Programmed Shale (Questions-Answers) Tesla) meeeStatistics (Questions-Answers) Second Edition B.L. AGARWAL Formerly-Professor & University Head Department of Statistics and Mathematics Rajasthan Agricultural University, R.C.A., Udaipur, India e| NEW AGE NEW AG AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) pairED 3 PUBLISHERS Cochin « Hyderabad ‘« Bangalore » Chennai Jasoleer's Kolbe s Liclawws Mabel React Soy Bicar OF8P-SAT-J646 iiCopyright © 2003 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Second Edition : 2003 Reprint : 2005 NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110 002 Visit us at : www-newagepublishers.com Offices at : Bangalore, Chennai, Cochin, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jalandhar, Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai and Ranchi ‘This book or any part thereof may not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher. ‘This book cannot be sold outside the country to which it is consigned by the publisher without the prior permission of the publisher. Rs, 275.00 ISBN : 81-224-1458-3 345678910 Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110 002 and, printed in India at Taj Press, New Delhi-110 064 typesetted at Pagetek, Delhi-110 092.Contents Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Statistics Short essay type questions on: Definitions of statistics / Statements about statistics Statistical prospective 2 Division and limitations 2 Functions of statistics 3 Methods of collection of data 3 ‘Types of statistical data 3 Statistical survey 3 Questionnaire and schedule 3 Approximation of values. 5 Primary and secondary data 5 Editing of data 5 Fill in the blanks 6 Multiple choice questions 7 Answers 10 Suggested reading 11 Classification, Tabulation and Frequency Distribution Short essay type questions on: Classification _12 Grouping of data 13 Grouping error 13 Tabulation 14 Frequency 5 vit 12Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Cumulative frequency 15 ‘Types of series 15 Stem and leaf display of data 15 Fill in the blanks | /5 Multiple choice questions /7 Answers 20 Suggested reading 20 Diagramatic and Graphical Representation Short essay type questions on: Advantages of diagrams 21 Bar diagram 21 Sub-divided bar diagram 21 Multiple bar diagram 22 Deviation bar diagram 22 Duo-directional bar diagram 22 Paired bar diagram 23 Sliding bar diagram 23 Broken bar diagram 23 Line diagram _24 Pie chart 24 Histogram 25 Frequency polygon 25 Frequency curve 25 Semilogarithmic graph 26 Ogive curve 26 Lorenz curve 27 Pictograms 27 Column chart with circular base 28 Step bar chart_28 Overlapping bar chant 28 Fill in the blanks 29 Multiple choice questions 30 Answers 35 Suggested reading 35 Measures of Central Tendency Concept and definitions 36 Properties of central tendency 36 Classification of averages 36 ‘Functions 36 Limi 37 Arithmetic mean 37 Weighted mean 38 Moving average 38 Progressive average 38 CONTENTS: 2Contents Chapter 5 Composite average 38 Pooled mean 39 Geometric mean 39 Harmonic mean 40 Relation between A.M.,G.M. and HM. 47 Quadratic mean 41 Median 42 Mode 42 Quartiles 43 Deciles 43 Percentiles 43 Allin the blanks 44 Multiple choice questions 47 Answers 58 Suggested reading 59 Measures of Dispersion, Skewness and Kurtosis xi Chapter 6 Concept and statements _ 60 Requisites of a good measure 6/ Uses 61 Range 6/ Coefficient of range 61 Interquartile range 6/ Percentile range 61 Quartile deviation 67 Mean deviation 62 Variance 62 Standard deviation 63 Mean absolute deviation 63 Pooled variance 64 Moments 65 Probable error 65 . Empirical relation between $.D., Q.D. and M.D. 65 Relations between central and raw moments 65 Skewness 66 Kurtosis 67 Sheppard's corrections 68 Fill in the banks 69 Multiple choice questions 72 ‘Answers _ 87 Suggested reading 8/ Elementary Probability Short essay type questions on: Concept 83Chapter 7 Contents Evens 84 ‘complementary 83 ‘simple _84 al : compound _8¢ ‘Mutually exclusive 84 primary 84 derived Impossible event _85 Exhaustive 85 Pairwise independent events 85 Definitions of probability: classical 85 ‘Statistical 86. Additive law of probability _86 Multiplicative law of probability 86 Condional probability “85 Bayes probability 7 (Bi Mattei german, a7 Multiple choice questions 90 Answers JO Suggested reading _J05 Random Variable, Mathematical