First Edition - 2010 Communication Theory Dr. J. S. ChitodeCommunication Theory ISBN 9788184317633 All rights reserved with Technical Publications. Ne part of this book should be reproduced in ony form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and revievol system without prior permission in waiting, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by ‘Technical Publications Pune” #1, Amit Residency, 412, Shanwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, Inia Printer : Alet DTPintes ‘Seno, 10/3,Sinheand Reed, Pune - 417-061 suRuur rr eeruaE RRL A eSts = Chapter-1 Amplitude Modulation Systems Chapter-2 Angle Modulation Systems (2-1) to (2-48) Chapter-3 Noise Theory (3-1) 0 (3-136) Chapter-4 Performance of CW Modulation Systems (4-1)to (4-32) Chapter-§ Information Theory (5-1) to (6-148) ‘Appendix-A Mathematical Relationship (A-1)t0(A-8) Appendix-B _ Schwarz's Inequality @B-1)t0(B-2) Appendix-C Fourier Transform Relations (C-1)t0(C-2) Appendix- D__ Error Function (0-1) t0(0-2) Appendix-E Functions (€-1) Appendix-F Probability Density Functions (-1) References {R- 1) to (R-2) * Large number of solved example: * More detailed and modular representation of chapters. * Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs. * Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and illustrations. TROL A AOi Unit-1 Amplitude Modulation Systems Review of spectral characteristics of periodic and_non-periodic signals; Generation and demodulation of AM, DSBSC, SSB and VSB signals; Comparison of amplitude modulation systems; Frequency translation; FDM; Non-linear distortion. Unit-2 Angle Modulation Systems Phase and frequency modulation; Single tone, Narrowband and wideband FM; Transmission bandwidth; Generation and demodulation of FM signal. Unit-3 Noise Theory Review of probability, Random variables and random process, Guassian process, Noise - Shot noise, Thermal noise and White noise; Narrow band noise; Noise temperature, Noise figure. Unit-4 Performance of CW Modulation Systems Superheterodyne radio receiver and its characteristics; SNR, Noise in DSBSC systems using coherent detection; Noise in AM system using envelope detection and its FM system; FM threshold effect; Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis in FM; Comparison of performances. Unit -5 Information Theory Discrete messages and information content, Concept of amount of information, Average information, Entropy, Information rate, Source coding to increase average information per bit, ‘Shannon-Fano coding, Huffman coding, Lempel-Ziv (LZ) coding, Shannon's theorem, Channel capacity, Bandwidth S/N trade off, Mutual information and Channel capacity, Rate distortion theory; Lossy source coding. a A RSTable of Contents (Detail) Chapter- 1” Amplitiide Modulation Systems - 4.1 Communication System.. 1.1.1 Modulation and Demodulation in Communication System 1.1.2 Baseband and Carrier (Passband) Communication 4.1.3 Electromagnetic Waves : The Carriers of Electric Signals 1.1.4 Communication Channel .... 1.1.5 Analog Verses Digital Communication 1.1.6 Transmission Media... At, dal Cable . 1.1.6.2 Fiber Optic Cable (FOC) 1.1.6.3 Microwave Transmission 1.2 Review of Spectral Characteristics of Periodic and Non-periodic Signals . 1.2.1 Continuous Time Fourier Series (CTFS) Representation. 1.2.1.1 Trigonometric Fourie Sees 2... 1.2.1.2 Compact Trigonometic Fourier Series, 1.2.1.3 Exponential Fourier Series. 1.2.1.4 Convergence of Fourier Series - Dirichlet Conditions . 1.2.2 Properties of Fourier Series. 4.2.3 Fourier Transform. 4.2.3.4 Defnition of Fourier Transform... 2... 1.2.3.2 Existence of Fourier Transform - Dirichiet Conditions. . 