Energy Conversion and Management 121 (2016) 152–161

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Energy Conversion and Management

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Biodiesel production from Kutkura (Meyna spinosa Roxb. Ex.) fruit seed
oil: Its characterization and engine performance evaluation with 10%
and 20% blends
J. Kakati, T.K. Gogoi ⇑
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University, Napaam, Tezpur 784028, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Kutkura (Meyna spinosa Roxb.) is a plant species in the genus Meyna from the Rubiaceae family. Kutkura
Received 27 October 2015 fruits are food items; the fruits and the leaves of the Kutkura plant are also used in traditional medicine.
Received in revised form 2 May 2016 In this article, biodiesel produced from Kutkura fruit seed oil is characterized and compared with other
Accepted 4 May 2016
tree seed based biodiesels. Oil content in Kutkura fruit seed was found 35.45%. Free fatty acid (FFA) con-
tent in the oil was 3.1%, hence base catalyzed transesterification was used directly for biodiesel produc-
tion from Kutkura fruit seed oil. Kutkura fruit seed oil contained 7.187% palmitic, 5.382% stearic, 30.251%
Keywords:
oleic and 52.553% linoleic acid. Calorific value, kinematic viscosity and density of Kutkura fruit seed oil
Kutkura (Meyna spinosa Roxb. Ex.)
Biodiesel
were found 38.169 MJ/kg, 28.92 mm2/s and 922.5 kg/m3 respectively. However, after transesterification,
FAME these properties improved to 39.717 MJ/kg, 5.601 mm2/s and 885.3 kg/m3 respectively in case of the
Characterization Kutkura fatty acid methyl ester (FAME). Apart from water content, all other properties of Kutkura
Performance FAME met the ASTM D6751 and EN14214 standards. Blending of Kutkura FAME with diesel up to 20%
Diesel engine (vol.) however reduced water content down to an acceptable level of 0.038 wt.%. The kinematic viscosity
also reduced to the level of conventional diesel after blending. Further, an engine performance study with
biodiesel blends (B10 and B20) showed almost similar fuel consumption rate with diesel. Engine brake
thermal efficiency (BTE) was more while the smoke emission was less with B10 and B20. Thus,
Kutkura fruit seed is a potential source of biodiesel and blends of Kutkura FAME up to 20% can be used
for realizing better performance from the engine.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction transesterification, blending, research and development are vital

Biodiesel has been accepted as a clean alternative fuel by the
World community. Biodiesel production and characterization from
various plant resources are in progress in many countries [1–9]. In
India, biodiesel production from non-edible oil seeds is receiving
significant research interest in the last decade [10–13]. Controlled
cultivation of plant species, seed procurement, oil extraction,
Abbreviations: AFR, air flow rate; ASTM, American Standard Test Method; BMEP,
brake mean effective pressure; BP, brake power; BSFC, brake specific fuel
consumption; BTE, brake thermal efficiency; CA, crank angle; CI, cetane index; D,
density (g/mL); DI, direct injection; EN, European norms; FAME, fatty acid methyl
ester; FBP, final boiling point; FFA, free fatty acid; FFR, fuel flow rate; GC, gas
chromatographer; IBP, initial boiling point; IMEP, indicated mean effective pres-
sure; IP, indicated power; ISFC, indicated specific fuel consumption; ITE, indicated
thermal efficiency; NA, not available; ND, not determined; pH, potential of
hydrogen; rpm, revolution per minute; T, temperature; TDC, top dead center.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tapan_g@tezu.ernet.in (T.K. Gogoi).
for successful implementation of National biodiesel Mission in
India. Azam et al. [14] have reported on a number of unutilized
oil bearing plant species with good potential for biodiesel produc-
tion, nearly 26 species including Azadirachta indica, Calophyllum
inophyllum, Jatropha curcas and Pongamia pinnata were reported
suitable for biodiesel production. Assam, a part of North-East India
is considered to be the hub of many plant resources. A number of
oil bearing tree seeds such as Nahar (Mesua ferrea), Koroch (a vari-
ety of Pongamia glabra), Terminalia (Terminalia belerica Robx.) are
available in Assam. Sarma [15,16] characterized the properties of
biodiesel produced from Nahar (M. ferrea) and Koroch seed oil.
Subsequently Gogoi and Baruah [17] used 10% (B10), 20% (B20),
30% (B30) and 40% (B40) blending of Koroch seed oil methyl ester
with diesel as fuels in a small direct injection (DI) diesel engine for
evaluating engine performance and fuel combustion characteris-
tics at various engine loads. Chakraborty and Baruah [18] investi-
gated the prospect of Terminalia seed oil for biodiesel

