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1 التقرير النهائي
Jazan University جامعة جازان
Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 6
2. Electric shocks and protection ........................................................................ 11
2.1. Hazard Analysis.............................................................................................. 11
2.2. A safe grounding design has two objectives: ................................................. 11
2.3. Soil Characteristics ......................................................................................... 12
2.4. RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS .............................................. 14
2.5. Resistance of a Grounding Point Electrode .................................................... 17
2.7 Resistance of Driven Rods ............................................................................. 21
3. SUBSTATION GROUNDING SYSTEM .................................................................... 26
3. SUBSTATION GROUNDING SYSTEM ..................................................... 27
3.1. PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN OF ASUBSTATION GROUNDING ............... 27
3.2. NEUTRAL GROUNDING ............................................................................ 30
3.3. GROUNDING OF LOW-VOLTAGE (LV) SYSTEMS................................ 33
3.4. GROUNDING OF GAS-INSULATED SUBSTATIONS ............................. 35
3.5. Grounding of Enclosures ................................................................................ 36
3.5.1. Touch Voltages for GIS.................................................................................. 37
3.5.2. Transient Impedance of GIS Grounding Grid ................................................ 37
3.6. Transmission-line tower grounding ................................................................ 38
3.7. Safety ground.................................................................................................. 39
3.8. Range of Tolerable Currents........................................................................... 39
3.9. Tolerable Step, Touch, and Transferred Voltages ......................................... 40
3.9.1. Electric Shock Hazard in Hospitals ................................................................ 43
3 التقرير النهائي
Jazan University جامعة جازان
Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
4 التقرير النهائي
Jazan University جامعة جازان
Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
Table of figure
5 التقرير النهائي
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
Chapter 1
Introduction
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Jazan University جامعة جازان
Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
1.1. Introduction
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
The best configuration of the grounding grid requires studying the effect of
the parameters usually encountered in practice. Such parameters are the
length of the grounding grid, the number of meshes in the grid, the diameter
of the grounding conductor, the depth of burial of the grid and the effect of
using ground rods. It is impractical to investigate the effect of these
parameters on full-size grids because of the lack of controlled conditions and
variations in soil resistivity at the site. Scale models offer a practical and
inexpensive alternative solution. Scale model tests are generally employed to
determine grounding resistance and surface potential distributions during ,
8 التقرير النهائي
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
Chapter 2
Electric shocks
and protection
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
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Jazan University جامعة جازان
Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
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Jazan University جامعة جازان
Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
The distribution of grain size has an effect on the manner in which the
moisture is held. The finer the grading, the lower will be the resistivity.
There is not much experimental work on the effect of pressure, but it is
reasonable to assume that higher pressures resulting in a more compact body
of earth will result in lower values of resistivity.
The simplest possible electrode is the hemisphere (figure 2-4) the ground
resistance of this electrode is made up of the sum of the resistances of an
infinite number of thin hemispheric shells of soil. If a current I flows into the
ground through this hemispherical electrode, it will flow away uniformly in
all directions through a series of concentric hemispherical shells.
Considering each individual shell with a radius x and a thickness dx, the
total resistance R up to a large radius r1 would be
= =
17 التقرير النهائي
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Figure (2-4-a)
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Figure (2-4-b)
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
The driven rod is one of the simplest and most economical forms
of electrode. Its ground resistance can be calculated if its shape is
approximated to that of an ellipsoid of revolution having a major
axisequaltotwicetherod’slengthandaminoraxisequaltoits
diameter d; then
R=
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
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Ground rod
R=
S˃ƪ
S˂ƪ
R=
Horizontal strip
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
Four-point star
Six-point star
Ring of wire
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R=
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Chapter 3
SUBSTATION
GROUNDING SYSTEM
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(1)
(2)
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Jazan University جامعة جازان
Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
Thus the fault arc becomes unstable and easily gets extinguished. This
method has been in common use in some high-voltage networks in Europe.
It helps maintain the continuity of the supply without endangering the
system insulation.
For resistance grounding, a resistance of a suitable design is connected
between the system neutral point and the grounding electrode group as an
addition to the system ground resistance. This technique is suitable for
generators, as it helps to maintain their stability by the power consumed
during L-G faults; otherwise, the generators might race out of step.
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
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Grounding Systems
Figure 0-3 Connection modes of the neutral of the installation and of the
frames of the electrical loads.