Expectation and Probability Distributions 106 Random variable 106 continuous {07 Distribution function 107 Cumulative distribution fun Step function _/07 Mathematical expectation _/08 Cauchy-Schwartz inequality 109 /Gurland’s inequality on expectation _/09 Moment generating function 109 Probability generating function 1/0 Discrete distributions: uniform 1/0 Copyrighted materialContents Chapter 8 Bernoulli_1/0 Binomial _1/0 Poisson_1/2 Negative 1/3 Geometric 1/4 Polya’s 15 Hypergeometric_//5 uniform or rectangular_1/7 exponential J/8 Laplace or double exponential 1/9 normal 1/9 lognormal 123 Cauchy 123 ‘beta distributions of Land I kind 123 gamma_/25 logistic 126 Pareto 126 Weibull 126 Circular 126 Pearsonian 126 Sampling distributions: Chi-square 127 ‘Sudent’s-1_128 Pearson's Chi-square /28- Chi_128 Fisher’s-z_ 13] Snedecor’s-F 131 Fill in the blanks /32 Multiple choice questions 38 Answers 160 Suggested reading 162 Bivariate Random Variable and Distributions Short essay type questions on: Bivati discrete 163 continuous {63 Soin Astebnebi tines Joint probability mass function 164 Joint probability density function 164 Marginal probability functions 164 Canailiingal vark 7 Conditional probability density function _/65 Independence of random variables 165 xii 163 Copyrighted materiaChapter 9 Conditional expectation _/65 Conditional variance /66 Conditional covariance 167 Joint moment generating function 167 Joint raw moments 167 Joint central moments _/67 ‘Rivari distribu 2 FilLin the banks 172 Multiple choice questions 174 Answers _/82 Suggested reading /83 ‘Sampling Methods Short essay type questions on: Sampling vs. Complete enumeration 184 Population 184 finite 185 infinite_{85 seal_185 hypothetical 185 Sampling frame _185 Random sampling /85 imple random sampling 186 Principles of sampling methods 186 Sampling and non-sampling errors 186 Purposive sampling 186 Parameter 187° Estimator and estimate 187 Gains ae Simple random sampling with and without replacement _/87 Sample size _/87 Sample mean 783° Sample variance _/88 Standard error_189 Finite population correction 189 Sampling fraction /89 ‘Stratified random sampling 190 Exigencies: umber of strata 191 sample size 197 sampling procedure /9/ Allocation: equal 197 proportional 191 184 Copyrighted matoriaChapter 10 optimum 191 Neyman 19/ Formulae for mean and variance 192 ‘Two way stratification /93 Controlled selection 193 Systematic sampling 193 linear _194 it 94 Formulae for mean and variance 194 Double sampling 195 Cluster or area sampling 195 Multistage sampling 196 ‘Two stage sampling 196 Inverse sampling 196 Sampling with lity proportional to size_/98 Non-response 198 Fillin the blanks /98 Multiple choice questions 202 Answers 2/2 Suggested reading 2/3 Theory of Estimation Short essay type questions on: Parameter 2/4 Estimate 2/4 Estimator 2/4 Properties of estimators 2/5 consistency 2/5 ‘unbiasedness 215 mean squared error_2/5 ‘mean squared consistency 2/6 Crammer-Rao inequality 2/6 Best asymptotically normal estimator 2/7 Efficiency 2/7 ; Sufficiency 2/7 Fisher-Neyman factorization theorem 2/8 Completeness 2/8 Invariance property of estimators 2/9 Admissibility of an estimator 2/9 Methods of estimation: Jeast square estimation 2/9 method of moments 2/9 214Chapter 11 Minimum variance quadratic estimator 224 Gauss-Markov theorem 224 Method of Minimum Chi-squares 225 Bayes’ estimators 227 Minimax estimators 227 Pitman’s estimator 228 Interval estimation 229 Confidence coefficient 229 Confidence limits for: mean_230 variance 230 difference to two means _230 fatio of two variances 230 Shortest confidence interval 231 Confidence region 231 One sided confidence interval 23/ Fill in the blanks _232 Multiple choice questions 236 Answers 247 Suggested reading 248 Testing Parametric Hypotheses Short essay type question on: Hypothesis 249 null alternative 250 simple 250 composite 250 ‘Types of errors: type I error 250 type error 250 Power of atest 250 Level of significance 250 Size of atest 251 Best critical region 25/ ‘One and two tailed test 257 Nonrandomized and randomized test 25/ Degrees of freedom 251 Critical function 257 Optimum test 252 Most powerful test 252 Neyman-Pearson lemma 252 Minimax test. 254 Unbiased test 254 Uniformly most powerful unbiased test 255 Admissible test 255 Likelihood ratio test 256 249Contenrs: Chapter 