Abstract :

The city of Thane is one of Maharashtra’s major industrial town and the district headquarters. The
National Decennial Census 2001 pegged the population of the city at 12, 61,517. Thane is included in
the Mumbai Metropolitan Region and is one of the 18 Urban Centers therein. Being the first urban
Center on the periphery of the Greater Mumbai, the city occupies a unique position in the region.
The city has been marked by rapid demographic growth and has witnessed ten fold multiplications in
the last forty years. However owing to large industrial development and its proximity to the Greater
Mumbai, Thane has demonstrated its will to rise to the challenge and exhibit marked improvement
in generating increased revenues and convert then into better economic growth, improved services
and expanded infrastructure. The geographical jurisdiction of the Thane city spreads over an area of
128.23 sq. km. The city is located at the mean sea level on the northern part of the Konkan region.
The city is also known as Lake city because of the 35 lakes encompassing an area of about 40 Ha.
Introduction:

City Urban Services

The City of Thane forms an important urban agglomeration of Maharashtra State. Substantial
portion of Maharashtra’s state domestic product originates in urban areas. The productivity of urban
areas largely depends upon the efficient urban land use and the efficiency of the urban
infrastructure. For the sustained economic growth of the city, therefore efficient delivery of urban
infrastructure services along with the expansion of services commensurate with the pace of urban
population growth is of crucial importance. This has necessitated the Thane Municipal Corporation
to undertake the preparation of VISION document for the city. The intent of vision for the city is to
facilitate, promote the economic growth of the city with special emphasis on environment of the
city. The Corporation has also focused on and aimed at improving the quality of life of the people,
particularly the urban poor. Keeping a holistic approach the Corporation tried to prepare a realistic
action plan.

Administrative Setup:

The Corporation is under the administrative control of the Commissioner, and Additional Municipal
Commissioner who is an IAS officer appointed by the State Government. In the Head office there are
Administration, Engineering, Health, Accounts, Planning and Revenue wings headed by Senior
Officers and at zonal level there are ward officer.

Public Health:

TMC provides public health services through 24 dispensaries and primary health centers, 1
diagnostic center, prominent health department, 4 maternity homes, 1 paediatric hospital and 500
bed hospital. In addition it implements national health programmes such as polio vaccination, family
planning and family welfare, vitamin and booster doses to children. The Corporation also runs
medical college and nursing training institute.

Revenue:

During the last two years, TMC has implemented accounting reforms backed by the budgeting
reforms. The opening balance sheet as on April 01, 2004has been prepared and since April 01, 2005,
TMC has been maintaining its accounts on double entry accrual based accounting system. On the
other hand, TMC has implemented budgeting reforms by preparing the budget for the FY 2005-2006
with a view of targeting to arrive at a scientific basis by linking the nature of receipt or payment with
functions / services or other budget control centers. TMC has prepared an outcome budget for the
FY 2006-07 by adopting a logical framework to relate the outcome with the performance of various
items. The total revenue income under budget ‘A’ & ‘C’ has increased at an average annual growth
rate of 11.5% & 12.6% respectively through 1999-2004. Total capital expenditure grew at a CARG
38% as compared to the last decades 20.8%.The grants contribution to TMC’s budgets have been
miniscule and capital expenditure has essentially been funded from TMC’s own surpluses and
loans.TMC has posted a revenue surplus throughout the last decade. The strong revenue surplus
over the decade is a measure of fiscal responsibility. TMC has refinanced most of its high cost loans
in the FY 2003-04 and FY 2004-2005 which has enabled TMC to leverage the total amount of loans at
a relatively lower cost. About 60% of TMC’s expenditure is of fixed nature which as a proportion to
the revenue receipts is about 40% which gives TMC a good deal of financial flexibility.

Town Planning:

Town Planning department is headed by the Town Planning Officer (Executive Engineer - Planning).
The main activities of this department are Building license, Layout Approval, Site Approval &
Subdivision, Reconstitution of Site Approval, Renewal Of Building License, Request Of Survey and
Extract, Request for Attested Copies, Appeals to Director of Town and Country Planning OR to the
Government, and Regularization of unapproved / deviated constructions and development.

Education:

TMC has been providing educational facilities at all levels. The Corporation runs 56 nurseries, 133
primary schools and 8 secondary schools. In addition, the Corporation also runs school for the
handicapped. The school board of the Corporation manages the primary schools while the secondary
education is delivered by the secondary education department of the Corporation.

Initiatives taken by Thane Municipal Corporation (TMC) and Maharashtra Energy

Development Agency (MEDA):

Thane Municipal Corporation has taken various steps to promote and adopt renewable energy and
energy conservation measures in to city level activities. Strong interventions as part of policy making
and their stringent implementation are being made by Thane Municipal Corporation in the city to
make the city more green and sustainable on the energy issues. Thane Municipal Corporation has
not only made the policies and action plans to implement the green initiatives but also incentivize
the citizens for more and more uptake of renewable energy into their day to day activities.

Below mentioned are some of the initiatives taken by Thane Municipal Corporation (TMC) in
renewable energy:

(i) Modified Building permission rule whereby provision of solar water heating system has been
made mandatory for all new buildings. In case of existing residential buildings, Thane Municipal
Corporation (TMC) offers 10% rebate in property tax is solar water heating system is provided. This
initiative has resulted in to installation of 9 Lakh L.P.D. solar water heating systems in municipal
corporation area.

(ii) Thane Municipal Corporation (TMC) has already provided 36,000 L.P.D. solar water heating
systems for its own buildings such as hospitals, residential quarters etc. Besides this, 145 solar
garden lights, 41 solar blinkers, 6 solar traffic signals and 11 kWp solar PV system have provided for
municipal utility services.

(iii) Thane Municipal Corporation (TMC) has undertaken installation of work of innovative renewable
energy projects happening for the first time in municipal sector:

a) 160 TR capacity solar air conditioning system for municipal hospital.

b) 50 kWp solar photovoltaic system for the main admistration building.

c) Energy generation from MSW – 15 tonnes bio methanization plant.

Developing Thane as ‘Solar City’

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Govt. of India has launched a Scheme on
“Development of Solar Cities” under which a total of 60 cities/towns are proposed to be supported
for development as “Solar/ Green Cities” during the 11th Plan period. The program aims at minimum
10% reduction in projected demand of conventional energy at the end of five years, which can be
achieved through a combination of energy efficiency measures and enhancing supply from
renewable energy sources. Out of this 5% will be from renewable energy source. MNRE has been
providing financial support to Thane Municipal Corporation for preparing a Master Plan for
developing Thane as a Solar City.

