International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 2012, 22, 89  -97

© 2012 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Methods of Body-Mass Reduction

by Combat Sport Athletes
Ciro José Brito, Aendria Fernanda Castro Martins Roas, Igor Surian Souza Brito,
João Carlos Bouzas Marins, Claudio Córdova, and Emerson Franchini

The aim of this study was to investigate the methods adopted to reduce body mass (BM) in competitive athletes
from the grappling (judo, jujitsu) and striking (karate and tae kwon do) combat sports in the state of Minas
Gerais, Brazil. An exploratory methodology was employed through descriptive research, using a standardized
questionnaire with objective questions self-administered to 580 athletes (25.0 ± 3.7 yr, 74.5 ± 9.7 kg, and
16.4% ± 5.1% body fat). Regardless of the sport, 60% of the athletes reported using a method of rapid weight
loss (RWL) through increased energy expenditure. Strikers tend to begin reducing BM during adolescence.
Furthermore, 50% of the sample used saunas and plastic clothing, and only 26.1% received advice from a
nutritionist. The authors conclude that a high percentage of athletes uses RWL methods. In addition, a high
percentage of athletes uses unapproved or prohibited methods such as diuretics, saunas, and plastic clothing.
The age at which combat sport athletes reduce BM for the first time is also worrying, especially among strikers.

Keywords: martial arts, weight loss, athletic performance, diuretics

Combat sport athletes are categorized using body
mass as a criterion. Because of this categorization, many
athletes choose rapid-weight-loss (more than 5% body-
mass reduction in less than 1 week) procedures with
the objective of competing against smaller and weaker
athletes (Artioli, Gualano, et al., 2010; Artioli, Iglesias,
et al., 2010; Perriello, 2001). However, one must be
cautious when undergoing rapid weight loss because
there is evidence of associated impairment of athletic
performance, in addition to the risk of death (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 1998; Forte, Precoma-
Neto, Neto, Maia, & Faria-Neto, 2006).
The loss of large amounts of body mass in a short
time (as shown previously) is extremely harmful to
the body; it can reduce muscle strength (Ftaiti, Grélot,
Coudreuse, & Nicol, 2001), performance time in aero-
bic activities, plasma and blood volume (Stöhr et al., in
press), myocardial efficiency, and maximum oxygen con-
sumption (American Dietetic Association et al., 2009). In
addition, reductions in renal blood fluid and the volume of
liquid filtered by the kidneys (Melin et al., 1997) and gly-
C. Brito is with the Physical Education Dept., Federal Uni-
versity of Sergipe, Aracaju, Brazil. Roas is with the School of
Physical Education, Izabela Hendrix Methodist University, Belo
Horizonte, Brazil. I. Brito and Marins are with the Physical
Education Dept., Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, Brazil.
Córdova is with the Physical Education Dept., Brasilia Catholic
University, Brasilia, Brazil. Franchini is with the School of
Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São
Paulo, Brazil.
cogen stores (American Dietetic Association et al., 2009)
have been reported. Rapid weight loss also compromises
the thermoregulatory process and electrolytic equilibrium
(Oppliger, Case, Horswill, Landry, & Shelter, 1996).
In addition to physiological damage, rapid weight
loss can affect mental function through deficits in con-
centration, memory, and cognitive processing speed, as
well as increase the risk of developing eating disorders
(Choma, Sforzo, & Keller, 1998; Landers, Arent, & Lutz,
2001; Rouveix, Bouget, Pannafieux, Champely, & Filaire,
2007). Considering that winners can be defined by a per-
fect technique, difficulty to concentrate and to conduct
a correct decision-making process may improve their
adversaries’ chance of winning. Moreover, dehydration
exceeding 2% of body mass can negatively affect posture
maintenance (Lion et al., 2010), which is important to
both grappling and striking actions.
Induced dehydration has been described as the
most significant adverse factor leading to a decline in
performance. The loss of body fluids from exercise in hot
environments and the use of plastic clothing, laxatives,
and diuretics can affect the body’s electrolyte balance,
especially for calcium, which can result in lower bone
mineralization and cause stress fractures (Leydon &
Wall, 2002). Green, Petrou, Fogarty-Hover, and Rolf
(2007) reported that the risk of athlete injury during judo
competitions increased in those who had lost more than
5% of their body mass before the competition. Often,
diuretics produce hypokalemia in athletes, which could
pose a health risk because the reduction of body potas-
sium alters the activity of the sodium-potassium pump,
which in turn may lead to death (Cadwallader, de la Torre,