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.05.019
0196-8904/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J. Kakati, T.K. Gogoi / Energy Conversion and Management 121 (2016) 152–161
production. Deka and Basumatary [19] investigated biodiesel pro-
duction from Yellow oleander (Thevetia peruviana Schum) seed oil
using Musa balbisiana Colla (one variety of banana plant) based
heterogeneous catalyst. Apart from these, there may be many other
tree seeds which are yet to be explored for biodiesel production
and used as fuel in diesel engine. The judicious exploitation of all
such non-edible sources of bio-diesel could be vital in addressing
issues related to energy security, forest conservation and rural
economy upgradation. If India has to attain the goal of even 10%
diesel substitution with fuel derived from plant sources, then pro-
duction and use of biodiesels from all potential sources are very
essential. Existing sources such as Jatropha, Karanja etc. alone will
not be sufficient to meet this huge biodiesel requirement.
Kutkura (Meyna spinosa Roxb. Ex.) fruit seeds could be a poten-
tial feedstock for biodiesel production in India. Kutkura (genus
Meyna, family Rubiaceae) (Fig. 1) is a small tree found in the north-
eastern region of India. The plant has straight, sharp spines. Fruits
(Fig. 2) are yellowish and smooth with persistent calyx lobes. Flow-
ering season starts in late spring and lasts until early summer;
while fruits can be found during the period from August to Decem-
ber. It is also found in eastern state of India (West Bengal), South
India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamilnadu) and in some
neighboring countries like Bangladesh, China, Nepal, Java, Thai-
land, Vietnam and Myanmar [20]. Ripe fruits are slightly sweet in
taste and are eaten raw. In traditional medicine, the mature fruits
are used for treatment of gastritis, cracked heels, piles, biliary and
Fig. 1. A matured Kutkura (Meyna spinosa Roxb. Ex.) tree.
Fig. 2. Kutkura (Meyna spinosa Roxb. Ex.) fruits, seeds and kernels.
153
hepatic congestions [20]. Leaves are used for treatment of bone-
fracture, skin irritation, abortion, diphtheria and renal diseases.
Leaf paste is used as shampoo and seed paste is used for abortion
and removal of pimples [21]. Thus Kutkura fruits are not only con-
sumed as food items but the fruits and the leaves have also got
their traditional medicinal use. However biodiesel production from
Kutkura fruit seed oil was not reported earlier and hence, no scien-
tific article exists in the literature. Therefore, the present study is
carried out for the following objectives. (i) To study the prospect
of biodiesel production from Kutkura fruit seed oil, (ii) To evaluate
the fatty acid composition of the seed oil, (iii) To determine the fuel
properties of both the Kutkura fruit seed oil and it’s FAME and (iv)
To compare oil content in the seed, fatty acid composition and fuel
properties of the oil and its FAME with other similar existing non
edible biodiesels. Further, a performance test is also carried out
in a single cylinder diesel engine to investigate the behavior of
10% (B10) and 20% (B20) blending of Kutkura biodiesel with diesel
fuel.
2. Experimental
2.1. Materials and methods
Matured Kutkura fruits were collected from the nearby locali-
ties of Tezpur, Assam, India. The fruits were dried in sunlight and
seeds from the dried fruits were separated by scraping the fruit
pulp (pericarp) manually. Seeds were further dried in the sunlight
to reduce its moisture content. Oil from the seeds was extracted
and biodiesel was produced using the standard transesterification
procedure. The oil content in Kutkura seed was determined using
the Soxhlet extraction system. Solvents and other analytical grade
chemicals like methanol 99%, NaOH flakes 97%, sulfuric acid 98%,
distilled water, isopropyl alcohol 99% and phenolphthalein indica-
tor pH 8.2–10 were procured from commercial sources.
2.2. Oil extraction and determination of oil content
The oil from Kutkura fruit seed was extracted with the help of
Soxhlet extraction system using petroleum ether as solvent for
the purpose of measuring oil content in the seed. About 20 g of
the dried seeds were crushed in a grinder and the grounded seeds
were taken in a thimble. The thimble was then kept in the Soxhlet
chamber attached to the round bottomed flask (0.5 L). The solvent
(petroleum ether) was heated to 60 °C for vaporizing and then it
was condensed by circulating cold water in the condenser. Con-
densed petroleum ether was allowed to fall on the thimble for oil
extraction from the seed. Petroleum ether after extracting oil from
the sample returns back to the flask by the action of siphon and it
takes half an hour of time to complete such an extraction cycle.
Eight such cycles were performed to extract the entire oil from
the grounded sample. For separating the solvent from the oil, the
thimble was removed from the Soxhlet, the oil-solvent mixture
was again heated up to 60° to vaporize the petroleum ether for
154 J. Kakati, T.K. Gogoi / Energy Conversion and Management 121 (2016) 152–161
collecting them in the Soxhlet chamber after condensation. When
the Soxhlet chamber was partially filled up with solvent and before
the siphonic action started, the heating mantle was stopped for
some time to collect the solvent in a separate container by remov-
ing the soxhlet chamber. This was continued until all the solvent
from the oil-solvent mixture was separated. After separating the
solvent from the mixture, the weight of remaining oil in the flask
was measured to measure the oil content.
However, the oil for biodiesel production from the seeds was
extracted mainly by using a mechanical expeller. The oil expeller
consists of a seed control feeder, pushing chamber, crushing cham-
ber, pulling out worm shaft and adjustable cone set with specially
designed ball bearings. It was powered by a 5 HP 3 phase 1440 rpm
electric motor with mounting frame and power transfer belt. The
average extraction capacity of the expeller is 10–15 kg/h. When
the seeds were fed into the expeller, oil was squeezed out through
small openings of the cage, guiding it to fall in a trough under the
crushing chamber for collecting in a container. The oil cakes were
expelled from the back end of the expeller shaft which were again
fed into expeller for further oil extraction from them. The extracted
oil was first filtered in an oil filter and then centrifuged (Thermos-
Scientific, 5000 rpm for 15 min) to remove the dust particles and
impurities.
2.3. Determination of fatty acid composition (FAC)
Fatty acid composition (FAC) of Kutkura fruit seed oil was deter-
mined in Punjab Biotechnology Incubator, an Agri and Food testing
laboratory located in Mohali, Punjab, India. Gas chromatography
was carried out in a Varian CP-3800 chromatographer to determine
the fatty acid composition. Oil sample was first esterified by mix-
ing 67.57 mg oil with 20 ml of Trans Methylene mixture (15 ml
Methanol, 7 ml Toluene & 0.75 ml Sulfuric Acid). FAMEs were sep-
arated by liquid-liquid partitioning with petroleum ether and dis-
tilled water. The clean organic layer was dried under N2
concentrator and reconstituted with petroleum ether. Reconsti-
tuted extract (1 lL) was then injected to the gas chromatographer
(GC). Individual fatty acid components in Kutkura fruit seed oil
were identified by comparison of retention times with the stan-
dard FAME-37 mix and the quantity of each individual fatty acids
was calculated from the relative peak area. The GC operating con-
ditions are shown in Table 1.
2.4. Transesterification of Kutkura seed oil
The free fatty acid (FFA) content in Kutkura seed oil was found
to be 3.1%. Amount of FFA in the oil depends on the plant species
and its growth conditions [7]. High FFA in the oil causes soap for-
mation in presence of water, consumes catalyst and reduces cata-
lyst effectiveness. This ultimately reduces the yield of biodiesel.
Canakci and Van [22] found that alkaline transesterification would
Table 1
GC operating conditions for determination of fatty acid composition.
Property Specification
Injection Split 1:20 at 280 °C and 1 lL injection volume
Column HP-88 (88% Cyanopropyl aryl polysiloxane)
Column dimension 100 m
0.250 mm ID
0.20 lm film thickness
Column pressure 18 psi
Column flow 1.5 ml/min
Carrier gas Nitrogen (>99.99% purity)
Detector Flame Ionization detector at 300 °C
Oven temperature Initial 100 °C (hold for 5 min)
Increased to 250 °C @ 2 °C/min
Final 250 °C (hold for 10 min)
not occur successfully if the FFA content in the oil is above 3%.
Since it was almost equal to 3% in case of Kutkura fruit seed oil,
therefore the base catalyzed transesterification process was used
directly for producing biodiesel from Kutkura seed oil in a labora-
tory scale. Biodiesel production was carried out in a 2-L capacity
reactor vessel (a three-necked flask) equipped with a reflux con-
denser, a thermometer and a sampling port. One magnetic stirrer
with the provision of speed adjustment was used for uniform heat-
ing of the oil. The reactor vessel was placed over a heater with a
thermostat for controlling the reaction temperature at the desired
level. 1 L of Kutkura fruit seed oil was first heated to 60 °C and then
methoxide (methanol 300 ml and NaOH 8 g) was added for the
reaction to occur continuously for 2 h at 63 °C and 600 rpm. After
the reaction, the mixture was transferred to a separating funnel
to cool and settle for 2 h. The glycerol formed at the bottom was
separated. The biodiesel (methyl ester) was again transferred to
the reactor vessel and heated to 70 °C at a low stirring speed
(100 rpm) for methanol recovery. For this purpose, a double walled
recovery condenser was fitted to the central port of the reactor ves-
sel through a gooseneck adaptor with 90° bend. Cold water was
circulated through the condenser tubes for condensation of metha-
nol vapor and the condensed methanol was collected in a separate
container. Water washing was done in a washing funnel by spray-
ing hot water at 40 °C to remove the traces of methanol and NaOH
from biodiesel and this was continued till a pH value of 7 was
obtained. Biodiesel was further heated above 100 °C to remove
the moisture content. From 1 L of straight vegetable oil, finally
700 ml of biodiesel was obtained after transesterification, glycerol
separation and water washing.
2.5. Measurement of ester content and unreacted triglycerides
The ester content in the produced biodiesel was determined in
another GC (Varian 450, Netherlands) following the EN14103
method using Glyceryl-triheptadecanoate as internal standard.
The amount of mono, di and triglycerides present in the biodiesel
sample were also measured using the same GC (Varian 450,
Netherlands) and the EN14105 method.
2.6. Preparation of biodiesel blends
The pure biodiesel produced from Kutkura fruit seed oil was
mixed with diesel fuel in order to prepare two blends as follows:
B10: 10% (vol.) biodiesel + 90% (vol.) diesel
B20: 20% (vol.) biodiesel + 80% (vol.) diesel
Mixing of biodiesel and diesel fuel was done in the 2-L capacity
flask using the magnetic stirrer at 1000 rpm for 30 min.
2.7. Determination of properties of Kutkura seed oil, FAME and its
diesel blends
The physical and chemical properties of Kutkura fruit seed oil
and Kutkura FAME were evaluated. These include density, kine-
matic viscosity, calorific value, fire and flash point, pour point,
cloud point, copper strip corrosion, carbon residue, vapor pressure,
acid value, sulfur content, distillation temperature and cetane
index (CI). Apparatus and standard methods used for evaluating
these properties are given in Table 2. Some important properties
(density, kinematic viscosity, calorific value, carbon residue, water
content and CI) of the biodiesel blends (B10 and B20) were sepa-
rately determined to study the effect of blending on FAME proper-
ties and to use the blended fuels in a diesel engine for evaluating
the engine performance characteristics. The following four variable
equation was used to calculate CI.
 J. Kakati, T.K. Gogoi / Energy Conversion and Management 121 (2016) 152–161 155