Preparation of Master Plan for ‘Thane Solar City’

The master plan preparation process is divided into six steps:

(i) Preparing energy base-line for year 2008

Energy base-line for the city is a detailed documentation of the existing energy demand and supply
scenario for the city. Among other things, it consists of sector-wise energy consumption matrix and
energy supply-mix for the base year. The city is divided into four sectors vis. Residential,
commercial/ Institutional, Industrial and Municipal sector.

(ii) Demand Forecasting for 2013/2018

This step involves predicting the energy demand for 5 year and 10 year periods. To estimate the
demand, growth in energy use in different sectors has been established. These growth rates are
established based on immediate past trends and future growth plans. Based on the past time-series
data and information on growth plans, growth rate in energy demand for different sectors has been
estimated. These growth rates are used for making future projection of energy demand in each
sector for year 2013 (five year) and 2018 (10 year).

(iii) Sector wise strategies

This step involves carrying out techno-economic feasibility of different renewable energy and energy
efficiency options for each sector based on techno-economic feasibility for such application to the
concerned sectors. A renewable energy resources assessment has been done to identify the
potential renewable energy sources for the city. This includes assessment of solar radiation, wind
power density and availability, biomass resources and municipal/industrial wastes. A strategy has
been prepared for use of techno economically feasible renewable energy technology options in each
sector.

(iv) Year-wise goals of savings

Year wise goals have been set to achieve targeted energy savings through demand side management
by energy conservation and energy efficiency measures in different sectors & supply side measures
based on renewable energy applications.

(v) Action Plan

A five-year action plan has been prepared to achieve the set goals & expected GHG abatements. This
includes establishment of solar city cell, capacity building and awareness generation.

(vi) Financial Outlay and sharing of fund

An indicative financial outlay has been prepared for implementation of the proposed five-year action
plan and potential sources of funding from respective sources (both public and private) has been
indicated.
Literature survey :

Principle of Operation of Solar Energy

Solar energy is available in abundance in most parts of the world.

The amount of solar energy incident on the earth’s surface is approximately1.5
x 1018 kWh/year, which is about 10,000 times the current annual energy
consumption of the entire world. The density of power radiated from the sun
(referred to as solar energy constant) is 1.373 kW/m2. Solar cell is a device
which converts photons in Solar rays to direct-current (DC) and voltage. The
associated technology is called Solar Photovoltaic (SPV). A typical silicon PV cell
is a thin wafer consisting of a very thin layer of phosphorous-doped (N-type)
silicon on top of a thicker layer of boron-doped (P-type) silicon. An electrical
field is created near the top surface of the cell where these two materials are
in contact (the P-N junction). When the sunlight hits the semiconductor
surface, an electron springs up and is attracted towards the N-type
semiconductor material. This will cause more negatives in the n-type and more
positives in the P-type semiconductors, generating a higher flow of electricity.
This is known as Photovoltaic effect.

Below shows the working mechanism of a silicon solar cell.

 Silicon Solar Cell and its working mechanism

Silicon Solar Cell and its working mechanism (Source:

global.kyocera.com) The amount of current generated by a PV cell
depends on its efficiency, its size (surface area) and the intensity of
sunlight striking the surface. For example, under peak sunlight
conditions a typical commercial PV cell with a surface area of about 25
square inches will produce about 2 watts peak power.

Governing principles of Solar Energy

Solar Irradiance

The Sun is the fundamental driving force for energy in the Earth's climate
system. It is of crucial importance to understand fully the conditions of its
arrival at the top of the atmosphere and its transformation through the earth.
The amount of solar power available per unit area is known as irradiance.
Irradiance is a radiometric term for the power of electromagnetic radiation at a
surface, per unit area. It is used when the electromagnetic radiation is incident
on the surface. Irradiance fluctuates according to the weather and the sun’s
location in the sky. This location constantly changes through the day due to
changes in both the sun’s altitude (or elevation) angle and its azimuth (or
compass) angle. Figure 2 below shows the two angles (the sun’s elevation
angle and the sun’s compass angle) used to specify the sun’s location in the
sky.

Sun’s location in the sky (Source: Photovoltaic system design course manual)

Advantages and Limitations of Solar Energy

Renewable energy sources in general, and Solar Energy source in particular,

has the potential to provide energy services with zero or almost zero emission.
The solar energy is abundant and no other source in renewable energy is like
solar energy. Every technology has its own advantages and disadvantages. As
the solar insolation and atmospheric conditions vary significantly from place to
place, efficiency of solar energy also differs accordingly.

Advantages

1. It is an abundant Renewable Energy

2. This technology is Omnipresent and it can be captured for conversion on
a daily basis
3. It is a Non-polluting technology, which means that it does not release
green house gases
4. It is a Noiseless technology as there are no moving parts involved in
energy generation
5. This technology requires Low-maintenance because of lack of moving
parts
6. It can be installed on modular basis and expanded over a period of time
7. Most viable alternative for providing electricity in remote rural areas as
it can be installed where the energy demand is high and can be
expanded on modular basis.

Limitations

• As the technology is in an evolving stage, the efficiency levels of

conversion from light to electricity is in the range of 10 to 17%,
depending on the technology used.

• The initial investment cost of this technology is high. At present the

technology is basically surviving because of subsidy schemes
available by the government.
 • Solar energy is available only during daytime. Most load profiles
indicate peak load in the evening/night time. This necessitates
expensive storage devices like battery, which need to be replaced
every 3 to 5 years. Generally, the cost of the Battery is 30 to 40% of
the system cost.

• As the efficiency levels are low, the space required is relatively

high. For instance, with the existing levels of technologies, the land
required for putting up a 1 MW solar PV power plant is between 6 to
9 acres. However, research is going on to increase the efficiency
levels of the cell.

• Solar energy is heavily dependent on atmospheric conditions.

• Solar insolation varies from location to location, so there are certain

geographic limitations in generating solar power.

• With the existing module and inverter manufacturing technologies,

it may not be worthwhile in terms of costs to deploy solar energy for
certain loads which require very high starting power (e.g. air
conditioners).

Flat Plate Arrays

Flat plate arrays use both diffused and direct sunlight. They can operate in
either fixed orientation or in a sun-tracking mode. For most applications, flat
plate arrays are in fixed orientation. However, with the advent of low-cost
passive sun-trackers, flat plate tracking arrays are becoming more popular.

Below depicts a flat plate collector.

Solar Photovoltaic Technologies

The heart of the solar energy generation system is the Solar cell. It consists of
three major elements, namely:

• The semiconductor material which absorbs light and converts it into

electron-hole pairs.