89
90   Brito et al.
Tieri, & Botrè, 2010). In fact, this process led to the death
of three Olympic wrestlers in 1997 (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 1998).
Although an extensive body of evidence points out
that the rapid-weight-loss process is widely addressed in
Olympic wrestling (Oppliger et al., 1996; Landers et al.,
2001; Oppliger, Nelson Steen, & Scott, 2003; Oppliger,
Utter, Scott, Dick, & Klossner, 2006; Perriello, 2001) and
judo (Artioli, Gualano, et al. 2010; Artioli, Iglesias, et al.
2010; Artioli, Franchini, et al., 2010; Koral & Dosseville,
2009), its prevalence has not yet been investigated in
jujitsu, karate, and tae kwon do athletes. Our objective
was to survey and discuss rapid-weight-loss practices
adopted by judo, jujitsu, karate, and tae kwon do ath-
letes—two grappling and two striking combat sports.
Methods
This was an observational cross-sectional study, approved
by the Federal University of Viçosa Ethics in Human
Research Committee, in accordance with the Helsinki
Convention.
Participants
Initially, contact was made with the following associa-
tions in Minas Gerais (the second most populous state in
Brazil) to survey registered sports gyms and clubs (N =
351): the Judo Federation, the Judo League, the Jujitsu
Federation, the Jujitsu League, the Karate Federation, and
two Minas Gerais tae kwon do federations. Subsequently,
we adopted a simple-random-sample technique to select
the sports gyms and clubs to be included in the study (n =
96)—a draw was conducted to determine a representative
sample of the gyms and clubs from the city (without area
division), although all zones were included in our sample.
After contact with these institutions, the athlete selection
was again accomplished by simple random sample. Of the
population (N = 1,650), 1,200 athletes met the inclusion
criteria (302 in judo, 337 in jujitsu, 297 in karate, and 264
Table 1  Competitive Level and Rapid Weight Loss of Athletes in Absolute and Relative Values
Judo Jujitsu
Competitive level
  regional 87 (60.0%)a 72 (46.5%)c
  national 48 (33.0%)b 53 (34.2%)
  international 10 (6.9%) 30 (19.4%)
Weight loss
  regional 52 (59.8%) 45 (62.5%)
  national 35 (72.9%) 28 (52.8%)
  international 4 (40.0%) 15 (50.0%)
ap < .05 between regional vs. national and international levels for judo, karate, tae kwon do, and all athletes grouped. bp < .05 between national
vs. international levels for judo, karate, tae kwon do, and all athletes grouped. cp < .05 between regional vs. international levels for jujitsu athletes.
in tae kwon do), of whom 28.3% declined to participate
in the study, mostly because they did not have time to
complete all the procedures, and 23.3% were not present
at training sessions or competitions when we conducted
the research. We included male athletes who had been
registered for at least 1 year and excluded those younger
than 18 years old and who did not participate in competi-
tions throughout the year. The final sample consisted of
580 athletes: 12.5% jujitsu, 13.1% judo, 11.9% karate,
and 15.5% tae kwon do from the total registered athletes
from the state of Minas Gerais. Table 1 includes data
on the sample distribution in relation to the competitive
level and frequency of weight loss among these athletes.
Procedures
The athletes were informed of the importance of the study
and were randomly interviewed after giving their consent.
Exploratory methodology was employed, using a stan-
dardized questionnaire with self-administered objective
questions. This questionnaire had some of the questions
previously validated to investigate weight-loss practices
in judokas (Artioli, Scagliusi, et al., 2010) and also could
be used with other combat sport athletes. Despite that,
the instrument had undergone content validity by three
researchers before the final draft (Figure 1), two of whom
work with nutrition and have extensive experience in
dietetics and body-mass manipulation. The third was
from the sport sciences area and has expertise in combat
sports and sport nutrition. The evaluators made minor
comments to improve the questionnaire’s clarity before
the final version.
After this phase, the questionnaire was applied with
30 judokas (16 below and 14 above their category weight
limits) to determine the instrument’s discriminant valid-
ity. It was expected that the athletes above their weight
limits would have a greater prevalence of rapid-weight-
loss strategies. As for discriminant validity, a higher
prevalence of adoption of rapid-weight-loss strategies was
observed in the athletes above their weight limit (85.7%)
Karate Tae kwon do Total
79 (60.8%)a 84 (56.0%)a 324 (55.9%)a
39 (30.0%)b 51 (34.0%)b 190 (32.8%)a
12 (9.2%) 15 (10.0%) 66 (11.3%)
56 (70.9%) 54 (64.3%) 207 (63.9%)
28 (71.8%) 35 (68.6%) 126 (66.3%)
8 (66.7%) 6 (40.0%) 33 (50.0%)