1.2.4 Properties of Fourier Transform . . . i 4.2.5 Fourier Transform of a Periodic Signal.......... 02.0... cseeeeveeeeeeee eens 1.3 Principles of Amplitude Modulation... 1.3.1 AM Envelope and Equation of AM Wave 41.3.2 Medulation Index and Percent Modulation 41.3.9 Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth ...... GE COREE RATE 1-14 24471.3.4 AM Power Distribution 1.3.5 AM Current Calculations 1.3.6 Amplitude Modulation by Multiple Sine Waves 1.3.7 Transmission Efficiency. 1.3.8 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) . 1.4 AM Modulator Circuit 1.4.1 Low Level AM Modulator. 1.4.2 Medium Power AM Modulator . 4.5 AM Transmitter 1.5.1 High Level Transmitter . 1.5.2 Low Level Transmitter. . 1.5.3 AM Broadcast Transmitter using 5 Patiaty Modulated Driver Stage. 1.6 Single Sideband Modulation... 4.6.1 Suppression of the Camier............0.006 1.6.1.1 Balanced Modulator or Ring Modulator using Diodes. 1.6.1.2 Balanced Modulator using FETS . 1.6.2 Suppression of Unwanted Sideband....... 1.6.2.1 Filter Method to Produce SSB... 1.6.2.2 Phase Shift Method to Generate SSB... 1.6.3 Frequency Translation. 1.7 Vestigial Sideband Transmission. 1.7.1 Modulator and Demodulator of VSB 1.7.2 Magnitude Response of VSB Filter... .. . . 1.1.3 Applications and Advantages Of VSB ....... 6. cece cece eee ee eee eee e nee eeee 1.8 AM Receivers.. 1.8.1 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver 1.8.2 Superheterodyne Receiver 1.8.3 Performance Parameters of Receivers . . 18.3.1 Selecivily. 18.3.2 Sensivily. 2... 1.8.3.3 Fidelity... eee 1.8.3.4 Image Frequency Rejection... 1.8.4 AM Detector Circuits . oe 1.8.4.1 Diode Det Exp Detector1.8.4.2 Negative Peak Clipping in Diode Detector... . 1.8.4.3 Diagonal Clipping in Diode Detector. . . 1.8.4.4 Synchronous or Coherent Detector . 1.8.5 Automatic Gain Control . . 1.8.6 Double Conversion AM Receivers 4.9 Suppressed Carrier System (DSB-SC} 1.9.1 DSB-SC Modulator, ............. 1.9.2 Synchronous Detection of DSB-SC Signal 1.9.3 Detection of SSB-SC Signals 1.9.4 Phasor Representation of AM-SC Signal... 1.9.5 Effect of Frequency and Phase Error. 1.9.6 Demodulation of DSB-SC Signal using Costas Loop bonssnieasanranlim bean 1-107 4.10 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) 1.11 Comparison of Various AM Systems ... 2.1 Angle Modulation .. 2.1.1 Definition. . 241.2. Relationship | Difference between FM and PM 2.1.3 FM and PM Waveforms. 2.1.4 Phase Deviation, Modulation Index and Frequency Deviation 2.1.5 Frequency Spectrum of Angle Modulated Waves ..... . 2.4.6 Bandwidth Requirement 2.1.7 Average Power in FM end PM Modulators 2.1.8 Narrowband FM 2-8 2.1.8.1 Phasor Diagram of Narrowband FM. ee 2-9 2.4.8.2 Generation ofNarowbandFM ee eee 2-10 2.4.9 Wideband FM... 2.4.40 Nonlinear Effects in FM. 24.44 Comparison between AM and Angle Modulation 2.1.12 Comparison between FM and PM . . 2.2 FM and PM Modulators... 2.2.1 Direct FM...2.24.4 FETReactance Modulator. eee 2.2.1.2 Frequency Modulation using Varactor Diode . 2.2.2 Indirect FM... 2.2.3 WBFM Generation using Indirect Method (Armstrong Method) . 2.3 FM Transmitters .. 2.3.1. Automatic Frequency Correction (AFC) . 2.3.2 Direct FM Transmitters 2.32.1 Crosby Direct FM Transmitter (Broadcast Band FM Transmitter) . 2.32.2PLL Direct FM Transmitter... . 2.3.3 Indirect FM Transmitter - Armstrong Method . 2.4 FM Receiver... 2.5 FM Demodulators ... 2.5.1 Round-Travis Detector or Balanced Slope Detector (Frequency Discriminator) . 2.5.2 Foster-Seeley Discriminator (Phase Discriminator) . 2.6 FM Noise Suppression.. 2.7 FM Stereo Multiplexing 2.7.4 Multiplexer of FM Stereo Transmitier 2.7.2 Demultplexer of FM Stereo Receiver. 