• The junction formed within the semiconductor, which separates the photo-
generated carriers (electrons and holes)

• The contacts on the front and back of the cell that allow the current to flow
to the external circuit. Two main streams of technologies have been evolved
for the manufacture of Solar Cells/Modules namely
• Flat plate Technology

• Concentrated Technology

The Flat Plate Technology is further classified in two ways namely Crystalline
Technology and Thin Film Technology. The Concentrated Photovoltaic
Technology has been classified according to the Type of cell and the Optical
system.

Crystalline Technology

Crystalline Silicon (c-Si) was chosen as the first choice for solar cells, since this
material formed the foundation for all advances in semiconductor technology.
The technology led to development of stable solar cells with efficiency up to
20%.

Two types of crystalline silicon are used in the industry. They are

• Monocrystalline Silicon

• Multicrystalline Silicon

Mono-Crystalline Silicon

Mono-Crystalline Silicon cells are produced by growing high purity, single

crystal Si rods and slicing them into thin wafers. Single crystal wafer cells are
expensive. They are cut from cylindrical ingots and do not completely cover a
square solar module. This results in substantial waste of refined silicon. The
efficiency of mono-crystalline silicon cells remains between 17-18% because of
the purity level.
Below depicts the Monocrystalline Cell

Mono crystalline silicon cell

Multi-Crystalline Silicon

Poly-crystalline silicon cells are made from sawing a cast block of silicon first
into bars and then wafers. This technology is also known as Multi crystalline
technology. Poly-Si cells are less expensive to produce than single crystal
silicon cells as the energy intensive process for purification of silicon is not
required. They are less efficient than single crystalline cells. The efficiency of
poly crystalline silicon cells ranges from13-14%.
Battery Charging Current and Battery Charging Time formula

Here is the formula of Charging Time of a battery.

Charging Time of battery = Battery Ah / Charging Current

T = Ah / A
Example,
Suppose for 120 Ah battery,
First of all, we will calculate charging current for 120 Ah battery. As we know
that charging current should be 10% of the Ah rating of battery.
so charging current for120Ah Battery = 120 x (10/100) = 12 Amperes.
but due to losses, we can take 12-14Amperes for charging purpose.
suppose we took 13 Amp for charging purpose,
then charging time for 120Ah battery = 120 / 13 = 9.23 Hrs.
but this was an ideal case…
practically, this is noted that 40% of losses ( in case of battery charging)
then 120 x (40 / 100) = 48 …..(120Ah x 40% of losses)
therefore, 120 + 48 = 168 Ah ( 120 Ah + Losses)
Now Charging Time of battery = Ah/Charging Current
168 / 13 = 12.92 or 13 Hrs ( in real case)

Therefore, an 120Ah battery would take 13 Hrs for completely charging ( with
13A charging current).

How do batteries work?

Electricity, as you probably already know, is the flow of electrons through a
conductive path like a wire. This path is called a circuit.

Batteries have three parts, an anode (-), a cathode (+), and the electrolyte. The
cathode and anode (the positive and negative sides at either end of a traditional
battery) are hooked up to an electrical circuit.

The chemical reactions in the battery causes a buildup of electrons at the anode.
This results in an electrical difference between the anode and the cathode. You
can think of this difference as an unstable build-up of the electrons. The
electrons want to rearrange themselves to get rid of this difference. But they do
this in a certain way. Electrons repel each other and try to go to a place with
fewer electrons.

In a battery, the only place to go is to the cathode. But, the electrolyte keeps the
electrons from going straight from the anode to the cathode within the battery.
When the circuit is closed (a wire connects the cathode and the anode) the
electrons will be able to get to the cathode. In the picture above, the electrons go
through the wire, lighting the light bulb along the way. This is one way of
describing how electrical potential causes electrons to flow through the circuit.

However, these electrochemical processes change the chemicals in anode and

cathode to make them stop supplying electrons. So there is a limited amount of
power available in a battery.
When you recharge a battery, you change the direction of the flow of electrons
using another power source, such as solar panels. The electrochemical processes
happen in reverse, and the anode and cathode are restored to their original state
and can again provide full power.

HOW DOES A BATTERY WORK?

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be saved in various forms.

One way to store it is in the form of chemical energy in a battery. When
connected in a circuit, a battery can produce electricity.

Batteries convert Chemical Energy into Electrical Energy

A battery has two ends -- a positive terminal (cathode) and a negative terminal
(anode). If you connect the two terminals with wire, a circuit is formed.
Electrons will flow through the wire and a current of electricity is produced.
Inside the battery, a reaction between chemicals take place. But the reaction
takes place only if there is a flow of electrons. Batteries can be stored for a
long time and still work because the chemical process doesn't start until the
electrons flow from the negative to the positive terminals through a circuit.

A Chemical Reaction Takes Place in a Battery

A Simple example -- The lemon cell battery

Let's start with a very simple battery that uses a lemon that has two different
metallic objects inserted into it, for example a galvanized nail and a copper
coin or wire. The copper serves as the positive electrode or cathode and the
galvanized (zinc coated) nail as the electron-producing negative electrode or
anode. These two objects work as electrodes, causing an electrochemical
reaction which generates a small potential difference.

Since copper (Cu) atoms attract electrons more than zinc (Zn) atoms, if you
place a piece of copper and a piece of zinc in contact with each other,
electrons will pass from the zinc to the copper. As the electrons concentrate on
the copper they will repel each other and stop the flow of electrons from zinc
to copper. On the other hand, if you put strips of zinc and copper in a
conductive solution, and connect them externally with a wire, the reactions
between the electrodes and the solution will allow the electrons to flow
continuously through the wire.

How does a lemon battery work?

A lemon battery is made with a lemon and two metallic electrodes of different
metals such as a copper penny or wire and a galvanized (zinc coated) nail.

The energy for the battery does not come from the lemon, but rather the
chemical change in zinc (or other metal). The zinc is oxidized inside the lemon,
exchanging some of its electrons in order to reach a lower energy state, and
the energy released provides the power. The lemon merely provides an
environment where this can happen, but they are not used up in the process.

Assuming that zinc and copper electrodes are used (such as a copper coin and
a zinc plated nail) then a single lemon could generate approximately 0.9 Volts.
To the left a series circuit of lemons shows 3.41 volts being produced.

NOTE: Potatoes, apples, sauerkraut, or any other fruit or vegetable containing

acid or other electrolyte can be used, but lemons are preferred because of
their higher acidity. In potatoes, for instance, the electrolyte is phosphoric acid,
while in lemons it is citric acid.

In a lemon battery, both oxidation (loss of electrons) and reduction (gain of

electrons) occur. This battery is similar to the original "simple voltaic cells"
invented by Alessandro Volta (see below). At the anode, metallic zinc is
oxidized, and enters the acidic solution as Zn2+ ions:

Zn --> Zn2 + + 2 e-

At the copper cathode, hydrogen ions (solvated protons from the acidic solution
in the lemon) are reduced to form molecular hydrogen:

2H++ 2e- --> H2

What makes the electrons move?