Figure 1 — Questionnaire to quantify the practice of rapid weight loss in athletes.
than in those below their weight limit (26.7%). Reliability
was ascertained in 35 jujitsu athletes who answered the
questionnaire twice at a 2-week interval. The correlation
between the two measures was higher than 92% on all
instrument’s items. After these procedures, the question-
naire was administered to the current study sample.
Subsequent to the questionnaire, anthropometric
measures were taken. Height and body-mass measure-
ments were made on scales with attached stadiometers
(0.5-cm range and 100-g resolution, respectively). Per-
centage body fat was estimated indirectly by the skinfold
technique (Thorland et al., 1991). We used this equation
because it was previously validated for college and high
school wrestlers (Roberts, 1998; Thorland et al., 1991)
and is still used to determine body fat in wrestlers (Kordi,
Ziaee, Rostami, & Wallace, 2011).
Statistical Analysis
A normality test (Shapiro–Wilk) was initially performed
to investigate the data distribution. When appropriate,
Rapid Weight Loss in Combat Sports   91
analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) was used to
investigate differences between groups. Scheffé’s test
(post hoc) was adopted for multiple comparisons of the
dependent variables (judo vs. jujitsu vs. karate vs. tae
kwon do vs. total). The Kruskal–Wallis test was used to
detect differences in variables that violated the normality
assumption. The chi-square test was used to determine the
association between the following variables: rapid weight
loss, weight before and after training, guidance received
on the handling of body mass, and rapid-weight-loss
procedures. The significance level was p < .05.
Results
Competitive level was not associated with weight-loss
practices (Table 1). According to Table 2, the jujitsu
athletes were significantly older than karate athletes;
however, they did not differ from the other groups. Among
combat sports, karate athletes were shorter and had prac-
ticed their sport for less time. Judo and jujitsu athletes
92   Brito et al.

were significantly heavier than karate and tae kwon do
athletes. Finally, judokas had a higher fat percentage than
the other combat sport athletes.
Table 3 shows the prevalence of participants engaged
in different rapid-weight-loss strategies in the competitive
periods. The jujitsu athletes began to reduce their body
mass at significantly later ages; the strikers performed
this process during adolescence. Strikers significantly
adopted such procedures a few years after starting in
the sport. On average, tae kwon do athletes lose body
mass within 10 days of a competition. Judokas showed a
significantly higher absolute and relative precompetitive
body-mass loss than the other combat sport athletes. The
largest reductions in body mass were 10, 8, 5, and 6 kg
in the precompetition week for judo, jujitsu, karate, and
tae kwon do, respectively.
Table 4 presents the procedures used by the athletes
tested for body-mass restriction. Judokas significantly
restricted fluid and carbohydrate intake the most, com-
pared with the strikers. Compared with the others, judokas
were least likely to use diuretics or laxatives. Judo and
karate athletes restricted fat the most before competitions.
All the alternatives presented in Tables 4 and 5 were
employed more than once.
Table 5 presents the main sources of information for
body-mass-control methods reported by these athletes.
Judo and tae kwon do athletes received significantly
more advice from fitness instructors and coaches than

Table 2  Athletes’ Age, Experience, and Anthropometric Characteristics (M ± SD)

