log - log paper .
In Example 2 ( Fig .7 - 15 ) , Lw is approximately one log cycle leng th , so LD ≈ 1 and t herefore ω =
- 2 ×1
10 = 0 .01 . It is close to t hat calculated by a computer .
7 .4 .2 Graphic characteristics of fractured reservoirs
A fract ured reservoir means a reservoir wit h a fracture created by stimulation of fracturing . This for－
mation model is completely different from the fissure formation model . The fracture is ar tificial, and is a
single , large fracture with high conductivity , formed by high - pressure fluid injection ( i .e . hydraulic frac－
turing) . Fig .7 - 17 is its schematic drawing .
A reservoir to be fractured may be homogeneous one ( such as tight sandstone ) or double porosit y one
( such as dolostone wit h fissures ) . F ract uring usually creates only one single fract ure, t his is because that
high pressure water always goes first along t he direction of greater ground stress w hen injected in to t he for－
mation , therefore fract ure plane is always perpendicular to t he direction of lower ground stress and forms a
single fracture . Once the fracture has been formed , it con tinues to stretch along t he first parting direction .
Horizontal fracture may be formed in a shallow formation because its overlying pressure is low , and the ver－
tical fract ures we met are usually formed in deep formations . F rom this fact we can see t hat fracturing can
only improve a zone near t he bot tomhole of the well, not improve w hole formation . Fracturing can not
change homogeneous reservoir to double porosity one; however fracturing in a double porosity reservoir may
create a large fract ure so t hat the buildup curve loses its original behavior of the double porosity reservoir ,
and becomes log - log half - unit straight line in early time, which is characteristic of a fractured well .
The well, which a long single fracture intersects wit h , was studied by many researchers since 1937 ;
more t han 40 theoretical models have been created , and t hey can be summarized as 4 kinds:
(1 ) Infinite conductivity vertical fracture created by hydraulic fract uring .
(2 ) Ver tical uniform flux fract ure .

( 3 ) Finite conductivit y vertical fracture

created by packing with sand of proper granu－
larit y while hydraulic fracturing .
( 4 ) Horizontal fracture created by hy－
draulic fract uring in a shallow formation .
And, afterflow may appear in early
regime due to wellbore storage .
7 .4 .2 .1 Normalized graph of wells with in－
finite conductivity fractures or uniform flux
[ 21 ]
fractures
The normalized graph of a well wit h infi－
nite conductivit y fract ures and t hat of a well
wit h uniform flux fracture are similar to each
other ; the only difference is t he time when the 　 Fi g . 7 - 17 Schematic drawing of fractures
linear flow occurs . As show n in Fig .7 - 18 , 　 1 - Top boundary of reservoir ; 2 - Bottom boundary of reservoir ;
t he shape of the curve is similar to that of dou－ 　 3 - Wellbore
ble porosity reservoir . The analysis of differ－
ent . segments are as follows .

2 47
 Fi g . 7 - 18 Normalized Log - log
graph of a well wi th vertical frac－
tures with infinite conductivity or u－
niform flux in homogeneous reser－
voirs

Segmen t a—b is afterflow regime, and the shape is similar to that of a homogeneous reservoir . Now
t he dimensionless wellbore storage coefficien t is expressed as

C
CD Xf = 0 .1 5916 2 　 (7 - 29)
Ct hXf

w here : Xf = Half lengt h of t he vertical fracture .

The value of CD is only 10 - 6 ～10 - 4 times of t hat in homogeneous reservoir .
Segmen t b—c is linear flow regime, bot h t he pressure and pressure derivative curves are half unit slope
straigh t lines , and the distance between the two parallel straight lines is 0 .301 times as much as the lengt h
of log cycle .
The pressure expression in this regime is

pD = πtD Xf (7 - 30)

Taking logarithm of bot h sides ,

1
lg pD = lg tD Xf + 0 .2 4857 (7 - 31)
2

is obtained , from which we know that t he pressure derivative curve is also a half unit st raight line . The up－
per time limit of segment b—c is tDXf ≤ 0 .016 for infinite conductivity and tD Xf ≤0 .16 for uniform flux .
The expression of pressure derivative in this segment is

′ 1
lg( pD ・ tD Xf ) = lg tD Xf - 0 .05246 (7 - 32)
2

t hus the derivative curve is also a half unit straigh t line, and the distance between it and t he pressure curve
in ordinates is:

0 .24857 + 0 .0 5246 = 0 .3 01

This is t he most principle feature of ver tical fractured well with infinite conductivity or uniform flux .
Segmen t c— d is transitional regime, its time range is about 0 .016≤ tD Xf < 3 .
Segmen t d—e is pseudo - radial flow regime, the pressure derivative curve becomes a horizon tal
straigh t line lying on the 0 .5 line on dimensionless log - log plot .

2 48
 Fi g . 7 - 19 Semi - log plot of a well
with a vertical fracture of infinite
conductivity or uniform flux in a ho－
mogeneous reservoir

The corresponding semilog curve is shown in Fig . 7 - 19 , it goes upward again and again , a′— b′, b′—c′,
c′— d′and d′—e′of which are corresponding to a— b, b—c, c— d and d—e of log - log plot ( Fig . 7 - 18)
respectively .
Example 4
(1 ) Well test conditions:
The well penet rated a sandstone formation of Triassic System , the dept h of t he well was 1900m , the
3
t hickness of t he formation was 11 .0m , oil flow rate was 26m / d . Elect ronic gauge was used to measure
bot tom hole pressure buildup , and t he well was shut in at the surface . Fracturing had been carried ou t be－
fore testing .
(2 ) Well test curves are show n in Fig . 7 - 20 .

Fi g . 7 - 20 Log - log plot of Example 4

2 49
 The curve of Example 4 appears very much alike t he normalized graph . The afterflow regime at early
time is similar to t hat of a homogeneous reservoir . A long half unit slope straigh t line appears after t he af－
terflow . T he ratio of t he distance between pressure and derivative curves in this regime to the leng th of one
log cycle is abou t 0 .3 . The half unit slope st raigh t line lasts quite a long time, which means the fracture is
quite long . Pseudo radial flow regime has not been reached in t he test , so that the formation parameters can
not be calculated from semilog plot but have been obtained from log - log type curve matching :
　 　 　 　 　 K = 0 .753 × 10 - 3μm2 ;

2
Kh - 3 μm ・ m
　 　 　 　 　 = 7．06 × 10 ;
μ mPa・s

　 　 　 　 　 S = 0．642

3
　 　 　 　 　 C = 2．12m / MPa;

　 　 　 　 　 FCD = 5000;

　 　 　 　 　 Xf = 339．2m。

Which indicates the fracture has infinite conductivit y .

It is seen t hat the effect of fracturing in t his example is excellen t for formation stimulation ; a fracture
as long as 300m is formed , and so t he percolation is greatly improved . If well test curves had been obtained
before and after fract uring , evaluation of the treat ment would be much better .
[ 22 ]
7 .4 .2 .2 Normalized graph of wells with finite conductivity fractures
If packing sands wit h a certain grain size dist ribution are filled in to the fracture w hile fracturing , the
conductivity of created fract ure may be finite and comparable wit h t he permeabilit y of the reservoir .
The definitions of conductivity defined by different researchers vary sligh tly . According to Agarwal,
t he conductivit y is defined as

Kf W
FC D = (7 - 33)
K Xf

w here : K f , K = Permeability of t he fracture and the form ation respectively ;

W = Widt h of t he fract ure;
Xf = Half leng th of t he fract ure .
Pressure curves vary when t he values of FC D are different . When FCD is low , say FCD = 5 , the pressure
curve is as show n in Fig .7 - 21 , in w hich :
2 S
Segmen t a—b—c is afterflow regime, it is similar to t hat of homogeneous reservoir when CD e is low;
Segmen t c— d is bilinear flow regime, i .e . both t he transien t flow along t he fracture and t he flow from
t he reservoir to t he fract ure are linear . In t his regime both pressure curve and pressure derivative curve are
parallel, quarter - unit slope straigh t lines , and the distance between the two in ordinate is 0 .602 times as
much as t he length of one log cycle, which can be seen in following mat hematical deduction :

π 4
pD = ・ tDXf (7 - 34)
0 .906 2 FCD

Take logarithm of both sides:

1 π
lg pD = lg tD Xf + lg (7 - 35)
4 0 .906 2 FC D

2 50
 　 Fi g . 7 - 21 Normalized log -
log graph for a well wi th a verti－
cal fracture with finite conductivi－
ty as FCD is low

and differen tiate both sides of ( 7 - 34) , t hen take logarit hm :

′ 1 π
lg( p D ・ tDXf ) = lg t DXf - lg4 + lg (7 - 36)
4 0 .906 2 FCD

From (7 - 35 ) , P ressure curve is a quarter - unit slope straight line, and from (7 - 36 ) , derivative curve is
t he same . A nd subtracting ( 7 - 36) from (7 - 35 ) 0 .602 is ob tained .
Segmen t e— f is pseudo - radial flow regime, t he derivative curve becomes a horizontal straight line ly－
ing on t he 0 .5 line on the dimensionless log - log plot .
The corresponding semi - log plot is show n in Fig .7 - 22 , it goes upwards again and again . Each seg－
ment in t his figure corresponds to a corresponding segmen t in Fig .7 - 21 . There is no clear feat ure except
t he pseudo - radial flow regime e′—f′.
Example 5
(1 ) Well test conditions:
The well penet rated a sandstone
in Triassic System . The dep th of the
well was 1370m , form ation t hickness
was 4 . 5m , the oil flow rate was
3
10m / d . The well was fractured wit h
3
8m of added sand during fract uring .
The well was surface shut in after pro－
ducing for 21 days; an electronic gauge
was used to measure t he bottom hole
pressure .
(2 ) Well test curves are show n in
Fig . 7 - 23 .
The tested curve is extremely
similar to t he norm alized graph and is
in very good accordance wit h the t heo－
retical simulation curve . The interpre－
tation results are as follows:
Fi g . 7 - 22 Semi - log plot of a well with vertical and finite con－
　 　 K = 9．8 × 10 μm ;
-3 2 ductivity fracture wi th low FCD

2 51
 Fi g . 7 - 23 Composite log - log plot of Example 5
2
Kh - 3 μm ・ m
　 　 　 　 　 = 18．68 × 10 ;
μ mPa・s

　 　 　 　 　 S = 0．28

3
　 　 　 　 　 C = 0．3m / MPa;

　 　 　 　 　 Xf = 93．34m;

　 　 　 　 　 FCD = 5。

Note that the effect of fracturing in t his example is very good . A 93 meters long fracture has been cre－
3
ated, so that production rate of 10m / d was obtained under the condition of low permeability ( K < 10 ×
- 3 2
10 μm ) . Pressure data before fracturing were not measured .
7 .4 .2 .3 Discussion
( 1) Theoretically , for fractured wells with finite conductivit y, half - unit slope straight line indicating
linear flow would appear when transient flow changes to steady flow in fracture after bilinear flow regime,
if FCD is high ( say FCD = 500 ) ; and there is an earlier fract ure linear flow regime before formation linear
flow and bilinear flow regimes . So following flow regimes exist for fractured well with finite conductivit y :
earlier fract ure linear flow, early bilinear flow , formation linear flow and pseudo - radial flow; and some
times afterflow regime or/ and late time regime ( boundary affecting regime ) exist as well .
However it is very difficult to acquire field data consisting all of t hese flow regimes in well testing . To
acquire these complete test data very long duration of measuring with high accuracy electronic gauge is re－
quired . The test possibly needs to be lasted for several mon ths even years . It is probably meaningless for
studying reservoir or production behavior .
(2 ) The uniform flux fracture men tioned earlier is commonly large natural fracture, bu t this kind of
fracture is very rare; even if it appears , it is formed by linking up original nat ural fract ures while fracturing
after completion . This is why we illustrate it toget her with ver tical fracture wit h infinite conductivity .
2 52
 (3 ) Theoretically , horizontal fractures exist in shallow wells , and t he behavior of w hich is similar to
t hat of vertical fracture . There is no typical field data in China so far , so fur ther illustration about it would
not be made in t his book .

7 .5 Judgement of the Treatment Effect by Graphic Characteristics

As t he technology of fract uring and acidizing is improved , various stimulation t reatmen ts have been
used more and more widely to increase the flow rate of oil or gas wells in oil or/ and gas fields . However ,
met hods for evaluating the effect of t he treat ments still rem ain to be discovered - yet no special effort has
been made so far . The question of what causes low flow rate must be made clear before stimulation . It can
be done by using t ransien t well test curves . The permeability ( K ) calculated from the pressure buildup
curve is t he effective permeability of the reservoir, and t he skin factor ( S ) indicates the degree of damage
to t he reservoir .
We are now evaluating the effect of treat ment by comparing the feat ures of the curves obtained before
and after treat ment in t he following three cases:
(1 ) Reservoir damage is relieved and S value is decreased after treat ment ;
(2 ) Reservoir damage is relieved and reservoir permeabilit y is increased after treat ment ;
(3) A long fracture connecting wit h wellbore is created so that flow performance is improved after
t reat ment .
7 .5 .1 Comparison of curves for the case of relieving damage by treatment
As mentioned above the degree of damage is indicated by S value . When damage was relieved totally or
par tially , S value would decrease to 0 ( for a homogeneous reservoir) or a value less t han t he original one .
This is show n by features of t he curves as follows:
(1 ) O n t he composite log - log plot , the maximum height of derivative curve, H becomes smaller ;
( 2) On t he composite log - log plot, the ordinate difference between pressure and derivative curves , A
becomes smaller ;
(3 ) On the semi - log plot , t he ratio of slopes , m′/ m becomes smaller , and the angle bet ween the
lines of afterflow and radial flow regimes , βbecomes bigger .
Readers could refer to 7 .3 for details abou t above .
Comparison of typical curves in accordance wit h t he above is show n in Fig .7 - 24 and 7 - 25 .
Note in Fig .7 - 24 that t he values of H and A have become smaller : A was reduced from 1 .2 5 to 1 .0 ,
2 S 4 2 S
H from 0 .6 to 0 .19 . S = 3 .1 and CD e = 10 before acidizing , w hereas S = - 0 .35 and CD e = 10 ,
damage has been relieved after acidizing . The other parameters maintained t heir original values after treat－
ment .

Fi g . 7 - 24 Comparison of log -
log plots for reducing S value by
treatment
1 - Before acidizing; 2 - After acidizing

2 53
 Fi g . 7 - 25 Comparison of semi
- log plot for reducing S value by
treatment
1 - After acidizing ; 2 - Before acidizing

It is seen clearly from Fig .7 - 25 that the angle βhas become bigger and t he ratio ( m′ / m ) smaller .
Example 6
Field Case of Relieving Damage by Acidizing
This was a gas well wit h a depth of 3500m . The well penetrated to Ordovician micritic dolomite wit h
4 3
net - like fissures , t he formation thickness was 6 .0m . Gas flow rate was 1 .87 × 10 m / d by DS T . The
well was judged to be wit hout commercial value . The flow rate increased to 8 .35× 10 4 m3/ d after acidizing .
This well is very significant in the evaluation of the area it locates .
Fig .7 - 26 is for comparison of log - log plots before and after acidizing . It is seen in Fig .7 - 26 that
t he maximum height of derivative curve ( H ) and t he distance between pressure and derivative curves ( A
) have both been reduced by acidizing ( Table 7 - 5) .
Fig .7 - 27 is for comparison of semi - log plots before and after acidizing . We can see t hat β2 is greater
t han β1 , and the ratio of slopes ( m′ / m ) is greatly reduced ( Table 7 - 5) .
One may note qualitatively from Fig .7 - 26 and Fig .7 - 27 that t he effect of acidizing is surely very
good ; but how much t he S value reduced should be calculated quan titatively by in terpretation, and t he re－
sults are in Table 7 - 6 .

Fi g . 7 - 26 Comparison of log
- log plot of Example 6 before
and after acidizing

2 54
 Fi g . 7 - 27 Comparison of se－
mi - log plots before and after
acidizing

T a b l e 7 - 5 Comparison of the curve figures of Example 6 before and after acidizing

Before acidizing After acidizing

HD 2 .09 0 .5

AD 2 .22 1 .0

m′
/ m 425 20 .1

Note in T able 7 - 6 t hat the permeabilities tested before and after acidizing are basically the same, but
t he skin factor ( S ) has clearly been reduced . The well was seriously damaged before acidizing, but the
damage has been totally relieved , and t he reservoir has even been sligh tly stimulated by acidizing . The flow
rate has been greatly increased . Considering the value of S , the flow rate can not increase any more . The
difference between the two wellbore storage coefficien ts is due to the way of shutting in : the well was tested
by DST before acidizing and shut in at t he surface after t hat .

T a b l e 7 - 6 Comparison of parameters of Example 6 before and after acidizing

Flow coefficient Wellbore storage

Permeability Skin Factor Flow rate
Kh/ μ coefficient C
K qg
10 μm2・m
- 3
m3
( 10 μm2 )
- 3
S (104 m3 / d)
mPa・s MPa

Before Acidizing 0 .559 418 47 1 .87 0 .0208

After Acidizing 0 .420 354 - 1 .433 8 .354 4 .9

7 .5 .2 Comparison of curves for the case of relieving skin factor S and increasing permeability
General speaking , acidizing or fracturing can only relieve the damage near the wellbore bu t can not im－
prove t he whole formation . It is because that t he acid injected in to the formation during acidizing is limited ,
and fracturing can only create a single fracture and the lengt h of w hich is limited too .
However, for formation consisting of net - like fissure system , massive acidizing may ball out fissure
system which are percolation channels , and thus make the permeability increased .
2 55
 Fi g . 7 - 28 Comparison
of normalized log - log
graph for the case of
relieving S and increas－
ing K

In some low permeabilit y sandstone formations , fract uring makes S lower and K higher . This prob－
lem has to be researched furt her , and won′t be discussed in this chapter .
Comparison of t his kind of t he typical curves is shown in Fig . 7 - 28 and Fig .7 - 29 .
We can see from Fig .7 - 28 and Fig .7 - 29 that reducing of S decreases H and A , and that increasing
of K causes t he curve to move leftward , t hus t he early time regime is missing .
We can see more clearly the moving leftward of t he afterflow and radial flow regimes of t he curve in
Fig .7 - 29 , which indicates t he effect of increasing of K value .
The parameters of Fig .7 - 28 and Fig .7 - 29 are :
2S 10
Before acidizing : S = 10 ; 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 C D e = 10 ;
K = 10×10 - 3μm 2 ; qB = 1．7m3/ d .
( which indicates the well is a damaged one having low production rate ) .
2S 2
After acidizing : S = 1 ; 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 C D e = 1．5 × 10 ;
- 3 2 3
K = 50 ×10 μm ; qB = 10m / d .
( which indicates t he well is basically a completely penetrating one; K increases to 4 times greater than
t hat before acidizing) .

Fi g . 7 - 29 Comparison of nor－
malized semi - log graph for
the case of relieving S and in－
creasing K

2 56
 Fi g . 7 - 30 Comparison
of semi - log plots of
Example 7 before and
after acidizing

Example 7: A field case in which both S and K are improved by acidizing

This well was located at the top of a buried hill of Mesoproterozoic limestone . The dept h of t he well
was 3200m , t he formation t hickness was 45m . Many fissures in the limestone were discovered by core ob－
3
servation . Original oil flow rate was as high as 258m / d , but t he pressure buildup curve showed clearly that
t he well was damaged : m′ / m was very high , the curve was Γ - shaped ( Fig . 7 - 30) . Massive acidizing
3
was done and 60m of chlorhydric acid was injected in to the reservoir . The production rate increased quite a
lot after acidizing . The tested curve obtained after treatmen t is also in Fig .7 - 30 .
Note t hat t he curve moved dow nwards clearly , the additional pressure difference Δps caused by damage
has disappeared . Comparisons of slope ratio m′ / m and angle βcan not be completed due to lack of early
pressure data after acidizing .
The interpretation results are listed in Table 7 - 7 .

T a b l e 7 - 7 Comparison of parameters of Example 7 before and after acidizing

Production pressure Permeability Productivit y index

Flow rate Skin factor
3 difference Δp K J
( m / d) S - 3 2 3
( M Pa) (10 μm ) [ m / ( M Pa・d) ]

Before Acidizing 260 3 .65 11 .9 78 71 .23

After Acidizing 1215 0 .412 3 .8 1127 2949

Clearly t he S value was greatly reduced by acidizing w hich means t he damage has been relieved to a
- 3 - 3 2
certain degree ; the K value increased greatly ( from 78 × 10 ～ 1127 × 10 μm , 13 times higher than
t hat before acidizing) . For t hese reasons , production rate increased greatly as well .

2 57
 7 .5 .3 Comparison of curves for the
case of a long fracture created by treat－
ment
The characteristics of t he test curves
obtained after hydraulic fract uring have
been illustrated in 7 .4 of t his chap ter . If
a long fracture is created, the shape of
t he curve will change greatly .
The curve showed the characteristics
of homogeneous or double porosity reser－
voir before fracturing, and linear or bilin－
ear flow appeared after that ( show n by
two parallel half - unit slope st raight lines
Fi g . 7 - 31 The curves showing the characteristics of homo－ on log - log plot for t he former case and
geneous or double porosity reservoir before fracturing two parallel quar ter - unit slope straigh t
lines for t he latter ) . And, the longer the
fracture is , t he longer t he duration of linear or bilinear flow lasts .
The characteristics of the two flow regimes have also been illustrated in 7 .3 and 7 .4 .
Comparison of t hese normalized graphs is shown on Fig .7 - 31 and Fig .7 - 32 .
The parameters of the normalized graphs are as follows:
Before fracturing :
- 3 2
K = 2 ×10 μm ;
S = 0 .16 ;
2S
CD e = 10
for a homogeneous reservoir ;
- 3 2
Kf = 2× 10 μm ;
S = - 2;
- 5
ω = 0 .10 ;λ= 10 ;
for a double porosit y reservoir ;
After fract uring : vertical infinite conductivity fracture was formed :
Xf = 10m; K = 2 ×10 - 3μm2
Example 8: Field case of a well with fractures created by fracturing
The tested well was a gas well w hich
penetrated a dolomite reservoir in Sinian
System . The depth of t he well was 3000m .
Acidizing wit h 30MPa of pump pressure
and 60MPa of bottom hole pressure frac－
tured the well actually . The amoun t of acid
injected into the reservoir was 75 .8m3 . The
4 3
production rate was 9 .99 × 10 m / d of gas
before t reatmen t and changed to 12 . 8 ×
10 4 m3/ d of gas and 69 .3m3/ d of water af－
ter that .
The log - log plot of Example 4 ( be－
fore treat ment ) is shown in Fig .7 - 14 , and
Fig .7 - 33 is the plot after treat men t .
Note that t he curves on Fig .7 - 33 are
in good accordance with the corresponding Fi g . 7 - 32 The curves showing the characteristics of frac－
normalized graph , and t his is a powerful tured well after fracturing
met hod for t reat ment evaluation on well
site .