When you let go of a ball you are holding it falls to the ground because the
Earth's gravitational field pulls the ball down. In a similar way charged particles
such as electrons need to have work done to move them from one point to
another. The amount of work per unit of charge is called is called the electric
potential difference between the two points. The unit of potential difference is
called the volt.

The potential difference between the cathode and anode are set up from the
chemical reaction. Inside the battery electrons are pushed by the chemical
reaction toward the positive end creating a potential difference.

It is this potential difference that drives the electrons through the wire.

Potential difference can be positive or negative, likened to gravitational energy,

moving up a hill or down a hill. In a battery the flow of electrons is downhill...
electrons can flow uphill as in the case of a battery charger.

Why don't electrons just move from anode to cathode inside the battery?

The electrolyte in the battery keeps lone electrons from going straight from the
anode to the cathode within the battery. When the terminals are connected with
a conductive wire, electrons can easily flow from anode to cathode.

What direction do electrons move in the wire?

Electrons are negatively charged, so they will be attracted to the positive end of
a battery and repelled by the negative end. When the battery is hooked up to a
device that lets the electrons flow through it, they flow from negative (anode) to
positive (cathode) terminal.

Who invented the electrochemical cell (battery)?

The battery made by Volta is credited as the first electrochemical cell. It

consists of two electrodes: one made of zinc, the other of copper. The
electrolyte is sulfuric acid or a brine mixture of salt and water. The electrolyte
exists in the form 2H+ and SO42-. The zinc, which is higher than both copper and
hydrogen in the electrochemical series, reacts with the negatively charged
sulfate SO42- . The positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) capture electrons
from the copper, forming bubbles of hydrogen gas, H2. This makes the zinc rod
the negative electrode and the copper rod the positive electrode.

We now have two terminals, and the current will flow if we connect them. The
reactions in this cell are as follows:

zinc

Zn --> Zn2+ + 2e-

sulfuric acid

2H+ + 2e- --> H2

The copper does not react, functioning as an electrode for the chemical
reaction.

How does a modern battery (zinc-carbon battery) work?

A zinc–carbon dry cell or battery is packaged in a zinc can that serves as both a
container and negative terminal (anode). The positive terminal is a carbon rod
surrounded by a mixture of manganese dioxide and carbon powder. The
electrolyte used is a paste of zinc chloride and ammonium chloride dissolved in
water. The carbon (graphite) rod is what collects electrons coming from the
anode portion of the battery to return to the cathode portion of the battery.
Carbon is the only practical conductor material because every common metal
will quickly corrode away in the positive electrode in salt based electrolyte.

The zinc is oxidized according to the following half-equation.

Zn(s) --> Zn2+(aq) + 2 e- [e° = -1.04 volts]

The manganese dioxide is mixed with carbon powder to increase the electrical
conductivity. The reaction is as follows:

2MnO2(s) + 2 e- + 2NH4Cl(aq)-->
Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(aq) + 2 Cl- [e° ˜ +.5 v]

and the CL combines with the Zn2+.

In this half-reaction, the manganese is reduced from an oxidation state of (+4)

to (+3). There are other possible side-reactions, but the overall reaction in a
zinc-carbon cell can be represented as:

Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) ---> Mn2O3(s) + Zn(NH3)2Cl2 (aq) + H2O(l)

The battery has an e.m.f. of about 1.5 V.

What are the different types of batteries?

Different types of batteries use different types of chemicals and chemical

reactions. Some of the more common types of batteries are:

Used in Duracell® and Energizer® and other alkaline

batteries. The electrodes are zinc and manganese-oxide.
Alkaline battery The electrolyte is an alkaline paste.

These are used in automobiles. The electrodes are made

of lead and lead-oxide with a strong acid as the
Lead-acid battery electrolyte.
 These batteries are used in cameras for the flash bulb.
They are made with lithium, lithium-iodide and lead-
Lithium battery iodide. They can supply surges of electricity for the flash.

These batteries are used in cameras for the flash bulb.

They are made with lithium, lithium-iodide and lead-
Lithium battery iodide. They can supply surges of electricity for the flash.

These batteries are found in laptop computers, cell

Lithium-ion battery phones and other high-use portable equipment.

The electrodes are nickel-hydroxide and cadmium. The

Nickel-cadmium or electrolyte is potassium-hydroxide.
NiCad battery

Zinc and carbon are used in all regular or standard AA, C

Zinc-carbon and D dry-cell batteries. The electrodes are made of zinc
battery or standard and carbon, with a paste of acidic materials between
carbon battery – them serving as the electrolyte.

Ever wondered why people with tooth fillings sometimes complain of getting
an electric shock like sensation while they nibble on to chocolates from the foil
coating or from the silver on desserts? It is not just a fleeting sensation, but is
actually a minor electric current tantalizing the nerves underneath the tooth. A
momentary cell is formed between the foil and the amalgam of the tooth
filling with the acidic saliva acting like the transport medium, the electrolyte.
History

Electricity has been by far, one of the most important and novel discoveries to
mankind. With population getting increasingly mobile, they have gravitated
more towards portable solutions of electricity, which manifests itself in the
form of Batteries. Electricity has been around us since the beginning of time,
but its practical use has been at our disposal since a few hundred years only.

While history stands witness to many artifacts such as the Parthian Battery
unearthed in Baghdad, which tell us that the concept had been existent even in
early civilizations like Egyptian and Babylonian, their use had been limited to
electroplating. In 1660, Otto von Guericke succeeded in generating static
charge in the form of sparks on rubbing and turning a sulfur globe. In 1791,
Luigi Galvani discovered animal electricity while experimenting on a frog with
metallic prongs. Prompted by the findings of this experiment, Alessandro
Volta, the inventor of the Electric Battery, initiated a series of experiments
using different metals and found out that certain fluids could generate a
continuous flow of electricity when used as a conducting medium. This led to
the invention of the first voltaic cell commonly known as The Battery in 1800.

Sir Humphry Davy discovered the phenomenon of chemical decomposition

(Electrolysis) on passing electricity through substances. In 1802, William
Cruickshank designed the first electrical battery for mass production which
resembled the flooded battery we still use. In 1859, Gaston Plante invented
the first rechargeable battery based on lead acid system which is still very
popular and hence came the first secondary cell. In 1899, Waldmar Jungner
invented the Nickel-Cadmium battery using Nickel for cathode and Cadmium
for anode. It was further improved by many people like Thomas Edison,
Shlecht, Ackermann and Georg Nuemann. It remained popular for many years
to come until environmentalists became concerned about contamination, if
NiCd were disposed off carelessly. This led to the development of Nickel Metal
Hydrides and later the popular Lithium Ion batteries. Numerous local, national
and international players are involved in this business providing portable
battery solutions, a few of the key players being Duracell International Inc.,
Electric Fuel Battery Corp., Energizer Holdings Inc., GP Batteries International
Ltd., Philips, Renata SA, Toshiba Battery Co. Ltd., VARTA Consumer Batteries
GmbH & Co. KGaA, Sony Electronics Asia Pacific Pte. Ltd., ZeniPower Battery
Co. Ltd., Sanyo Electric Co., LG Chem. Ltd Exide industries Ltd. etc.