Table 2
Methods and standard used for investigation properties of oil and FAME.

Property Apparatus, model Standard

Free fatty acid content Titration method ASTM D664
Kinematic viscosity and density Combined viscometer and densitymeter, EN 61326
LEMIS’s VDM-300 Heat
Calorific value Automatic bomb calorimeter, IKA ASTM D240
Cloud and pour point Cloud & pour point apparatus ASTM D 2500 & ASTM D97
Fire & flash point Flash & fire point apparatus ASTM D 92
Copper strip corrosion Copper corrosion test apparatus ASTM D 130
IBP/FBP (°C) Distillation apparatus ASTM D-86
Cetane index Calculated by four variable equation ASTM D4737
Carbon residue Ramsbottom carbon residue apparatus ASTM D 524
Vapor pressure (kg/cm2) Reid vapor pressure apparatus ASTM D 323
Sulfur content (ppm) X-ray fluoroscence spectrometer ASTM D4294/2622
Acid value (mg KOH/g) Titration method ASTM D664
Ash content (wt.%) Muffle furnace ASTM D874
Water content (mg/kg) Distillation method ASTM D287

CI ¼ 45:2 þ 0:0892T 10N þ ð0:131 þ 0:901BÞT 50N þ ð0:0523 identical condition for averaging the test results. Five engine cycles
were considered to take care of the cycle to cycle variation. The
 0:42BÞT 90N þ 0:00049½ðT 10N Þ2  ðT 90N Þ2  þ 107B þ 60B2
average BP and BMEP corresponding to the loads at which the
where T 10N ¼ T 10  215; T 50N ¼ T 50  260; T 90N ¼ T 90  310 experiments in the engine set up were conducted were (0.93 kW,
T 10 , T 50 and T 90 are 10%, 50% and 90% recovery temperatures in 1.06 bar), (1.79 kW, 2.07 bar), (2.66 kW, 3.1 bar) and (3.52 kW,
°C determined by distillation method ASTM D86. 4.14 bar) respectively. The corresponding engine speeds at these
B ¼ eð3:5DNÞ  1; where, DN ¼ D  0:85 and D = density at 15 °C loads were 1588, 1570 and 1559 and 1542 rpm. In case of engine
in g/mL. operation at a particular load, the BP and BMEP remain fixed irre-
spective of the change in fuel operation whether it is run with die-
sel or biodiesel. Instead, the performance changes are reflected in
2.8. Experimentation in diesel engine set up parameters such as FFR, AFR, BSFC, IP, ISFC, BTE, ITE, pressure crank
angle variation etc. The smoke opacity of engine with diesel, B10
Experiments were performed in a diesel engine at compression and B20 fuel was measured at various loads by using a smoke
ratio 18 for testing and comparing the suitability of the biodiesel meter (Model AVL 437).
blends in the engine at various engine loads. Specifications of test
engine are given in Table 3. The engine is provided with necessary
instruments for in-cylinder pressure, fuel pressure, crank-angle 3. Results and discussion
(CA), fuel flow rate (FFR), air flow rate (AFR), torque and speed
measurements. The in-cylinder and the fuel pressure were sensed 3.1. Oil content of Kutkura seed oil
by two piezo sensors. A high precision CA (rotary) encoder was
used to locate the top dead center (TDC) of the firing cylinder to The oil content in Kutkura fruit seed was found 35.45% which
measure CA and the engine speed. FFR and AFR were measured was higher than that of Karanja (33%) [14] and Koroch seed
by the flow transducers. The engine torque and brake power (BP) (33.6%)[16]. On the other hand, oil content in Kutkura fruit seed
were measured with the help of an eddy current dynamometer. was less compared to Nahar (75%) [15], Terminalia (43%) [18], Rub-
A Lab view based engine performance analysis software package ber (40–50%) [10], Mahua (40%) [14] and Jatropha (37%) [11]. Thus
was used to evaluate the on line engine performance. Various per- from the oil content aspect, Kutkura fruit seed was found compa-
formance parameters like brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), rable with the other common tree seeds.
indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC), brake thermal efficiency
(BTE), indicated thermal efficiency (ITE), indicated power (IP),
3.2. Fatty acid composition of Kutkura seed oil
brake mean effective pressure (BMEP), indicated mean effective
pressure (IMEP) were determined. For each fuel operation (diesel,
The fatty acid composition of Kutkura fruit seed oil is shown in
B10 and B20) at a given load, three test runs were performed under
Table 4 along with the fatty acid composition of some other tree
seed oils. The fatty acid composition of Kutkura fruit seed oil is
Table 3 shown in Table 4 along with the fatty acid composition of some
Engine specifications. other tree seed oils. Fatty acid composition plays an important role
in fixing some critical biodiesel properties [25,26]. Hence, it also
Property Apparatus, model
indirectly influences the engine performance [27]. Biodiesel with
Make & model Kirloskar –TV1
more saturated fatty acids is known to have higher cetane number
Rated power and Speed 3.5 kW @ 1500 rpm
Type of engine 1 cylinder, 4 Stroke, DI type and better oxidation stability; however the cold-flow properties
Compression ratio (CR) 18 (pour point and cloud point) are affected negatively. On the other
Type of ignition Compression Ignition hand, increasing unsaturation in the oil and decreasing chain
IV opening 4.5° before TDC length in the fatty acid chain causes reduction in some selected
IV closing 35.5° after BDC
EV opening 35.5° before BDC
fuel properties such as viscosity, cetane number and calorific value
EV closing 4.5° after TDC [25,28]. The major fatty acids of Kutkura fruit seed oil were linoleic
Bore and stroke 87.5 mm and 110 mm (52.553%), oleic (30.251%), palmitic acid (7.187%), stearic (5.382%),
Nozzle opening pressure 220 bar arachidic (1.449%) and eicosenoic (1.252%). Hence, it can be cate-
Cooling medium Water cooled
gorized as linoleic–oleic acid. In addition, Kutkura seed oil was
156 J. Kakati, T.K. Gogoi / Energy Conversion and Management 121 (2016) 152–161