2 58
 7 .6 Quantitative Interpre－
tation of Formation Damage
The met hod of calculating reservoir pa－
rameters by transient well test data
analysis has been developed as a mod－
ern well test in terpretation met hod ,
w hich uses both log - log type curve
m atching analysis and semi - log analy－
sis named commonly “ conventional
analysis”, and based on t hese two
analyses , well test interpretation soft－
ware has been made and widely used .
Well test in terpretation software
has become common tool, few engi－
neers analyze quantitatively well test
Fi g . 7 - 33 Log - log plot of Example 8 ( fracture was created data by hand again now . The software
after treatment) can be used not only to calculate pa－
rameters , bu t also to check the whole interpretation process to make sure t he interpretation results be reli－
able . These checking procedures are impossible to be done by hand . In fact , even proper t ype curve, w hich
will best fit t he tested data, can not be obtained by hand when needed .
Even so any engineer interpreting well test data quantitatively with t he software must understand basi－
cally the interpretation and calculation equations . The main met hods and equations used for evaluating
reservoir damage will be int roduced in t his section .
As t he subject of this book is evaluation of formation damage, and t he space is limited , only some con－
cerned equations will be in troduced .
7 .6 .1 Calculation of reservoir parameters such as K h , C and S by log - log type - curve matching

7 .6 .1 .1 The principle for the calculation of parameters by type curve matching

Calculating parameters by log - log type curve matching is a newly developed quantitative in terpreta－
tion method, and is the main part of modern well test interpretation met hod . I ts basic principles are as fol－
lows:
(1 ) Simplify various oil or gas reservoirs as well test in terpretation model . The model consists of basic
model ( i .e . homogeneous reservoir, double porosity reservoir , multilayered reservoir) , various inner and
outer boundary conditions , among the inner boundary conditions are skin effect , wellbore storage and some
others .
( 2) Express the well test interpretation models by mat hematical equations , in which pressure p is un－
know n ; time t is variable , and t he parameters such as flow rate q , permeabilit y K , skin factor S , well－
bore storage coefficien t C , fluid viscosit y μ, volume factor B , compressibility C , reservoir t hickness h ,
and ω, λ, L b , Xf and r e are all cross variables .
The equations are commonly taken in dimensionless form . For instance, for the model of a homoge－
neous reservoir wit h wellbore storage ( wellbore storage coefficient is C ) and skin effect ( skin factor is S )
as t he inner boundary conditions , and wit h constan t pressure at infinit y as the outer boundary condition ,
t he mathematical model is:

2
pD 1 pD pD
2 + ・ =
rD rD rD tD

The initial condition is

p D ( rD , 0 ) = 0

2 59
 Fi g . 7 - 34 Gringarten′s type
curves for homogeneous reser－
voirs

The outer boundary condition is

p D ( ∞ , tD ) = 0

and the inner boundary conditions are

d pw D pD
CD - = 1
d tD rD r = 1
D

pD
pw D = pD - S
rD r = 1
D

( 3 ) Solve t hese equations by analytical or numerical met hod . Express p as a function of time t and ot h－
er cross parameters . Draw relation curves of p vs . t on log - log paper which is named type curve .
There are various t ype curves due to various reservoir models .
( 4) In order to be used convenien tly , t he type curves usually use dimensionless variables as their coor－
dinates , e . g .

Kh
The ordinate: 　 　 　 　 　 　 p D = 0 .54287 Δp (7 - 37)
μqB

tD - 2 Kh
and the abscissa : 　 　 　 　 = 2 .2 62 × 10 Δt (7 - 38)
CD μC

Type curves made t his way have wide applicabilit y . A n example is t he most commonly used
2S
Gringarten′s type curves for homogeneous reservoir wit h cross parameter of C D e , w hich is show n in Fig .
7 - 34 .
(5 ) Draw tested data , pressure difference ( Δp ) vs . time ( Δt ) , on log - log paper ( usually tracing
one ) wit h t he same scale of coordinates on t ype curve, as show n on Fig .7 - 35 , it is prepared for matching
in the next step .
(6 ) Put Fig .7 - 35 onto Fig .7 - 34 and match t hem . If t he model of the t ype curves is fitted to the
tested reservoir , one of t he type curves can match wit h t he tested curve . When matching , move the plot
under the condition of keeping both abscissa and ordinates of t he t ype curves and tested curve to be parallel
each other respectively . The plot after well matching is shown in Fig . 7 - 36 .
Choose a poin t M - match poin t, if t he coordinates of M in type curve are p M and ( tD/ cD ) M , and
t hose in t he tested curve are ΔpM and Δt M respectively , according to ( 7 - 37) and (7 - 38 ) ,
2 60
 Kh
p D M = 0 .54287 ・Δp M
μqB

(7 - 39)

tD - 2 Kh
= 2 .262 × 10 Δt M
CD M μC

(7 - 40)

And from ( 7 - 37 ) and ( 7 - 38 )

Kh
formation parameters and C are
μ
calculated :

Kh pD M
= 1 .842 qB 　 　 Fi g . 7 - 35 Log - log plot of tested pressure data
μ ΔpM
(7 - 41)

-2 Kh Δt M
C = 2 .262 × 10 ・ (7 - 42)
μ ( t D/ CD ) M

It should be pointed out t hat each of the type curves is in accordance with a value of the cross parame－
ter C D e2 S , one unique value ( C D e2 S ) M is determined by matching and from t his S can be calculated :

1 ( C D e2 S ) M
S = ln (7 - 43)
2 CD

w here
C
CD = 0 .1592 2 (7 - 44)
Ct hrw

and C in which is calculated by ( 7 - 42) .

Fi g . 7 - 36 Matching of test－
ed log - log curve with type
curves .

2 61
 Fi g . 7 - 37 Bourdet′s type
curves for homogeneous reser－
voir

This is t he met hod of calculating skin factor S by type curve matching .

7 .6 .1 .2 Well test interpretation type curves in common use

Since Agarwal et al . first created t ransient well test in terpretation t ype curves in 1970 , many type
curves for various reservoir wit h various inner and outer boundary conditions have been created , and many
[ 14 ]
attempts of using new coordinates have been made, as Zhuang illustrated . The type curves created by A－
garwal, Al - H ussaing and Ramey were int roduced in section 7 .1 ( Fig .7 - 3) , and the type curves for ho－
mogeneous reservoir by Gringarten were in t his section ( Fig .7 - 34) . These two t ype curves have been be－
ing used very often .
Bourdet created derivative type curves in 1982 which are show n in Fig .7 - 37 .
The derivative type curves clearly indicate t he characteristics of the reservoir , and so become t he main
tool in t ype curve matching . Since t he coordinates of derivative type curves are t he same as pressure type
curves , t he two are integrated and become composite type curves . All graphic characteristics we discussed
in former sections are shown with composite t ype curves .
To deal with type curves of double porosity reservoir Gringar ten et al . used different type curves in dif－
feren t flow regimes: t ype curves of homogeneous reservoir are used for the first regime (fissure flow ) and
t hird one (flow in total system) , and special type curves of transient or steady t ransition flow are used for
t he second flow regime ( transition flow regime ) . Type curve matching is show n in Fig .7 - 38 , and the
type curves of a dual porosity reservoir with transient t ransition flow are in Fig .7 - 39 .
Type curves of a well with a vertical infinite conductivit y fracture, and effects of skin and wellbore
storage are shown in Fig .7 - 40 .
When using t hese type curves , some special books such as“ Applied Modern Well Test In terpretation
[ 23 ]
Methods”by Liu Neng - qiang , are needed for reference .
7 .6 .2 Calculation of skin factor S by semi - log analysis
Calculating formation parameters by semi - log analysis is named“ conventional well test in terpretation
met hod”. MDH met hod created by Miller , Dyes and Hu tchinson in 1950 and Horner′s met hod by Horner
in 1951 are still being used today .
Only the equations for calculating skin factor ( S ) are illustrated here .
The pressure curve is a straigh t line in radial flow regime on semi - log paper , the slope of t he straigh t
line is m , and the equation for calculating skin factor ( S ) , with the legal unit system , is:

pi - p wf (1h) K
S = 1 .151 - lg 2 - 0 .9077 (7 - 45)
m μCt rw

2 62
 Fi g . 7 - 38 Type curve matching of
double porosi ty reservoir

for pressure draw down curves ,

w here : pi = Initial pressure, M Pa;
p wf (1h ) = Pressure value corresponding to Δt = 1h on t he radial flow st raight line or its ex trapola－
tion line, MPa;
m = The slope of t he st raight line, MPa/ cycle .
For pressure buildup curves , t he equation for calculating S in MDH met hod is:

p w s ( 1h) - pw s ( 0) K
S = 1 .151 - lg 2 - 0 .9077 (7 - 46)
m μCt rw

Fi g . 7 - 39 Type curves for transit ion flow in double porosity reservoirs

2 63
 Fi g . 7 - 40 Type
curves for a well with a
vertical infinite conduc－
tivi ty fracture and ef－
fects of skin and well－
bore storage

Similarly p ws ( 1h) is t he pressure value corresponding to shut in time Δt = 1h on t he st raigh t line or its ex－
trapolation , and t he equation in Horner′s method is:

p ws ( 1h) - p ws ( 0) K tp
S = 1 .1 51 - lg 2 ・ - 0 .9 077 (7 - 47)
m μCt rw tp + 1

w here tp is the production time before shu tting - in , all t he other parameters have t he same meaning as
above .
7 .6 .3 Estimation of S with log - log pressure plot measured in homogeneous reservoirs
This method has been illust rated in Section 7 .3 of t his chap ter .
Usually a log - log plot is drawn at well site during testing when a surface readou t electronic gauge is
used . After measuring H and A values from the plot , S can be calculated by using ( 7 - 19) and (7 - 20 ) .
Dimensionless wellbore storage coefficient ( CD ) is unknown and needed , but can be estimated by using (7
- 44 ) ; and parameters , Ct , h and rw can be obtained from geology and completion information , t heir
ranges are as follows:
(1 ) The value of porosity :
0 .1～0 .3 for sandstone reservoir ;
0 .01 ～0 .1 for carbonate reservoir .
In most sit uation , the value can be found ou t from core analysis data .
(2 ) The value of total compressibilit y Ct :
It is about 10 - 3 MPa - 1 for oil reservoir , or equals to t he reciprocal of t he reservoir pressure for gas
- 1
reservoir . For instance, if the gas reservoir pressure is 30MPa, Ct = 0 .03MPa .
(3 ) Reservoir thickness ( h ) . It can be found in t he completion information .
(4 ) Well radius ( rw ) . 0 .1 m can be used as its value for a common situation when 5 in casing is
used .
( 5 ) Wellbore storage coefficien t ( C ) . It is sligh tly difficult to estimate . We recommend two met hods
as follows:
①Calculate C by using the early time data of pressure buildup .
If the early time data form a unit slope straigh t line on a log - log plot , t hese data will form a straigh t
line on a Cartesian plot . Measure t he slope of t his st raight line, m ws , and then calculate C :

qB 3
C = ( m / MPa) (7 - 48)
24 m ws

2 64
 ②Estimate the range of C with T able 7 - 2 .
The value S can be calculated by using formula ( 7 - 19) and (7 - 20 ) after CD is know n .
7 .6 .4 Interpretation method for early time regime (without measured radial flow regime data)
A pressure drawdown or buildup curve without radial flow regime straight line is considered as an un－
successful curve, as mentioned in Section 7 .3 . The met hods for evaluating formation damage illust rated
above can do not hing for t his kind of data . The da mage surely occurs near t he wellbore and is indicated by
early time data , bu t the value showing t he damage can be figured ou t only if the data of t he radial flow
regime ( i . e . middle time region) are obtained .
The main cause of the uselessness of early time regime data is the effect of afterflow .
As show n in T able 7 - 2 , C value will be very high for a deep well or oil well wit h high GO R , or a
gas well when shutting - in at the surface . A well with high C and low K would have a long afterflow peri－
od even some times as long as several or tens days .
To deal wit h t his kind of data , we must find out the changing of t he afterflow rate so t hat change the
afterflow line to t he radial flow straight line, and then calculate S wit h (7 - 44 ) or (7 - 45 ) . The met hods
are as follows .
7 .6 .4 .1 Empirical method
Suppose the flow rate is Q0 w hen shutting - in the well ( i .e . atΔt = 0) , Q at t = Δt , and the flow
rate is changing according to the following equation :

Q0 n
= (1 + Δt) (7 - 49)
Q

t hen :

Q0
lg = nlg(1 + Δt ) (7 - 50)
Q

Only one pair of values for Δtn and Q n , say the flow rate Qz at time Δt z , is figured , n can be calculat－
ed immediately .
Correct t he pressure difference Δp in the afterflow regime to Δp′:

Δp
Δp′ = (7 - 51)
Q
1 -
Q0

or :

′ Δp
Δp = (7 - 52)
1
1 - n
( 1 + Δt )

Plot Δp ′vs . Δt on semi - log paper repeatedly to adjust t he value of n until the curve becomes a
straigh t line . Then regardring the straight line as radial flow straigh t line, measure its slope, and calculate
S wit h (7 - 46 ) or (7 - 47 ) .
If t he flow rate Q at time Δt can be metered , t he corrected pressure can be calculated directly with (7
- 51 ) .
7 .6 .4 .2 Rassel′
s method
This is a trial and error method . It doesn ′t need the afterflow rate . Define a adjustment coefficient A ,
and express t he adjusted pressure as:

2 65
 ′ Δp
Δp = (7 - 53)
1
1 -
AΔt

Plot Δp ′vs . lgΔt and adjust t he value of A until t he curve becomes a st raight line; then take this A
value and plot a semi - log curve , measure t he slop of t he straight line, and calculate S wit h (7 - 46 ) or (7
- 47 ) .
7 .6 .4 .3 Some new methods of estimating formation damage with early time data
( 1 ) A new device for measuring bot h downhloe pressure and flow rate has been developed abroad . This
device can record flow rate and pressure in t he afterflow regime . Treat the data obtained by deconvolu tion
to get st raigh t line .
(2 ) Gray System Met hod [ 2 4 ] .
Define A in (7 - 53 ) as t he op timization straight line factor, and the pressure buildup equation is writ－
ten as

Δp
= mlgΔt + D (7 - 54)
1
1 -
AΔt

w here :
-3 qμB
m = 2 .121 × 10
Kh

K
D = m lg 2 - 0 .908 + 0 .867 S
μCt rw

Define objective function r as:

Δp
- m lgΔt - D
r = min∑ 1 , A ≠ 0, m ≠ 0 (7 - 55)
1 -
AΔt

its gray correlation equation is:

F = min (1 - R) (7 - 56)

w here R is gray correlation coefficient . Choose t he A value by equation ( 7 - 55) until R in ( 7 - 56) reaches
its maximum , and t hen calculate K and S :

-3 qBμ
K = 2．121 × 10 (7 - 57)
mh

p w s (1h ) - p w s (0 )
S = 1 .1 51 1 - (1/ AΔt ) 8 .1 K (7 - 58)
- lg
m μCt r2w

The calculation is quite complicated and should be done by a computer .

7 .6 .5 Evaluation of formation damage in gas wells

7 .6 .5 .1 Pseudo - pressure of gas wells

The pressure behavior of a gas well is very much different from that of an oil well, and t his is because
2 66
t he state equation of gas is different from t hat of liquid . In derivation of the basic equation for oil or water
flow, it is assumed t hat t he fluid is sligh tly compressible and its compressibility is constan t . Bu t this as－
sumption is not true for gas; in fact the viscosit y and compressibilit y are functions of pressure ; fur ther more
t he deviation factor Z is involved for the real gas , and w hich is also a function of pressure .
Al - Hussaing and Ramey et al . advanced the concept of“ pseudo - pressure”:
p

Ψ( p) =∫ p μZ
0
2p
dp (7 - 59)

w here : p0 = Arbitrary reference pressure, commonly choose p 0 = 0 .

The basic equation is t hen w ritten as:

2
Ψ 1 Ψ 1 Ψ
2 + = ・ (7 - 60)
r r r 3 .6η t

t he form of which is exactly the same as that for liquid flow . Therefore after t ransforming the pressure
to pseudo - pressure for gas well, the well test data can be interpreted in t he same way as for an oil well .
The relation between pseudo - pressure and pressure is show n in Fig . 7 - 41 .
7 .6 .5 .2 Calculating of S by log - log type curve analysis
Gringarten and Bourdet′s t ype curve m atch and parameter calculation can be performed for a gas well
just as for an oil well, but pseudo - pressure Ψ instead of pressure p must be used to draw t he tested curves .
Having chosen t he match type curve and figured t he match value, S can be calculated :

2S
1 ( CD e ) M
S = ln
2 CD

However S now is named“ pseudo skin factor”and symbolized by Sa . Pseudo skin factor is the sum of
real skin factor S indicating formation damage and turbulence effect:

Sa = S + Dqg (7 - 61)
4 3
w here : qg = Flow rate of the gas well, 10 m / d;
4 3 - 1
D = Inertia - t urbulence coefficien t, (10 m / d) .
S and D can be found in t his way : test a gas well wit h 3 different flow rates and obtain 3 S a values .
Then plot S a vs . qg , and a straigh t line will appear as shown in Fig . 7 - 42 . In t his case, from the figure
4 3 - 1
we get S = - 5 .43 , and D = 0 .0 406 ( 10 m / d) .

Fi g . 7 - 41 The relation between

pseudo - pressure Ψ and pres－
sure p

2 67
 Fi g . 7 - 42 Determina－
tion of inertia - turbu－
lence coefficient D

7 .6 .5 .3 Calculating S by semi - log analysis

The skin factor ( S ) and permeability ( K ) can be calculated by using the slope ( m ) of radial flow
straigh t line on a semi - log plot of pseudo - pressure . For t he cases of pressure buildup:

Ψ〔p ws ( 1h)〕 - Ψ( p wf ) K
S a = 1 .151 - lg 2 - 0 .9 077 (7 - 62)
m μCt rw

w here : pw f = The flowing pressure w hen just shutting - in , i .e . p wf = pw s (0 ) , M Pa .

7 .6 .5 .4 Simplification of pseudo - pressure
If pressure of a gas well changes in a certain range during t he en tire testing , pseudo - pressure can be
simplified .
If p < 13 .8 MPa during t he en tire testing , t hen :

p2
Ψ( p) ≈
μi Zi

so that pressure square met hod is formed . The parameter calculation equations change to :

μ珔
42 .4 2珔 Zpsc q T f μ珔
0 .01467珔ZqT f
K = = (7 - 63)
m T sc h mh

pi2 - p 2wf ( 1h) K

S a = 1 .151 - lg 2 - 0 .9077 (7 - 64)
m 珔
μCt rw

for drawdown , and

2 2
p ws (1h ) - p wf K
S a = 1 .151 - lg 2 - 0 .9077〕 (7 - 65)
m 珔
μCt rw

for buildup .
Dimensionless variables change to :

2 68
 0 .027143 kh T sc 2 kh 2
pD = ・ ・Δ( p ) = 78 .489 ・Δ( p ) (7 - 66)
q珔
μ珔
Z T f psc q珔
μ珔
Z Tf

p
When p > 20 .7M Pa , is almost a constan t, so in t his sit uation :
μZ

2 pi
Ψ( p ) = p (7 - 67)
μi Zi

and:

-3
21 .21μi Zi p sc qT f 7 .335 × 10 μi Zi q T f
K = = (7 - 68)
pi T sc m h pi m h

pi - p wf (1h ) K
S a = 1 .151 - lg 2 - 0 .9 077 (7 - 69)
m μCt rw

for drawdown , and :

p ws ( 1 h ) - p wf K
Sa = 1 .1 51 - lg 2 - 0 .9 077〕 (7 - 70)
m μCt rw

for buildup .
7 .6 .6 Evaluation of formation damage by systematic well test data
As is introduced in Section 7 .2 of this chap ter , S value can be evaluated by systematic well testing ,
t he principle of which is productivity index with no damage Ji de al can be calculated from systematic well test－
ing (Equation 7 - 8) :

q
Ji d eal = ＊
p - pw f - Δps

w hereas actual productivit y index is ( 7 - 7 ) :

q
Jac t u al = ＊
p - pw f

The ratio of t he two is flow efficiency [ FE , see ( 7 - 9 ) ] :

＊
Jact u al p - p wf - Δps
FE = =
Ji dea l p ＊ - p wf
It is seen from this equation t hat the formation is not damaged if FE = 1 ; is damaged if F E < 1 ; is stimu－
lated if FE > 1 . In addition , the degree of damage is seen qualitatively .
Equation ( 7 - 17) links F E and S :

S = 1 .1513( 1 - FE) CI

w here CI is completion index :

p ＊ - p wf
CI =
m

2 69
 Therefore S value can be estimated by FE value from systematic well testing , if the slope m from t ran－
sient well test analysis is know n . But FE and the ot her parameters such as DR , DF etc . from systematic
well testing are only qualitative or semi - quantitative ones .
Many well test interpretation softwares have been developed in China and abroad during recen t years .
Computer aided well test interpretation is widely used in most oil fields . Readers interested in t his subject
[ 26 ]
migh t consult the literat ure .