What is a Battery

So what actually is a Battery? It is a collection of one or more electrochemical

cells in which stored chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. The
principles of operation haven’t changed much since the time of Volta. Each cell
consists of two half cells connected in series through an electrolytic solution.
One half cell houses the Anode to which the positive ions migrate from the
Electrolyte and the other houses the Cathode to which the negative ones drift.
The two cells are may be connected via a semi permeable membranous
structure allowing ions to flow but not the mixing of electrolytes as in the case
of most primary cells or in the same solution as in secondary cells.
Different amounts of voltages are built up according to the separation
between the ions in the electrochemical series which results in the flow of ions
in the solution and electrons in the external circuitry in the form of current.
The performance of the cell continues to dip gradually as the concentration of
ions in the solutions decrease, marked by an increase in internal resistance
eventually leading to the exhaustion of the battery. The reversibility of this
condition classifies the battery into two major categories, Primary and
Secondary.
Welding

Arc welding is one of several fusion processes for joining metals. By applying
intense heat, metal at the joint between two parts is melted and caused to
intermix - directly, or more commonly, with an intermediate molten filler
metal. Upon cooling and solidification, a metallurgical bond is created. Since
the joining is an intermixture of metals, the final element potentially has the
same strength properties as the metal of the parts. This is in sharp contrast to
non-fusion processes of joining (i.e. soldering, brazing etc.) in which the
mechanical and physical properties of the base materials cannot be duplicated
at the joint.
In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by an
electric arc. The arc is formed between the actual work and an electrode (stick
or wire) that is manually or mechanically guided along the joint. The electrode
can either be a rod with the purpose of simply carrying the current between
the tip and the work. Or, it may be a specially prepared rod or wire that not
only conducts the current but also melts and supplies filler metal to the joint.
Most welding in the manufacture of steel products uses the second type of
electrode.

Equipment
The equipment for the shielded metal arc welding process consists of a power
source, welding leads, electrode holder, and work clamp or attachment. A
diagram of the equipment is shown below.
CHAPTER 3
SELECTION
OF
MATERIALS

 Selection of Materials:
To prepare any machine part, the type of material should be properly
Selected by considering design, safety and following points:

The selection of material for engineering application is given by the following

Factors:-

1) Suitability of the material for the required components.

2) Suitability of the material for the desired working conditions.

3) Availability of materials.

4) Cost of the materials.

5) In addition to the above mentioned factors the other mechanical & physical
prosperities should be considered while selecting material for fabrication :

1) Strength:

It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without

Breaking or yielding.

2) Stiffness

It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus

of elasticity is the erasure of stuffiness.

3) Elasticity:

It is the property of material to regain its original shape after deformation when
external forces are removed.

4) MALLEABILITY
The ability of a material to be reshaped in all directions without cracking

our technology technician demonstrates the ‘malleability’ of a material by

heating a piece of mild steel until it is red hot. He then beats it with a large
forging hammer to reshape it. Because of the high temperature it reaches while
heating the steel becomes malleable, it can be reshaped permanently.

Ed often heats up steel, because he likes the color and it matches his
complexion after he has run up the stairs.

5) TOUGHNESS

A characteristic of a material that does not break or shatter when receiving a

blow or under a sudden shock.
Our technology technician demonstrates the ‘toughness’ of a material by hitting
a piece or material to see if it will break or shatter.

Ed has been known to test authentic Chinese Ming Dynasty pottery with the
same technique. This is why he is often arrested in Museums and has been
banned from the local Antique dealers.

6) HARDNESS

The ability of a material to resist scratching, wear and tear and indentation.

Our technology technician, dressed in a kilt, slides along the floor to see if it
will scratch. It will be considered to hard wearing if it resists scratching.

7) Fatigue ratio
The dimensionless fatigue ratio f is the ratio of the stress required to cause
failure after a specific number of cycles to the yield stress of a material. Fatigue
tests are generally run through 107 or 108 cycles. A high fatigue ratio indicates
materials which are more susceptible to crack growth during cyclic loading.

8) Creep

In materials science, creep is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or

deform permanently under the influence of stresses. It occurs as a result of long-
term exposure to high levels of stress that are below the yield strength of the
material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long
periods, and near their melting point. Creep always increases with temperature.

1) Mild steel

Composition carbon 0.20 % - 0.25 %

Manganese max 0.8%

 Sulphur, max 0.05%

Phosphorus, max 0.05%

Silicon, max 0.25 %

Iron remainder

Tensile strength : 445.4 N/mm ^2

Yield stress : 280 N/mm^2

Hardness : 170 BHN

2) Cast iron

Composition
carbon: 2.0 % -
4.0 %

Manganese max: 0.4% -1.0%

Sulphur, max: 0.05% -0.1%

Phosphorus, max : 0.07%

Silicon, max : 0.1 % - 4%

Iron : remainder

Tensile strength : 100 to 200 N/mm ^2

Yield stress : 28 kgf/mm^2

 Compressive strength: 400 TO 1000 N/MM^2

Shear stress : 120 N/MM^2

PROCESS PLANNING
Process planning is an important function, which takes place directly after
the design of product. It takes the information received and creates a plan for
manufacture. The process planning involves an application of systematic
procedures which involves following steps.

A) PRELIMINARY PART PRINT ANALYSIS

1) Size configuration
2) Material
3) Dimensional relationships and identification of various reference surfaces
4) Implicit and explicit remarks regarding from error and finish.

B) DETERMINATION LOGICAL SEQUENCE OF

OPERATION

1) Identification of surface to be machined, selection of machine tool.

2) Supporting accessories, pictures, gauges etc.

COST ESTIMATION
Cost estimation may be defined as the process of casting the expenses
that must be incurred to manufacture a product. These expenses take into a
consideration all expenditure involved in design and manufacturing with all
related services facilities such as pattern making , tool , making as “well as a
portion of the general administrative and selling cost.

PURPOSE OF COST ESTIMATING

1) To determine the selling price of a product for a quotation or contract
So as to ensure a reasonable profit to company.

2) Check the quotation supplied by venders.

3) Determine the most economical process or material to manufacture the

Product.