Table 4
Comparison of fatty acid compositions of Kutkura seed oil with some other tree seed oils.

Fatty acid chain Molecular formula %

Kutkura Jatropha [12] Karanja [12] Koroch [16] Terminalia [18] Nahar [15] Rubber [23] Mahua [24]
Caproic (6:0) C6H12O2 0.226       
Caprylic (8:0) C8H16O2 0.406       
Capric (10:0) C10H20O2 0.101       
Palmitic (16:0) C16H32O2 7.187 16.0 11.65 11.30 32.80 15.90 10.20 16.0–28.2
Palmitoleic (16:1) C16H30O2     0.50   
Margaric (17:0) C17H34O2 0.206       
Stearic (18:0) C18H36O2 5.382 6.5 7.50 9.80 6.4 9.50 8.70 20.0–25.1
Oleic (18:1) C18H34O2 30.251 43.5 51.59 45.25 31.30 50.30 24.60 41.0–51.0
Linoleic (18:2) C18H32O2 52.553 34.4 16.46 24.75 28.80 21.30 39.60 8.9–13.7
Linolenic (18:3) C18H30O2 0.468 0.80 2.65 2.90   16.30 
Arachidic (20:0) C20H40O2 1.449   1.75 0.30   0.0–3.3
Eicosenoic (20:1) C20H38O2 1.252       
Behenic (22:0) C22H44O2 0.304   3.20    
Lignoceric (24:0) C24H48O2 0.214       
Total saturated fatty acid 15.475 22.5 19.15 26.05 39.5 25.4 18.9 36–56.6
Total unsaturated fatty acid 84.524 78.7 70.7 72.90 60.6 71.6 80.2 49.9–64.7

observed with low total saturated fatty acid (15.475%) and rela-
tively high unsaturated fatty acids (84.524%) compared to the
other common seed oils. Unsaturation in the fatty acid chain is a
source of instability in biodiesel fuel due to which the fuel loses
its resistance to oxidation, polymerization, microbial activity and
water absorption during storage. Oxidation leads to the formation
of hydroperoxides, which can attack elastomers or polymerize to
form insoluble gums and sediment in the fuel which in turn can
clog the engine’s fuel filter [29]. Therefore the storage stability
issue might be considered for biodiesel with high degree of unsat-
uration through use of oxidation inhibitors such as low molecular
weight amines.
3.3. Ester content and amount of monoglyceride, diglyceride and
triglyceride
The average value of ester content in the produced biodiesel
was found 96.84 wt.% which is greater than the minimum pre-
scribed value of 96.5% in the EN14103 standard. No unreacted
triglyceride was found in the biodiesel while the amount of mono-
glyceride and diglyceride were 0.375 wt.% and 0.142 wt.% respec-
tively. These values of monoglyceride and diglyceride were less
than the maximum permissible limits of monoglyceride 0.8 wt.%
and diglyceride 0.2 wt.% as per EN14105 standard.
3.4. Comparison of properties of Kutkura seed oil and FAME with other
oils and FAMEs
Properties of Kutkura seed oil and its FAME are shown in Table 5
along with properties of the other tree seed based biodiesels. Den-
sity of Kutkura seed oil was found 922.5 kg/m3 which was higher
than the density of Jatropha, Karanja and Terminalia oil. The den-
sity of the oil however reduced to 885.3 kg/m3 after transesterifica-
tion and thus falls within the acceptable range of 860–900 kg/m3
as per EN 14214:2003 standard. The percentage reduction in den-
sity during transesterification was thus 4.03% compared to 4.80%,
3.28%, 3.01%, 2.99% and 3.96% reduction in respect of Jatropha,
Karanja, Koroch, Terminalia and Nahar respectively. Percentage

Table 5
Comparison of properties of Kutkura seed oil and its FAME with some other tree seed oils and their corresponding FAME.