2.8 Short Answered Questions...... 3.1 Introduction ... 3.2 Review of Probability 3.2.1 Experiment . 32:2 Sample Specs (8) s:csssvesanvarwitecienamvieavaes vanies ceasnsaeainsis 3-2 3.2.3 Event 3.2.4 Definition of Probability 3.2.5 Axioms (Properties) of Probabiity 3.2.6 Conditional Probability... 3.2.7 Bayes’ Rule or Bayesian Policy 3.2.8 Probabilities of Statistically Independent Events ............sseseeseeeeeeesees 3-10 3.3 Random Variables .3.3.1 Discrete Random Variables . 3.3.2 Continuous Random Variables. 33.3 Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF). 3.3.3.1 Properties ofCDF.. .. .. . - 2 * 3.3.3.2 Calculation of CDF for Discrete Random Variables 3-29 3.3.4 Probability Density Function (PDF) . . . 3.344 Properties ofPDF .. 2... 2... 3.3.4.2 Caloulation of POF . Seen eee 3.3.4.3 Mean/Average or Expected Value... . 3.3.4.4 Moments and Variance... 2... 3.4 Mathematical Definition of Random Process 3.4.1 Definition of a Random Process. 3.4.2 Difference between Random Variable and Random Process 3.4.3 Mathematical Representation of Random Process 3.5 Stationary Process..... 3.5.1 Definition. 3.5.2 Mathematical Explanation ....... 3.6 Mean, Correlation and Covariance Function 3.6.1 Mean of Random Process .... 3.6.2 Autocorrelation Function. 5. fiance Fi 3.6.4 Properties of Autocorrelation Function... 3.6.4.1 Property 1: Mean Square Value... . . . . 3.6.4.2 Property 2: Even Symmetry 3.6.4.3 Property 3: Maximum Value... s,s. 3.6.5 Crosscorrelation Functions. 3.7 Ergodic Process 3.7.1 Ensemble Averages and Time Averages 3.7.2 Definition of Ergodic Process 3.8 Gaussian Process. 3.8.1 Definition of Gaussian Process 3.9 Noise... 3.9.1 Extemal Noise . . 3.9.1.1 Atmospheric Noise .39.1.2 Extraterrestrial NOG ee 3-93 3.9.1.3 IndustialNoise.. ams pipe yeahs ret 3-94 3.9.2 Intemal Noise 39.23Partiion Noise. eee 39.24 Low Frequency or Flicker Nose... eee 39.25 High Frequency or Transit Time Noise. . 3.10 Noise due to Several Amplifiers in Cascade... 3.11 Noise Factor 3.11.4 Noise Figura. 5 3.11.2 Cascade Connection of Amplifiers (Fris's Formula). 3.12 Noise Temperature 3.13 White Noise .... 3.14 Frequency Domain Representation of Noise 3.15 Spectral Components of Noise 3.16 Superposition of Noises...... 3.17 Linear Filtering ... 3.17.1 RC Low Pass Filter 3.17... Ideal Low Pass Filter . 3.17.3 Ideal Bandpass Filter ....... 3.18 Noise Equivalent Bandwidth . 3.19 Narrowband Noise... oe 3.19.1 Quadrature Components of Narrowband Noise oe 3218 3.19.2 Representation of Narrowband Noise interms of Envelope and Phase Components 3-127 3.19.3 Sine Wave Pulse Narrowband Noise . .. . . 3-129 3.19.4 Properties of the Components of Narrowband Noise . 3.20 Short Answered Questions 4.1 Introduction .... 4.1.1 Output Signal to Noise Ratio ( SNR), ‘ 4.1.2 Channel Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)........2000ecceeecsecseeeeeeennneeeees 44 RES eS ae4.1.3 Figure of Merit 4.2 Receiver for AM Signal .. 4.2.1 AM Receiver Model .... 4.2.2 Noise in SSB-SC Receiver 4.2.3 Noise in DSB-SC Receiver . 4.2.4 Channel SNR for AM Signal... 4.2.5 Output SNR for Envelop Detection. 4.2.6 Figure of Merit for Envelope Detection 4.2.7 Threshold Effect... 4.3 FM Receivers... 4.3.1 FM Receiver Model .. 4.4 Noise in FM Receivers. 44,41 Output Signal Power. . 4.4.2 Output Noise Power 4.4.3 Output Signal to Noise Ratio . . 4.4.4 Channel Signal to Noise Ratio . 4.4.5 Figure of Merit 4.4.6 Capture Effect... 4.5 FM Threshold Effect. 4.6 Présiiphaete and De-emphasis in FM... 4.6.1 psd of Noise and Signal 4.6.2 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis . 4.7 Hilbert Transform and its use for Representation of Noiss 4.7.1 Definition. 4.1.2 Use of Hilbert Transform to Relate Quadrature Components of Noise 4.8 Comparison of Performance of AM and FM Systems. 4.9 Short Answered Questions ...... 5.1 Introduction ... 5.2 Discrete Messages and Information ContentS21 Discnate WNONNMEON SOUND. ss scicceesereriectierieneeetseseadseteneadants 5.2.2 Discrete Memoryless Source 52.3 Stationary Source 5.2.4 Analog Source 5.2.5 Uncertainty . 5.3 Definition of Information (Measure of Information). 5.3.1 Properties of Information . . eee 5.3.2 Physical Interpretation of Amount of Information . 5.4 Entropy (Average Information).. 54.1 Properties of Entrop) 5.5 Information Rate ........ 5.6 Extension of Discrete Memoryless Source... 5.7 Source Coding Theorem (Shannon's First Theorem) 5.7.1 Code Redundancy. 5.7.2 Code Variance. 5.8 Data Compaction (Entropy Coding) 58.1 Prefix Coding (Instantaneous Coding) . . 5.8.1.1 Properties of Prefix Code. 5.8.2 Shannon-Fano Algorithm: 5.8.3 Huffman Coding . .. 5.8.4 Lempel - Ziv (LZ) Coding . 5.8.5 Comparison between Huffman Shannon Fano & Prefix Coding. 5.9 Discrete Memoryless Channels ... 5.9.1 Binary Communication Channel. . . 5.9.2 Equivocation (Conditional Entropy) . . 5.9.3 Rate of Information Transmission Over a Discrete Channel . 5.9.4 Capacity of a Discrete Memoryless Channel 5.10 Mutual Information... 5.10.1 Properties of Mutual Information 5.10.2 Channel Capacit 5.11 Differential Entropy and Mutual Information for Continuous Ensembles 5.11.1 Differential Entropy...5.11.2 Mutual Information 5.11.3 Channel Capacity Theorem and Capacity of Continuous Channel 5.12 Shannon's Theorems on Channel Capacity ... 5.12.1 Channel Coding Theorem (Shannon's Second Theorem) a 5.12.2 Shannon Hartley Theorem for Gaussian Channel (Continuous Channel) . 5.12.3 Trade-off between Bandwidth and Signal to Neise Ratio . 5.12.4 Rate/Bandwidth and Signal to Noise Ratio, e Trade-off f (Implications of Information Capacity Theorem) ...........ccsceesecseeeeese 5-125 5.13 Rate Distortion Theory . 5.14 Short Answered Questions . Se ae a eaeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-2 Amplitude Modulation Systems Now let us consider different examples of communication that we use in our day to day life. 1) Telephone : All of us use telephones now a days. We know that we talk and listen through a telephone. The telephone set is connected to telephone exchange through wires. The other telephones are connected in the same way. Transmitter / Receiver Transmitter / Receiver or Talker / Listener \ or Talker / Listener Telephone ‘exchange Wires connecting the tele ‘Cammunicaion channelis the wire pining two eee telephone subscribers through exchange telephone exchenge Fig. 1.1.2 Communication on telephones; Line communication through wire As shown in Fig, 1.1.2 the transmission is bidirectional. Every telephone subscriber can talk as well as listen. Talking is equivalent to transmission of data (voice) and listening is equivalent to receiving of data. The data (ie. voice signal) is passed through wires. Thus the communication channel contains wires which are routed through telephone exchange. 