12 xvii Student's t-test. 257 Cochran's approximate t-test. 258 Behren’s-Fisher test 258 Paired test 260 ‘Z-test for properties Chi-square test for a variance Test for standard deviation 258 Chi-square test in multinomial distribution 264 Contingency table 265 Incomplete contingency table 265 ‘Structural and random zeros 265. Explanatory variable 266 ‘Test of independence of attributes 266 Yates’ correction 266 Fisher's exact test 268 Coefficient of contingency 268 Bartletts’ test 269 Faest 269 Test of equality of two population variances 269 test of equality of several population means 269 Analysis of variance 270 Bayes’ test. 270 Sequential probability ratio test 270 Fill in the blanks 277 Multiple choice questions 277 Answers 289 Suggested reading 290 Nonparametric Statistical Methods 292 ‘Short essay type questions on: General discussion 292 Asymptotic relative efficiency 293 Power efficiency 293 Tied observations 293 Ordered statistic Kolmogorov-Smimnov test for one sample 295 ordinary sign test. 295 Wilcoxon's signed rank test 296 Run test 297 Kolmogorov-Smirnov two sample test 298 Wilcoxon's test for matched pairs 298 Median test 298 Wald-Wolfowitz run test 301 Mann-Whitney U-test 30/ Mcnemar's test 303 Mood’s test 304Chapter 13 Contents: Moses’ test 305 Cochran's Q-test 306 Kruskal-Wallis one way analysis 307 Friedman's two way analysis of variance 309 Multiple comparisons in Friedmans’ test 309 Jonckheere-Terpstra test 370 Page’s test. 31/ Spearman's rank correlation 3/2 Kendall's rank correlation 3/2 Coefficient of concordance 3/4 Nonparametric approach in regression analysis 316 Brown and Mood's test. 3/7 Mood’s test 3/7 Theils’ test 318 Confidence interval 3/8 Confidence band 3/9 Fill in the blanks 3/9 Multiple choice questions 323 Answers 335 Suggested reading 336 Regression and Correlation Methods 338 Short essay type questions on: General discussion 338 Regression model 338 Scatter diagram 339 Estimation of parameters of a regreassion line 340 Properties of regression coefficients 340 ‘Two regression lines: point of intersection 347 angle between two regression lines 34/ Coding 342 ‘Test of significance of regression coefficient 342 Test of significance of the intercept 342 Regression function 343 confidence limits of B and & 343 Test of linearity of regression 344 Weighted regression 345 urvilinear regression 346 ing of orthogonal polynomial 347 Correlation 347 Coefficients of: determination 350 nondetermination 350 alienation 350 Limits of correlation coefficient 350Chapter 14 xix Properties of correlation coefficient 350 Probable error 351 Confidence limits for P_ 352 ‘Test of significance of: correlation coefficient 352 a specified value of P 352 Equality of two corr. coef, 352 Equality of more than two corr. coefts 352 Coefficient of concurrent deviation 353 Correlation coefficient using variance of the difference 355 Correlation coefficient by the method of least squares 356 Correlation ratio 357 Intraclass correlation 357 Biserial correlation 358 Tetrachoric correlation 358 Multiple linear regression 359 ‘Test of significance of partial regression coefficient(s) 361 Correlation index 362 Specification of potential parameters 362 Multiple correlation 362 Regression in trivariate population 363 Partial correlation 364 Part correlation 365 Spurious correlation 366 Fill in the blanks 366 Multiple choice questions 372 Answers 387 Suggested reading 388 Measures of Association of Attributes 390 Short essay type questions on: General discussion and notations 390 Order of aclass 390 Class frequency 392 Inconsistency of data 392 Kinds of association 392 Methods of measuring association: Proportion method 393 Method of probability 393 Yule’s coefficient of association 394 Coefficient of colligation 394 Partial association 394 Illusory association 394 Coefficient of contingency 395 ‘Tschuprow’s coefficient 395 Fill in the banks 395Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Multiple choice questions 398 Answers 404 Suggested reading 404 Interpolation and Extrapolation Short essay type questions on: General discussion 405 Assumptions and uses 405 Interpolation methods: graphical method 406 binomial expansion method 406 parabolic curve method 406 Finite differences 408 Divided differences 408 Diagonal difference table 408 Central difference table 408 Divided difference table 