References
[1 ] Millikan , C .V . and Sidwell , C .V .:“Bot tom - hole Pressures in Oil Wells”, trans ., 1931 )92 ,
194205
[2 ] Hawthorn , D .G .:“ Review of Subsurface P ressure Instrumen ts”, Oil and Gas J . ( April 20 ,
1993) 16 , 40
[3 ] Muskat . M .:“ Use of Data on the Build - up of Bottomhole Pressures”, Trans ., AI M E( 1937)
123 , 44 - 48
[4 ] Miller , C . C , Dyes , A . B . and H utchinson , C . A ., Jr .:“ The Estimation of Permeabilit y and
Reservoir Pressure from Bottom Hole Pressure Build - up Characteristics”, Trans ., A IM E
( 1950 )189 , 91 - 104
[5 ] Horner , D . R .:“ pressure Build - up in Wells”, P roc ., Third World Pet . Cong ., E . J . Brill,
Leiden( 1951 ) Ⅱ , 503
[ 6 ] Van Everdingen , A . F .:“ The Skin Effect and Its Influence on t he Productive Capacity of a
Well”, Trans ., AI ME (1953) 198 , 171 - 176
[7 ] H urst , W .:“ Establishment of the Skin Effect and I ts Impedimen t to Fluid Flow in to a Well－
bore”, Pet . Eng . ( Oct ., 1953) 25 , B - 6
[8 ] Agarwal, R . G ., Al - Hussaing , Rafi, and Ramey , H . J ., Jr .:“ An Investigation of Wellbore
Storage and Skin Effect in Unsteady Liquid Flow: Ⅰ . Analytical Treat ment”, Soc . Pet . Eng . J .
( Sept . 1970) 179 - 290 ; Trans ., AI ME , 249
[9 ] Gringar ten, A . C . et al .:“A Comparison between Differen t Skin and Wellbore Storage Type -
Curves for Early Time Transien t Analysis”, Paper SPE 8205 , P resen ted at the 54 t h Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition of SPE , Las Vegas , Nev ., Sept . 23 - 26 , 1979
[10] Schlumberger :“ Modern Well Testing”, 1988
[11 ] Bourdet , D . et al:“ A New Set of Type - Curves Simplifies Well Test A nalysis”, World Oil
( May , 1983 ) 95 - 106
[ 12 ] Tong Xian - zhang :“Application of Pressure Buildup Curves in Oil and Gas Field Development”,
Petrochemical Industry Press , Beijing , 1984
[13] Cheng Sui - min :“A Serious Nomalization of Evaluation Criterion for Reservoir Damage”, Gas
Indust ry , Vol .8 , No .3 , 1988
[14] Zhuang Hui - nong :“ Graph A nalysis Method of Well Test Data”, Buried Hill Magazine, 1993
(4 ) , 1994 (1 ) , 1994 (2 ) , 1994 (4 )
[15 ] Barewtlatt , G . G ., Zheltor , I . P ., and Kochina, L . N .:“Basic Concepts in t he Theory of
H omogeneous Liquids in Fissured Rocks”, J . A . M . M . ( USSR) 24 (5 ) ( 1960 ) , 1286 - 1303
[16] Warren , J . E ., and Root , P . J .:“Behavior of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs”, S .P .E .J .,
( Sept . 1963 ) 245
[17] Kagemi, H . Se′h , M . S . and Thomas , G . W .:“ The Interpretation of Interference Tests in
Naturally F ract ured Reservoir wit h U niform Fracture Distribu tion”, SPEJ ( Dec . 1969)
[18] Bourdet , D . and Gringarten , A . C .:“Determination of Fissure Volume and Block Size in F rac－
t ured Reservoirs by Type Curve Analysis”, SPE 9293
[19] Zhu Yadong:“Well Test Analysis in a Double Porosity Reservoir”, SPE 14867
[20] Bourdet , D . et al:“ Use of Pressure Derivation in Well T est In terpretation”, SPE 12777
[ 21 ] Gringarten , A . C . and Ramey, H . J . Tr .:“ Unsteady State Pressure Dist ribution Created by a
well with a Simple Infinite Conductivity Vertical Fract ure”, SP EJ ( Aug . 1974 ) 347 - 360 ,
Trans . AI ME , Vol . 257
[ 22] Rodriguiz, F ., Horne , R . N . and Cinco - Ley , H .:“ Pressure Transien t Behavoir of a Finite -
2 70
 Conductivity F ract ure”, SPE 13057
[23 ] Liu Neng - qiang: “ Applied Modern Well Test In terpretation Met hods”, Petroleum Indust ry
Press , Beijing , 1992
[24 ] Cheng Sui - min :“ New Met hods of Well T est Analysis for Early Time Data”, Well Testing ,
Vol .1 , No .1 , 1992
[25] Gringarten , A . C .:“Compu ter - Aided Well Test Analysis”, SPE 14099
[26] Writing Group of“ Model Interpretation of Well Test Data in China”:“ Model In terpretation of
Well Test Data in China”, Petroleum Industry Press , Beijing , 1994

2 71
 Chapter 8 　 Measures for Putting Oil/ Gas Wells
into Production and Completion Strings

8 .1 Measures for Putting Oil/ Gas Wells into Production

8 .1 .1 Preparations for putting into production
　 An oil/ gas well will be brough t on st ream upon completion . Some necessary measures should be imple－
mented in order to achieve the designed productivity . Therefore, t he following preparations are imperative .
8 .1 .1 .1 Drifting
The purpose of drifting with a drift gauge is to discover w het her t he wellbore is blocked .
Drifting can be done with t ubing string or wire rope . The latter is not commonly used since the majori－
ty of workover rigs are not equipped wit h sand reels; only the former will be addressed here . Drifting is a
necessary step to put a well in to production , and in later operation as well . Before a st ring of tools is run－
ning in , and in the course of workover , drifting is an impor tant working procedure . The major tools are
drift gauge , lead stamp , etc .
1) Drifting with drift gauge
The drift gauge is a simple and commonly used tool, w hich is designed to check if t he drift diameters
of casing are up to t he standard show n in Fig .8 - 1 .
The size of a drift gauge should be selected based on t he specifications of t he casing with minimum in－
side diameter of t he en tire wellbore, show n in T able 8 - 1 .
As for special requirements, the outside diameter and lengt h of a drift gauge can be designed according
to t he maximum geometry of tools to be run in . Generally , the outside diameters are 4～ 6mm smaller than
t he minimum inside diameter of the casing string .
Smoot hly passing of drift gauge t hrough wellbore indicates the wellbore diameter meets requirements .
If drift gauge cannot pass the wellbore smoothly , sand plug or fish may exist , or something may be wrong
wit h t he casing . I t is necessary to examine it furt her .

Ta b l e 8 - 1 Casing drift gauge

casing size ( in) 4 5 5 5 6 7

OD ( mm ) 92～95 102～107 114～118 119～128 136～148 146～158

Lengt h( mm ) 500 500 500 500 500 500

Connection NC26 - 12E NC26 - 12E NC31 - 22 E NC31 - 22G NC31 - 22G NC38 - 32E
thread 2 TBG 2 TBG 2 TBG 2 T BG 2 TBG 3 TBG

2) Drifting with lead stamp

The fish and casing deformation can be clarified by running - in the stamp . The st ruct ure of t he lead
stamp is shown in Fig .8 - 2 ; the specifications are listed in Table 8 - 2 .
When drifting with the lead stamp to make an impression , t he running - in speed should not be too
fast , in order to avoid lead stamp deformation due to collision while running in and guarantee t he analysis
accuracy . The weigh t exerted should be con trolled in t he range of 15 ～ 30kN . I t can be increased or re－
duced in special cases , bu t t he maximum value cannot be above 50 kN , and collision should be avoided .
Tripping - out should proceed as soon as the first impression is made . The impression can be made only
once . The lead stamp should be technically described and photographed for the archives .

2 72
 Fi g .8 - 2 Lead stamp
F i g .8 - 1 Casing drift gauge
1 - Coupling; 2 - Nipple; 3 - Brace; 4 - Lead block

T a b l e 8 - 2 　 Lead stamp specifications

Casing size( in ) 4 5 5 5 6 7 7

OD ( mm) 95 105 118 120 145 158 174

Length ( mm ) 120 120 150 150 180 180 180

8 .1 .1 .2 Casing scraping
Casing scraping is designed to clean any debris on the inner wall of the casing and perforation burrs to
ensure normally working of downhole tools and packer setting successfully .
Two kinds of scraper are commonly used ; one is rubber sleeve casing scraper , t he ot her is spring type
casing scraper .
1) Rubber Sleeve Casing Scraper
It consists of an upper connection , shell, rubber sleeve, washing pipe, blades , and lower connection ,
show n in Fig . 8 - 3 .
There are 18 notches in t he shell, in w hich t he blades are assembled from t he inside . The arrangement
of the blades forms three left (or right ) hand helical curves . The helical angle R is 30°.
The blade has high abradability and ductilit y, and is made by using precision casting techniques ; it is
show n in Fig .8 - 4 .
The rubber sleeve has good elasticity and hardness . When t he blades are blocked, t he rubber sleeve
compressed radically by the blades applies feeding force to the blades, in order to retain the scraping .
When t he blades run down , the edges will run along the casing wall, in any direction with 360°, and
t he t hree main blade edges arranged from top to bottom will scrape the debris repeatedly . If t he debris on
t he wall of t he casing is thick and hard , it can be done by rotating t he scraper . In this way , t he main blade
edges scrape t he debris in the direction of a helical curve, and t he counter blade edge will also play an auxil－
iary part in scraping . The specifications for a rubber sleeve scraper are shown in T able 8 - 3 .
F i g .8 - 3 The structure of
rubber sleeve casing scraper
1 - Top joint ; 2 - Wash pipe; 3
- Rubber sleeve; 4 - Blade; 5 -
Housing; 6 -“O”ring; 7 - Bottom
joint

2 73
 2) Spring t ype Casing Scraper
Spring type Casing scraper mainly con－
sists of housing, blades , blade seats , holding
blocks, helical springs , etc . shown in Fig . 8
- 5 . The assembled spring scraper should
meet t he following requiremen ts .
The maximum diameter of the assembled
spring scraper should be larger t han the inside
diameter of the casing to be scraped . The pro－
jection of the blades from a top view contains
an entire circle ( 360°) wit h t he small part
overlapping . There is no momen t of force to
loosen t he connection t hread of t he scraper
join t, no matter it scrapes up and down , or
moves up and down w hile rotating to the
righ t . As a result , its performance is reliable .
The specification of the spring casing scraper
are shown in Table 8 - 4 .
8 .1 .1 .3 Well flushing
Fi g .8 - 4 Blade structure
1 - Plumb centerline; 2 - Blade - edge projection; 3 - Blade lateral Well flushing is done to purge the debris
movement; 4 - Principle declination; 5 - Blade longitudinal movement; 6 from the wellbore wit h flushing fluids before
- Base level; 7 - Angle of blade inclination = 30°; 8 - Back angle α; 9 t he operation .
- Casing; 10 - Main back surface; 11 , 13 - Main scraping blade; 12 - Proper ties of Flushing Fluid are as fol－
Edge - helical curve direction; 14 - Tool apron; 15 - Tool body; 16 - lows:
Tool bit; 17 - Front ; 18 - Front angle γ = 0 The flushing fluid should be clean , high
quality , and cause no damage to t he formation ; t he is the same as t hat of t he well killing fluid .
(1 ) Relative density :
The relative densities of the regular flushing fluid and well killing fluid are shown in Table 8 - 5 .

T ab l e 8 - 3 Specifications for rubber sleeve casing scraper

Configuration Connection Specification

No . Model
size ( mm× mm) t hread Scraped casing ( in) Protrusion of blade ( mm )

NC26
1 GX - G114 112×1119 4 13 .5
(2A10)

NC26
2 GX - G127 119×1340 5 12
(2A10)

NC31
3 GX - G140 129×1443 5 9
( 210)

NC31
4 GX - G146 133×1443 5 11
( 210)

5 GX - G168 156×1604 330 6 15 .5

6 GX - G178 166×1604 330 7 20 .5

2 74
 Ta b l e 8 - 4 The specifications of the spring type casing scraper
Configuration Connection Specification
No . Model
size ( mm× mm) t hread Scraped casing ( in) Protrusion of blade ( mm )

NC26
1 GX - T114 112×1119 4 13 .5
(2A10)

NC26
2 GX - T127 119×1340 5 12
(2A10)

NC31
3 GX - T140 129×1443 5 9
( 210)

NC31
4 GX - T146 133×1443 5 11
( 210)

5 GX - T168 156×1604 330 6 15 .5

6 GX - T178 166×1604 330 7 20 .5

T a b l e 8 - 5 The Relative density of regular flushing fluid

Salt water
Flushing Formation
fluid Ordinary salt Added wit h calcium water
water chloride

Relative densit y 1～1 .18 1～1 .26 1～1 .03

(2 ) Compatibility :
Usually the regular fluid is sodium chloride ( NaCl ) water , or produced formation water after remov－
ing oil and solids . The flushing fluid must be compatible wit h reservoir and formation water to avoid dam－
aging t he formation . As for a sensitive formation , flushing fluid can be selected by compatibility tests in
t he lab .
(3 ) Con ten t of suspended solids , particle diameter , total iron con ten t :
Flushing fluids should be clean and high qualit y, with suspended solids less than 1mg/ L . The particle
diameter of t he suspended solids should be smaller than 2μm, with a total iron con ten t less t han 0 .5mg/ L .
In order to ensure qualit y control, flushing water will not be pumped in to a well until it is filtered wit h
fine filter to avoid damaging the pay zone by suspended solids and colloidal precipitate . The fine filter is
show n in Fig .8 - 6 .
The technical parameters of t he fine filter are as follows:
Specification :
　 　 Nominal pressure: p N 0 .6MPa
　 　 Nominal diameter : D N 80mm before filtration
D N 80mm after filtration
D N 100mm for drain ( connected with drain pipe before field operation)
3
　 　 Filtration ability : 5～15m / h
　 　 Medium and temperature: water , ≤80℃
Proper ty :
　 　 Water before filt ration : suspended solid content≤5mg/ L
　 　 Water after filt ration : suspended solid content≤1mg/ L
2 75
 Fi g .8 - 5 Spring type casing scraper
1 - Holding block ; 2 - Inner hexagonal screw ; 3 - Blade;
4 - Spring ; 5 - Housing; 6 - Blade seat
Particle diameter: ≤2μm
Total iron conten t: < 0 .5mg/ L
Fi g .8 - 6 The structure of the fine filter
1 - Magnetic - core control ead ; 2 - Water intakenipple; 3
- Inner shel l; 4 - Outer shell ; 5 - Magnetic fi lter core ; 6 -
Filter core; 7 - Sample connection; 8 - Drain pipe; 9 -
Supporting frame ; 10 - Filtered water outlet

8 .1 .2 Measures for removal of plugging

Removal of plugging is designed to maximize the communication of the percolation channel between the
formation and wellbore, and ensure maximum productivit y .
8 .1 .2 .1 Removal of plugging with chemicals
In recen t years , chemicals ( payzone flushing agents) were commonly used both in china and abroad to
remove plugging in t he near wellbore zone , or perforations caused by a variety of reasons .
2 76
 The chemicals are composed of organic solvent , water－soluble polymers , clay stabilizer , and viscosity
reducing agen t in proportion . As a result, it is a complex system of organic, inorganic, polar , non－polar ,
high molecular polymer , and low molecular compounds , and has a comprenhensive removing ability .
Mechanism for Removing Plugging is as follows:
(1 ) Organic solven ts have a strong solvabilit y for high molecular compound in hydrocarbons:
Oil contains paraffin ( C35～C50 , of w hich t he average molecular weigh t is 400 ～430 , melting point is
up to 69～ 90℃ ) , resin ( average molecular weigh t is over 520 , relative density is 0 .99～ 1 .08 ) , asphalt
( average molecular weigh t is commonly over 1500 , it is an amorphous solid wit h relative density more than
1 ; part of asphalt presen ts colloid, the rest is suspended solids) . All of them can be dissolved by an organic
agent with its high solvability .
The high molecular compounds of oil in the formation are in dissolved, colloidal, or suspended state
and int rast ratal flow wit h oil may occur due to t he high formation temperat ure and sufficien t lighter compo－
nen ts . Once oil migrates to t he near wellbore zone where t he temperat ure and pressure have been decreased ,
lighter hydrocarbon becomes volatile, t hus high molecular compounds precipitate and adhere on the surface
of rock grains , or form lumps wit h solids of drilling fluid invading pore passage to block the pore t hroats .
Since paraffin with a high pour poin t cannot be dissolved by acid , removal of plugging of high molecular
precipitation by acidizing is nex t to impossible .
Organic solven ts dissolve high molecular precipitation by penet rating to t he contact surface between
precipitation and solid grains; then t he surface of solid grains is wetted so t hat t he high molecular precipita－
tion will come off and be dissolved and dispersed rapidly , thus the pore passage becomes unblocked .
Some organic solvents , such as toluene, xylene, gasoline, kerosene , diesel, etc, have a stronger solv－
abilit y for paraffin , and are named oil－base paraffin remover . Carbon bisulfide and carbon tetrachloride,
w hich consist of sulfide or chloride, have much st ronger solvability as well, but are not used since t hey
damage the catalyst during refinery sequence .
All above oganic solvents are referred to as oil－base paraffin remover . In order to raise t heir solvability
for resin and asphalt, they can be combined wit h oil－base paraffin removers t hat are alcohol and alcohol
et her . or suitable surface active agent . This will also improve t he function of removing paraffin and clearing
plugging . Water－base paraffin removers also are used to clean paraffin plugging .
Water , as a dispersion medium , dissolves surfactan t ( e .g . water soluble sulfonate, guoternary ammo－
nium salt , polyether , etc .) , mu tual solvent ( e . g . methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol,
isobut yl alcohol, et hylene ether ( EGMBE ) , diethyl, etc .) and alkaline materials ( e .g . sodium hydroxide,
potassium hydroxide, sodium silicate, sodium or tho－phosphate, sodium pyro－phoshate, sodium hexameta
phosphate , etc .)
(2 ) Preventing the mont morillonite in the cement of rock grains from swelling and migration .
Mont morillonite swells when meeting water , and t he pore passage becomes narrow or plugged because
t he volume of cement expands . The structure of swelled mont morillonite is weakly binding , thus small par－
ticles come off and migrate to plug pore passage . Many chemicals used for removal of plugging contain
cationic organic polymer , and cationic exchanges occur between t he positive elect ric atomic group and low
+ + 2+ 2 +
valence cation ( such as Na , K , Ca , Mg etc .) of mon tmorillonite . Macromolecular organic polymer
is firmly absorbed on t he surface of montmorillonite and other microcrystalline layers by strong elect rostatic
attractive forces between positive electric atoms ( or groups of atoms ) and negatire charges of mont moril－
lonite and Fan Dehua Force to form a unimolecular film . As a result , t he negative charge of crystalline lay－
ers and surfaces of mon tmorillonite can be neutralized to decrease the elect rostatic repulsive forces among
crystalline layers and grains and the in terfaces of crystalline layers , to avoid hydration swelling and disper－
sion . On the ot her hand , since a molecular chain of organic polymer is quite long , the molecules can be ab－
sorbed on the multiple－crystalline layers and grains to restrain hydration swelling and dispersion and migra－
tion of mont morillonite grains . They are difficult to remove once t he cationic organic polymer are absorbed
between t he crystalline layers and on particles . Therefore t he effect of an tiswelling and removal of plugging
can be sustained , and usually not influenced by acid , alkali , and salt .
In general, cationic organic polymers are : dimet hyl benzene, diallayl ammonia, acrylamide, acrylic
acid co－polymer , epichloro－hydrin dimethylamine co－polymer , etc .
(3 ) Viscosity－reducing mechanism for heavy oil emulsion :
Chemicals used for removal of plugging contain some surfactan ts , and ot her alkaline compounds . Part
2 77
of the surfactant is adsorbed on the surface of rock grains, causing flushing oil; the rest takes effect of wet－
tibility and dispersion to paraffin in t he oil, and changes heavy oil into producible O/ W emulsion fluid .
Some of alkaline compounds can react with - COOH of resin and asphaltene to form a new surfactant w hich
has t he function of reducing viscosity .
Chemicals for removal of plugging contain some water . When pumped in to payzone, t he mixture of
crude oil and surfactants in the chemicals for removal of plugging will flow into the bot tom hole, and t hen
to t he surface . Heavy oil is dissolved into drops of oil dispersed in the water . In this course, t he O/ W inter－
facial tension is significan tly reduced by surfactants . Consequen tly , surface active molecules are concent rat－
ed on t he O/ W interface, and the oil droplets are wrapped up by the film m ade of surfactant . Under this
condition , heavy oil is a dispersed phase, water is a con tinuous phase , and coagulation is prevented . When
t he O/ W e mulsion flows in to t he pore passage, the internal friction between heavy oil and rock grains
around t he pore passage is changed into friction between water and rock grains around t he pore passage .
The flow resistance of O/ W emulsion in the vicinity of t he well is significantly reduced . In t his way, the
plugging caused by resin and asphaltene in heavy oil is removed . In the payzone far away from t he well－
bore, t he chemicals for removal of plugging may form O/ W emulsion wit h heavy oil, thus increasing pro－
duction .
In a common case, surfactant is used . They are : allyl sodium sulfonate, sodium allyl benzene sul－
fonate , polyoxyet hylated allyl alcohol, polyoxyet hylene , etc .
(4 ) Mechanism for the removal of plugging caused by foreign polymer compounds:
After a well is fractured , residual hydrolyzed polyacryla mide and high molecular polymer could not be
dissolved , but viscous polymer is formed , leading to plugging of t he percolating passage . Likewise, precipi－
2+ 2+
tates ( Ca , Mg ) from high salinity water in t he aquifer may plug the pore passage . During drilling ,
high molecular polymer can be created by oil - based drilling fluid . Some ion polymers used as drilling fluid
additives may form t he precipitates plugging t he pore passage when mixed wit h water . The chemicals for
removal of plugging con tain componen ts w hich can dissolve oil or water soluble polymers .
The removers for bacterial plugging are often strong - oxidants , such as potassium hypermanganate,
sodium bi - complex acid , sodium hypochlorite potassium persulfate, etc .
8 .1 .2 .2 Squeeze oil to remove plugging
When drilling through a payzone, drilling fluid filtrate will invade the payzone, t his also happens wit h
cementing and perforating . T hus , t here is a water invaded zone around the well when it is brough t on
stream . only cross t he water invaded zone can oil flow to t he well, leading to production decline and high
water cut . In a broad sense , t his phenomenon is called“water block”, w hich mainly results in reduction of
oil permeability in water invaded zone , clay swelling , or oil emulsion in t he payzone . At presen t, the most
simple and convenien t way to remove t his is to squeeze oil into the formation to improve t he oil relative per－
meability in the water invaded zone . One of the essen tials is to squeeze oil under the fracture pressure of the
formation .
8 .1 .2 .3 Plugging removal by hydraulic oscillation
In recen t years, The Pet roleum University of Chi－
na had developed a new technology of removing plug－
ging around t he wellbore by hydraulic oscillation , w hich
has been widely applied t hroughout t he nation wit h good
results . The key par t of hydraulic Oscillation is an ax－
isymmet ric cavit y oscillator, as show n in Fig .8 - 7 .
1) Working P rinciple
High pressure water comes in to t he hydraulic oscil－
lator t hrough tubing from t he surface . High pressure
water en ters the axisymmetrical cavit y B through inlet
nozzle A and ejects from outlet nozzle C . Since t he in－
Fi g .8 - 7 Diagram of oscillator side diameter of the cavity is much larger than that of
1 - Inlet (nozzle) ; 2 - Cavity ; 3 - Outlet t he jet nozzles A and C , flow velocity in t he cavity is