4) to determine standards of production performance that may be used to

control the cost.

BASICALLY THE COST ESTIMATION OF TWO

TYPES.

1. Material cost.
2. Machining cost.

 MATERIAL COST ESTIMATION :

Material cost estimation gives the total amount required to collect material which the
raw has to be processed or fabricated to desired size and functioning of the
components.
These materials are divided into two categories.

1. Material for fabrication :

In this material is obtained in raw condition and is manufactured or processed to

finished size for proper functioning of the components .

2. Standard purchased parts.

This includes the part which was readily available in the market like
Allen screws etc. A list in for chard by the estimation stating the quality ,
size and standard parts , the weight of raw material and cost per kg for
the fabricated parts.

 MACHINING COST ESTIMATION:

This cost estimation is an attempt to forecast the total expenses that may include
manufacturing part from material cost. Cost estimation of manufacturing parts
can be considered as judgment on and after careful consideration which
includes labor, material and factory services required to produce the required
parts.

PROCEDUER FOR CALCULATION OF MATERIAL COST

The general procedure for calculation of material cost estimation is
1. After designing a project a bill of material is divided into two Categories

a. Fabricated components
b. Standard purchase components.
2. The rates of all standard items are taken and added up.
3. Cost of raw material purchase taken and added up

Machining cost
Here we have to work on the different m/c for operation. So the machine is
being hired For that much period of time. Considering the depreciation and
the electric light bill along with the rent of work shop or the initial
investment, the machining cost is calculated as the cost in Rs / hr

Labour cost

the Labour cost consists of the amount increased on the wages paid to the
operators. The cost is calculated based on the calculation of the hourly wages,
paid to the operators. Here the operators are considered as the skilled operator.
ENERGY BASELINE STATUS OF THANE CITY:

Overall Energy Status

Energy Consumption:

Based on the information gathered from survey, the energy supply scenario is presented here. The
main sources of energy are electricity, petrol, diesel, LPG, CNG and kerosene.

(i) Electricity: Electricity distribution in the city is division based and there are 3 divisions (Thane
Urban, Wagle Estate Division and Kalwa Division) in the Thane city. Based on the information
available, sector wise electricity consumption data is compiled for last 5 years.

Electricity Consumption in Thane City

Year 2003-04 2004- 2005- 2006-07 2007-08
05 06
Residential 322.6 358.4 402.7 447.5 513.1 343904
Commercial 85.7 95.3 112.1 136.7 172.9 42156
Industrial 490.4 501.4 514.3 526.4 537.7 7270
Municipal - - 36.78 36.99 35.97 -
Total 898.7 955.2 1065.88 1147.5 1259.67 393330
9

The maximum electricity consumption in Thane city is from Industrial Sector which consumes about
44% of the total electricity consumption in the city. The Sectoral Growth in last 5 years for
residential, commercial and industrial sectors are 59.04%, 101.70% and 9.65% respectively. Overall,
the electricity consumption has increased by 40.17% in 5 year.
Figure below gives the break up of electricity consumption for different sectors. Residential sector
dominates (81%) in electricity consumption and hence should be targeted for Demand Side
Measures (DSM). During last five years, the residential and commercial sectors have shown higher
growth in electricty consumption as compared to the the municipal and industrial sectors.
3.1.Forecasting Based on Population Growth:

Population projection for Thane Municipal Area has been done in city development plan (CDP) under
JNNURM scheme annual Growth rate is found to be 6.75% to 7.25 % per annum.

Table 22 : Population Projection till 2041

Year 2005 2031 2041
Population 15,44,390 33,66,556 41,73,305

Forecasting for the year 2013/2018

The projections for fuel consumption have been done assuming that they fuel consumption will
grow at the same rate as population. The table given below summarizes projections for year 2013
and 2018

Table 23 : Population projection for the year 2013 and 2018

2008 2013 2018

Thane 1726062 2048460 2400276
Municipal Area

Energy Consumption Projection

Year 2008 2013 2018
Population 1726062 2048460 2400276
Electricity consumption 1260 1495 1752
(MU)
LPG (kg) 20566306 24407732 28599670
Petrol (KL) 204500 242697 284379
Diesel (KL) 650700 772239 904869
Kerosene (KL) 25468 30225 35416
CNG (scmd) 73000 86635 101514

In terms of energy (million kWh) the future projections would be:

Table 25 : Energy Consumption Projection for TMC

Sources 2008 2013 2018
Electricity (MU) 1260 1459 1702
LPG (MU) 299 355 416
Petrol (MU) 190 226 265
Diesel (MU) 214 254 298
Kerosene (MU) 256 304 356
CNG (MU) 266 316 371

Goal for the year 2018

Since, transportation sector is not included in this study and petrol and diesel consumption data is
not available for different sectors, the energy usage for electricity, LPG and Kerosene is considered
for defining the energy target. Based on this data, the targeted reduction in energy consumption
(10% of the total based on past data projection) for the year 2013 would be 230.1 MUs.

Table 29 : Forecasting of Energy Consumption for TMC

Energy Sources Based on population growth (MU) Based on past data (MU)
Electricity (MU) 1459 1705
LPG (MU) 355 337
Kerosene (MU) 304 259
Total (MU) 2118 2301
RENEWABLE ENERGY STRATEGIES FOR THANE:

The main objective of this chapter is to identify available renewable energy resources in Thane city
and carry out techno-economic feasibility of different renewable energy options for residential,
commercial, industrial and municipal sector and making a priority listing of the options.
A renewable energy resources assessment has been done to identify the potential renewable energy
sources for the Thane city. This includes assessment of solar radiation, wind power density and
availability, biomass resources and municipal/industrial wastes etc. The strategy has been prepared
for each sector identifying most techno economically viable renewable energy options considering
wide range of potential consumers in the particular sector. An implementation target for
development of solar city project in 5 years period has been set with an objective to meet at least
5% energy consumption from renewable energy on completion of the solar city project in Thane.
For the residential sector, potential for introducing the following renewable energy devices has been
worked out based on present energy use pattern of the residents, economic level, availability of such
products and economic feasibility.

(i) Solar Water Heaters

(ii) Solar Cookers
(iii) Solar Lanterns
(iv) Solar Home System
(v) Solar PV system for Home Inverters
(vi) PV for replacement of DG/ Kerosene Generator sets
(vii) Renewable Energy Systems for Residential Housing Complexes

Commercial and Institutional Sector has been divided in to four broad categories as below and these
categories again sub divided into further categories based on their capacity and functional
differences.