Properties Diesel Kutkura Jatropha Karanja Korochf Terminaliag Naharh

Oil FAME Oil FAME Oil FAME Oil FAME Oil FAME Oil FAME
Density at 15 °C (kg/m3) 847.6 922.5 885.3 917.0a 873.0c 913.0c 883.0c 931.0 903.0 910.0 882.8 935.0 898.0
Viscosity at 40 °C (mm2/s) 1.806 28.92 5.601 35.98a 4.23c 27.84c 4.37c 26.06 6.13 25.60 5.17 26.0 6.20
Calorific value (MJ/kg) 45.535 38.169 39.717 39.07a 42.673c 34.0c 42.133c 40.51 43.42 37.50 39.22 39.84 42.23
Fire point (°C) 48 ND 148 274.0a NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Flash point (°C) 44 ND 136 229.0a 148.0c 205c 163.0c – 95 102 90 – 112
Pour point (°C) 4 2 5 4a 4.2c NA 5.1c 0 3/1 3 6 0 3
Cloud point (°C) 5 5 4 9a 10.2c NA 14.6c 4 NA NA NA NA
Carbon residue (wt.%) 0.140 1.128 0.289 1.0b 0.2b NA NA 1.205 0.781 1.058 0.0085 1.6 0.25
Vapor pressure (kg/cm2) 0.05 ND 0.04 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
IBP/FBP (°C) 68/388 ND 345/434 NA NA NA NA NA 219/430 NA 130/347 NA 210/375
Sulfur content (ppm) 340 59 33 NA NA NA 15e NA 50 NA 96 NA 70
Copper strip corrosion 1a ND 1a NA 1ad NA NA NA 1a NA NA NA NA
Cetane number/index 42.06 45.84 61.67 NA 57.1d NA 57.6e NA 55 NA 53 NA 54
Acid value (mg KOH/g) 0.035 6.00 0 28.0b 0.4b 5.06c 0.23e 7.51 0 12.50 0.23 16.40 0.01
Ash content (wt.%) 0.01 ND 0.009 0.8b 0.012b NA 0.001e 0.001 0.001 0.0012 0.0005 0.02 0.01
Water content (vol.%) 0.014 ND 0.187 1.4b 0.025b NA 0.005e NA 0.45 NA 0.126 NA 0.035
a
Ref. [30].
b
Ref. [37].
c
Ref. [12].
d
Ref. [31].
e
Ref. [13].
f
Ref. [16].
g
Ref. [18].
h
Ref. [15].
 J. Kakati, T.K. Gogoi / Energy Conversion and Management 121 (2016) 152–161
reduction in density during transesterification was reported to be
the highest (8.96%) for Madhuca. Usually the density of biodiesel
is higher than petroleum based diesel; Kutkura FAME also has
higher density compared to diesel. Density is important because
it influences the fuel consumption characteristics of an engine.
Measured kinematic viscosity of Kutkura fruit seed oil was
found 28.92 mm2/s at 40 °C. After transesterification however
kinematic viscosity of Kutkura FAME reduced to 5.601 mm2/s. As
per ASTM D6751-07b standard, the permissible upper limit of
kinematic viscosity at 40 °C for biodiesel is 6 mm2/s [18], hence
Kutkura FAME meets the required standard. It was seen that Kut-
kura FAME viscosity is more compared to that of Jatropha, Karanja
and Terminalia while it is less viscous than Koroch and Nahar. As
can be seen in the table, viscosity of all biodiesels was high com-
pared to diesel and in case of Kutkura FAME; it was 3.13 times
more than that of diesel. Fuel injection and atomization character-
istics are directly linked with viscosity. Higher viscosity of fuel
leads to reduced fuel leakage during injection, faster evolution of
pressure and early fuel injection [32,33]. Higher viscosity also leads
to poor atomization of the fuel spray leading to poor combustion.
Hence, use of pure biodiesel in engine is not recommended and
often engine performance test is carried out for various blending
(5%, 10%, 20% etc.) to determine their suitability as alternate fuels
for application in engines.
Calorific value of a fuel is the measure of its fuel energy input.
Higher the calorific value, more will be the engine power output
for a given amount of fuel consumed. Biodiesel calorific value is
usually less compared to diesel. Calorific values of Kutkura fruit
seed oil and its FAME were found to be 38.16 MJ/kg and
39.717 MJ/kg respectively, hence compared to diesel, these were
16.18% and 12.78% less. Further the calorific value of Kutkura FAME
was less compared to those of the other tree seed based biodiesels
(Table 5) except the calorific value of Terminalia FAME. Calorific
value of hydrocarbon fuel depends upon its chemical composition
and structure. Since the chemical composition of fatty acid chains
differ from feedstock to feedstock, therefore calorific value and
other fuel properties (cetane number, cold flow properties, viscos-
ity, lubricity, oxidative and storage stability) of biodiesel produced
from different feedstock are different. The ester moiety derived
from the alcohol also causes variation in biodiesel fuel properties
as it contains fatty acids esters [25]. Fuel properties of biodiesel
are also influenced by contaminants (FFA, soaps, triglyceride,
diglyceride, monoglyceride, alcohol, catalyst, glycerol, metals,
water etc.) and other minor components arising from production
or other sources [34].
The flash point of Kutkura FAME was found 136 °C which was
significantly higher than the diesel flash point of 44 °C. Thus it
meets the EN 14214 standard of minimum 120 °C and ASTM
D6751-07b standard of minimum 93 °C. Flash point of neat biodie-
sel is typically high and hence biodiesel is considered as non-
hazardous from storage and fire-hazard point of view. Compared
to the other biodiesels, flash point of Kutkura FAME was lower than
Jatropha and Karanja while it was higher than those of Koroch, Ter-
minalia and Nahar.
The fire point of Kutkura FAME was 12 °C higher than its flash
point while this difference between fire and flash point in case of
diesel was 4 °C. The flash point is the temperature to which the fuel
must be heated such that the mixture of vapor and air above the
fuel can be ignited. The fire point on the other hand is the temper-
ature at which the air fuel mixture continue to burn for long when
it comes in contact with fire. Usually the fire point of fuel is higher
than the flash point.
Two important parameters for low temperature applications of
a fuel are Pour Point and Cloud Point. Pour Point is the temperature
at which the amount of wax out of solution is sufficient to gel the
fuel, thus it is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can flow.
157
The Cloud point is the temperature at which wax crystal first
becomes visible when the fuel is cooled. Pour point of Kutkura fruit
seed oil and Kutkura FAME were 2 °C and 5 °C respectively. It
was seen that pour point of Kutkura FAME was more or less the
same with the pour point of diesel fuel (4 °C). Cloud points of
Kutkura fruit seed oil and diesel fuel were the same (5 °C) and in
fact the cloud point of Kutkura FAME was 1 °C lesser than that of
diesel fuel. Thus, the cold flow properties of Kutkura FAME were
found almost equivalent to conventional diesel fuel.
Carbon residue represents the amount of carbonaceous matter
left after combustion of a fuel sample under specific conditions.
It measures the tendency of a fuel sample to produce deposits on
injector tips and inside the combustion chamber when used as
automotive fuel. Carbon residue of Kutkura seed oil was found
1.128% and thus it was less than the carbon residues of Koroch
(1.205%) and Nahar seed oil (1.6%). On the other hand, carbon resi-
due of Kutkura seed oil was higher than those of Jatropha (1.0%)
and Terminalia seed oil (1.058%). Carbon residue of Kutkura FAME
was found 0.289 on wt.% basis which was comparatively higher
than the carbon residue of diesel, but it was well within the limit
of max. 0.3 wt.% as per EN 14214:2003 standard. Compared to
the other biodiesels except Koroch seed oil, carbon residue of Kut-
kura FAME was however more. High value of carbon residue is
attributed to high concentrations of glycerides, free fatty acids,
polyunsaturated FAME and polymers [35]. Higher carbon residue
in case of Kutkura seed oil and its FAME could be due to presence
of relatively more amount of Linoleic fatty acid compared to other
biodiesels shown in Table 4.
Vapor pressure is a measure of the volatility of a liquid fuel.
Similar to other properties, it also depends upon the composition
of fatty acid alkyl esters in biodiesel. Vapor pressure has a direct
impact on fuel ignition quality, atomization, and combustion
[36]. Higher vapor pressure favors the evaporative emissions while
a lower value lead to delayed ignition, poor atomization and prob-
lematic combustion. Vapor pressure of biodiesel is usually low
compared to that of petro diesel. The vapor pressure of Kutkura
FAME was also found to be lower (0.04 kg/cm2) compared to diesel
vapor pressure of 0.05 kg/cm2.
The volatility (distillation) characteristics of hydrocarbon fuel
have its implications on the optimum engine performance and
safety because it is volatility that measures of the tendency of a liq-
uid fuel to produce potentially explosive vapor and proper air–fuel
mixture for combustion [16]. It was found that biodiesel derived
from Kutkura seed oil has a narrow boiling range 345434 °C
against a wide boiling range (68388 °C) of conventional diesel
fuel. The initial boiling point (IBP) of petroleum diesel was found
68 °C, while for Kutkura biodiesel it was 345 °C. This clearly
implies that there is acute shortage of low boiling point
hydrocarbon in Kutkura biodiesel. Moreover, high boiling point
components were present in Kutkura biodiesel. High boiling
point hydrocarbon in a fuel causes formation of solid combustion
deposits [16].
Sulfur content of Kutkura seed oil was found 59 ppm which fur-
ther reduced to 33 ppm in case of Kutkura FAME. This was signif-
icantly less compared to the sulfur content of Euro III diesel
considered in this study with 340 ppm sulfur content. Biodiesel
usually has low sulfur content which is also true in case of Kutkura
biodiesel. Presence of sulfur compounds in fuel produces mainly
sulfur oxides (SO2 and SO3). SO3 reacts with water to form sulfuric
acid (H2SO4) and sulfate particulate matter. Sulfur dioxide is a res-
piratory irritant and sulfuric acid significantly contributes to wide-
spread ecosystem damage. Sulfur compound are also responsible
for corrosion of engine parts and formation of engine deposits.
Reducing sulfur content of petroleum based fuel has been a big
challenge for the industries as it involves costly processing
equipment and high operational cost, therefore biodiesel and its
158 J. Kakati, T.K. Gogoi / Energy Conversion and Management 121 (2016) 152–161