Figure 3-4.
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
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37 التقرير النهائي
Jazan University جامعة جازان
Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
The effects of an electric current passing through the vital parts of a human
body depend on its duration, magnitude, and frequency. Human beings are
most vulnerable to currents with frequencies of 50-60Hz. The human body
can tolerate slightly larger currents at 5Hz and approximately five times
larger direct currents and still larger currents at 3-10 kHz.
Currents of l-6 mA, often termed ''let-go currents," although unpleasant to
sustain, do not impair a person's ability to control his or her muscles.
Currents of 9-25 mA may be quite painful and can make it hard to release
energized objects grasped by the hand. For still higher currents,
uncontrollable muscular contractions can make breathing difficult. In the
39 التقرير النهائي
Jazan University جامعة جازان
Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
Using the magnitude of the tolerable body current and the appropriate circuit
constants, it is possible to calculate the tolerable potential difference
between possible points of contact. The step voltage increases. The closer
one gets to the site of a ground fault or to the grounding point. If the
enclosure of grounded equipment in which an earth fault has occurred is
touched by a person, he or she will be subjected to a potential termed a
"touch voltage"
When a person standing within the station area touches a conductor
grounded at a remote point, or when a person standing at a remote point
touches a conductor connected to the station ground grid, he or she is
subjected to a transferred potential. The shock voltage in this case may be
equal to the full voltage rise of the ground grid under fault conditions.
40 التقرير النهائي
Jazan University جامعة جازان
Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
The tolerable step and touch voltages with duration’s t for persons weighing
50-70 kg can be estimated as
41 التقرير النهائي
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
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Jazan University جامعة جازان
Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
This method requires 3 steps: drilling deep holes in the ground, developing
cracks in the soil by means of explosions in the holes, filling the holes with
lower sensitivity materials (LRM) under pressure. Most of the cracks around
the vertical conductors will be filled with LRM, and a complex network of
low-resistivity tree-like cracks linked to the substation grid is formed Field
tests show that the optimum span between vertical conductors is in the range
of 1.5-2 times the length of the vertical conductor. This method is effective
in reducing ground resistances in rocky areas.
Chemical rods
Figure 0-5 are electrodes with holes along their length, filled with mineral
salts. The specially formulated mineral salts are evenly distributed along the
entire length of the electrode.
The rod absorbs moisture from both air and soil. Continuous conditioning
of a large area insures an ultra-low-resistance ground which is more
effective than a conventional electrode. If the conductive salts are running
low, the rod can be recharged with a refill kit. These rods are available in
vertical and horizontal configurations. They may be used in rocky soils,
freezing climates, dry deserts, or tropical rain forests. They provide stable
protection for many years.
44 التقرير النهائي
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
Chapter 4
Experimental setup
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4. Experimental setup
4.1. Introduction
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The dimensions of the electrolytic tank used for the experiments are
1.70 m x 1.00 m x 1.10 m. The inner surface of the tank is covered by a
conducting sheath. Tap water has been used as the electrolyte which serves
as an adequately conducting medium and represents homogenous earth.
The model grid was supported below the surface of the electrolyte under
tension so as to provide a horizontal configuration with the minimum
distortion and sag. Nylon fish lines were attached to the grid, at different
locations, to maintain the regular shape of the grid. To take measurements, a
probe consisting of a copper wire inserted in a plastic tube, for mechanical
support, was used. Only the tip of the wire was touching the surface of the
water. The probe was supported on a 'T'-shaped wooden frame which rested
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
on the edges of the tank and could be moved across the surface of the
electrolyte at a constant depth in straight line in any direction over any part
of the grid. Scales mounted along the tank edges permitted accurate
positioning of the grid and probe.
The experimental layout is shown in Fig. 4-1. An alternating current is used
to avoid polarization. The applied voltage to the model is obtained from a
220 AC source through DC power supply.
The magnitude of this voltage is kept constant. During the different tests, by
measuring the voltage applied to the model and the current flowing through
the electrolyte between the model grid and the return electrode, the effective
grid resistance
can be obtained. The potential of the test probe with respect to the return
electrode is monitored by a voltmeter of a very high internal resistance.