2 78
much slower than that of t he cen tral jet flow . Consequently , intensive shearing movemen t occurs at the
high speed jet flow con tact surface wit h t he liquid in cavity , thus creating vortex . Due to vortex , flow ve－
locit y at jet flow cen ter ( shearing inlayer) , becomes higher , but t he velocity near the wall of the cavity
( shearing ou tlayer) goes lower . With the effect of t he pressure difference , fluid near t he cavity wall moves
cent ripetally , and the vortex turns dow n stream wit h the jet flow . If t he ordered axisymmetric vor tex ring
in shearing Layer of jet flow collides with the edge of outlet nozzle , a pressure pulse is produced, and that
pulse will become a pulse with a large amplitude after ejection t hrough t he outlet nozzle . The high pressure
water will become high frequency oscillation jet flow . The energy of high frequency oscillation jet flow can
be used for removal of plugging in the formation .
2) Condition for well Selection
Practical studies have proven that stimulation of injection and production can be achieved only in a well
by using hydraulic oscillation only under cer tain conditions . They are :
a) Permeability is higher , bu t formation is damaged during drilling ;
b) In the early stage , t he injectivity is good ; later , damage occurs because of poor quality of injection
water ;
c) After fracturing and acidizing , the formation near t he wellbore is damaged because fluids could not
flow back in time;
d) During t he workover operation , improper measures create damage near the wellbore;
e) Removing plugging around t he wellbore, for wells w hose production capacity and water production
are low .
f) Adjust the production profile by removal of plugging in non - producing layers based on t he data
from t he production profile .
3) Operation Procedures
Oscillation is similar to producer or injector sand washing . It doesn’t require special equipmen t . The
m ain procedures include:
a ) P ull out the t ubing st ring in t he well , run the oscillation st ring down , and examine the dep th of the
oscillator wit h a magnetic localizer .
3
b ) Inversely displace 3～4m diluted hydrochloric acid at the concent ration of 5 % ～ 8 % to the perfora－
tion interval . Immerse the pay zone for 30～60 minutes by shutting - in the well .
c) The surface manifold is the same as sand washing in producer and injector . Oscillation can be con－
ducted from bottom to top or vice versa . Oscillating poin t can be taken every 1 ～2 meters . The oscillating
time is 5 ～10 minutes at t he pressure of 9～10 MPa from top to bottom or vice versa .
d) A producer can be put in to production after oscillation . An injector must be flushed with a greater
circulating rate for a circle un til it starts injection . The water injection profile of post - oscillation should be
compared with that of pre - oscillation to examine t he result of plugging removal .
8 .1 .2 .4 Removal of plugging by high energy gas fracturing
High energy gas fract uring is a new stimulation technology . Execu tion of high energy gas fracturing
involves active combustion of propellant powder with the propulsive agen t in t he pay zone to generate high
temperature and pressure . The self propped conductive fracture results in t he removal of plugging around
t he wellbore to stimulate well performance . Proppan t - free fracturing of high energy gas is widely applied
to remove damage near the wellbore, but it could not be used to stimulate low permeable formation . Three
kinds of operation procedures are as follows .
( 1 ) Run it by wire rope, sealing - off by cement plug , and energizing on the surface, as shown in Fig .
8-8 .
As gas generator and ignition lead are run to t he designed interval, a cement plug is constructed 3 ～5m
above t he gas generator . If t he distance from operation interval is too long, a cement plug should be con－
st ructed before gas generator is run in . The cement plug heigh t is computed as follows:

H = K s p D/ 4 C ( 8 - 1)
3
or: H = 139 G

w here : H = Cemen t plug height , cm ;

2 79
 Fi g .8 - 8 Schematic drawing of operation technol－ Fi g .8 - 9 Schematic drawing of operation technol－
ogy for tripping by wire rope, sealing - off by ce－ ogy for tripping by wire line, holding down by liq－
ment plug, and energizing on the surface uid column, and energizing on the surface ( glass
1 - Wire rope; 2 - Top cement plug; 3 - Cement basket ; 4 fiber reinforced housing)
- Gas generator ; 5 - Reservoir ; 6 - Bottom cement plug ; 7 1 - Wire line ; 2 - Magnetic localizer ; 3 - Lifting ring; 4 -
- Cement basket Gas generator ; 5 - shots

K s = Antislip coefficien t , K s = 3～4 ;

p = Maximum gas burning pressure, MPa;
D = Hole diameter , cm ;
C = Anti - shearing streng th , M Pa ;
G = Powder quantity , kg .
The cement plug is reliable and safe , bu t t he procedure is difficult in deep and casing completion wells .
Only is it applicable to t he stimulation of moderately deep and low producting wells .
( 2) Run it by wire line , hold down by liquid column , and energizing on the surface show n in Fig .8 -
9 and Fig .8 - 10
A gas generator is run to t he target zone by perforating wire line . Holding dow n by liquid column and
energizing on the surface are adopted , After ignition , Liquid column moves upward in compliance wit h the
following rules:

2
d S1 pw
= - g ( 8 - 2)
dt 2
ρ1 H1

w here : S 1 = Distance moving upward of liquid column , m ;

t = Time, s;
pw = P ressure in t he well, Pa;
3
ρ1 = Densit y of t he liquid column , kg/ m ;
H1 = Height of t he liquid column , m ;
2
g = Gravitational acceleration , m/ s .
2 80
 Fi g .8 - 10 Schematic drawing of operation tech－
nology for tripping by wire line, holding down by
liquid column, and energizing on the surface
( metallic housing )
1 - Wire line ; 2 - Magnetic localizer ; 3 - p - t monitor ; 4
- Upper gas bleeder pipe; 5 - Upper piston; 6 - Gas gen－
erator ; 7 - Ignitor ; 8 - Propellant powder column; 9 - Bot－
tom piston; 10 - Bottom gas bleeder pipe; 11 - Weighting
anticollision
Fi g .8 - 11 Conveying by tubing, holding down by
packer and liquid column, and ignit ing by bumping
1 - Well head equipment ; 2 - Tubing; 3 - Centralizer ; 4 -
Bumping rod; 5 - Packer ; 6 - Vibration absorber ; 7 -
Bumping primer ; 8 - p - t monitor/ power ; 9 - Top gas
bleeder pipe; 10 - Gas generator ; 11 - Ignitor ; 12 - Impel－
lant power column; 13 - Bottom gas bleeder pipe

Through analysis of the effect of t he liquid column heigh t on the powder combustion - gas peak pres－
sure, the characteristic time , fracture lengt h , and lifting displacemen t of liquid column , it is noticed that
t he liquid column heigh t should not be less t han 500m , and maximum heigh t can be 1500m . Considering
t he st reng th and sealing of gas generator housing, it is recommended that t he height should be cont rolled at
about 1000m . The advantage of t his technology is characterized by reliability , safety , less equipment ap－
plied, and shor t operation time . It is widely used in moderately deep open hole and cased wells . Its disad－
vantage is that t he movement of the liquid column will consume combustion gas energy .
(3 ) Convey it by t ubing , hold dow n by packer and liquid column , and ignite by bumping , show n in
Fig .8 - 11 .
The technology requires running t he gas generator , p - t monitor , bump exploder , and packer to the
designed interval t hrough tubing , pressurizing t he casing annulus by 10 ～20 MPa after setting the packer ,
and bumping and igniting the gas generator by throwing a bar t hrough tubing from the well head . It is
widely used for separate zone and multiple fracturing of producers and injectors . Operation is simple, and
ignition by bumping is reliable .
The con trast for above t hree methods for removal of plugging by high energy gas fracturing is listed in
Table 8 - 6 .
8 .1 .2 .5 Plugging removal by matrix acidizing
Matrix acidizing is a well stimulation technique by w hich an acid fluid is injected into pore space or nat－
ural fractures at the pressure lower t han formation fracturing pressure . The objective is to relieve plugging
of t he solids presen t in the pores , enlarge pore spaces , and greatly enhance or recover permeability near the
wellbore . I t is primarily used in t he removal of plugging in t he formations of sandstone, carbonatite, an－
desite, and t uff . The acid system used in acidizing can be determined according to lithology and formation
2 81
characteristics .

Ta b l e 8 - 6 Contrast for above three methods of removal of plugging by high energy gas fracturing

Running it by wire line , holding down by liq－

Running it by wire Conveying it by tubing ,
uid colum n , and energizing on the surface
Operation rope, sealing - off by holding down by packer
technology cemen t plug , and en－ and liquid colum n , and
ergizing on the surface Glass fiber reinforced igniting by bumping
Metallic housing
housing

Dept h ( m ) < 1000 1000～2000 2000～5000 < 4000

Pressure ( M Pa ) 10 10～20 55 45

Temperature ( ℃) 50 80 150 150

Cased well,
Well completion Open hole Cased well, open hole Cased well
open hole

Producer , injector ,
Producer , injector , Producer , injector , Producer , injector ,
Type of well exploration well
exploration well a exploration well exploration well
and gas well

Workover rig , Workover rig ,

Involved Workover rig , Workover rig ,
cemen ting t ruck , cementing t ruck ,
equipment cemen ting truck cementing truck
perforating truck perforating t ruck

Operation time( h) 72 3～8 3～8 12～16

(1 ) Sandstone matrix acidizing :

The fluids for sandstone matrix acidizing include t hree parts: preflush , mud acid and postflush . Pre－
flush HCl is usually injected at concen tration of 5 % ～ 15 % wit h retarder and other necessary additives . It
can displace t he water in the near wellbore area to a long distance to avoid t he reaction of subsequent HF
+ +
acid with any formation brine containing K and Na , t hus minimizing CaF2 precipitates . It can also dis－
solve carbonate to retard the reaction between HF acid and carbonate and minimize CaF2 and Mg F2 precipi－
tates .
Mud acid , composed of 3 % HF and 12 % HCl along with other additives , dissolves clay , sand and ot her
m aterials located in t he pore space to improve t he formation permeability near the wellbore . In addition to
furt her dissolving residual carbonate during preflush , HCl is helpful to t he main taining a low pH environ－
ment to preven t t he secondary precipitates excep t for the dissolu tion of the undissolved carbonate by pre－
flush .
The role of the post - flush is to displace the mud acid to a distance from t he wellbore and flow back
t he waste acid . The post - flush fluids recommended are as follows:
① Diesel oil and ot her oils for an oil well, or 3 % NH4 Cl;
② HCl or 3 % NH4 Cl for water injecting well;
③ Acid or gas ( nitrogen or nat ural gas) for a gas well .
In some cases , liquid nitrogen can be used as post - flush . Generally, a surfactant and/ or mutual sol－
vent named clean - up additives is recommended to recover t he water wettability of formation and to prevent
t he forming of emulsion . P ractice shows EGMBE is appropriate . Some clean - up additives should be added
to t he mud acid when gas post - flush is designed .
(2 ) Carbonatite matrix acidizing :
H ydrochloric acid for carbonate acidizing is injected at a pressure lower t han the formation fracture
pressure . Mat rix acidizing is a near wellbore treat ment used to recover permeability wit h all of t he acid pen－
et rating into t he formation radically , etching t he pore space and rock grains .
Preceded by squeezing the acid , injection of sufficient oil or water will displace acid existing in the
2 82
wellbore tubing st ring and downhole tools in to t he formation . Corrosion inhibitors are needed to avoid dam－
age to the strings and downhole tools . In order to obtain a deep wormhole propagation in a high permeable
carbonate formation , viscous emulsified HCl with effective fluid loss additives and retarded acid are prefer－
able . On the other hand , a concen tration of 28 % HCl is preferable for a low permeable formation .
8 .2 Stimulation of Low Permeability, Heavy Oil , and High Pour Point Oil
Reservoirs
8 .2 .1 Stimulation of low permeability reservoirs
In low permeability reservoirs , t he production of a single well is far below commercial production and
cannot be put in to production unless hydraulic fracturing and acidizing enhance t he single well production
and recoverable reserves . As far as low permeability range for gas reservoir is concerned , classifications by
Elkins [ 1 ] in 1980 are commonly used, t hey are extremely tight formation ( effective permeability 0 .0001 ×
- 3 - 3 2 - 3 - 3
10 ～ 0 .001 × 10 μm ) ; very tigh t formation ( effective permeability 0 .001 × 10 ～ 0 .005 × 10
2 - 3 - 3 2
μm ) ; tight formation ( effective permeabilit y 0 .005× 10 ～ 0 .1 × 10 μm ) ; near tight formation ( ef－
- 3 - 3 2 - 3 2
fective permeability 0 .1×10 ～ 1 .0 ×10 μm ) . Effective permeability higher t han 1 × 10 μm is de－
fined as a conventional formation and corresponding fracturing leng ths in each conditions are recommended
( shown in Fig .8 - 12) .
- 3 2
Formations of effective permeability 10×10 μm or lower are t he candidates for hydraulic fracturing
- 3 - 3 2
or acid fracturing . Formations of 10 ×10 ～20× 10 μm are candidates for fracturing or matrix acidiz－
- 3 2
ing . Formation of permeability 20×10 μm or higher are candidates for mat rix acidizing . They are by ex－
periences of fracturing and acidizing service and oil companies in the U .S .A , Therefore , hydraulic fractur－
ing and acidizing are as t he means of stimulating t heir performance in low permeability reservoirs .
The conventional t reatments are as follows:
(1 ) Hydraulic fracturing is used for low permeability sand reservoir ;
(2 ) Acid fract uring is used for low permeability carbonate reservoir ;
( 3 ) Matrix acidizing is commonly used to stimulate a low permeabilit y formation unfit for fract uring or
acid fracturing except removal of plugging men tioned above .
Additionally, it should be noted here that fracturing has extended into high permeability reservoirs ,
named tip screen out ( T SO ) .Execution of TSO hydraulic fracturing properly results in ultra high conductivity
in high permeabilit y reservoirs ( effective permeability
> 100× 10 - 3μm2 ) . It is of great benefit in high perme－
abilit y oil field developmen t wit h less drilling , less input
and more ou tpu t . Practically , it has been commercially
applied in Alaska of Nor th America and the Nort h Sea .
8 .2 .1 .1 Hydraulic fracturing
1) Purpose and Principle
Operation of hydraulic fracturing is to create frac－
tures by pumping fracturing fluid in a majorit y of reser－
voirs , and vertical fract ures are apt to occur . The frac－
tures supported by proppants provide high conductivity
flow channels . In t his way , a created and propped frac－
ture wit h high permeabilit y in a low permeable forma－
tion alters the seepage flow pattern from radial flow to
linear flow , enlarging t he seepage flow area . Conse－
quently, the most cost - effective development is
achieved and the benefits of a well stimulation treat ment
Fi g .8 - 12 Fracture half - lengths for different are maximized . The concept ual model is shown in Fig .8
formation permeabili ty - 13 .
1 - Extremely tight ; 2 - Very tight ; 3 - Tight ; 4 - Near It should be noted that if every well needs to be
tight ; 5 - Conventional fractured in a low permeable reservoir , t he characteristics

2 83
 Fi g .8 - 13 Flow patterns of the well fluid
1 - Nofracture; 2 - Hydrulic fracture

of hydraulic fract ure ( leng th , conductivity and azimut h) should be considered toget her wit h the well pat－
tern , then predict t he production rate and sweep efficiency to achieve t he op timization design and maximize
t he macro - economic benefit , w hen a low permeableilit y reservoir development project is made . It is
termed a technology of development of low permeable reservoirs by fracturing or a technology of overall
fracturing of reservoirs .
2
Stimulation of high permeability reservoirs results in over 300μm ・cm of ult ra - high fracture conduc－
tivity which is ten times higher t han conven tional fracturing . Bu t t he relative conductivity factor ( a ratio of
fracture conductivity to reservoir effective permeability) is the same as that achieved from conventional frac－
turing in the low permeability reservoir .
Recen t advances in hydraulic fracturing and its application in reservoir engineering have provided an in－
tegrated technological system . I t may be briefly summarized in the following pattern :

Design ↑
↓
Execution
↓
Evaluation

As can be seen above , the technology of a coherent approach from the design through execution and
evaluation back to design allows t he combination of treat men t design and benefit . Additionally , it can pro－
vide the innovation for t he fut ure fract uring designs .
2) H ydraulic Fracturing Optimization Design and Evaluation
(1 ) Basic Concep t:
[2]
R .W . Veatch Jr . proposed t hat the basic concept includes three elemen ts : the first, to evaluate the
increased income which migh t be expected from oil or gas producing performance resulting from various
fracture leng ths and conductivities; t he second , to determine t he fluid volume , proppan t amount and design
parameters by using fracture simulation based on fract ure lengt h and conductivities , and predict t he cost
wit h t he economic model; t he third to obtain fracture length value under maximum net present value from
above two points . The concept ual model is shown in Fig .8 - 14 .
As can be seen above, in order to optimize the fracture t reatmen t, it is imperative to apply fracture
simulation , reservoir simulation and economic simulator . Formation evaluation , fracturing material evalua－
tion , fracturing procedure and parameter studies before fracturing should be performed in order to get nec－
essary input data . The optimized fracture lengt h and conductivit y, and expected production rate and sweep
efficiency can be obtained by optimization design calculations for a reservoir , t hus gaining an op timum treat－
ment design that yields the maximum net presen t value .
(2 ) Formation Evaluation before F ract uring :
The formation evaluation before fracturing is based on t he reservoir descrip tion , and provides t he for－
mation evaluation information required by fract uring optimization design . The information can be obtained
t hrough a comprehensive analysis of the data acquired from geological description , logging , core analysis ,
well testing , production test of exploration wells and fracturing testing .
2 84
 Fi g 8
. - 14 Conceptual diagram of fracturing Optimization design

① Geology/ reservoir conventional description :

The following data should be ob tained : reservoir depositional environment and its geometry , its struc－
ture and fault pat tern , reserves , area, thickness , drainage radius, lit hology , reservoir layers , reservoir
pressure, its temperature , etc .
② Logging data analysis :
In addition to conventional reservoir characteristics , it mainly includes:
Proper ties of barrier layers: I t will be st udied mainly t he potential possibilt y of plastic barrier in t he lay－
ers above/ below a payzone w hich hydraulic fract ure will be extented vertically .
Formation mechanical propert y profile: The study of mechanical parameters of a reservoir and its ad－
joining layers such as elasticity modulus , shear modulus , Poisson’s ratio and compressibility factor can ob－
tain t he paramet ric profile of t he well . The log softwares are available to support t he data system .
In - sit u st resses profile : In - situ stresses profile can be ob tained wit h available software ( the st resses
are t he same in all directions of a horizontal plane ) as show n in Fig .8 - 15 .
Additionally , 3D fracture simulator plus related operation parameters can be applied to predict the ver－
tical propagation of hydraulic fracture .
Wellbore ellip ticity : The four - arm caliper log is designed to map t he wellbore ellipticit y whose major
axis corresponds to the minimum horizontal major stress, in this way , the fract ure extension direction can
be predicted ( it will be normal to t he smallest of t he t hree) . Furt hermore, w hether the fracture azimut h is
fit for t he well pat tern and oil drainage can be evaluated .
③ Core analysis :
Conventional analysis of a core is an importan t basis for oil field developmen t . Following are t he recom－
mended professional analyses for stimulation treatmen t:
Permeabilit y and porosity : Conven tional permeabilit y and porosity analyses of core are useful for con－
ventional reservoir studies . However , the permeability and porosity obtained by conventional analyses for
low permeabilit y reservoir are quite differ from t hose obtained under reservoir conditions . Therefore, it
should be stressed t hat t he measurement of critical parameters in the condition of in - situ st ress for a frac－
turing design , such as permeability , porosity , capillary pressure and relative permeability to oil, water and
gas , has an effect on operation scale and potential post - fracturing response .
Sensitivity analysis of reservoir rock : Study on the compatibilit y of treatmen ts wit h the reservoir
t hrough following tests in t he laboratory : water sensitivit y, acid sensitivit y , velocity sensitivity , salt sensi－
tivity , and alkaline sensitivity , as explained in Chapter One .
Analysis of insitu stress direction : The horizontal direction in - sit u st ress can be identified by DSCA .
ASR and DWVA wit h an oriented core . Compare its results wit h the wellbore ellipticity from log analysis .
Thus , t he fracture direction ( ver tical and normal to minimum horizon tal stress) and role in t he well pattern
can be determined and evaluated , respectively .
2 85
 Fi g .8 - 15 In - situ stress pro－
file
Natural fracture analysis: The nat ural fract ure system can be discribed , and the dist ribution density ,
geomet ry and direction of natural fract ure can be analyzed by an orien ted core .
④ Well testing and production test:
The information from well testing and exploratory well production test include effective permeability ,
skin factor , initial static formation pressure, temperature, formation heterogeneity ( reservoir lit hologic
pinch - ou t or close to fault) and drainage radius . Additionally a history match with the reservoir simulator
is commonly used .
⑤Fract uring calibration treat ment :
A mini - fracturing without proppant before the main fract uring aims at estim ation of formation prop－
er ties , such as in - sit u st resses , fluid leak - off , hydraulic fract ure azimut h , nat ural fracture dist ribution ,
break pressure and barriers .
Finally , as discussed above, in order to meet t he requirements of t he fract ure optimum design and in－
pu t data, prefracturing formation evaluation is used to comprehensively analyze the information from geolo－
gy/ reservoir description , log , core analysis , well test , exploration well production test and fracture calibra－
tion t reatmen t .
(3 ) Fracturing Fluid Selection and Evaluation :
2 86
 The desirable properties of fract uring fluids are the sufficient viscosity ( 50～ 100mPa・s in the fract ure)
and leak cont rollability . These will create t he fracture and t ranspor t the proppant into t he fracture effective－
ly at a designed laying concen tration , and rever t to very low viscosity upon completion of the t reatment , re－
ducing t he damage to the propped fracture and formation as much as possible . Additionally, fracturing flu－
ids should be characterized by handlability , safety and low cost . The most common fracturing fluids used in
t he fields are water - based , oil - based , alcohol - based, emulsified and foam , and can be selected accord－
ing to practical requiremen ts . Recent advances in fracturing fluids are capable of meeting all technical re－
quiremen ts of fract uring t reatmen ts .
At presen t , t he common focus is on how to reduce damage , especially to t he propped fract ure as much
as possible . Experiences from both the laboratory and fields have shown water based gels crosslinked by
t ransitior metalion result in serious effect on t he fracture conductivity by residual and fitcer cake because the
gels can not break readily . The fracturing fluids may cause formation and/ or fract ure conductivity damage,
[4]
t he percentage of retained conductivit y is show n in Table 8 - 7 .