409 Newton’s formula of advancing differences 4/0 ‘Newton's backward formula 411 ‘Newton-Gauss forward formula 411 Newton-Gauss backward formula 411 Newton’s method of backward differences 4/2 Newton's method of divided differences 4/2 Lagrange’s interpolation formula 412 Inverse interpolation: Lagrange’s interpolation formula _412 Central interpolation 473 Sterling's formula _4/3 Bessel’s formula 4/4 Inverse interpolation: Lagrange’s method _ 415 Iterative method 4/5 Successive approximation method 4/5 Fill in the blanks 4/6 Multiple choice questions 4/8 Answers 424 Suggested reading 424 Time Series Analysis Short essay type questions on: Definitions 425 Editing of data 426 Secular trend 426 Seasonal variation 427 Cyclic variation 427 Irregular variations 427 CONTENTSConTenTs: Chapter 17 Models for time series 427 Methods of measuring linear trend: graphic method 428 semi-average method 428 Moving average method 428 Least square method 429 Shift of origin 430 Curvilinear trend 43/ Methods of measuring seasonal variations: simple average method 433 ratio to trend method 433 ratio to moving average method 433, specific and typical seasonals 434 link relative method 434 Methods of measuring cyclic variations: residual method 435 first difference method 435 percentage ratio method 435 direct method 435 reference cycle analysis 435 harmonic analysis 435 Measurement of irregular variations 436 Fill in the blanks 437 Multiple choice questions 440 Answers 446 Suggested reading 447 Index Numbers Short essay type questions on: Definitions 448 Uses 449 Limitations and lecunae 449 Price index numbers 450 Value and diffusion index 450 Problems involved in the construction of index numbers 450 Laspeyre’s index number 45/ Paasche’s index number 452 Drobish-Bowley index number 452 Walsh (Fisher's ideal) index number 452 Marshall and Edgeworth index number 452: Kelly's fixed weight formula 453 Formula error 453 Homogeneity error 454 Time reversal test 454 Factor reversal test 454 Circular test 455xxii Chapter 18 Chapter 19 CONTENTS: Chain base method 455 Base shifting 456 Splicing 457 Consumer price index 459 Explicit and implicit weights 46/ Whole-sale price index 461 Index of industrial production 462 Gross national product 462 Fill in the blanks 464 Multiple choice questions 467 Answers 474 Suggested reading 475 Business Forecasting 476 Short essay type questions on: Definitions 476 Historical analysis 476 Analysis of current economic conditions 477 Methods of forecasting: Naive method 477 specific historical analogy method 477 lead-lag relationship 477 Diffusion index 478 action-reaction theory 478 factor listing method 479 cross-cut analysis theory 479 opinion polling 480 exponential smoothing 480 econometric method 48/ Forecasting agencies 487 Fill in the blanks 482 Multiple choice questions 483 Answers 486 Suggested reading 487 Statistical Techniques in Quality Control 488 Short essay type questions on: Chance factor 488 Assignable causes 488 Shewhart control charts: X-chart 490 o-chart 490 R-chart 491 Control charts for fraction defectives (p-chart) 495 Control charts for number of defects (c-chart) 496Chapter 20. wot Advantages of statistical quality control 499 Natural control limits 499 Modified control limits 500 ‘Acceptance sampling plan 500 Inspection by attributes 50/ Inspection by variables SOL Definitions and explanations for: major defect 50/ minor defect 501 Producer’ risk 50/ Consumer's risk 502 Acceptance quality level 502 Lot tolerance percentage defective 502 Average outgoing quality 502 Blind sampling 502 Average sample number and curve 502 Operating characteristic function and curve 503 Single sampling inspection plan 503 Dodge and Roming OC curves 504 Double sampling inspection plan 505 Sequential sampling plan 505 Sequential probability ratio test 505 Fill in the blanks 508 Multiple choice questions 5// Answers 517 Suggested reading 5/8 Vital and Population Statistics 519 Short essay type questions on: Definitions 519 Uses 520 Collection of vital statistics 520 registration method 521 census enumeration method 522 survey method 522 sampling registration system 522 Formulae for estimation of population 523 Vital rates 524 Crude death rate ° 525 Specific death rate 525 Standardised death rate 525 Crude birth rate 527 Age specific fertility rate 528 General marital fertility rate 528