Variable Judo Jujitsu Karate Tae kwon do Total
n 145 155 130 150 580
Age (years) 24.9 ± 3.4 26.4 ± 4.2a 23.9 ± 4.3 24.6 ± 2.9 25.0 ± 3.7
Experience (years) 8.7 ± 2.0 7.9 ± 5.7 7.1 ± 4.3b 9.1 ± 6.0 8.2 ± 4.5
body mass (kg) 80.0 ± 9.0c 78.2 ± 8.5c 69.8 ± 12.0 70.1 ± 9.3 74.5 ± 9.7d
Height (m) 1.8 ± 0.1 1.7 ± 0.2 1.7 ± 0.2b 1.8 ± 0.3 1.8 ± 0.2
Body-mass index (kg/m2) 24.7 ± 2.5 25.2 ± 2.7 25.0 ± 2.9 22.4 ± 3.1e 24.3 ± 2.8
% Body fat 17.2 ± 3.5f 15.9 ± 6.1 15.5 ± 4.2 16.8 ± 6.5 16.4 ± 5.1
ap < .05 between jujitsu vs. karate. < .05 between karate vs. judo, tae kwon do, and total. < .01 between judo and jujitsu vs. karate, tae kwon
bp bp

do, and total. dp < .01 between total vs. judo, jujitsu, karate, and tae kwon do. ep < .05 between tae kwon do vs. judo, jujitsu, karate, and total. fp <
.05 between judo vs. jujitsu, karate, tae kwon do, and total.

Table 3  Weight Control, Age at Which Body Mass Was Reduced, Precompetition Timetable When
Reduction Started, Absolute Weight Loss, and Guidance in Relation to the Loss, Absolute Values
and Percentages
Judo Jujitsu Karate Tae kwon do Total
Loses weight 62.8% 56.8% 70.8% 63.3% 63.1%
Loses >5% of body mass 43.4%e 27.1% 29.2% 28.7% 31.7%
Weighs before and after training 57.2% 41.9% 50.0% 46.7% 49.0%
Age body mass was reduced for the first time
(years) 17.0 ± 2.5 21.1 ± 5.2a 13.6 ± 1.4b 14.2 ± 2.1b 16.5 ± 2.8
How long in the sport when lost weight for the
first time (years) 5.3 ± 0.5 7.2 ± 1.1 2.4 ± 3.0b 2.5 ± 3.3b 5.5 ± 1.8
Number of days before competition that weight
loss starts 14.5 ± 6.0 21.5 ± 14.4c 14.8 ± 7.0 9.7 ± 5.2d 15.1 ± 8.1
Loss during competitive week (kg) 5.6 ± 2.2e 2.9 ± 1.5 2.5 ± 1.1 3.2 ± 1.2 3.6 ± 1.5
(1–10) (0.3–8) (1–5) (0.3–6) (0.3–10)
Loss during competitive week in relation to %
body mass 8.5 ± 4.2e 4.1 ± 2.0 3.6 ± 2.2 4.3 ± 3.2 5.3 ± 3.5
Receives guidance in relation to handling weight 65.5% 63.2% 80.8% 80.0% 72.1%
ap < .05 between jujitsu vs. judo, karate, tae kwon do, and total. bp < .05 between karate and tae kwon do vs. judo, jujitsu, and total. cp < .001 between
jujitsu vs. judo, karate, tae kwon do, and total. dp < .001 between tae kwon do vs. judo, jujitsu, karate, and total. ep < .05 between judo vs. jujitsu,
karate, tae kwon do, and total.
 Rapid Weight Loss in Combat Sports   93

Table 4  Procedures Engaged in for Weight Loss

Method Judo Jujitsu Karate Tae kwon do Total
Increase in activities 96.7% 85.3% 92.4% 88.4% 90.7%
Low-calorie diet 68.1% 68.2% 64.1% 70.5% 67.7%
Sauna or plastic clothing 44.0% 55.7% 47.8% 52.6% 50.0%
Carbohydrate restriction 33.0%a 40.9% 48.9% 56.8% 44.9%
Diuretics or laxatives 13.2%b 39.8% 41.3% 42.1% 34.1%
Fat restriction 16.5%a 47.7% 20.7%c 47.4% 33.1%
Fluid restriction 23.1%c 27.3% 39.1% 41.1% 32.7%
ap< .05 between judo vs. karate and tae kwon do. bp < .05 between judo vs. jujitsu, karate, tae kwon do, and total. cp < .04 judo vs. karate, jujitsu,
and tae kwon do.