51 التقرير النهائي
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Method of four-electrode probe has been used in soil practices since 1931
for evaluating soil water content and salinity under field conditions
(McCorkle, 1931; Edlefsen and Anderson, 1941; Rhoades and Ingvalson,
1971). Halvorson and Rhoades (1976) applied a four-electrode probe in the
Wenner configuration to locate saline seeps on croplands in USA and
Canada. Austin and Rhoades (1979) developed and introduced a compact
four-electrode salinity sensor into routine agricultural practices. A special
soil salinity probe, which utilized the same four-electrode principle,
was also designed for bore-hole measurements and/or for permanent
installations in soils for infiltration and salinity monitoring (Rhoades and
Schilfgaarde, 1976; Rhoades, 1979). An electrical cell used to measure
electrical conductivity of soil samples, pastes, and suspensions, was also
developed based on four-electrode principle (Gupta and Hanks, 1972).
54 التقرير النهائي
Jazan University جامعة جازان
Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
The method of four-electrode probe was also used for evaluation of some
other soil properties, such as soil water content (Edlefsen and Anderson,
1941; Kirkham and Taylor, 1949); structure (Nadler, 1991); bulk den sity,
porosity, and texture .
ρE =measuredapparentsoilresistivity(Ωm)
a = electrode spacing (m)
b = depth of the electrodes (m)
RW = Wenner resistance measured as "V/I"
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(A)
(B)
The grid was first installed and adjusted to the proper depth. The grid was
then energised and the voltages and currents were monitored and the grid
resistance could be obtained. The probe carriage was aligned over the centre
line of the grid. The potential values were recorded at intervals of 2 cm
starting from the grid center and ending at approximately 10 cm outside the
grid. The positions considered cover the area of one quarter of a grid, due to
symmetry. Theow type of mesh are chosen and tested at two different deep
Figure 0-4.
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Chapter 5
Results And Discussion
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The maximum mesh potential is found at the point within the grid boundary
where the surface potential is lowest. The mesh potential is then the potential
between this point and the grid; it is in fact the touch potential, Etouch, which
would be experienced by a person standing at this point and touching some
apparatus connected to the grid. It is generally found in the corner mesh at a
point in the center of the mesh.
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
The Tables:
5.1 6.08 7.4 7.66 7.7 7.82 7.94. 8.15 8.27 8.75 8.9 8.8 8.3 8.35 8.4 9.3 10.35
6.3 7.4 8.35 8.23 7.67 7.6 7.63 7.77 8.12 8.95 8.79 8.14 7.5 7.37 7.43 8.83 10.7
8.3 9.78 9.4 8.92 8.39 8.28 8.07 8.22 8.46 8.71 8.76 8.3 7.99 7.6 8.06 8.52 9.13
7.4 7.77 7.89 8.14 8.68 7.58 7.56 7.68 7.9 8.03 8.7 8.15 7.93 7.68 7.5 7.73 8.14
6.17 6.91 7.03 6.98 6.65 6.81 6.66 6.57 6.52 6.48 8.79 8.66 8.55 8.37 8.22 8.8 9.19
Table 1
6 6.3 7.18 9.05 8.18 8.04 7.85 7.93 8.53 9.53 9.95 8.2 8.17 7.85 8.1 8.5
6.9 7.52 9 7.6 7.36 7.26 7.41 7.55 8.23 9.65 9.4 7.2 6.64 6.82 7.39 8.45
6.68 7.5 8.1 7.8 7.78 7.76 7.8 7.92 8.5 9.55 9.45 7.48 7.54 9.4 10.4 7.8
6.2 6.58 7.1 8.12 7.32 6.4 6.7 6.94 7.32 8.9 9.17 7.5 7.25 6.83 7.17 8.31
Table 2
65 التقرير النهائي
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Table 3
66 التقرير النهائي
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
6. Conclusions
7. Future work
1- Study of the effect with increasing wire diameter.
67 التقرير النهائي
Jazan University جامعة جازان
Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
Reference :
1. Baishiki RS, Osterberg CK, Dawalibi F. IEEE Trans PWRD-2:64-71,
1987.
2. Brown P, Johnson I, Stevenson J. IEEE Trans PAS -97:683-694,
1978.
3. Dawalibi F, Blattner C. IEEE Trans PAS-103:374-382, 1984.
68 التقرير النهائي
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Faculty of Engineering كلية الهندسية
Acknowledgment
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