Ta b l e 8 - 7 Percentage of retained propped conductivity for different fracturing fluids

Fracturing fluid Percentage of retained propped conductivit y( % )

Biopolymer 95

Foam 80～90

Polymer emulsion 65～85

Gelled oil 45～70

( non - crosslinked) Linear sol 45～55

Water - based HPG 10～50

As can be seen in t he table above, as far as t he retained fract ure conductivity is concerned , the biopoly－
mer and foam are best , polymer emulsion fluid is second , and water - based hydroxypropyl guar ( HPG) is
t he last , but it is widely used in the stimulation t reatment due to its advanced technological proper ties , safe－
ty and low cost . Based on HPG , a new water base gel fract uring fluid system formed by organic borate
( crosslinker) and micro capsule included breaker , of w hich t he retained conductivit y can be up to 95 % , has
been recen tly developed .
①New water - based gel system crosslinked with organic borate:
Presently, water - based fluids are mainly used as t he fracturing fluid in w hich water - based plant
gum crosslinked gels are the mostly widely used in fracturing treat ments . A potential problems of water -
based fluids is formation damage . A new water - based fluid system with plant gum or modified plan t gum
to be crosslinked with organic borate is composed of less water - insoluble plant gum or modified plan t gum ,
an organic borate delayed crosslinking fluid system for high temperatures and a new microcapsule included
breaker system . Guar gum powder , modified guar gum , coumaric gum powder and hydroxypropyl sesbania
H T - 21 are all used as t he viscosifier for fracturing fluids . Use of organic borate instead of Ti ( Zr ) as
crossliker can minimize t he damage , t hese crosslinking gels are characterized by low damage from degrada－
tion, delayed crosslinking , high temperat ure resistance ( 150℃ ) , and operational ease . Additionally, the
fracturing fluids crosslinked wit h organic borate or borax can significantly reduce t he hydraulic friction to
wellbore and avoid the high shear degradation to the gels . The guar gum , modified guar , coumaric gum or
H T - 21 wit h organic borate (BC1 - 61 ) by F ract uring and Acidizing Technology Service Center of China
Ntional Pet roleum Corportion are nearly the best products in the world . The new breaker system matching
wit h the gel system crosslinked wit h organic borate is capsulated breaker w hich principle is seperating the
breaker from t he fract uring fluid by capsulated mterials . In new system , the concen tration of breaker in－
creases by 10 times t han raw . In t he end of pumping , the fract uring fluid will break advanced and eliminate
t he filter cakes effect aftet t he fracture closed and capsule was squeeaed releasing t he breaker . The capsule
2 87
breaker NBA - 101 made in china meets the requiremen ts of rapid breaking gel, advanced break and low
damage .
② Oil - based fracturing fluids:
Oil - based fluids are perceived to be less damaging to an extreme water sensitivit y, clay - bearing for－
mation . Presently , t he preferred met hod of gelling hydrocarbons for fract uring purpose remains to t he reac－
tants from aluminum phosphate ester and aluminum salts toviscosify diesel oil or various types of crude oil
wit h different density . The requirements of fract ure widt h generation and proppan t - carrying capacities at
a temperat ure lower t han 127 ℃ can be met .
On t he other hand , compared wit h water base fluids , oil - based fluid applications are limited because
it is difficult to handle fire protection , cost, preparation and temperature stability , as well as damage to the
propped fracture conductivity .
③Foam fracturing fluids:
Foam fracturing fluids are emulsified fluids decomposed in to internal phase of gas ( usually nitrogen or
carbon dioxide ) and external phase of liquid ( usually water , sol or crosslinked gels) , pertaining to a non -
Newtonian fluid . They are applicable for low pressure reservoirs , to achieve rapid clean - up and signifi－
cantly decreasing damage to the reservoir and propped fracture conductivity .
Foams are pseudoplastic fluids wit h yield st ress . Thus , t he characteristics of foams should be evaluated
in a pressurized equipment , its quality , st ructure , and the property of its liquid phase will have an impor－
tant effect on its characteristics . In view of low damage, it is recommended ( U .S) t hat gels be crosslinked
wit h borate, rat her than with transition metal ions . The retained fracture conductivity will be up to 85 %
[5]
for t he first and t he later will be only 60 % . It is apparen t that well dept h and high temperat ure are the
limiting factors for foams to consider the low density and foam stability .
④ Emulsions:
An emulsion - based fracturing fluid refers to the e mulsions of oil - water . The most common fluid is
composed of water external phase ( usually sol or gel ) and hydrocarbon in ternal phase, falling into non -
Newtonian fluids . This type of fluid is know n for less damage, low leak - off, high proppan t carrying ca－
pacity , and rapid cleaning up . Its apparent viscosity and resistance are situated between water - base sols
and gels . The disadvan tages of emulsions are fire prevention problem and high cost , and the dept h of the
well and high temperature have an impact on t he fluid stabilit y .
(4 ) Proppant Selection and Evaluation :
①Basis for proppan t selection :
The use of proppan ts to offer high conductivity is t he basic requirement . The selection met hod used is
t he electronic analog curve plot [ 6 ] recommended by McGuire and Sikora, as illustrated in Fig .8 - 16 .

Fi g . 8 - 16 Electronic analog
curve plot by McGuir and Sikora

2 88
 The selection of proppants can also be based on t he productivity from reservoir simulation and economic
analysis . The method by McGuire and Sikora indicates t hat the different stimulation ratio from different
reservoir permeabilit y mainly depends on the relative conductivit y ( t he ratio of fracture conductivit y versus
reservoir permeability) for a given fract ure penetration . If the expected stimulation ratio is two, t he relative
- 3 2
conductivity should be more t han 0 .1 ; if t he effective permeability is 1 × 10 μm and fract ure width is
3mm , t he conductivit y of the propped fracture should be 3μm2・cm ; otherwise , permeability of t he reser－
- 3 2 2
voir is 10×10 μm , t he conductivity must be over 30μm ・cm . Operationally , t he proppant concent ration
2
in a fract ure can be up to 5kg/ m with an average fracture width of 3mm .
Recen tly , st udies[ 7 ] of t he optimum economic selection of proppan ts by Dr . Veatch Jr, et al . ( U .S)
have indicated t he relation of t he different fracture conductivit y to net present value at given fracture
lengt h , obtaining the optimized fract ure conductivit y .
Sand and sin tered bauxite are commonly selected as proppants according to the requirements of the
fracturing t reatment designs .
②Proppan t evaluation :
The properties of propants can be evaluated by 11 terms . The key parameter is the fracturing conduc－
2
tivity at various laying concen tration ( usually 5kg/ m ) for a given pressure wit h t he equipmen t of linear
conductivity tester ( same as API standard) .
Q uartz Sand : Lanzhou sand with the relative density of 2 .65kg/ cm3 is commonly used . It proved a
permeability of a propped fracture will be rapidly reduced until the applied closure stress approaches 29
M Pa . Therefore , conventional sands should be used to fracture a formation with t he closure stress less than
30M Pa .
Sin tered Bauxite: When t he closure st ress exceeds 29 MPa, sintered bauxite proppan t is required . Rel－
ative density about 3 .4 g/ cm 3 or greater is regarded as high density proppant in China . The relative density
3 2
of bauxite about 3 .46g/ cm is high , with w hich conductivit y is 105μm ・cm w hen t he closure stress is
2
30M Pa . If the closure st ress is 40M Pa and 50MPa, t he conductivity will be 91 and 74μm ・cm respectively .
Assuming the retained conductivity factor is 0 .4 , t he propped fract ure conductivities are act ually 42 , 36
and 30μm2・cm , respectively . The conductivities of medium - densit y proppants t hat have relative density
3 2 2 2
about 2 .8 6g/ cm are 88μm ・cm , 64μm ・cm , and 44μm ・cm respectively w hen closure st resses are 30 ,
40 , and 50M Pa . If retained conductivity factor is 0 .4 likewise, the actual propped fracture conductivities
2
are 35 , 26 , and 18μm ・cm , respectively .
(5 ) The Overall Economic Op timization Design and Evaluation For Reservoir :
① Basic concep t:
There are a number of considerations in the overall economic op timization design for low permeable
reservoirs , which is differen t from t he conven tional single well stimulation t reatment . This technique lies in
t he studies of the effect of optimum fracture design on the sweep efficiency , to ex tend t he time of water -
free and high stable production rate in t he injection life . The key poin ts taken into consideration are out－
lined as follows .
a . The in tegrated optimum design aims at maximizing t he benefits of an entire reservoir instead of a
single well .
b . Quan titative analysis should be conducted to examine whet her t he created fract ures in the formation
are up to t he prediction of the optimization design , and evaluate whether the production of primary oil re－
covery and the production ( injection ) of secondary recovery reach the predicted results of op timization de－
sign . Each individual optimization design should be based on the specific reservoir conditions .
②Overall fracturing design and application study in the field :
Stimulation t reat ment used as a tool to develop low permeable reservoirs has rapidly gained popularity .
Practically, it should be noted t hat the fract uring design should meet various requirements of t he develop－
ment program . Based on t he existing five - spot well pattern , the overall optimization design has achieved
m aximum economic benefits from t he reservoir in t he injection life , improved the sweep efficiency to the
m aximum ex tent with a long , stable production in Tuha Shanshan oil field . The overall op timization frac－
turing design frame is shown in Fig .8 - 17 .
As shown in Fig .8 - 17 the basic and impor tant parameters needed in optimum fract uring design can
be first ob tained from prefracturing formation and material evaluations using the reservoir and geologic data .
2 89
 Fi g 8
. - 17 The overall opt imization fracturing design program block diagram

2 90
Additionally, calculated op timum fracture lengt h and primary oil recovery can be provided wit h reservoir
simulator (2D1P ) , hydraulic fracturing simulator (2 D, P3 D) and economic simulator . Then sweep efficien－
cy and productivity in t he secondary oil recovery can be predicted by using the black oil simulator based on
optimum fract ure lengt h ( calculated conductivit y) . If t he calculations meet t he optimized requirements , the
program ends . Conversely , fracture length in the primary oil recovery should be adjusted and recalculated
( see Fig .8 - 17 ) until t he calculations meet the op timized requirements . The main characteristics of the in－
tegrated optimum design are as follows:
St udies on the effect of the designed fracture length on sweep efficiency is conclusive to ex tend water -
free production period to a maximum, and obtain long - term stable and high production rate . If the frac－
ture orientation is optimized , sweep efficiency will be improved compared with non fractured formation ,
and vice versus ( Table 8 - 10 ) . Furt hermore, sweep efficiency will be t he highest if bot h producers and in－
jectors are stimulated ( Table 8 - 8 ) . Sweep efficiency will likewise be improved wit h a fracture lengt h in－
crease ( Table 8 - 9) . But if t he fract ure lengt h is less t han 0 .25 times to t he well space , the decrease for
sweep efficiency can be accepted ( Table 8 - 10 ) . On this basis , the predictions of production variations
ranging from 39 t/ d to 32t/ d ( T able 8 - 11 ) for a flooding producer will achieve the developmen t targets of
t he fields ( water - free production for 3 years) .
In the view of prefract uring formation evaluations , the various characteristic data group corresponding
to heterogeneity of an integrated reservoir can be established , and an operation parameter system data group
is formed , with which t he overall optimization fract uring design can be made .

Ta b l e 8 - 8 The predication of the sweep efficiencies under fracturing and non - fracturing
conditions in a five - spot well pattern ( D = 500m)
Injected volume to pore space volume ratio
Sweep efficiency in various conditions
0 .221 0 .443 0 .664 0 .885 1 .106

Wit hout fracture 0 .229 0 .628 0 .808 0 .898 0 .998

One fracture in a injector Lf = 150m ( favorable orientation)

2 0 .349 0 .656 0 .881 0 .935 0 .998
CD = 45μm ・cm

One fracture in producer Lf = 150 m (favorable orientation)

2 0 .324 0 .692 0 .886 0 .906 0 .997
CD = 45μm ・cm

Both injector and producer have a fracture , each L f = 150 m( favorable

2 0 .369 0 .757 0 .986 0 .996 0 .998
orien tation) CD = 45μm ・cm

One fract ure in a injector Lf = 150m ( unfavorable orientation ) CD =

2 0 .304 0 .513 0 .635 0 .748 0 .883
45μm ・cm
- 3 2
　 　 Note: Formation t hickness, he = 13m ; Permeability , 3 .23×10 μm ;
3
Water injection , 120 m / d ; Porosity , 12 % ;
Mobility ratio M = 3; Lf/ D = 0 .3 ;
L f = half lengt h of propped fracture ; D = Well space between injector and producer ;
CD = Conductivity ;

Ta b l e 8 - 9 Fracture length versus sweep efficiency in the condition of

favorable fracture orientation in 540 days ( D = 300m)
Fracture length ( m ) 75 105 135 165 190

Swep efficiency 0 .664 0 .664 0 .665 0 .667 0 .683

Sweep efficiency without a fract ure : 0 .62

2 91
 Ta b l e 8 - 10 Fracture length versus sweep efficiency in 720days in the condition of
unfavorable fracture orientation ( D = 300m)
Fracture lengt h( m ) 45 60 75 105 135 165 195 225

Sweep efficiency 0 .852 0 .846 0 .829 0 .805 0 .773 0 .737 0 .684 0 .666

Sweep efficiency without a fract ure : 0 .873

3
Ta b l e 8 - 11 Predict ion of production ( t/ d) at water injection rate of 50m / d
in the condition of unfavorable fracture orientation

Producing Production in different horizon ( t/ d) S3 + S4 water production

time ( d) S3 payzone S4 payzone ( t/ d)

90 23 .5 15 .9 39 .4 0

180 21 .6 13 .4 35 .0 0

300 21 .2 12 .3 33 .5 0

360 21 .2 12 .0 33 .2 0

420 21 .1 11 .9 33 .0 0

480 21 .1 11 .8 32 .9 0

540 21 .1 11 .7 32 .8 0

600 21 .0 11 .6 32 .6 0

660 20 .9 11 .6 32 .5 0

720 20 .8 11 .5 32 .3 0

900 20 .1 11 .4 31 .5 0

1080 18 .9 11 .2 30 .5 0 .34

1440 14 .6 10 .9 25 .5 2 .0

1620 12 .1 10 .7 22 .8 3 .6

1800 9 .1 10 .4 19 .5 6 .7
　 　 Note: Permeability in S3 payzone: 3 .23×10 - 3μm2 , T hickness = 13 m ,
2
Fracture conductivit y = 45μm ・cm ;
- 3 2
Permeability in S4 payzone: 1 .5×10 μm , thickness = 14m ,
Half leng th of the fracture = 75 m .

③Application of overall fracturing evaluation technique :

The application of diagnostic techiques for hydraulic fracture features can examine w het her the created
fractures meet t he requirements of design . The purpose of its diagnosis is to examine the created fracture
geomet ry according to t he design . F ract ure geomet ry is here referred not only to fracture height , leng th ,
and conductivity bu t also to orientation and symmet ry , with w hich postfract ure evaluation can be done .
Fract ure height can be measured by temperature logging and radioactive gamma ray logging . The hydraulic
fracture length and dynamic extension of fract ure are studied by using Nolte analy tical technique; and the
propped fracture leng th and coudu tivity are studied by using the transient well test ting . Data analysis from
2
14 wells testing proved t hat t he average propped fracture half length equals 72m , and conductivity 44μm .
cm , w hich is similar to t he expected propped fracture half length of about 75m shown in Table 8 - 12 .

2 92
 Ta b l e 8 - 12 Post - fracturing well testing analysis results in Shanshan oil field
2
Conductivity (μm ・cm ) Half leng th of proppan t fracture ( m )
Matrix
No . Permeability T ypical curve Bilinear flow Typical curve Bilinear flow
(10 - 3μm2 ) match analysis specific analysis match analysis specific analysis

1 3 .15 16 .3 18 .6 51 .6 85 .6

2 15 .6 87 .9 82 .1 56 .1 47 .7

3 6 .90 86 .3 111 .2 78 .2 128 .5

4 4 .76 28 .8 42 .3 60 .5 58 .09

5 4 .21 58 .2 41 .3 55 .3 49 .1

6 3 .44 52 .5 53 .1 89 .8 100 .9

7 2 .79 - - 35 .2 -

8 0 .85 8 .90 9 .50 61 .7 65 .1

9 1 .19 20 .5 16 .1 57 .2 49 .0

10 4 .79 15 .5 18 .4 72 .0 68 .3

11 6 .66 37 .0 42 .3 79 .4 88 .7

12 1 .67 10 .0 9 .96 50 .1 49 .6

13 2 .05 - 23 .5 55 .1 73 .1

14 1 .21 - 20 .4 61 .8 73 .3

Average 4 .23 38 .4 44 .1 61 .7 72 .1

8 .2 .1 .2 Acid fracturing technology

The basic principles and objectives of acid fracturing are t he same as those of hydraulic fract uring wit h
proppant . The goal of acid fract uring is to produce an acid etched fract ure w hich allows more effective
drainage of the reservoir . The major difference lies in how t he conductivity is achieved . Additionally, the
carbonate reservoir is t he major target using acid fract uring technology , and t he studies of carbonate reser－
voirs focus on t he natural fract ure system . Usually , a viscous pad fluid ( linear sol or crosslinked gel) is in－
jected ahead of t he acid to produce t he fracture followed by acid ; or viscous acid is directly injected to pro－
duce fractures and react wit h t he fracture wall . Fract ure conductivity is created by acid etching the fracture
wall . That is , t he acid reacts nonuniformly with the fract ure wall so that after closure, t he fract ures remain
open . The effective leng th of t he fracture is controlled by acid volume , its reaction rate, and acid filt ration
loss . The conductivity and effective fract ure lengt h can be increased drastically by using closure acid fractur－
ing and multistage technologies , and t he productivit y increased as well .
The basic procedure of an acid fracturing design is: (1 ) formation evaluation ; (2 ) selection of acid flu－
id and operation parameters; ( 3) study of t he fracture geometry , acid penet ration - distance and conductivi－
ty wit h t he simulator of acid fracturing; (4 ) calculating t he increased oil production ; ( 5) optimizing t he e－
conomic design .
It should be noted that t he optimum economic design for acid fracturing is an approximate estimation .
As far as the fracturing design is concerned , proppant fract ure conductivity by hydraulic fracturing can be
precisely computed and remain constant , and it is quite easy to obtain t he fluid loss coefficient with t he giv－
en parameters . But t he acid etching profile induced by acid fracturing is nonuniform , and some other pa－
rameters are difficult to obtain . Therefore , t he productivity and economic benefits are difficult to be pre－
dicted, and t he relation of nat ural fract ure dist ribution to the etched fracture is so complex t hat the opti－
mum design program of acid fract uring so far is only an estimation .