2) Mobile phones (Cellular phones) : As we know, the mobile phones are becoming very much popular now a days. In the mobile phones also we can Talker / listener alan Bs L Mobile phone subscriber Base station antenna Signals propagate through air Talker / listener transmitter / receiver Mobile phone subscriber Base station antenna ‘Communication channel does not contain any connection between two mobil But the signals propagate through air. This is also called wireless communication. Fig. 1.1.3 Mobile communication : An example of wireless communicationaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-6 Amplitude Modulation Systems of this concept here. For example consider the case of Amplitude modulation. The message signal is of frequency 10 kHz and the carrier is of frequency 50 kHz, Then mathematically we can prove that the amplitude modulated signal will have carrier of 50 kHz, and two sidebands of (50 - 10) = 40 kHz and (50 + 10) = 60 kHz. These two side bands carry the message signal actually. But at the same time their frequency is much higher than that of message. This is nothing but translation of message frequency to high frequency side. + © Frequency of the carrier is higher than that of message signal lan = Amplitude = == modulated signal Fig. 1.1.6 a) The message signal to be sent to destination b) The carrier signal generated by the transmitter c) Message signal rides over the amplitude of carrier signal. Thet is the carrier is Amplitude modulated by the messageaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-10 Amplitude Modulation Systems Wireless communication : As the name indicates, there is no wire or any such medium for conduction of electromagnetic waves. Wireless communication takes place through air or vacuum. The frequencies right from 10 kHz upto 100 GHz are transmitted using wireless communication. Electromagnetic waves can be transmitted either by ground wave propagation, sky wave propagation or line of sight propagation depending upon the frequency. Fig. 1.1.8 shows different frequency ranges and their modes of propagation. All the radio, TV and satellite broadcasting is wireless communication. In wireless communication, the electromagnetic waves are transmitted and received with the help of radiators or antennas. The size of such radiations or antennas depend upon the frequency being transmitted/received. Normally for efficient radiation of the electromagnetic energy, the length of the antenna must be at least Yy of the wavelength of frequency being transmitted. For example consider the case of AM radio station transmitting 1 MHz frequency. The wavelength of this frequency is, Velocity of light (©) Wavelength = 3 x10° 1 x i0® = 300m Length of the transmitting antenna = 4 xd = 30 m atleast. The size of the antenna will reduce if the frequency of transmission is increased. Because of this reason, wireless communication is not used for low frequencies. The advantages of wireless communications are cost effectiveness, possible long distance communication and simplicity. But the drawbacks are noise interference, environmental effects and attenuation of the signal. Wireline communication and wireless communication can both be used for some frequency range. The choice is made upon the required distance and coverage area. 1.1.4 Communication Channel As we have seen in the preceding sections, the connection between transmitter and receiver is established through communication channel. We have seen that the communication can take place through wirelines, wireless or fibre optic channels. The other media such as optical disks, magnetic tapes and disks etc. can also be called as communication channel, because they can also carry data through them. Every communication channel has got some problems. Following are the common problems associated with the channels :aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-14 Amplitude Modulation Systems Advantages of co-axial cable : 1. Co-axial cable used for both data transmission. i.e. analog and digital data transmission. 2, It has higher bandwidth. 3. Easy to handle and relatively inexpensive as compared to fiber optic cables. 