blending can be a good choice for lowering sulfur content of diesel Table 6
in order to reduce harmful emissions. Some important properties of B10 and B20 and their comparison with diesel and
Kutkura FAME.
The copper strip corrosion property serves as a measure of pos-
sible difficulties of the fuel system with copper, brass, or bronze Properties Diesel B10 B20 FAME
parts. Cooper strip corrosion value of Kutkura biodiesel was found Density at 15 °C (kg/m3) 847.6 851.8 868.4 885.3
to be 1a and thus it was well within the acceptable limits of 1 max Density at 18.5 °C (kg/m3) (data used in 843.5 850.2 864.2 -
(EN 14214:2003 standard) and 3 max (ASTM D 6751-07b stan- engine testing)
Viscosity at 40 °C (mm2/s) 1.806 2.061 2.236 5.646
dard). Usually the copper strip corrosion shows a higher value Calorific value (MJ/kg) 45.535 44.958 43.135 39.71
for severely degraded or acid-contaminated fuel. Cetane index 42.06 43.75 44.16 61.67
Diesel engine operation is primarily related to actual cetane Carbon residue (wt.%) 0.14 0.166 0.182 0.289
number and CI is simply an estimation of the base cetane number. Water content (vol.%) 0.014 0.027 0.038 0.187
Cetane number of a fuel is the measure of its ignition delay with
higher cetane number indicating a shorter delay period. The longer
the fatty acid carbon chains and the more saturated the molecules, 3.5. Effect of blending on Kutkura FAME properties
the higher the cetane number. Calculated CI of Kutkura fruit seed
oil was found 45.84 while Kutkura biodiesel CI was 61.67 and it Some properties such as density, kinematic viscosity, calorific
was higher than the diesel CI (42.06). Further, Kutkura biodiesel value, CI, carbon residue and water content of B10 and B20 were
CI was comparatively higher than the cetane numbers of other bio- separately determined to study the effect of blending on the FAME
diesels in Table 5. This may be due to the fact that Kutkura seed oil properties. These are shown in Table 6 along with the properties of
contains relatively more amount of Linoleic acid and the other diesel and Kutkura FAME for comparison. It was observed that den-
longer fatty acid chains (Arachidic, Eicosenoic, Behenic and Ligno- sity, kinematic viscosity, carbon residue and CI of the Kutkura
ceric) in small amount. FAME reduce while the calorific value increases when FAME is
The acid value indicates the acidity of the fuel. Fuel with a high mixed with diesel. Moreover, density, kinematic viscosity, carbon
acid value has a greater tendency to corrode fuel tank, linings and residue and CI of the blends increase while the calorific value
pipelines. Usually oxidized fuel after long term storage has higher decreases with increasing proportion of biodiesel in the blend. Car-
acid value. Acid value of Kutkura seed oil was found 6 mg KOH/g bon residue and water content which were earlier higher with Kut-
which was slightly higher than the acid value of karanja seed oil kura FAME, later reduced in case of the blending. The problem with
(5.06 mg KOH/g). However its value was less compared to acid val- 100% biodiesel is that its viscosity is high. Therefore blending is
ues of Jatropha, Koroch, Terminallia and Nahar. Acid value depends done with conventional diesel to reduce viscosity. It was seen that
on FFA content of the oil. More the FFA in the oil, higher is the acid the viscosity reduced almost to the level of conventional diesel in
value (approximately twice the amount of FFA) [7]. Pure biodiesel case of B10 and B20. Moreover, water content which was 0.187%
is not acidic. Still the fuel may have some residual acid due to in case of Kutkura FAME, reduced after blending with diesel and
water washing with acidic water or formation of free fatty acids it was found 0.038% in case of B20, a value well within the permis-
during storage due to water absorption. Acid value of Kutkura sible limit of 0.05 vol.%.
FAME was found zero which means it is totally free from acids.
The maximum permissible limit of acid value of fresh biodiesel is
0.50 mg KOH/g as per EN 14214:2003 standard and Kutkura FAME 3.6. Engine performance with biodiesel blends
thus conforms to the required standard.
Ash content is a measure of metals and other inorganic contam- Fig. 3 shows the variation of FFR and air fuel ratio with BMEP
inants contained in the fuel. The inorganic contaminants may be (load) for the test fuels. With increase in load, FFR increases which
present in the form of (i) abrasive solids, (ii) soluble metallic soaps is obvious for diesel engines. Air fuel ratio on the other hand shows
and (iii) residual biodiesel catalyst. When the fuel is oxidized dur- an opposite trend. Although the engine set up in which the exper-
ing combustion, these contaminants form ash which can accumu- iments were performed is a variable load and constant speed type,
late on post-combustion emissions control equipment such as however during load variation, the speed actually reduced from
diesel particulate filters demanding more frequent servicing of this 1588 rpm at 1.06 bar BMEP to 1542 rpm at 4.14 bar BMEP. There-
equipment. The ash particles also contribute to engine wear. Ash fore, AFR and air fuel ratio showed a decreasing trend with load.
content of Kutkura FAME was found 0.009 wt.% which was less Further, it was seen that the fuel consumption rate of the engine
than the permissible limit of European standards (0.02 wt.% max) at various loads was more or less same for all the fuels in spite
and American standards (0.02 wt.% max) [18].The ash content of
Kutkura FAME was higher compared to those of some other biodie-
sels in Table 5. It was however slightly lower than the ash contents 1.5 60
1.4 Diesel FFR B10 FFR B20 FFR
of Nahar FAME and conventional diesel. 55
1.3 Diesel AFR B10 AFR B20 AFR
Biodiesel should be dried after water washing to get the water 50
content below 0.05 vol.% as per EN 14214:2003 and ASTM D 1.2
Air fuel ratio
FFR (kg/h)