Table 5  Percentage for Orientation in Relation to Body-Mass Manipulation

Guidance Judo Jujitsu Karate Tae kwon do Total
Fitness instructor 74.7% 55.7%a 63.0% 78.9% 68.1%
Coach 54.9%a 37.5%a 48.9% 68.4% 52.4%
Doctor 38.5% 28.4%b 51.1% 47.4% 41.4%
Magazines 44.0%c 18.2% 23.9% 47.4%c 33.4%
Friends 40.7%c 21.6% 19.6% 37.9%c 30.0%
School physical education teacher 19.8%d 20.5%d 34.8% 42.1% 29.3%
Parents 39.6%c 10.2% 16.3% 43.2%c 27.3%
Nutritionist 27.5% 22.7% 28.7% 25.3% 26.1%
Books 33.0%e 15.9% 15.2% 15.8% 20.0%
Other 6.6% 9.1% 9.8% 7.4% 8.2%
ap < .05 jujitsu vs. judo and tae kwon do. < .05 jiu-jitsu vs. karate and tae kwon do. < .05 judo and tae kwon do vs. jujitsu and karate. dp < .05
bp cp

judo and jujitsu vs. karate and tae kwon do. ep < .05 judo vs. jujitsu, karate, and tae kwon do.

the jujitsu athletes. Jujitsu athletes were the least likely
to consult doctors compared with the strikers. Judo and
tae kwon do athletes received most of their information
through magazines, parents, and friends. Strikers sought
their instructor’s guidance significantly more than did
the grapplers.
Discussion
This study found that over 60% of combat sport athletes,
regardless of modality, reported using a rapid-weight-loss
procedure in the competitive period through increased
energy expenditure. A disturbing factor is the age at
which these athletes started to use a sudden reduction of
body mass for the first time, particularly in the strikers.
The current study found a prevalence of athletes involved
in rapid weight loss slightly lower than that reported
by Artioli, Gualano, et al. (2010) in Brazilian judokas
(89%) and that reported by Steen and Brownell (1990) in
Olympic wrestlers in the United States (89%) but similar
to those presented by Kiningham and Gorenflo (2001) in
high school Olympic wrestlers (60–70%) and by Kordi
et al. (2011) in Iranian wrestlers.
This prevalence is of concern because the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (1998) have reported
deaths of young athletes in the competitive stages of
Olympic wrestling. In Brazil, Forte et al. (2006) described
a case of myocardial infarct in a mixed-martial-arts fighter
attempting to rapidly lose weight.
Despite studies that consistently warn of the adverse
effects of rapid weight loss (Artioli, Gualano, et al., 2010;
Landers et al., 2001; Oppliger et al., 2003), there is still
a high percentage of athletes whose body mass is above
the limit for their category. Most believe that rapid weight
loss will facilitate migration to lower weight categories
with smaller, lower performing opponents (Artioli, Igle-
sias, et al., 2010). Artioli, Gualano, et al. (2010) found
that approximately 89% of judokas (n = 822) underwent
rapid weight loss up to the day before competition. In our
study, 63.1% reported this type of practice. Therefore,
according to scientific criteria, monitoring and weight
94   Brito et al.
control during the preparation period would contribute
positively to maintaining homeostasis with fewer adverse
effects (Morton, Robertson, Sutton, & Maclaren, 2010).
Another aspect of concern is the age at which ath-
letes are involved in rapid-weight-loss strategies (during
adolescence). At this life stage, this type of practice can
affect body development through changes in endocrine
mechanisms such as testosterone release and growth
factor linked to insulin-1 (Roemmich & Sinning, 1997).
Based on this information, it is likely that strikers are the
most affected by using rapid weight loss (Table 3). The
age range for these groups was similar to those reported
by Artioli, Gualano, et al. (2010) for judokas (<15 years)
and by Kordi et al. (2011) for wrestlers (15.5 ± 2.4 years).
In addition, strikers use inappropriate rapid-weight-loss
methods after 2 years of practice, thereby indicating a
cultural bias in these sports that steers fighters toward
such procedures.
Among rapid-weight-loss strategies, increased
physical activity and a low-calorie diet intensify in the
last 2 days before competition. If adopted during the
preparation period, these strategies can benefit the athlete
by preserving muscle mass, strength, and body fluids.
Near the competition these strategies affect performance
because muscle protein turnover requires approximately
72 hr (Oppliger et al., 1996). Moreover, in judokas, 24
hr was not sufficient for complete rehydration after a 6%
body-mass reduction (Fogelholm, Koskinen, Laakso,
Rakinen, & Ruokonen, 1993). According to the Ameri-
can Dietetic Association et al. (2009), loss of body mass
should not exceed 2% per week.
Recent follow-up in boxers showed that it was pos-
sible to reduce body mass considerably (9.4 kg) without