4. It uses for longer distances at higher data rates. 5. Excellent noise immunity. Disadvantages of co-axial cable : 1, Distance is limited. 2. Number of node connection is limited. 3. Proper connectors and termination is must. Characteristics of co-axiable cable : Co-axial cable has the following characteristics. 1. 10 Mbps is the transmission rate. 2. Maximum cable length for thinnet is 185 meters and for thicknet is 500 meters. 3. Flexible and easy to work with thinnet. 4. Ethernet designation to 10 base 2 ( thinnet ) or 10 base5 ( thicknet ). 5. Less expensive than fiber optics cable but more expensive than twisted pair. 6. Good resistance to electrical interference. 1.4.62 Fiber Optic Cable (FOC) A fiber optic cable is a light pipe which is used to carry a light beam from one place to another. Light is an electromagnetic signal and can be modulated by information. Since the frequency of light is extremely high hence it can accomodate wide bandwidths of information, also higher data rate can be achieved with excellent reliability. The modulated light travel along the fiber and at the far end, are converted to an electrical signal by means of a photo electric cell. Thus the original input signal is recovered at the far end. FOC transmits light signals rather than electrical signals. Each fiber has a inner core of glass or plastic that conducts light. The inner core is surrounded by cladding, a layer of glass that reflects the light back into core. A cable may contain a single fiber, but often fibers are bundled together in the centre of the cable. FOC may be multimode or signal mode. Multimode fibers use multiple light paths whereas signal mode fibers allow a single light path and are typically used with laser signaling. It is more expansive and greater bandwidth.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-18 Amplitude Modulation Systems Receiving antenna Transmitting antenna 7 Line of sight Transmitting | station | Fig. 1.1.10 rowave communication Microwave Transmitter and Receiver Fig. 1.1.11 shows block diagram of microwave link transmitter and receiver section. Voice set data Muttiplexer Modulator Up-converter Transmiting video antenna (a) Microwave transmitter Receiving antenna =H = RF iF Voice Down Demultiph video (b) Microwave receiver Fig. 1.1.11 Microwave transmitter and receiveraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-22 Amplitude Modulation Systems 2. Time Shift or Translation 1 x) 25 XW then, x(t) = x{t-tp) as, Zk) = 0 FF! cH wes (1.2.5) 3. Frequency Shift If xt) E25 xt then, at) = eiko eat 4p) AS, 20) =x(k-ky) -- (1.2.6) 4, Scaling If Fs x) 2s X00) then, 2) = xa) AS, 2h = xe) wes (12.7) Comment Fourier coefficients of aft) and x(at) are same, but spacing between frequency components change form 9 to aw. 5. Time Differentiation Fs If xtt) Ss xy then, 7 FS, jeany x0) ves (1.2.8) dt 6. Convolution in Time wf xit) AS, x@ and yt) Bow then, 2) = xtt) * yt) Xs Zh = TX) s+ (12.9) Significance : Convolution of two periodic signals results in multiplication of their Fourier coefficients and period T. 7. Multiplication or Modulation Theorem if xt 2S, xt and yi) AL s voy then, 2) = xt) yt) FAL. 2h = xx YH) .. (1.2.10) 8. Parseval's Theorem If a(t) is the periodic power signal with Fourier coefficients X(K), then average power in the signal is given by J) |X(K)|?. ie., koreaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-26 Amplitude Modulation Systems os t = 2 fet en ikamt ap = af e(iriankyt AR = gg fore? it =a] A4mKM at 1 2 se ee Sg (1+ j4nky 705 (1+ j4mk)0.5 _ 20 ~aajann? IP =~ayjank" #1 = 2 05 9 j2mk 1 isjank J Here e/2Rk = cos2nk-jsin2nk = 1 always. 