1.1 45
6751-07b standard. The water content in Kutkura FAME was mea-
sured and it was found 0.187 vol.% against a diesel water content of 1 40
0.014 vol.%. Compared to diesel, biodiesel is more hygroscopic; it 0.9 35
attracts water due to its polar molecular structure. He et al. [38] 0.8
30
also found 0.10–0.17% moisture contents in biodiesel at tempera- 0.7
tures of 4 °C35 °C which was 15–25 times higher than that of 0.6 25
No. 2 diesel (D2) in the same temperature range. Water content 0.5 20
of Kutkura FAME was however more compared to those of other 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
biodiesels in Table 5 except Koroch (0.45%). Excess amount of BMEP (bar)
water in biodiesel alter its chemical structure and may also lead
to increase the free fatty acid level of biodiesel. Fig. 3. Variation of FFR and air fuel ratio with BMEP.
 J. Kakati, T.K. Gogoi / Energy Conversion and Management 121 (2016) 152–161
of the lower calorific value of the biodiesel blends. At full load
(BMEP 4.14 bar), the FFR of diesel, B10 and B20 were 1.1681 kg/
h, 1.1677 kg/h and 1.1776 kg/h respectively. In the diesel engine
considered in this study, there was provision for measuring only
the volumetric fuel flow rate and FFR on mass basis was calculated
by multiplying fuel density with the volumetric fuel flow rate. It
was observed that the measured volumetric fuel consumption rate
(cc/min) in respect of the biodiesel blends was less compared to
that of diesel and it was minimum in case of B20 at various loads.
But, since the density of the blends were comparatively higher,
therefore this ultimately resulted in almost same or slightly higher
FFR in respect of the blends. However, at BMEP 3.1 bar, the differ-
ence in values of volumetric fuel consumption rate amongst diesel,
B10 and B20 was comparatively high and therefore, it resulted in
slightly lower FFR with B10 and B20. Lower volumetric fuel con-
sumption in case of the blends could be due to combined effect
of higher density and viscosity. Similar observations of lower fuel
consumption was made by Ramadhas et al. [23] and Raheman
and Phadatare [39] with 20–40% blends of rubber seed oil and kar-
anja methyl ester respectively. Labeckas and Slavinskas [40] also
found lower fuel consumption in case of 5% and 10% blending of
rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME) in a four cylinder, four stroke
direct injection variable speed diesel engine. Working on a single
cylinder four stroke diesel engine with Jatropha oil, Agarwal and
Agarwal [30] also found almost equal performance with diesel
and the lower blend concentrations. Further in this study, it was
observed that the air fuel ratio was slightly higher for B10 (except
at 1.06 bar BMEP) while the same for B20 was lower compared to
that of diesel fuel at various loads. To investigate further, the stoi-
chiometric air fuel ratio of diesel, B10 and B20 were determined
using chemical formulae of diesel (C12H23) [41], B10
(C12.38H23.64O0.13) and B20 (C12.79H24.34O0.27). Chemical formulae
of B10 and B20 were obtained from those of diesel and 100% Kut-
kura biodiesel (B100). B100 chemical formula was taken as
C17.86H32.95O1.99 which was determined from its fatty acid compo-
sition. The stoichiometric air fuel ratio of diesel, B10 and B20 were
found to be 14.591, 14.357 and 14.125 respectively. It was found
that the air fuel mixtures of diesel, B10 and B20 were all lean with
air fuel equivalent ratio ðkÞ values more than 1 at various loads. At
full load, these values for diesel, B10 and B20 were found 2.092,
2.182 and 1.868 respectively. It was also seen that the values of k
for B10 were higher (except at BMEP 1.06 bar) while these values
in case of B20 were lower than those of diesel at various loads.
Comparatively higher value of air fuel ratio/ k in case of B10
implies that the air fuel mixture was leaner than that of diesel fuel
while in case of B20, it was a lean mixture, however it was rela-
tively less lean compared to diesel. Further it was seen that the k
value for a particular fuel operation decreases with load in the
0.80
Diesel BSFC B10 BSFC B20 BSFC
Diesel ISFC B10 ISFC B20 ISFC
0.70
BSFC (kg/kWh)
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
BMEP (bar)
Fig. 4. Variation of BSFC and ISFC with BMEP.
159
same pattern with air fuel ratio as shown in Fig. 3. Air fuel equiv-
alence ratio has significant effect on the fuel burning rate, flame
development and hence the exhaust emissions of the engine [42].
Fig. 4 shows the comparison of BSFC and ISFC for the test fuels
at various loads. Engine BSFC was also more or less the same for all
the fuels and slightly on the higher side in respect of the blends
except at BMEP 3.1 bar. With the increase in load, both the BP
and FFR increase, however the rate at which BP increases with load
is higher than the rate of increase of FFR [17]. Hence, BSFC in gen-
eral decreases with load for all fuels. Higher BSFC with biodiesel
blends is a common observation [1,17,24,43,44] due to their higher
density and lower calorific values. Moreover BSFC increased with
increase in amount of biodiesel in the blend. ISFC on the other hand
increases with load and compared to diesel, ISFC was slightly lower
in case of B10 while it was more for B20 at various loads except at
3.1 bar BMEP. Variation of IP and IMEP with load for the test fuels
is shown in Fig. 5. As can be seen, IP (and hence IMEP) of the engine
with B10 fuel was slightly more at BMEP 1.06 bar and 2.07 bar
while IP slightly reduced at higher loads (BMEP 3.1 bar and
4.14 bar). IP and IMEP of the engine reduced further in case of
B20. IP is the power actually produced in the engine obtained from
the pressure volume plot (indicator diagram). IP of the engine at
full load with diesel, B10 and B20 were 7.1 kW, 7.0 kW and
6.96 kW respectively.
BTE and ITE of the engine with the test fuels at various loads are
shown in Fig. 6. It was seen that at all engine loads, both BTE and
ITE were higher when the engine was fueled with the biodiesel
blends and it was the maximum in case of B20 at various BMEPs.
BTEs of the engine at full load (BMEP 4.14 bar) with diesel, B10
and B20 were respectively 23.96%, 24.14% and 24.95%. Similarly
the ITEs at full load with diesel, B10 and B20 were 47.45%,
48.00% and 48.83%. Higher BTE with biodiesel blends was also
reported in Refs. [23,39] in case of 20–40% blends of rubber seed
oil and karanja methyl ester and also in Ref. [40] with RME based
B5 and B10. BTE shows an increasing trend while ITE of the engine
decreases with load for the test fuels. From definitions, BTE of an
engine is inversely proportional to its BSFC and the fuel heating
value; therefore engine BSFC if it decreases with increase in load,
just the reverse happens in case of BTE. ITE which is the ratio of
IP to the fuel energy (product of FFR and fuel calorific value)
decreases with load because the rate of increase of IP with load
is lower than the rate of increase of FFR.
The smoke opacity of the engine which is an indicator of soot
emissions is presented in Fig. 7 for the test fuels at various loads.
It can be seen that the smoke opacity level increases with load
for all the fuels which is a very common observation as reported
in many previous studies [23,24,40]. As the load increases, the fuel
injected to the combustion chamber increases and when a larger
0.20 8.00 9.00
Diesel IP B10 IP B20 IP
diesel IMEP B10 IMEP B20 IMEP 8.00
0.18
7.00 7.00
0.16
ISFC (kg/kW h)
6.00
IMEP (bar)
6.00
IP (kW)
0.14 5.00
0.12 4.00
5.00
3.00
0.10
4.00 2.00
0.08
1.00
0.06 3.00 0.00
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
BMEP (bar)
Fig. 5. Variation of IP and IMEP with BMEP.
160 J. Kakati, T.K. Gogoi / Energy Conversion and Management 121 (2016) 152–161