2 93
8 .2 .2 Stimulation of heavy and high pour point oil reservoirs

8 .2 .2 .1 Stimulation of heavy oil reservoir

　 Ext ra or super - heavy oil could not be developed with t he conventional producing met hods . Presently ,
t he major development technique for such a reservoir is t hermal recovery huff and puff in t he first stage,
and steam flooding in t he later stage .
The first step for t he huff and puff well is steam injection , t he preparations for t he job are as follows:
1) Flushing t he pay zone near t he wellbore
After the well completion , t he pore passage may be blocked by the filt rate of the drilling and perforat－
ing in addition to t he colloid , asphaltene and paraffin con tained in t he heavy oil .
As a result , it is necessary to flush the near wellbore zone with clean - up agents .
2) Requiremen ts of t he Steam Injection Insulating Tubing String
The reasonable dow nhole st ring for steam injection must possess good heat insulating properties in or－
der to minimize heat loss . There should be sealing rings between t he connections of the st ring to prevent
leaking off . P rimarily , it is quite necessary to have packer for steam injection to guaran tee the production
casing and cement sheat h will not be ruptured by t hermal st ress . Then the steam injection string should be
installed wit h a sliding sleeve expansion joint and tubing to meet t he requirements of the thermal expansion
and cold con traction of t ubing string .
8 .2 .2 .2 Stimulation for high pour oil
High pour poin t oil is a paraffin based oil composed primarily of paraffin as high as 45 % ～ 50 % wit h
characteristics of low viscosity and high pour point . Paraffin will come out or adhere to the tubing wall, or
solidify on t he tubing to cause production decline or stopping as the ligh t componen ts turn gaseous and en－
dot hermic in t he course of lifting from bottom to surface .Usually , most of t he paraffin will be deposited at
t he upper 1/ 3 ～1/ 2 section of tubing string . So, t he key point of t his type well is t hat t he flow tempera－
ture of t he oil in t he wellbore is kept above the pour point . The measures used to bring the high pour point
oil on stream are as follows:
1) H ydraulic Piston Pump
The power fluid to drive a hydraulic piston pump is a type of heated oil at about 80℃ . When heated
t hin oil is pumped into well, it not only heats the high pour oil produced from reservoir , but also mixes wit h
high pour oil at t he bottom hole and reduces the pour point . The hydraulic piston pump string and flow
chart are referred to in 8 .4 .
2) Pumping by Hollow Sucker Rod wit h Electrically Heating or Hot Water circulation
There is a heating cable inside the hollow rod . The high pour poin t oil is heated by t he heating cable
during the pumping . Additionally , hot water circulation by a hollow sucker rod can be done by injection of
heated water at 70～80℃ , heating the production tubing string along . No mat ter it is electrically heating
or hot water circulation , high pour point oil will be heated . The flow temperature of oil is higher t han pour
point to maintain t he normal production . T wo technologies men tioned above have been used in Daqing and
Dagang oil fields .
3) Auto Trace Heating Cable
Auto Trace heating cable was developed by an American RAYCHAM company . I t uses squeezed spe－
cial plastic between two leads instead of electric resistance wire, w hich is added wit h the powdered carbon
and metal t reated by the radioactive irradiation , t hus has memory ability and can set a heating temperat ure .
If it is lower than t his set temperature, the molecular chains of carbon and metal form innumerable parallel
resistance to release t he heat ; if the temperature is higher t han the set temperature, t he molecular chains of
t he carbon and metal will break . The main difference of the heating cable from the
conventional dow nhole heater is that , the former provides heating in a compensation mode to the set
temperature rat her t han con tinuously heating . If t he set temperature is higher t han t he pour point , t he flow
temperature of t he oil can sustain t he temperature above the pour point .
Auto Trace heating cable, which is similar to a power cable for an elect ric submersible pump in shape
and running met hod , is fixed ou tside the production tubing ( it can be used in bot h pumping and flowing
wells ) . The met hod of t ripping - in is the same as . I t can save elect ricity wit h an auto trace system . Now
2 94
t he syste m has been used in Shengli, Liaohe,
and Dagang oil fields .
4) Concent ric Tubing Strings with Hot
Water Circulation
The principles are the same as above
t hree, but the string design is more complex
wit h much surface corollary equipment , cur－
rently , it is rarely used .
When a high pour point oil well is put in－
to production , the thin oil should be used as
t he well killing fluid ; and killing fluid may be
displaced with hot water of 80 ～ 90℃ , and
circulation duration should not be less than
3h . The well can not be put in to production ,
nor can strings be replaced until a stable tem－
perat ure field is established .

8 .3 Measures for Flowing Back

8 .3 .1 Flowing back by displacement

Fi g .8 - 18 The characteristic curve of auto trace heat ing
　 The producer could not flow since hydro－ cable
static pressure is higher t han formation pres－ 1 - Flow temperature curve ; 2 - Ground temperature gradient ; 3 -
sure after overbalance perforating . Flowing Flow temperature curve after heated by auto trace heating cable; 4
back by displacement first displaces the well - Setting tmperature ; 5 - Pour point 10～20℃
killing fluid with low density fluid to reduce
t he relative density of t he fluid in the wellbore to allow the back pressure of hydrostatic column in t he well
to be lower than t he formation pressure . Flowing back by displacement can be achieved by using t he follow－
ing methods .
8 .3 .1 .1 Conventional method
Run in t ubing to the middle or upper part of t he payzone and pump t he fluids in to the well un til all well
killing fluid is displaced ou t . This is very simple , bu t t he well killing fluid between the tubing shoe and bot－
tomhole cannot be displaced out .
8 .3 .1 .2 Flowing back by single displacement
Run in t ubing to a place about 1m above t he bottomhole, displace killing fluid with displacing fluid ,
pull tubing to t he middle or upper part of the payzone and complete the well . The met hod is limited to well
wit h weak flowing abilit y in w hich there is enough time to pull out t he t ubing before oil flows out . Show n
in Fig .8 - 19 .
8 .3 .1 .3 Flowing back by double displacements
Run in tubing to a place abou t 1m above t he bottomhole . P ump one par t of the displacing fluid in to the
t ubing , displace t he fluid with the well killing fluid to the position above t he payzone, then pull the tubing
to t he middle of the payzone , finally all the well killing fluid above t he pay zone is displaced wit h the dis－
placing fluid . As shown in Fig .8 - 20 .
The advan tage of the induced flowing back lies in forming a uniform producing pressure drawdow n to
avoid wall sloughing and sand production .
8 .3 .2 Flowing back by swabbing
Swabbing is to draw off t he fluid from t he wellbore to the surface wit h a specialized tool, to lower the
liquid level, and reduce the back pressure of hydrostatic pressure to t he formation .
Generally , swabbing is commonly applied in a flowing well wit h low pressure , or a well w hose flowing
2 95
 Fi g .8 - 19 Diagrammatic sketch of flowing back Fi g .8 - 20 Diagrammatic sketch of flowing back
by single displacement by double displacements
1 - Tubing; 2 - Casing; 3 - Well killing fluid ; 4 - Payzone; 1 - Water ; 2 - Tubing; 3 - Payzone ; 4 - Well kil ling fluid;
5 - Displacement fluid . 5 - Casing

ability has been damaged by mud or drilling fluid filtrates during drilling .
The major tool for swabbing is the tubing swab, w hich can be valveless ( Fig .8 - 21 ) or valve swab
( Fig .8 - 22 ) .
Bailing is also used in ultra - low pressure, low permeability and low production reservoirs w hose pres－
sures are lower than hydrostatic pressure . Its main tool, a bailing bucket , is Run below t he liquid level and
pull the liquid out to t he surface to reduce t he back pressure to the formation .
8 .3 .3 Flowing back by gas - lift
High pressure gas is compressed into t he well by a compressor to flow back the well killing fluid .
Selecting gas for gas - lifting is an very important technical key poin t . It is dangerous if air is used
since an explosion occurs when an ignition is induced by metel collision . And explosion will occur w hen the
nat ural gas is mixed wit h air and its volume is up to 5 % ～15 % of the total volume . Therefore, only nitro－
gen gas , nat ural gas , or carbon dioxide is used in gas - lifting .
Because gas - lifting flowing back may rapidly reduce t he hydrostatic pressure, it is only used in car－
bonate or sand reservoir wells wit h good cemen t . The dept h and speed of gas - lifting flowing back should
be effectively con trolled in order to avoid destroying the struct ure of t he weakly consolidated sand reservoir .
Flowing back by gas - lifting can be divided into following t ypes .
8 .3 .3 .1 Flowing back by conventional gas - lift
There are two kinds of gas - lifting flowing back . Conventional gas - lifting compresses t he gas into
t ubing and t he gas - lifting mixture flows back to the surface from the annulus of the casing . Inverse gas -
lifting compresses the gas into the annulus of t he casing and the mix ture flows back from t he tubing . I t’s
show n in Fig .8 - 23 .
The bases of conventional gas - lifting design are the dept h of liquid column in the well and t he maxi－
mum working pressure of t he compressor . The strengt h of tubing and ot her dow nhole tools bearing pressure
differential should be taken into account , usually blank t ubing is used .
8 .3 .3 .2 Flowing back by multiple stage gas - lift
Its main work is to select the t ype of gas - lifting valves and calculate their lowering dept h according to
t he requirements of flowing back .
Flowing back by multiple stage gas lift is characterized by slow pressure reduction compared with con－
ventional gas lift , low back pressure and minor damage . As show n in Fig .8 - 24 .
2 96
 Fi g .8 - 21 Working sketch of swab without valve Fi g .8 - 22 Diagrammatic sketch of valve swab
1 - Upper joint; 2 - Rubber sliding rod; 3 - Semicircle 1 - Joint ; 2 - Valve cover ; 3 - Valve ball; 4 - Valve cup;
fender; 4 - Middle joint ; 5 - Rubber ; 6 - Upper gland for 5 - Center pipe; 6 - Upper gland for rubber ; 7 - Rubber ; 8
rubber ; 7 - Lower gland for rubber ; 8 - Tai l blockade - Lower gland for rubber ; 9 - Tightening cap

8 .3 .3 .3 Flowing back by gas - water mixture lift

Kill fluid can be displaced out by a gas ( N2 in oil well, air in water injection well ) - water mixt ure,
t he hydrostatic back pressure to t he reservoir will be reduced since the density of t he mix ture is less than
t hat of the kill fluid . The reduction degree of downhole back pressure can be con trolled because the density
of t he mixture can be con trolled through adjusting t he pressure and flow rate of gas . This met hod is applica－
ble in t hose oil wells unsuitable for flowing back by displacemen t using gas - lifting .
Assuming the density of kill fluid is ρ0 , t he initial density of injected gas - water mixt ure is ρ1 , and
ρ1 < ρ0 . If t here is no induced flow w hen t he density of t he liquid column becomes ρ1 , t he density of the
mixt ure should be reduced to ρ2 by increasing t he gas amount in the mixt ure ( shown in Fig .8 - 25) .
8 .3 .3 .4 Flowing back by coiled tubing gas - lift
Coiled tubing is characterized by iso - diameter , flexibility , continuit y and small diameter . It is coiled
around the tubing roll and installed on the t ruck . Run it in t he wellbore w hen operating and pull it out by
roll after operation , according to the requiremen ts .
Coiled tubing is a kind of operation equipment with many uses developed in recen t years . Flowing back
by gas - lifting is one of its main works .
The first step of flowing back by coiled t ubing is to run t he coiled tubing into the tubing string from
t he coiled tubing truck , then connect it wit h liquid nitrogen pump truck or nit rogen - generating t ruck .
The liquid nit rogen pump truck pressurizes low pressure liquid nit rogen until it evaporates , high pressure
nitrogen vapor is t hen pumped into t he t ubing string from coiled t ubing . Thus , kill fluid in t he tubing
string is lifted to t he surface from the annulus between t ubing string and coiled t ubing , and t he back pres－
sure of kill fluid to t he formation is reduced .

2 97
Fi g .8 - 23 Diagrammatic sketch
of gas - lifting induced flowing
back
1 - High pressure gas injection pump; 2
- Gas pumped in; 3 - Gas mixted liq－
uid; 4 - Payzone; 5 - crude oil outlet;
6 - Tubing; 7 - Casing
Fi g . 8 - 24 Diagrammat ic
sketch of multistage gas lift
induced flowing back
Fi g . 8 - 25 Diagrammat ic
sketch of flowing back by
gas - water mixture
( a ) Injecting gas - water with
density ofρ1 from annulus ; ( b) In－
jecting gas - water again with
density of ρ2 , ρ2 < ρ1

　 　 Flowing back by coiled tubing has two notable characteristics . First , it can be run down a deep well
wit h a maximum of 6000m , second it has a rapid flowing back speed . I t takes only 30min to flow back a
1000m liquid column . The most remarkable characteristics of coiled tubing flowing back is t hat the liquid
flows gradually back from well head and the bot tom hole pressure is continueously reduced which causes less
damage to the formation . The outline of coiled t ubing and its injection head is shown in Fig .8 - 26 .
The ex ternal diameter series of coiled t ubing are 1 in(31 .8mm ) , 1 in(38mm ) , 2in (50 .8mm ) , 3
in (89mm) t ubing or larger , has been developed in recent years .
The liquid nit rogen pump truck is the chief necessary component for gas lift using coiled tubing t ruck .
It is composed of liquid nitrogen tank , high pressure triplex pump , heat - recovery evaporating pump and
con trolling equipment and inst ruments . I ts m ain function is to store and transport liquid nitrogen and pres－
surize it un til it vaporizes and is pumped into t he well . I ts basic parameters are:
3
Liquid nit rogen tank t ruck volume: 7 .57m ;
Maximum working pressure: 105MPa;
3
Maximum flow rate: 10194 .1 standard m / h .
A nit rogen - generating truck has two types: trailer and t ruck . The outline of t he former is show n in
Fig .8 - 27 .
An advanced technology of membrane is used in t he equipment wit h a nit rogen gas collecting and pres－
surizing system . The air is separated in to nitrogen and oxygen gases as soon as air enters t he membrane , as
show n in Fig .8 - 28 .
The entire equipment is characterized by high qualit y, fast flowing rate , high working pressure and
con tinuous working for an ex tended time . I ts brief technical parameters are as follows: maximum flow rate
3
of nit rogen gas is 10 ～15 standard m / min , maximum working pressure is 26～35MPa, and the purity of
nitrogen gas is > 95 % . Nitrogen - generating t ruck can also be used for flowing back as conventional gas
lift . It can flow back rapidly and requires little performance time . When used in low pressure wells , high
underbalance can be obtained w hich is helpful to flowing production . In high pressure wells , it is safe and
reliable . Connected with coiled tubing truck , high efficiency and rapid speed of blowing back can be ob－
tained in ult ra deep wells , high hydraulic pressure wells wit h complex string structure and other wells . Oc－
ccasionally, it pressurizes t he casing annulus to aid flowing back in deep wells . The required volume of ni－
trogen gas displacing liquid in t he tubing is show n in Table 8 - 13 and Fig .8 - 29 .

2 98
 F i g .8 - 26 The outline of coiled tubing truck

8 .3 .4 Flowing back by foam fluid

Foam fluid has been widely used as a drilling fluid , a completion fluid , a flushing fluid , a fracturing
fluid and an acidizing fluid because of its characteristics of low hydrostatic liquid column pressure, better fil－
tration con trol proper ties , high t ranspor ting capacity , less friction loss , st rong flowing back ability and less
damage to the formation due to its special text ure . With t he developmen t and forming a complete set of liq－
uid nitrogen equipment , foam fluid technology has been more widely used . Here, conventional foam ,
foamer, nitrogen gas generation equipment and some general calculation met hods will be in troduced wit h
t he view of flowing back .

Fi g .8 - 27 Outline of
Nitrogen - generat ing
trailer

Fi g .8 - 28 Schematic diagram of membrane separation

1 - Air compressor ; 2 - Filter ; 3 - Oxygen gas ; 4 - Membrane separator ; 5 - Nitrogen gas

2 99
 Fi g .8 - 29 required volume of nitrogen gas
displacing liquid in tubing
8 .3 .4 .1 Foam fluid
U ndissolving or slightly dissolving gas , w hen dispersing in the liquid , forms a dispersed system named
foam fluid . The gas is dispersed phase and t he liquid is dispersing medium .
Gas must be con tacted wit h liquid to produce foam and some surfactants (foamers) are used to keep the
foam steady .
Foamers can keep the foam steady by reducing surface tension of liquid phase, st reng thening t he foam
liquid film and its elasticity , and increasing its surface viscosit y .
Foam quality is the ratio of gas volume to foam volume in the foam fluid at a cer tain temperature and
pressure .
8 .3 .4 .2 Components of foam fluid
1) Gas Phase
Air , nit rogen gas , carbon dioxide or nat ural gas are usually used , bu t air and nat ural gas are not per－
mitted to be used in oil/ gas producing wells because t hey are flammable and explosive .
Because nit rogen gas is inert and its solubility is only abou t 1/ 10 times that of carbon dioxide , it is
avoidable to form emulsion and precipitation to damage the formation . But t he carbon dioxide has strong
3 00
solubility and it is very active, as a result t he stability is poor . Since the compression ratio of carbon dioxide
is larger , t he ratio of gas to liquid of nitrogen foam is smaller t han t hat of carbon dioxide at a given foam
quality . Furt hermore , the on - site nitrogen generating technology has got rapid progress , therefore nitro－
gen is widely used instead of carbon dioxide at presen t .

Ta b l e 8 - 13 Required volume of nitrogen gas displacing liquid in tubing

Well Wellhead pressure ( M Pa )

dept h( m ) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

100 5061 10118 15171 20216 25256 30310 35344 40375 45403 50249 55454 60474 65429 70509
200 5121 10237 15342 20450 25539 30620 35687 44074 45805 50856 55906 60946 65982 71016
300 5182 10355 15513 20675 25807 30928 36029 41121 46205 51282 56357 61416 66471 71521
400 5243 10473 15699 20900 26075 31235 36370 41493 46604 51707 56805 61884 66957 72024
500 5304 10592 15873 21124 26345 31542 36710 41863 47002 52130 57252 62351 67442 72526

600 5364 10710 16047 21348 26610 31847 37049 42231 47398 52551 57697 62816 67925 73025
700 5425 10829 16221 21571 16877 32151 37387 42599 47793 52971 58141 63278 68405 73523
800 5486 10947 16395 21749 27143 32455 37722 42965 48187 53390 58582 63740 68884 74018
900 5547 11066 16569 22017 27408 32757 38057 43330 48579 53807 59022 64199 69362 74512
1000 5608 11185 16724 22239 27673 33058 38391 43694 48969 54223 59460 64656 69837 75004

1100 5669 11303 16916 22461 27937 33358 38724 44056 49359 54637 59896 65112 70310 75493
1200 5731 11422 17089 22683 28200 33657 39055 44417 49747 55050 60331 65566 70782 75607
1300 5792 11540 17262 22904 28463 33955 39385 44777 50134 55461 60764 66004 71236 76451
1400 5853 11659 17434 23124 28725 34252 39714 45135 50519 55871 61180 66452 71702 76934
1500 5914 11777 17606 23344 28986 34547 40042 45492 50903 56280 61608 66899 72166 77414

1600 5975 11895 17778 23563 29246 34842 40369 45848 51285 56673 62034 67343 72629 77892
1700 6036 12014 17950 23782 29506 35136 40695 46203 51666 57078 62458 67786 73089 78369
1800 6098 12132 18122 24001 29765 35428 41019 46556 52046 57481 62880 68228 73548 78843
1900 6159 12250 18293 24218 30023 35720 41342 46908 52410 57882 63301 68667 74005 79361
2000 6220 12386 18463 24435 30287 36010 41664 47259 52786 58282 63720 69105 74460 79787

2100 6281 12486 18634 24652 30542 36300 41985 47608 53161 58681 64183 69541 74913 80257
2200 6342 12604 18804 24868 30769 36588 42305 47924 53535 59078 64553 69976 75365 80724
2300 6404 12722 18973 25083 31049 36875 42623 48288 53907 59474 64968 70408 75814 81190
2400 6465 12854 19143 25298 31300 37161 42940 48633 54277 59869 65380 70839 76263 81654
2500 6526 12958 19311 25512 31551 37447 43257 48977 54647 60271 65791 71269 76709 82116

2600 6587 13075 19480 25725 31802 37731 43572 49319 55015 60661 66201 71697 77154 82577
2700 6648 13193 19648 25938 32051 38014 43817 49661 55382 61048 66609 72123 77597 83036
2800 6709 13310 19816 26150 32299 38296 44184 50001 55748 61435 67015 72547 78039 83494
2900 6770 13427 19983 26361 32546 38577 44495 50340 56112 61820 67420 72971 78479 83949
3000 6832 13544 20150 26572 32793 38857 44805 50677 56475 62203 67823 73392 78917 84404

3100 6893 13661 20316 26782 33038 39136 45114 51014 56837 62585 68225 73812 79354 84856
3200 6954 13778 20482 26991 33283 39414 45422 51349 57198 62968 68625 74231 79790 85307
3300 7015 13895 20647 27199 33527 39691 45729 51684 57557 63345 69024 74648 80224 85757
3400 7076 14012 20812 27407 33769 39967 46035 52017 57916 63723 69421 75063 80656 86205
3500 7137 14128 20977 27614 34011 40241 46339 52349 58273 64099 69817 75477 81087 86651

2) Liquid P hase
Liquid phase of the foam can be water - base, alcohol - base, hydrocarbyl - base or acid - base .
3) Foamers
Chemicals used as foaming agen ts are ionic and non - ionic surfactan ts .

3 01
8 .3 .4 .3 Commonly used foamers
1) Requiremen ts for Foamer
(1 ) A great amount of bubbles are created when the gas is in contact with liquid .
(2 ) The stabilit y of the foam can be maintained even in t he condition of pump shearing .
(3 ) Surfactants should have good compatibilit y wit h minearals of rock and reservoir fluids . They
should be stable, and should not damage t he formation as well .
(4 ) It is characterized by low pour point , high biodegradability , and less toxicity . The bubbles are
easy to break w hen t he pressure is released .
(5 ) Small quantit y required , lower cost , and easy to be ob tained .
2) Commonly Used Foamers
The foamers used for water - base foam in production in a water - cut flowing well, well testing and
workover are mainly t he anionic surfactant , e .g . alkyl sulfate, alkyl sulfonate and alkyl aryl sulfonate . The
foam formed wit h alkyl sulfonate has the highest stabilit y .
Some scholars in the former Soviet U nion conducted rapid evaluation of foaming agents wit h the hy－
drophilic - lipophilic balance . The conclusion is t hat the foamers with the balance values of 9～ 15 are good
foamer , e .g . dodecyl sulfonate .
Foamers commonly used in the U .S .A are listed in T able 8 - 14 .
Foamers commonly used in Canada are show n in T able 8 - 15 .

Ta b l e 8 - 14 Foamers recommended by Halliburton Co .

Electric Volume ( L/ m3 )
No . T ype of foam Foamer
Property Low T . High T .