a sharp reduction in lean body mass and the use of
dehydration procedures over a 12-week period (Morton
et al., 2010). Thus, for the athletes analyzed in this study,
mean reduction in body mass (7.45 kg) should not have
exceeded 1.5 kg in absolute terms. Instead, we found
that grapplers reported a reduction of more than 8.0 kg
precontest. However, it is important to consider some
aspects involved with weight-loss practices in combat
sport athletes. Recent studies (Artioli, Franchini, et al.,
2010; Buford, Rossi, Smith, O’Brien, & Pickering, 2006;
Finn, Dolgener, & Williams, 2004) indicated that athletes
highly experienced with these procedures seem to not
be affected by them, but more investigation is needed to
better understand which physiological or psychological
mechanisms can explain this phenomenon. Kordi et al.
(2011) found that many wrestlers (72%) think weight
loss can help them achieve better performance, although
a similar percentage (77%) believed that rapid weight
loss has negative side effects.
In addition, studies that analyzed weight loss and
competitive performance reported inconsistent results.
Wroble and Moxley (1998) observed that a higher per-
centage of placers (58%) had not followed the minimum
wrestling weight recommendation than had followed such
recommendation (33%). Moreover, Horswill, Scott, Dick,
and Hayes (1994) analyzed body-mass recovery after
weigh-in and competition in wrestlers (266 winners and
269 defeated athletes in their first match during a national-
level competition). They found no difference between
winners and defeated athletes concerning absolute weight
gain (winners 3.5 ± 1.2 kg, defeated 3.5 ± 1.5 kg), rela-
tive weight gain (winners 5.3% ± 2.0%, defeated 5.3% ±
2.4%), and weight difference between an athlete and his
opponent (winners 0.1 ± 2.0 kg, defeated –0.1 ± 2.0 kg).
On the other hand, Alderman, Landers, Carlson, and Scott
(2004) reported that winners had lost a higher amount
of body mass (mean reduction 3.78 kg, range 2.95–4.77
kg) than defeated athletes (mean reduction 3.05 kg, range
1.91–3.95 kg). Taken together, these results indicate that
for some athletes rapid weight loss resulted in better
competitive performance, although it was not consistent
for all athletes and most of them reported negative side
effects. In our sample, no association was found between
competitive level and the amount of weight loss.
Approximately 50% of the athletes also reported
using sauna or plastic clothing and restricting carbohy-
drates. Wearing plastic clothing affects the dissipation
of body heat and increases internal temperature, caus-
ing cramps, generalized weakness, fatigue, nausea, and
diarrhea (Bigard et al., 2001). Moreover, use of a sauna
decreases bodily water stores and maximum strength
(Schoffstall, Branch, Leutholtz, & Swain, 2001).
In a sport in which muscle power is critical, such as
the four combat sports studied here, carbohydrates are the
main fuel (Artioli, Iglesias, et al. 2010). For this reason,
strikers would be significantly more affected than grap-
pling athletes. Carbohydrate restriction leaves a fighter
unprepared to compete because his ability to apply fast
and efficient technique is essential for good performance
(Artioli, Iglesias, et al., 2010). According to Kowatari et
al. (2001), rapid weight loss in judokas, associated with
carbohydrate restriction, resulted in decreased immune-
system activity, increasing the propensity for infection.
In addition, it was reported that athletes engaged in rapid
weight loss are more prone to injury (Green et al., 2007).
During high-intensity exercise, Carter, Pringle, Boobis,
Jones, and Doust (2004) observed that glycogen deple-
tion affects endurance time by altering the kinetics of
oxygen consumption. It is suggested that low carbohy-
drate availability results in decreased activity of Type II
fibers, demanding greater energy production from aerobic
fibers. In turn, carbohydrate consumption can mitigate
loss of strength and the onset of fatigue (Nybo, 2003). It
is important to realize that continuous caloric restriction
(<1,500 kcal) is related to inadequate intake of vitamins
and proteins (Rossi, Goya, Matayoshi, Pereira, & Silva,
2009), which can affect athletic performance. In addition,
vitamins attenuate oxidative stress, as well as performing
metabolic functions (Mastaloudis, Morrow, Hopkins,
Devaraj, & Traber, 2004).
A smaller percentage (approximately one third) of
those who reduced their body mass made use of fluid
restriction, diuretics, or laxatives. This type of strategy is
worrisome because diuretics can affect calcium electro-
lyte balance, thus increasing the propensity for stress frac-