(i) RE Strategy for Hotels – budget hotels

(ii) RE Strategy for Restaurants – Large, medium, small, food cart
(iii) RE Strategy for Hospitals – 250-1000 bedded, 100-250 bedded, 50-100 bedded, Dispensaries/
dental clinic/ microsurgery
(iv) RE Strategy for Educational Institutes – Primary, intermediate, colleges, engineering colleges,
medical colleges, Computer Institute, Polytechnics, ITI

On the spot assessment have been carried out visiting each of these sub categories to identify
present energy demand, energy and fuel used, load shedding occurs, standby power supply
provision, space available for installation of solar arrays and collectors etc. Based on the site visit and
energy demand assessment, preliminary design/sizing of appropriate renewable energy devices have
been worked out for each category establishment. An indicative budgetary financial implication,
energy savings, payback period and GHG emission reduction has been estimated for each renewable
energy option that has been suggested.

Industrial sector is broadly divided into five categories. Suitable renewable energy technologies have
been prepared for each of the category.
(i) Electrical Equipment
(ii) Chemical Manufacturing
(iii) Rayon
(iv) Dyes
(v) Textile based cottage industry

Municipal Sector is divided into seven categories and options for appropriate renewable energy
options have been recommended based on the assessment made on each category of the sector.
(i) Buildings - Municipality building and other Office Buildings
(ii) Markets – General markets, vegetable markets
(iii) Parks – Municipality Parks
(iv) Outdoor lighting Road safety- Street light, monuments, road blinkers,
(v) Municipal Solid Waste
(vi) Sewage Treatment Plant

Use of Solar cookers

Both box type solar cooker and dish type solar cooker can be promoted in the urban areas. Box type
solar cooker is an ideal device for domestic cooking during most of the year, except for the monsoon
season and cloudy days. It however can not be used for frying or chapatti making. It is durable and
simple to operate. On the other hand, dish type solar cooker can be used for indoor cooking. The
stagnation temperature at the bottom of the cooking pot could be over 300oC depending upon the
weather conditions. The temperatures attained with this cooker are sufficient for roasting, frying
and boiling. Regular use of a box type solar cooker may save 3-4 LPG cylinders per year. The use of
solar cooker to its full capacity may result in savings up to 10 LPG cylinders per year at small
establishments. Setting a target of 5% residential consumer to adopt solar cooker (75% box type and
25% dish type) in the 5 years period, a total of 0.48 million kg of LPG could be saved by reducing
1680 tonnes of GHG from Thane City (considering specific emission from LPG as 0.24 kg CO2 per
kWh).

Table 35 : Target for introducing solar cooker in Thane City

Total Residential 343904 Nos.

household
Household having facility to install a solar 40%
cooker
Target for introducing of solar cooker in 5 5%
years
Number of Solar Cooker to 6878 Nos.
be installed in 5 years plan
Average savings of LPG 5 Nos.
domestic cylinder per year
per solar cooker (14kg)
Total LPG saved per year 481466 kg
Total energy saved per 7.00 MU
year
Indicative cost of 180.55 Lakh
installation (75% box type
& 25% SK-14)
MNRE subsidy for solar 54.16 Lakh
cooker @30%
Cost of energy savings 120.37 Lakh
Payback period 1.05 years
Emission reduction per 1680 Tonnes
year

Solar lanterns to replace kerosene lamps

Solar lantern has the average capacity of providing three hours of continuous light from a single
charge per day, and can work as source of light for poor families without electricity. Kerosene is the
main source of burning light in poor families in Thane particularly during load shedding hours and
survey results reveal that 14% of population use kerosene lanterns during load shedding to
illuminate their houses. Average consumption of kerosene per household is 3 litres per month.
Assuming a household uses 3-4 lanterns, consumption of one lantern will be about 3 litres per
month. Targeting 10% of population to replace at least one kerosene lantern with solar lantern out
of 2% of total population who uses kerosene lamps a 0.02 million litres of kerosene could be saved
reducing 63 tonnes of GHG in five years. Detailed techno commercial is provided in the table below.

Table 36 : Target for introducing solar lanterns in Thane City

Capacity of residential Solar 10 Wp
Home System
Number lights per Solar Home 1 Nos.
System
Number of Kerosene lamp 1 Nos.
replaced by SL
Consumption of kerosene per 3 Litres
lanterns/month
Cost of kerosene per litre in the 20 INR
market
Cost of kerosene per year per 720 INR
household
Indicative cost of installing a SL 3000 INR
MNRE subsidy @50% 1500 INR
Payback period when replacing 2.1 years
the kerosene lamps
Total Residential household 343904 Nos.
Residential household use kerosene lamps 2%
Target to replace kerosene lamp in 5 years 10%
Number of SL to be installed in 5 688 Nos.
years plan
Total kerosene lamp replaced 688 Nos.
Indicative cost of installation 20.63 Lakh
Kerosene saved 24761 Litres
Savings in terms of Electricity 0.25 MU
Cost of kerosene savings 4.95 Lakh
MNRE subsidy @50% 10.32 Lakh
Payback period 2.1 years
Emission reduction per year 63 Tonnes

Use Solar Home Systems (SHS)

A Solar Home System is a fixed indoor lighting system and consists of solar PV module, battery and
balance of systems. Capacity of such system could be of 18Wp, 37Wp and 74Wp for different
configuration. The luminaries used in the above systems comprise compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) of
7 W / 9 W / 11 W capacity respectively. The fan is of DC type with less than 20 W rating. One Battery
of 12 V, 40 / 75 Ah capacity is also provided with SPV modules of 37Wp / 74Wp as required. The
system will work for about 4 hours daily, if charged regularly. The Solar Home Lighting systems have
been proposed to replace kerosene lamps used by 2% population in Thane Municipality area during
load shedding hours. A 74Wp Solar Home System can replace 3-4 kerosene lamps with 4-5 hours
backup hence replacing entire need of kerosene, which is estimated at an average of 3 litres per
month per household. Assuming 10% replacement in the planned 5 years period an estimated
amount of 0.11 million litres of kerosene could be saved reducing 275 tonnes of GHG emission from
the city. The potential of kerosene replacement with Solar Home Systems and financial implication
thereon is indicated in the table below.

Table 37 : Target for introducing solar home system in Thane City

Unit
Capacity of residential Solar 74 Wp
Home System
Number lights per Solar Home 4 Nos.
System
Number of Kerosene lamp 4 Nos.
replaced by SHS
Consumption of kerosene per 13 Litres
household/month (survey result)
Cost of kerosene per litre in the 20 INR
market
Cost of kerosene per year per 3144 INR
household
Indicative cost of installing a SHS 16000 INR
MNRE subsidy @50% 8000 INR
Payback period when replacing 2.5 years
the kerosene lamps
Total Residential household 343904 Nos.
Residential household use kerosene lamps 2%

Target to replace kerosene lamp in 5 years 10%

Number of SHS to be installed in 688 Nos.
5 years plan
Total kerosene lamp replaced 2751 Nos.
Indicative cost of installation 110.05 Lakh
Kerosene saved 108 KL
Savings in terms of Electricity 1 MU
Cost of kerosene savings 22 Lakh
MNRE Subsidy @50% 55 Lakh
Payback period 2.5 years
Emission reduction per year 275 Tonnes
Various Advantages of Solar Energy
There are many advantages that solar energy has to offer over traditional sources of
energy like coal and oil. Not only it is completely renewable but is also protects the
environment. Here are some of the advantages of solar energy.