1 Water - base foam HOWCO - suds ( - ) 2～5/ 93℃ 6～10/ 121℃

2 Water - base foam SEM - 7 ( - ) 2～5/ 93℃ 6～10/ 49℃
3 Water - base foam T RI - S ( - ) 2～5/ 93℃ 6～10/ 135℃
4 Water - base foam AQF - 1 (0) 2～5/ 93℃ Not recommended
5 Water - base foam Pen - 5E (0) 5～10/ 93℃ Not recommended
6 Water - base foam HC - 2 (0) ( + ) 2～5/ 93℃ 6～10/ 149℃
7 Acid - base foam Pen - 5E (0) 10/ 93℃ 10/ 121℃
8 Acid - base foam HC - 2 (0) ( + ) 5～10/ 93℃
9 Alcohol( 50% ) + water SEM - 7 ( - ) 4～6/ 79℃ Not recommended
10 Alcoho(50% ) + water AQF - 1 (0) 5～7/ 79℃ Not recommended
11 Aalcohol (25 % ) + water SEM - 7 ( - ) 4～6/ 79℃ 10/ 149℃
12 Aalcohol (25 % ) + water AQF - 1 (0) 4～5/ 79℃ Not recommended
13 Hydrocarbyl - base foam OFA - 2 (0) 2/ 88℃

Ta b l e 8 - 15 Foamers recommended by NOWSCO of Canada

No . Type and quality Foamer Volume ( L/ m3 )

1 Water - base foam 75% + N2 SF - 1 10

2 Oil - base foam 75 % + N2 SF - 3 10
3 Acid - base foam 75 % + N2 SF - 2 10
4 Compounded foam 65% ～90 % + CO2 SF - 10 10
5 CO2 foam acid 80% SF - 10 10

　 Note: S F - 1 = anionic surfactant , polyoxyethylated alkyl alcohol sodium sulfonate;

SF - 2 = non - ionic surfactan t , alkyl, phenyl polyvinyl et hylethe ;
SF - 3 = compounded ( bearing fluorine ) ( nonionic - anionic ) ;
SF - 10 = compounded surfactan t ( main component is non - ionic) ;

Foaming is difficult for hydrocarbon base foam . Fluorocarbon commonly used as foamer is characterized
by high cost, inhibition of cracking and catalysis of oil . Now silicone is commonly used as a foamer shown
3 02
in T able 8 - 16 .
3) Rheology of Foam
Foam is a complex non - newtonian fluid ; t he property , behavior and features of a foam are cont rolled
by t he following factors:
(1 ) Property and viscosit y of internal gas phase ;
(2 ) Property and viscosit y of external liquid phase;
(3 ) Foam qualit y;
(4 ) Type and concen tration of surfactants, and film proper ty of foam interface;
(5 ) Property of electrionic force;
(6 ) Foam st ruct ure and bubble size ;
(7 ) Shear rate ;
(8 ) Te mperature , pressure and so on .

Ta b l e 8 - 16 Foaming properties of silicone foamer

Liquid Silicone polymer Foam Foam Half life
phase (1 % volume) volume( ml ) qualit y of foam (s )

Kerosene Non No bubble

Kerosene Dow corning 3011 antifomer 240 58 92
Kerosene Dow corning 1250 surfactan t 225 55 132
# 2 dirsel Non No bubble - -
# 2 dirsel 3011 an tifoamer 215 53 132
# 2 dirsel 1250 surfactan t 220 54 152
Condensate Non No bubble - -
Condensate 3011 an tifoamer 270 63 15
Condensate 1250 surfactan t 240 58 10
Xylene Non No bubble - -
Xylene 3011 an tifoamer 275 64 91
Xylene 1250 surfactan t 310 68 80

4) Foam - generating Equipment

The foam - generating equipmen t now developed and manufact ured in China is PC - 160 foam opera－
tion truck . It is equipped wit h foam generator and wit h gas and liquid regulating and metering systems .
The key parameters , such as gas flow rate and pressure, liquid flow rate and pressure, can be displayed on
t he panel . The qualified foam will be made by propor tionally mixing t he foam base fluid wit h gas , t hen
pump t he fluid into wells to drill and flush . Regulating valves and check valves are installed in t he liquid and
gas manifolds on the operation truck which are used to regulate the flow rate and preven t gas - liquid revert－
ing flow . The filter and damper are designed in t he intake manifold . The data acquisition truck works as a
unit . The key parameters displayed t hrough t he unit are as follows:
Maximum working pressure 16MPa;
3
Gas flow rate 10～40m / min ;
Liquid flow rate 200～ 300L/ min ;
Main manifold inner diameter 50mm (2in) ;
Weigh t 2143 kg .
8 .3 .5 Flowing back by using monoscrew pump driven at well head
It is rat her difficult to pump heavy and high pour point oil with conventional methods before putting
in to production because the heavy oil contains sand to some extent , and t he viscosity of high pour poin t oil
will increase as t he temperat ure decreases . The screw pump is valveless . The screw rod ; is the only moving
componen t driven by t he sucker rod ; gas lock and sand plugging will not occur . The flow rate can keep
constan t, but t he monoscrew pump is only applicable for medium - deep wells .

3 03
8 .3 .5 .1 Series and basic parameters of the monoscrew pump
The basic parameters of the monoscrew pump driven at the well head are show n in T able 8 - 17 .
8 .3 .5 .2 The steps for pump selection
1) Calculation of Production rate Qw and Static Head Hw
The static head H w can be calculated if the production of t he oil well is know n :

H w = Hs + H L + H p + ΔHd + Hh ( 8 - 3)

w here : Hs = Dept h of static liquid level, m ;

H L = Height differential between well head position and the average liquid level in wellhead separa－
tor, m ;
Hp = P ressure in wellhead separator , liquid column m ;
Hd = Assuming production rate Q w , the value of static liquid level lowering , liquid column m , cal－
culated by t he following equation :

1/ n
Q w gρ0
ΔH d = 10 ( 8 - 4)
K

w here : K = Productivit y index ;

n = Permeability index in t he area of bottom hole ;
Hd = H ydraulic loss in t he well head choke and t ubing calculated by hydraulic equation or curves .
2) Characteristic Curve Conversion For Monoscrew Pump
A monoscrew pump is accompanied only with water pumping characteristic curves . Those curves
should be conver ted according to t he densit y, viscosity and temperature of t he oil produced in t he well .
Conversion equation for monoscrew pump flow rate is as follows:

Q μ
Qo = [ 1 - (1 - ηv ) ] ( 8 - 5)
ηv μo
w here : Q o = Flow rate pumping oil from the well;
Q = Flow rate pumping water ;
ηv = Capacity efficiency of monoscrew pump , 0 .6 ;
μo = Viscosity of oil;
μ = Viscosity of water .
3) Correlation of Oil Well Working Regime ( Q w Hw ) and Oil Pumping Characteristic Curves of
Monoscrew P ump ( Qo Ho )
Proven by bot h t heory analysis and practice, t he best condition of matching the characteristic curves of
monoscrew pump wit h the oil well working regime is t hat t he oil well working point is below t he curve
( Qo — Ho ) , and at t he beginning of the high efficiency area . This is the requirements for monoscrew
pump selection . Based on the production and hydrostatic pressure of the well and recommended flow
regime , the type of the monoscrew pump can be rationally selected .
4) Calculation of Friction Torque ( M rf ) Resulting from Pumping Rod Rotation
When t he monoscrew pump is driven at t he wellhead , t he horsepower of the motor will be consumed
for bot h rotational friction of sucker rod and lifting downhole liquid . Especially for t he high viscous oil, the
former may consume a greater horsepower .
The basic data given in T able 8 - 17 can be referred for selection of t he monoscrew pump driven at the
well head .

3 04
 Ta b l e 8 - 17 Basic parameters of monoscrew pump driven at well head
Model No .

Items GLB30 - 141 GLB80 - 141 GLB120 - 141 GLB200 - 141

GLB30 - 271 GLB80 - 271 GLB120 - 271 GLB200 - 271 GLB120 - 402
GLB30 - 401 GLB80 - 401 GLB120 - 401 GLB200 - 401

Theoretical flow rate

30 80 120 200 120
each revolution ( ml)

Pump Stage Number 14 27 40 14 27 40 14 27 40 14 27 40 40

Join t screw rod CYG19 CYG22 CYG22 CYG25 CYG22

t hread pumping rod pumping rod pumping rod pumping rod pumping rod

E xternal diameter
73 90 90 102 102
( mm )

Join t sleeve
2 BG 2 TBG 2 T BG 3 TBG 3 TBG
t hread of pum p

Applicable casing
114 114 114 140 140
( mm )

Iinput revolution
50～300 50～300 50～300 50～300 50～300
( r/ min)

Ppump rate
3 2～10 4～27 6～40 10～70 6～40
m/d

Maximum working
5 10 15 5 10 15 5 10 15 5 10 15 15
pressure ( M Pa )

Horsepower of well Specification Specification Specification Specification Specification

head driving equipment (Ⅰ) (Ⅱ ) ( Ⅱ) (Ⅱ) (Ⅱ )

Horsepower of well
3 4 7 .5 5 .5 7 .5 15 7 .5 15 30 10 .5 17 .5 30 30
head driving motor ( kW )

8 .4 Well Completion Tubing Strings

Running the t ubing st ring is t he last step in well completion engineering before t he producer/ injector is
brough t directly on stream . The design of t he t ubing string will affect normal working of t he producer/ in－
jector after being brough t on stream . Therefore, the following will int roduce t he st ruct ures , applicable
ranges , design principles and technical requiremen ts for the tubing string in a producer or injector .
8 .4 .1 Tubing string for oil well

8 .4 .1 .1 Tubing string for flowing well

　 The technical requiremen t for a tubing st ring is to determine t he t ubing diameter based on t he analysis of
t ubing sensitivit y ( Chap ter 3 ) .
There are two types of tubing strings for flowing wells . One is the commingling t ubing string ( Fig .8
- 30 ) , t he ot her is the separate zone tubing st ring ( Fig .8 - 31 ) .

3 05
 Fi g .8 - 30 Commingling tubing
string of flowing well
1 - Surface casing; 2 - Tubing; 3 -
Production casing; 4 - Oil reservoir ;
5 - Oil reservoir ; 6 - Well bottom
Fi g 8
. - 31 Separate zone tubing
string of flowing well
1 - Tubing head; 2 - Mandrel ( of tubing
blanking plug ) ; 3 - Side - pocket pro－
duction flow regulator ; 4 - Packer ; 5 -
Side - pocket production flow regula－
tor , 6 - Packer ; 7 - Setting slip; 8 -
Side - pocket production flow regula－
tor ; 9 - Downhole mandrel; 10 - Plug;
11 , 12 , 13 - Oil reservoirs
Fi g 8
. - 32 Dual string sepa－
rate zone production
1 - Tubing ; 2 - Dual - string re－
trievable packer ; 3 - Production
casing; 4 - Oil reservoir ; 5 - Sin－
gle - string packer ; 6 - Oil reser－
voir ; 7 - Bottom of well

The configuration of commingling string is simple . A blank t ubing is run to the middle of t he pay
zone . It is applicable to a well wit h a zone or a few zones without big differences between zones . The con－
figuration of a separate zone tubing string is complex . I t is composed of packers , production flow regulators
and necessary downhole tools . I t is mainly used in the flowing well in which exist large interzonal pressure
differencial or high water - cu t zones and separate zone production . Dual - st ring separate zone production
can t horoughly solve t he interzonal in terference, develop t he full potential to each zone , and raise the pro－
duction rate, as show n in Fig .8 - 32 . The string is composed of a reverse circulation nipple joint , a dual
string retrievable packer , a single - string packer , a sealing nipple join t with acirculating valve , a screen
pipe, a setting nipple joint , and a flowing back circulation valve .
As far as a deep flowing well is concerned , a snubbing st ring can be e mployed to minimize the damage
to the formation . This kind of string is composed of a single - st ring hanger , a telescopic compensator , a
sliding sleeve , a insert sealing assembly , a permanent packer , a downhole valve and test tools ( Fig .8 -
33 ) . Operationally , t he downhole valves will not shu t off un til t he first t ubing is pulled to the top of the
dow nhole valve in a pressurized system . Workover can be performed under t he condition of snubbing .
A joint perforating - producing st ring can be used for wells in w hich by underbalance perforating is re－
quired and arfificial lift method will be adop ted after quitting . I t is composed of a t ubing hanger , a perma－
nen t packer , test tools , a gun release joint and perforating guns , as shown in Fig .8 - 34 .

3 06
 Fi g .8 - 33 Snub－
bing string for deep
flowing well
1 - Tubing hanger ; 2 - Tele－
scoping compensator ; 3 -
Sliding sleeve ; 4 - Insert
sealing assembly ; 5 - Per－
manent packer and downhole
valve; 6 - Testing mandrel;
7 - Oil reservoir ; 8 - Bottom
of well
F i g . 8 - 34 Joint
perforating - producing
string
1 - Tubing hanger ; 2 - Pro－
duction casing; 3 - Perma－
nent packer ; 4 - Perforating
gun; 5 - Bottom of well ; 6 -
Oil reservoir
Fi g .8 - 35 A stan－
dard downhole string of
sucker rod pump well
1 - Pumping rod; 2 -
Sounder beacon; 3 - Pro－
ducing fluid level ; 4 - Oil
drainer ; 5 - Sucker rod
pump ; 6 - Screen pipe; 7 -
Plug; 8 - Oi l reservoir
Fi g .8 - 36 A deep
pumping string of
sucker rod pump
well
1 - Hydraulic tubing
anchor ; 2 - Sucker
rod pump; 3 - Oil
reservoir

8 .4 .1 .2 Tubing string for sucker rod pump well

A sucker rod pump system is designed for wells wit h moderate viscosit y oil and low working fluid lev－
el .
The pumping system consists of four par ts: pumping unit , pump, rod and tube .
The selection of a deep well pump is critical for t he reasonable design of the tubing string for sucker rod
pump wells which is based on the precise calculation of t he productivity index . The type and working pa－
rameters of deep well pump can be determined according to the t heoretical flow rate, fluid production and
other factors . P ump setting dept h will be defined on t he basis of working fluid level depth and reasonable
submergence dept h of the pump before t he design calculation of the sucker rod . The type of well pumping
unit can be decided after the basic parameters are compu ted in light of matching conditions of t he rod and
t ubing and combination of t he pump working system wit h rod and tubing . The production tubing string of
sucker rod pump is mainly composed of pump , rod , tubing and t he other downhole tools . A standard st ring
is shown in Fig .8 - 35 . In order to improve the efficiency , t he t ubing has to be fixed by a tubing anchor if
it is a deep pumping st ring as show n in Fig .8 - 36 .
3 07
 Fi g .8 - 37 Different types of sucker rod pump tubing string
1 - Packing off the bottom and producing the top; 2 - Packing off the top and producing the bottom ; 3 - Packing off the
middle and producing the both sides ; 4 - Packing off the both sides and producing the middle; 5 - Sucker rod pump ; 6 -
Packer ; 7 - Oil reservoir ; 8 - Oi l reservoir

Functionally , the tubing st ring of sucker rod pump can be classified as producing from upper zone
w hile closing t he lower zone and vice versa , or plugging in t he middle zone while producing at bot h ends
and vice versa , as shown in Fig .8 - 37 .
Sucker rod pumping technology has had new developmen t in t he past years . Its usage range is enor－
mously broadened . A few types of sucker rod pumps wit h special feat ures have been manufactured and
widely employed . These include sand con trol plug pumps , immersed heavy oil pumps , valvular pumps, gas
lock con trol pumps and corrosion resisting pumps, all of which can be applied in special wells instead of the
conventional sucker rod pump .
8 .4 .1 .3 Tubing string for hydraulic piston pump well
The fundamental rules of t he hydraulic piston pump system is to pressurize t he power fluid and pump it
dow n t he well wit h t he pump on t he surface and then to drive t he hydraulic motor . Mean while, hydraulic
motor drives the dow nhole pump up and dow n to lift the liquid to the surface .
A hydraulic piston production system is applied to thin oil, high pour point oil, and heavy oil wit h a
moderate viscosit y , and deep wells . When t he system exploits high pour poin t oil by circulation of heated
power fluid , in case of the heavy oil with a moderate viscosit y, its efficiency is remarkable compared wit h
t he other artificial lift methods . In t he initial stage of development , the result will be much better w hen
combined with jet pump . In the later stage of water flooding well, t he economic benefit is not high because
of high water - cut if the power fluid is oil .
There are two circulation methods for the power fluid of hydraulic piston pump systems , t he open sys－
tem ( Fig .8 - 38 ) and closed system ( Fig .8 - 39 ) . The surface power fluid circulation system can be locat－
ed in a remote area , or a cent ralized cont rol pump station .
3 08
 Fi g .8 - 38 Open power fluid circulation system of
hydraulic piston pump system
1 - High pressure control manifold; 2 - Surface pump; 3 -
Engine ; 4 - Power fuild tank ; 5 - Wel lhead equipment ; 6 -
Downhole pump mandrel; 7 - Hydraulic piston pump
Fi g .8 - 39 Closed power fluid circulat ion system
of hydraulic piston pump system
1 - High pressure control manifold; 2 - Surface pump; 3 -
Engine; 4 - Power fuild; 5 - Wellhead equipment ; 6 -
Downhole pump mandrel; 7 - Hydraulic piston pump

Production system of a hydraulic piston pump is characterized by high efficiency and lift . The dow n－
hole hydraulic motor creates greater producing pressure draw ndow n , t hus promotes formation fluid flow in－
3
to the wellbore . The maximum flow rate of dow nhole pump is up to 1000m / d . But t he system needs much
more equipment wit h high pressure - bearing capacit y on t he surface process and a complicated power fluid
system .
The procedures for t he design of hydraulic piston pump production system are to select the circulation
pattern of t he power fluid , downhole string configuration , pump hanger dept h and the type of pump unit,
and then calculate the theoretical flow rate , working st rokes per minute and flow rate of t he power fluid .
The dow nhole string of t he production system is composed of t ubing , downhole pump , packer and
necessary downhole tools . The delivery of t he power fluid can be divided in to t he commingling producing
string , separate zone producing st ring in single in terval, closed parallel dual - st ring system and closed con－
cen tric dual - st ring system .
Commingling producing st rings are shown in Fig .8 - 40 . Separate zone producing strings are show n in
Fig .8 - 41 . Dual - st ring system are shown in Fig .8 - 42 .
8 .4 .1 .4 Tubing string for electric submersible pump well
The elect ric submersible pump producing system is composed of t he dow nhole assembling unit , surface
equipment and wireline . The dow nhole assembling unit is composed of an electric submersible pump , oil/
gas separator , submersible motor and protection system . The surface equipment includes a transformer and
con trol panel .
The elect ric submersible pump is a mechanical oil production system wit h a cent rifugal pump applicable
to medium - high production wells , low - medium viscous oil, low - medium oil/ gas ratio . The range of its
lift volume is between medium and high . Selection of electric submersible pump system should be based on
t he oil/ gas ratio because t he separator of pump assembling unit is rotary . Since t he suction of t he rotating
separator is fixed , it can only work normally w hen t he condition of liquid/ gas ratio is less than 10 % .

3 09
 Fi g .8 - 41 Separate zone producing strings
Fi g .8 - 40 Commingling producing strings
a) Producing from the lower zone while the upper zone is
1 - Hydraulic piston pump; 2 - Packer ; 3 - Check valve
closed; b) Producing from the upper zone while the lower
( normally open type) ; 4 - Screen pipe ; 5 - Plug
zone is closed; c) Producing from the middle zone while
plugging both ends; 1 - Hydraulic piston pump ; 2 - Y441 -
packer ; 3 - DJD diverter ; 4 - Check valve( normally open
type) ; 5 - Screen pipe ; 6 - Plug

The design of the elect ric submersible pump system will focus on prediction of t he productivity of the
reservoir with I PR or the relative productivity index , plus the reliable dow nhole saturation pressure and
dow nhole liquid/ gas ratio data . Based on t he productivity prediction and the calculation of multiple sub－
mersible cent rifugal pump , t he type of t he pump can be selected . Once t he series are defined , the sub－
mersible motor , wireline, transformer and automantic control panel can be decided .
The dow nhole string of t he electric submersible pump system includes a pump asse mbly , packer and
necessary dow nhole tools .
The elect ric submersible pump should be run to the top of perforated interval to ensure that t he ou tlet
fluid will cool t he motor . If the submersible assembly has to be run below the formation , it is necessary to
install a leading liner , as show n in Fig .8 - 43 . The different functions and struct ures of t he dow nhole
string for the elect ric submersible pump are shown in Fig .8 - 44 .
8 .4 .1 .5 Tubing string for gas - lifting well
Gas - lifting is an artificial lifting met hod . T he technical process is to reduce t he liquid density from
t he gas injecting point to the surface in the well by injecting high pressure gas t hrough the wellbore . Conse－
quently, t he oil can continuously flow from the formation to the wellbore and t hen be lifted to t he surface
from t he bottom hole . The typical gas - lifting system is shown in Fig .8 - 45 .
The working medium of gas - lifting is natural gas . The pressurized gas lifts the liquid in t he wellbore,
and releases its ow n pressure energy . Gas - lifting with nat ural gas can be applied in low , medium and high
production wells , and medium or low viscosit y oil wells , high gas/ liquid ratio wells, and sand producing ,
wells , and directional and horizontal wells . Gas - lifting requires a stable and sufficient gas source in order
to compensate the loss . The initial investment will be higher t han t hat of t he ot her artificial lifting mea－
sures , bu t it is convenient to manage due to its low production cost and better economic benefits .
3 10
 Fi g .8 - 42 Dual - string systems for hydraulic pis－
Fi g .8 - 43 String diagram for pump assembly be－
ton pump low the reservoir
a) Closed parallel dual - string system ; b ) Closed concen－
1 - Packer ; 2 - Tubing; 3 - Production casing ; 4 - Flow
tric dual ; 1 - Power tubing; 2 - Production tubing; 3 - Hy－
leading liner ; 5 - Electric submersible pump ; 6 - Bottom of
draulic piston pump ; 4 - Packer ; 5 - check valve ; 6 -
well
Screen pipe; 7 - Plug

Gas - lifting is commonly classified in to con tinuous gas - lifting and intermittent gas - lifting . The lat－
ter includes t hree t ypes: conven tional in termitten t gas - lifting , chamber gas - lifting and plunger gas - lift－
ing . The main contents of t he dow n hole gas - lifting tools design for each gas lift met hod are to determine
t he position of gas injection point in well, iden tify how many valves should be run in above t he gas injection
point , determine setting dept h of each valve , and select size of the valve port and gas flow ratethrough the
valve por t . But t he design calculations for t he various down hole gas - lifting tools are differen t .
The unloading process of t he continuous gas - lifting is show n in Fig .8 - 46 .
The lifting process of t he intermittent gas - lifting is show n in Fig .8 - 47 .
The equipmen t of t he pulling & running chamber gas - lifting is shown in Fig .8 - 48 .
The equipmen t for the piston gas - lifting is shown in Fig .8 - 49 .
The gas injection t ubing st ring of a gas - lifting well is classified into two t ypes , among t hem , the
dow nhole string for single - t ubing gas - lifting is show n in Fig .8 - 50 .
The various characteristics of the dow nhole tubing string for gas - lifting wells are listed in T able 8 -
18 .
8 .4 .2 Tubing string for water injection wells
The string for an injector can be classified into two types: commingling water injection string and sepa－
rate zone water injection st ring .