tures (Leydon & Wall, 2002). Concomitantly, diuretics
lead to hypokalemia (decreased potassium concentration
in the blood), which alters sodium-potassium-pump activ-
ity and can lead to death (Shivkumar & Narins, 1995). In
addition, diuretics are included on doping lists for their
ability to mask the detection of other banned substances
and have been identified as a concern regarding positive
test results in combat sports (Halabchi, 2009). Fluid
restriction will also result in forced dehydration, which
can negatively affect performance during competition
(Oppliger et al., 1996). Reducing fat intake is an impor-
tant strategy for reducing body mass without affecting
lean body mass; however, eating less fat does not seem
to have an effect in the few days before competition. In
addition, a dietitian must plan for fat restriction because
there are essential fatty acids that should not be removed
from the diet (American Dietetic Association et al., 2009;
Morton et al., 2010).
Much of the misconduct regarding rapid weight loss
may be avoided by proper guidance. It is important that
professionals use caution when prescribing strategies
for body-mass reduction in athletes. For example, Zinn,
Schofield, and Wall (2006) found that rugby coaches had
little knowledge and improperly instructed their athletes
in this regard. In Brazil, Juzwiak and Ancona-Lopez
(2004) also found errors in the nutritional guidance
coaches provided young athletes. Another issue that
contributes to mistakes in guidance is the small demand
for dietitians (26.1%), the professionals most qualified to
guide athletes in body-mass manipulation. Table 2 shows
the percentage of fat that allows body-mass reduction.
Long-term planning and gradual reduction are recom-
mended for male athletes, who should have at least 7%
body fat to avoid harming their health (Perriello, 2001).
For the athletes in our sample it would be reasonable to
try reducing body-fat percentage, because this value was
higher than that previously reported in high-level combat
sport athletes (Franchini, Del Vecchio, Matsushigue, &
Artioli, 2011; Yoon, 2002). However, it seems that when
large samples of combat sport athletes are analyzed,
their body-fat percentage is higher than those in these
high-level groups. A recent publication (Kordi et al.,
2011) reported that a large sample (n = 436) of Iranian
wrestlers presented values (95% confidence interval
of 15.2–16.7% of body fat) similar to those from our
study.
This was the first study to simultaneously exam-
ine four styles of popular combat sports in Brazil. We
observed a similarity between the sports when dealing
with inappropriate behaviors to reduce body mass. It
seems obvious that in the culture of combat sports there
is a belief in the benefits of these strategies for competi-
tion. In an attempt to better educate coaches and athletes,
it would be interesting to establish guidance campaigns
through conferences and seminars. Another factor that
would certainly contribute to reducing the prevalence of
inadequate strategies would be to create a regulation that
prohibits such actions, similar to the one implemented by
the National Collegiate Athletic Association (Oppliger et
Rapid Weight Loss in Combat Sports   95
al., 2006) or as recently proposed by Artioli, Franchini,
et al. (2010). According to Oppliger et al. (2006), 40%
of athletes stated that these new rules make rapid weight
loss difficult, especially the adoption of the minimum fat
percentage (5%).
Among the limitations of this study are the exclusion
of the females, because the number of female athletes
is minimal, and the use of a doubly indirect method to
estimate body composition. Future studies should directly
measure the loss of fluids and body mass.
Conclusion
Considering the established goals and results, we con-
cluded that a high percentage of athletes are involved
in rapid-weight-loss methods. Furthermore, a high per-
centage of athletes used nonrecommended or prohibited
methods such as diuretics, saunas, and plastic clothing.
The age at which the athletes reduced body mass for the
first time is worrisome, especially among strikers. The
results obtained here can be used to better educate athletes
to avoid poor health, and even death.
Acknowledgments
Thanks to the athletes and instructors for their cooperation in
this study and the directors of the Judo Federation, the Judo
League, the Jujitsu Federation, the Jujitsu League, the Karate
Federation, the Mineira Tae Kwon Do Federation, and the Tae
Kwon Do Federation, all of the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil.
The authors state no conflicts of interest.
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