It’s a renewable resource

Solar energy is a renewable source of energy as it can be used to produce electricity as
long as the sun exists. Sunshine occurs naturally. As long as we are alive, we are
always going to see the sun, which means it is infinite. This energy can be harnessed
by installing solar panels that can reduce our dependence on other countries for
consistent supply of coal to produce electricity. This makes it an attractive energy
prospect for most countries that are looking to go completely green in the future.

Although solar energy can not be produced during night and cloudy days but it can be
used again and again during day time. Solar energy from sun is consistent and
constant power source and can be used to harness power even in remote locations.

It’s eco-friendly
If you are scavenging the internet in search of ways to minimize your carbon
footprints, solar energy is the surefire answer. Solar energy will not only help you dial
back on your carbon footprint, but also oversize your systems to ensure you live in a
carbon-free house. Some states in the U.S. even allow individuals to invest in other
people’s roofs to create a lot more solar energy. Solar energy is an alternative
for fossil fuels as it is non-polluting, clean, reliable and renewable source of energy. It
does not pollute the air by releasing harmful gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide
or sulphur oxide. So, the risk of damage to the environment is reduced. Solar energy
also does not require any fuel to produce electricity and thus avoids the problem of
transportation of fuel or storage of radioactive waste.

Cuts back on electricity bill

One of the most interesting things about solar energy is that it can help you minimize
your annoying utility bills. You can accomplish this by installing solar panels in your
home. Solar energy takes up energy consuming activities like heating water and
heating homes. Solar energy has the potential to save you up to 20% of your energy
costs, even after financing costs are factored in. And with the ever rocketing of
electricity costs, you could save up to $60,000 in the next 30 years.

Can enhance the value of a home

If you are looking to sell your home in the future, suffice to know that installation of
solar technologies can significantly increase its value. This especially manifests in
areas where buyers are more likely to buy a home installed with solar panels like high
populated cities where environmental degradation is taken seriously by the authorities.
According to research findings, solar panels can add up to $20,000 to the value of a
house. This figure represents the amount required to install a solar panel, which means
you will be able to recoup your money when you sell the property. That represents a
bright investment in your property.

Requires little maintenance

The cost of installing a solar panel can be high. But once it’s up and running, you will
enjoy the benefits for many years, while injecting just a small amount for its
maintenance. If your energy needs change and you desire to add more panels, it would
be a lot easier. Initial cost that is incurred once can be recovered in the long run that
range from 10 years – 15 years. Apart from this, solar panels does not create any
noiseor release any toxic substances.

Easy Installation
Solar panels are easy to install and does not require any wires, cords or power sources.
Unlike wind and geothermal power stations which require them to be tied with drilling
machines, solar panels does not require them and can be installed on the rooftops
which means no new space is needed and each home or business user can generate
their own electricity. Moreover, they can be installed in distributed fashion which
means no large scale installations are needed. With the advancement in the technology
and increase in the production, the cost of solar panels have come down slightly.
Areas where cost of electricity is high, payback times can be even lower.

Can Be Used in Remote Locations

Solar energy can be of great boon in areas which have no access to power cables. It
works great in remote locations where running power lines would be difficult or
costly. Solar panels can set up to produce solar energy there as long as it receives the
sunlight.

Long Lasting Solar Cells

Solar cells make no noise at all and there are no moving parts in solar cells which
makes them long lasting and require very little maintenance. Solar energy provides
cost effective solutions to energy problems where there is no electricity at all.
Solar Energy Disadvantages

1. Cost
The initial cost of purchasing a solar system is fairly high. Although the UK
government has introduced some schemes for encouraging the adoption of
renewable energy sources, for example, the Feed-in Tariff, you still have to cover the
upfront costs. This includes paying for solar panels, inverter, batteries, wiring and for
the installation. Nevertheless, solar technologies are constantly developing, so it is
safe to assume that prices will go down in the future

2. Weather Dependent
Although solar energy can still be collected during cloudy and rainy days, the
efficiency of the solar system drops. Solar panels are dependent on sunlight to
effectively gather solar energy. Therefore, a few cloudy, rainy days can have a
noticeable effect on the energy system. You should also take into account that solar
energy cannot be collected during the night. On the other hand, if you also require
your water heating solution to work at night or during wintertime, thermodynamic
panels are an alternative to consider.

3. Solar Energy Storage Is Expensive

Solar energy has to be used right away, or it can be stored in large batteries. These
batteries, used in off-the-grid solar systems, can be charged during the day so that
the energy is used at night. This is a good solution for using solar energy all day long
but it is also quite expensive. In most cases, it is smarter to just use solar energy
during the day and take energy from the grid during the night (you can only do this if
your system is connected to the grid). Luckily our energy demand is usually higher
during the day so we can meet most of it with solar energy.

4. Uses a Lot of Space

The more electricity you want to produce, the more solar panels you will need
because you want to collect as much sunlight as possible. Solar panels require a lot
of space and some roofs are not big enough to fit the number of solar panels that
you would like to have. An alternative is to install some of the panels in your yard but
they need to have access to sunlight. Anyways, if you don’t have the space for all the
panels that you wanted, you can just get a fewer and they will still be satisfying some
of your energy needs.

5. Associated with Pollution

Although pollution related to solar energy systems is far less compared to other
sources of energy, solar energy can be associated with pollution. Transportation and
installation of solar systems have been associated with the emission of greenhouse
gases. There are also some toxic materials and hazardous products used during the
manufacturing process of solar photovoltaics, which can indirectly affect the
environment. Nevertheless, solar energy pollutes far less than the other alternative
energy sources.
CONCLUSION :

The Indian Solar Cities Programme has the potential to drastically reduce energy consumption in cities across
India. Through partnerships with numerous stakeholders, cities are identifying the most promising
opportunities for EE and RE technology installations. By acting on these findings and installing these measures,
the cities can help the government reach its aggressive goals to install 14,000 MW of RE technologies during
the years 2007-2012 and to deploy 20,000 MW of grid-connected solar power by 2022 as well as 2,000 MW of
off-grid solar applications through the National Solar Mission.