3 11
Fi g .8 - 44 The diagram for electric submersible pump string
1 - Single zone production; 2 - Packing off the bottom and producing the top; 3 - Packing off the top and producing the
bottom; 4 - Packing off the both sides and producing the middle; 5 - Electric submersible pump; 6 - Back - off sub ; 7 -
Packer
Fi g .8 - 45 The diagram of gas - lifting system
1 - Compressor station; 2 - Transporting surplus gas ; 3
- Gas for gas - lifting; 4 - Oil well production; 5 - Gas
injection manifold; 6 - Injected gas ; 7 - Tubing and cas－
ing pressure recorder ; 8 - Production manifold ; 9 - Oil/
gas separator ; 10 - Oil tank ; 11 - To oil transport
pipeline
3 12
8 .4 .2 .1 Tubing string for commingling water injection
　 　 　 　 well
　 The commingling water injection string can be
employed in a well wit h less pressure differen tial be－
tween zones if there are not many water injection zones .
The configuration of t he commingling water injec－
tion st ring is relatively simple . It’s a blank tubing , or a
packer is set above the water injection zone to protect
t he casing above it , as show n in Fig .8 - 51 .
8 .4 .2 .2 Tubing string for separate zone water injec－
tion well
　 The st ring for t he separate zone water injection is
commonly classified into t hree types according to the
configurations of t he injection flow regulators, fixed wa－
ter dist ribution st ring , movable water dist ribution st ring
and side - pocket water distribu tion string , as show n in
Fig .8 - 52 , Fig .8 - 53 .
The side - pocket water dist ribution st ring can be
fu ther classified into two types according to t he adop ted
packer . One is fit for t he well flushing and t he ot her
not .
The water injection string from tubing and casing
respectively is shown in Fig .8 - 56 .
The au to - regular separate zone water injection
string for two zones is show n in Fig .8 - 57 .
The dual - string separate zone water injection
string is show n in Fig .8 - 58 .
 Fi g .8 - 46 The unloading process of the continuous gas - lifting
1 - To separator ; 2 - Choke ; 3 - Injecting gas; 4 - Top valve opened; 5 - Second stage valve opened; 6 - Third stage
valve opened; 7 - Bottom valve opened ; 8 - Top valve closed; 9 - Second stage valve closed; 10 - Third stage valve
opened (operating valve)

The concent ric t ubing separate zone water injection st rings are shown in Fig .8 - 59 .
The main basis for separate zone water dist ribution st ring design is the water injection indicator curve
for individual water injection zone , which shows the water - intake capacit y of water injection zone . Anot h－
er basis for design is nozzle friction loss curve for water injection nozzle, w hich reflects quantitative relation－
ship among nozzle size, water distribu tion injection rate and t hrottle loss t hrough the nozzle . The nozzle loss
curves for injection flow regulators with various configurations are also different . The nozzle friction loss
curve was draw n according to t he data from laboratory simulation tests . Three stages of injection flow regu－

3 13
lators are generally taken . There is a large amoun t of test and adjustmen t work due to multiple stages .

Ta b l e 8 - 18 The characterist ics of downhole tubing string for gas - lifting wells
single - t ubing gas injection Multi - st ring gas
Open st ring Semi - closed string Closed st ring injection

The bot tom is open . No
packer and check valve .
Used in the wells in which
packer can’t be used .
T here is packer but no check
valve at its bot tom . The
packer is used to preven t for－
mation fluid from entering
gas injection point above
packer . It ’s mainly used in
con tinuous gas - lifting .
T here are packer and check
valve at its bot tom to avoid
injected gas entering forma－
tion . Mainly used in in ter－
mittent gas - lifting .
Multi - layer pay zones can
produce at t he same time .
I t has a single - t ubing
packer at its bottom and a
dual - tubing packer at its
top .

The separate zone injection string w hich consists of side - pocket injection flow regulators and com－
pressed - type packers is often used for wells wit h dept h less than 3000m . The injection string w hich con－
sists of a hollow movable injection flow regulator and hydraulic expanded packer is often used for zonal injec－
tion of moderately deep or shallow wells . There is a complete set of dow nhole tools such as circulating
valve, screen , plug , etc . for every kind of zonal injection st ring .
8 .4 .3 Tubing string for natural gas wells
Tubing string for natural gas well in China has been development into a once - run string for perforat－
ing, acidizing , flowing back , test , performance logging and production . The t ubing st ring has been de－
scribed in the chapter of perforating .
Natural gas usually con tains corrosive gas such as H2 S, CO2 etc . Therefore, an ti - corrosive tubing
string has to be used . H2 S - resisting packer should be run above gas reservoir so as to seal t he annulus be－
tween t ubing and casing . Corrosion inhibitor is injected into t he annulus ( Fig .8 - 60) .
Natural gas , N2 , CO2 or other kind of gas are usually injected in to oil reservoir in order to enhance re－
covery . Tubing string has to stand high pressure . E ach thread should also be highly gas - tigh t because gas
column pressure is lower , gas injection pressure is higher , and tubing and dow nhole tool in string always
work under high pressure .
8 .4 .3 .1 Tubing string structure
A typical completion tubing st ring for natural gas is shown in Fig . 8 - 61 .
8 .4 .3 .2 Technical features ( for example)
(1 ) Tubing : Tubing with 73mm (2 in ) , 9 .54 kg/ m , N - 80 , VAM t hread which is highly gas -
tight seal .
( 2) Packer : Permanen t packer wit h anchor seal assembly . Baker Type SAB - 3 packer . has simplicity
in st ructure and it works reliably . I t is applicable to 140mm ( 5 in) or 178mm ( 7 in ) casing hole . Its
t hread is VAM . Packing element is made of propyl cyanide rubber about 70 degree hardness .
(3 ) Mandrel:
①57mm ( 2 in) , t ype F . It works as a pressure test tool for tubing and a tool to plug bottomhole for
packer setting .
②57mm ( 2 in) , type R . It works as a tool for setting bottom hole measuring inst rument .
8 .4 .4 Tubing strings for directional and horizontal wells

8 .4 .4 .1 Tubing string for directional well

　 The deviated section of a directional well is about 50°. Oil well pumps of various kinds including sucker
rod pumps, hydraulic piston pumps and electric submersible pumps are mostly run at some place of straigh t
hole above kick - off point . If t he liquid level is below the kick - off point , for all types of pumps it may be
better to be set in an angle holding section where the deviation is less t han 30°. The reason is t hat oil well
3 14
pumps, especially sucker rod pumps, can normally work when inclination angle of pump body is less than
30°. After sucker rod pump is put into an angle holding section , t he t ubing centralizer and oil drainer are
put on tubing . Shock absorbing and anti - loose device and nylon cen tralizer are put on t he sucker rod
string . A ball or roller collar is also pu t on the sucker rod in t he wellbore with a great curvature . Production
t ubing string is show n in Fig .8 - 62 .

Fi g .8 - 47 The lifting process diagram of the in－

termittent gas - lift ing
1 - Valve 1 (closed) ; 2 - Valve 2 (closed ) ; 3 - Valve 3
(closed) ; 4 - Valve 4 (closed) ; 5 - Valve 5( closed) ; 6
- Valve 5( opened) ; 7 - Oil reservoir

Fi g 8. - 49 The equipment forf the plunger gas

Fi g 8
. - 48 The equipment of the pulling & run－
ning chamber gas - lifting
( a) - Dual - packer chamber lifting tool ; ( b) - Inserted
chamber lifting tool . 1 - Surface controller ; 2 - To sepa－
rator ; 3 - Injected gas ; 4 - Pulling and running chamber
valve; 5 - Bypass packer ; 6 - Drain valve; 7 - Sub－
mersible pipe ; 8 - Standing valve; 9 - Bottom packer ;
10 - Oil reservoir
- lift ing
1 - Lubricator ; 2 - Straight tee; 3 - Manual trap; 4 -
Master valve; 5 - Two pen pressure recorder ; 6 - Pres－
sure gauge; 7 - Time period controller ; 8 - Pneumatic
diaphragm valve; 9 - To separator ; 10 - Compensated
gas line; 11 - Liquid slug; 12 - Brush - type plunger ; 13
- Casing; 14 - Tubing; 15 - Lifting gas ; 16 - Buffer
spring; 17 - Tubing champ ; 18 - Oil and gas

3 15
8 .4 .4 .2 Tubing string for horizontal well
Pump setting technique of completion tubing
string for a horizon tal well is similar to that of direc－
tional well . A production tubing st ring for sucker rod
pump is shown as Fig .8 - 63 .
A production tubing st ring for jet pump , sucker
rod pump , and admixing t hin oil in horizon tal well
are shown in Fig .8 - 64 , 8 - 65 and Fig .8 - 66 .
8 .4 .5 Force analysis for well completion tubing
　 　 　 string
8 .4 .5 .1 Free tubing string
Fi g .8 - 50 The downhole string for single - tubing
　 Free t ubing string is show n in Fig .8 - 67 . gas - lifting
1 ) Calculation Formula for T ensile Load on Tub－ 1 - To separator ; 2 - Choke; 3 - High pressure gas ; 4 -
ing String Gas lift valve; 5 - Packer ; 6 - Standing valve ; 7 - Oil
(1 ) Calculation formula of t hread an ti - slipping reservoir ; (a) Open gas - lifting tubing string; ( b) Semi -
load for plain t ubing . closed gas - lifting tubing string; ( c ) Closed gas - lifting
tubing string

Fi g 8
. - 51 The commingling
water injection string
1 - Packer ; 2 - Water injection zone; 3
- Screen pipe; 4 - Plug
Fi g 8
. - 52 The fixed water
distribution string
1 - Flow controller ( choke ) ; 2 - Water
injection zone; 3 - Testing ball seat ; 4
- Packer ; 5 - Bal l seat
Fi g .8 - 53 The movable wa－
ter distibution string
1 - Hollow movable injection flow regu－
lator; 2 - Water injection zone; 3 -
Packer; 4 - Circulating valve; 5 -
Screen pipe; 6 - Plug

3 16
Fi g .8 - 54 The sidel - pocket water distribut ion
string
1 - Side - pocket injection flow regulator ; 2 - Water injec－
tion zone; 3 - Packer ; 4 - Bumping cylinder ; 5 - Circulating
valve; 6 - Screen pipe; 7 - Plug; 8 - Ball seat
Fi g 8
. - 55 The side - pocket water distribution fit
for well - flushing
1 - Water injection zone; 2 - Packer ; 3 - Side - pocket in－
jection flow regulator ; 4 - Ball seat ; 5 - Screen pipe; 6 -
Plug

Fi g .8 - 56 The water injection Fi g .8 - 57 The auto - regular Fi g 8

string from tubing and casing re－
spectively
1 - Water injection zone 1 ; 2 - Water
injection zone 2 ; 3 - Tubing anchor ; 4 -
Packer ; 5 - Bottom of well
separate zone water injection
string for two zones
1 - Water injection zone 1 ; 2 - Water
injection zone 2 ; 3 - Dual - zone auto
- regular injection flow regulator ; 4 -
Tubing anchor ; 5 - Packer ; 6 - Bottom
of well
. - 58 The dual - string sep－
arate zone water injection string
system
1 - Surface casing ; 2 - Tubing; 3 -
Production casing; 4 - Packer ; 5 - Oil
reservoir ; 6 - Bottom of well

3 17
Fi g .8 - 59 The concentric tubing
separate zone water inject ion
1 - Oi l Reservoir
Fi g 8
. - 60 Gas production tubing
string for natural gas containing
corrosive gas ( H2 S, CO2 , etc .)
1 - Tubing; 2 - Corrosion inhibitor ; 3 -
Surface casing; 4 - Corrosion inhibitor
injection valve; 5 - Packer ; 6 - Pro－
duction casing; 7 - Bottom of wel l; 8 -
Gas reservoir
Fi g .8 - 61 Schematic diagram of
completion tubing string for gas
injection well
1 - 2 in VAM tubing; 2 - Anchor seal;
3 - Hydraulic permanent packer ;
4 - 2 in F mandrel; 5 - 2 in screen
pipe; 6 - 2 in R mandrel; 7 - 2 in
bel l mouth; 8 - Perforation zone

2 2 - 3
F = π[( D - 2 t ) - d ] ・σs × 10 / 4 ( 8 - 6)

w here : F = Tubing string tensile load , k N;

D = Pipe ex ternal diameter , mm ;
d = Pipe internal diameter , mm ;
t = Thread depth , mm ;
When t hread pitch is 10 threads/ in , t = 1 .412mm ;
When t hread pitch is 8 t hreads/ in , t = 1 .8 1mm ;
σs = Steel yield limit , MPa
(2 ) Calculation formula of tensile load for ex ternal upset tubing:

2 2 -3
F = π( D - d ) ・σs × 10 / 4 ( 8 - 7)

The symbols are t he same as above .

8 .4 .5 .2 Tubing string with packer
Tubing string with packer is shown in Fig .8 - 68 .
After set ting t he slip - type packer , the dead weight of t he upper tubing compresses t he packer rubber
to keep sealing . Part of t ubing above a packer in a casing is in a helical bucking state . The calculation for－
mula is as follows:

3 18
Fi g .8 - 62 Diagram of oil pumping tubing string
for directional well
1 - Casing; 2 - Tubing; 3 - Producing fluid level; 4 - Suck－
er rod; 5 - Roller collar ; 6 - Anti - loosener ; 7 - Weighting
rod; 8 - Tubing centralizer ; 9 - Oil well pump ; 10 - Screen
pipe; 11 - Plug; 12 - Bottom of well
Fi g .8 - 64 Diagram of single tubing string for jet
pump, admixing thin oil and sucker rod pumping
technique for horizontal well
1 - Mixed fluid outlet; 2 - Hot thin oil inlet ; 3 - Sucker rod
pump ; 4 - Kick - off point ; 5 - Intermediate casing; 6 - Jet
pump ; 7 - Horizontal interval length; 8 - Production casing
Fi g 8
. - 63 Diagram of sucker rod pumping tubing
string for horizontal well
1 - Tubing; 2 - Anti - loosener of sucker rod; 3 - Producing
fluid level; 4 - Oil drainer ; 5 - Sucker rod pump; 6 - Kick
- off point ; 7 - Liner ; 8 - Production casing; 9 - Screen
pipe; 10 - Plug; 11 - Oil reservoir
Fi g .8 - 65 Diagram of tubing strings for jet pump,
admining thin oil and sucker rod pumping tech－
nique for horizontal well
1 - Mixed fluid outlet; 2 - Hot thin oil inlet ; 3 - Sucker rod
pump ; 4 - Dual packer ; 5 - Kick - off point ; 6 - Jet pump;
7 - Horizontal interval length
3 19
 ( Δr ) 2 F20
4
ΔL2 = 1 .2746453 × 10 ( 8 - 8)
KqEJ

or

( Δr ) 2 Kq L20
ΔL2 = 1 .2258313 × ( 8 - 9)
EJ

w here : ΔL2 = Tubing lengt h shortening deformation caused by helical buckling effect, m ;
Fo = Slack loading of tubing st ring , kN ;
L o = The length from neut ral point of t ubing string to packer position or supporting poin t, m ;
q = Average weight of t ubing in air when a collar is added per 8m, kg/ m ;
4
J = Inertia couple for tubing cross section , mm ;

π 4
J = ( R - r4 ) (8 - 10)
4

Δr = Difference between casing internal radius and t ubing ex ternal radius , mm;
　 　 　 　 Δr = r T - R;
R = Tubing external radius , mm ;
r = Tubing internal radius , mm ;
r T = Casing internal radius, mm .

Fi g .8 - 66 Diagram of tubing strings for Fi g .8 - 67 Free tubing string Fi g . 8 - 68 Tubing string

jet pump, admixing thin oil and sucker
rod pumping technique for horizontal
well
1 - Mixed fluid outlet ; 2 - Hot thin oil inlet ; 3 -
Sucker rod pump; 4 - Dual packer ; 5 - Kick -
off point ; 6 - Jet pump; 7 - Horizontal interval
length; 8 - Oil reservoir
1 - Tubing; 2 - Surface casing; 3
- Production casing; 4 - Tubing
shoe ; 5 - Bottom of well
with packer
1 - Tubing; 2 - Surface casing; 3
- Packer ; 4 - Production casing;
5 - Tubing shoe; 6 - Bottom of
well

3 20
The ot her symbols are the same as before .
Friction force will occurs between t ubing and casing due to helical buckling effect . The smaller t he Δr
or EJ , the greater t he friction force . Therefore a part of tubing slack load is offset by friction force and can
not effectively work as setting load to compression packer rubber .

References
[1 ] L .E .Elkins:“Western Tight Sands Major Research Requirements”, Proc, Gas Research Inst /.
American Gas Assn /. U .S DOE In tl . Gas Research Conference , Chicago( June 9 ～12 , 1980)
[2 ] R .W Veatch Jr . et al .: ”An Overview of H ydraulic Fract uring”, Recen t Advances in Hydraulic
Fracturing , 1989
[3] D .R .Davies et al .:“ Field Development by H ydraulic Fracturing : A High - Techetegy Success
Story”, SPE22392 .
[4 ] J .W .EL Y:“ Fracturing Fluids and Additives”, Recen t Advances in Hydraulic F ract uring , 1989
[5 ] A .D Pierce et al .:“ Improved Well Productivit y Utilizing a Foamed Borate Crosslinked Fluid”,
SP E25462 .
[6] W .J .McGuire et al .:“ The Effect of Ver tical F ract ures on Well Productivity”, Trans , A IM E
(1960) 219 401 - 03
[7] R .W .Veatch Jr .:“ Economics of F ract uring : Some Methods, Examples , and Case St udies”,
SPE15509
[8 ] M .J .Econmides et al .: Reservoir Stimulation , Second Edition , 1989
[9 ] K .E .Brown et al . Lifting Method Production Technology , 1987
[10] Yao Yuanqin et al .: Thick Oil Thermal P roduction Techniques Colloquia, Beijing : Pet roleum
Indust ry P ress , 1993
[11] H .B .B radley et al, A Handbook of Petroleum Engineering , Volume One, 1992
[12] Wang Hongxun et al .: The Theory of P roduction Technology , Beijing , Petroleum Indust ry
Press, 1989
[13] Wan Renpu , Luo Yingjun , chief editor , A Handbook of Production Techniques , Part 4 , Bei－
jing , Pet roleum Indust ry Press , 1993
[ 14 ] Wan Renpu , Luo Yingjun , chief editor, A Handbook of Production Techniques , Part 2 , Beijing ,
Petroleum Industry Press , 1992
[15] B .B .Willians et al .: The Theory of Oil Well Acidizing , 1983
[16] T .O .Allen et al .: Production Operation : Completion , Workover and Stimulation Mearmen t,
Volume One, 1988
[17 ] Li Zhimin et al .: Oil Well Injection & Production Operation , Beijing, Petroleum Indust ry
Press , 1988
[18] Zhao Fuling : “ Production Chemistry”, Petroleum University Publishing House, 1989 .5 ( in
Chinese )

3 21
Appendix Index of Term Noun
API = American Pet roleum Instit ute 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 　 chapter 1～ 8
ASR = Anelasticity Strain Recovery chapter 8
CBL = Cement Bond Logging chapter 5
C FE = Core Flow Efficiency chapter6
CI = Completeness Index chapter7
CMC = Carboxymet hyl Cellulose chapter5
CR = Condition Ratio chapter7
DF = Damade Factor chapter7
DR = damage Ratio chapter7
DST = Drilling Stem Test chapter6～ 7
DSCA = Differencial St rain Curve A nalysis chapter8
DWVA = Differencial Wave Velocity Analysis chapter8
ECP = External Casing Packer chapter2 , 5
FE = Floe Efficiency chapter7
H EC = H ydroxyet hyl Cellulose chapter4
IP R = Inflow Performance Relationship chapter3 , 8
PAM = Polyacrylamide chapter4
P R = Productivity Ratio chapter7
PSI = Perforate, Stimulate and Isolate System chapter6
TCP = Tubing Conveyed Perforation chapter6
TP R = Tubing Performance Relationship chapter3
TSO = Tip Screen O ut chapter8
T T P = Through Tubing Perforation chapter6
VDL = Variable Density Logging chapter5
WCG = Wireline Casing Gun chapter6
WP R = Wellhead Performance Relationship chapter3
XC = Xant homonas Campest ris Polymer chapter4

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 Advanced Well Completion Engineering
( English Edition )

Translated by:
Wang Hongxun( P reface, Foreword , and In troduction ) ;
Xiong Youming( Con tents , Section 4 , 5 of Chap ter 1 ) ;
Zhang Kaihong and Chen Yijian( Section 1 , 2 of Chapter 1) ;
Wang Ping( Section 3 of Chap ter 1 ) ;
Zhu Deyi (Chapter 2 ) ;
Shu shihong and Xiong Youming ( Chapter 3 ) ;
Jiao Di( Chapter 4) ;
Yang Xianmin( Chapter 5) ;
Xiang Huanzhang( Chpater 6) ;
Liu Nengqiang( Chapter 7) ;
Wang G uangjun and Jiang Jianxun( Chapter 8 ) ;
Proofed and examined by:
Xiang Huan zhang , Zhao Min , Xiong Youming and Zhu Deyi
This draft was reviewed by Dr . Todd Burdick , Cythia Edeu and Jesse Romostedt
Duty editor ( English edition ) :
Zhang Weibing and Zhang Weiguo
Acknowledgments
Many people have con tributed to t he completion of this book in addition to the aut hors and editors al－
ready listed before . We also express t hanks to the following people .
He Jinglan , Zheng Lianghong , Liu Anjian , H u Zhimian , H uang Shencong , Lang Dongxiao, Yu
Kerang , Zhang Rui, Zhao Ming , Wang Zhenrong , Lei Xiaoqiang , Pan Shuting , Li Moutao , Wu Xijun , Liu
K unFang , Xie Yuping, Gao Liping, Song Zhi, Wang Pu tan , Zhao Yuangang , Xu Qiang , Tong Min, Li
Yingchuan , Wang Jue, Wang Zhongming , Q u Jie , Han Kongying .

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