30.00 60.00  All properties of Kutkura FAME meet ASTM D6751 and EN14214
Diesel BTE B10 BTE B20 BTE
standards except the water content. Blending of Kutkura FAME
Diesel ITE B10 ITE B20 ITE
25.00 56.00 with diesel up to 20 vol.% reduces the water content to a level
below the permissible limit of maximum 0.05 wt.%.
 Volumetric fuel consumption rate was lower in respect of the
BTE (%)

20.00 52.00

ITE (%)
biodiesel blends (B10 and B20) at various BMEPs (loads) and
it was found minimum for B20.
15.00 48.00  Engine BSFC was more or less the same for diesel, B10 and B20
at various BMEPs and it was slightly higher in respect of the
10.00 44.00 blends except at BMEP 3.1 bar.
 Engine BTE and ITE were higher with the biodiesel blends and it
5.00 40.00
was the maximum for B20 at all BMEPs.
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5  B10 and B20 produce less smoke compared to diesel fuel and
BMEP (bar) the smoke was the minimum with B10.

Fig. 6. Variation of BTE and ITE with BMEP. Thus, Kutkura fruit seed oil could be a potential source of bio-
diesel in India. Kutkura FAME can be blended with diesel up to
30.0
20% with almost same and even better engine performance and
Diesel B10 B20 reduced smoke emission from the engine.
25.0
Smoke opacity (%)

20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
1.06 2.07 3.10
BMEP (bar)
Fig. 7. Smoke opacity of the tested fuels at various BMEP.
quantity of fuel are to be burnt by relatively less amount of air,
much of the fuel goes unburned into the exhaust leading to
increased smoke level at higher load. Further, it was seen that
the biodiesel blends produce less smoke compared to diesel fuel
at various loads and particularly in case of B10, the smoke was
found minimum at all loads. With B20 also, the smoke opacity
was lower than diesel, particularly at BMEP 3.1 bar and 4.14 bar;
however compared to B10, the smoke opacity was high with B20.
It was mentioned earlier that the air fuel ratio was more in case
of B10 (lean mixture) and it was less for B20 (rich mixture) at var-
ious loads, therefore due to burning of relatively rich air fuel mix-
ture, the smoke opacity level increased in case of B20. At full load
(BMEP 4.14 bar), the smoke opacity values for diesel, B10 and B20
were found to be 26.823%, 22.614% and 23.455% respectively.
Lower smoke opacity with biodiesels and their blends was
reported in the articles [23,24,39,43] where oxygenated nature
and better combustion of biodiesels was shown as possible reason
of lower smoke level. On the other hand, in articles [45,46], smoke
opacity of engine with pure methyl ester fuels was reported to be
more than that of conventional diesel due to heavier molecular
structure, higher viscosity, lower volatility and poor atomization
of the esters.
4. Conclusion
The following conclusions are made based on the findings from
the current study.
 Kutkura fruit seed contains 35.45% oil with 3.1% FFA and hence
direct base catalyzed transesterification can be employed for
biodiesel production.
Acknowledgements
The work is an outcome of a research project funded by Depart-
ment of Science and Technology (DST), Govt. of India. The authors
are thankful to DST, Govt. of India for funding the project. The
author also acknowledge the help of Punjab Biotechnology, Incuba-
tor, Mohali, Numaligarh Refinery Ltd., Numaligarh and NEIST, Jor-
hat for providing facilities for testing some of the biodiesel
properties.
4.14
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