2 He Xk) = --——2— [0.606-1 lence, (k) aejanr 0.7869 = 5a7a8F oo (1.2.20) Step 2: To express exponential Fourier series. Putting for X(k) in synthesis equation of equation (1.23), < _0.7869 = sikagt at kesrtra Step 3: To obtain magnitude and phase spectrum of X(k). 0.7869 " We have XU) = 7 FaqR BY equation (1.220) _ 0.7869 1-j4mk _ 0.7869(1-j 42k) " l4j4ank 1-jank — 14+(4n 0? = 786. ._ OTAOXA RE (12.21) 1+(4nk? © 14(40k)? (0.7869)? (0.7869x4 nk)? XW| = OBR 1x09] i+Gnh ep f+(4nb?7 __ |(0.7869) +(0.7869)? (42k)? . 7869)? (1+(41 k)2) (+402? f1+4nb2)2 0.7869 [X@| = yi +(40k)? And phase spectrum is given as, _,. [Imaginary part of equation (1.2: AXES ‘Matt [Real part of equation (1.2.21) 2X(k_) = —tan (40k)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-30 Amplitude Modulation Systems Following table lists the calculation of | X(k)|_with respect to k 7 & 3 4 5 8 7 8 9 10 $k Here 1x09 35+ By rearranging the equation 54) = 0. 2sine( =) since are = sine (A) Fork=0, — |X(0)| = 0.2 sinc (0) = 0.2, since sinc(0) = 1 by L'Hospital’s rule | i Ray y : T ‘This shape is called sine function it goas through zero at k= 45,210,219, IX)] is symmetric | Since X(ki] is real, | Pe site zero a ited eset ele sd e Beale cl Fig. 1.2.4 Magnitude and phase plots of rectangular pulse trainaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-34 Amplitude Modulation Systems Step 3: Now divide the least common multiple by a number 12 (by which T, and We have, 2n_ 20 Op = aseel b) To expand x(t) 18 46-78 j® —.-je We know that cos@ = Si and sino = Se, then x(t) can be written as, cit pe it gift e-itt alt) = 442. — 43, a i3t 40-j3t 49 pitt 3 jae Atel te +57” 2° = 44¢/30! 4 ,-/3agt 43 ej4ogt 3. ¢-j4mg! 2j Qj Since @p = 1... (1.2.22) ¢) To obtain Fourier coefficients We have, x(t) = S, Xeikeot kace 4 Fork = 4, = Y Xweitoot ken4 = X(-4)e7H400! +x(—3) e130! + x(—2) e120! +. X(—1)e~/@0! +X() +X(1)¢ 10! +X(2) i240 +x(3) ei 30! +x(4)e H4@0! Comparing above equation with equation (1.2.22) we get, x0) = 4 XC1) = XQ) = X-2)=X@)=0 X(-3) = X(3)=1 XC 4) = 0 x@aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.‘Communication Theory 1-38 Amplitude Modulation Systems: 9. Modulation fx) #L4x(w) and y(t) 25 y(w), then 2(8) = x(t) WOE 2(0) = 4 [x(@)« ¥(a)] ++ (1.2.33) Modulation in time domain corresponds to convolution of spectrums in frequency domain. 10. Duality if i) $2, x(0), then x(t) 42528 x(- 0) vs (1.2.34) 41. Symmetry Let x(t) be real signal and X(a) = Xa(o) +i%(a) then x(t) 25 x2 (a) and xt) AL ix,(0) sa .2.38) Here x,(!) and x,(t) are even and odd parts of x(t). 42. Parseval's Theorem or Rayleigh's Theorem if aft) EE, x(.0), then = Fir@ka- LF xe@pao- f ponte 230 Energy of the signal can be obtained by interchanging its energy spectrum. wm Example 1.2.6 : Obtain the Fourier transform of the signal e~u(t) and plot its magnitude and phase spectrum. Solution : a(t) = en*u(t) x(a) =f x() eft at J ecttu(t eietdtaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-42 Amplitude Modulation Systems mm Example 1.2.8 : Find the inverse Fourier transform of the rectangular spectrum shown in Fig. 1.2.11. X(w) 4 WwW Ww Fig. 1.2.11 Rectangular spectrum Solution : Inverse Fourier transform is given as, Oe } X(0) do (1.2.40) Wwe sine (=) (1.2.41) on Equation (1.2.40) goes to zero at 1= 4%, 42% 4 7 By LHospital’s rule, im, — asin w= 4 Fig. 1.2.12 Inverse Fourier transform of rectangular pulse Comment : On comparing the results of this example and previous example, we find that the rectangular pulse and sinc function form a Fourier transform pair.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-46 Amplitude Modulation Systems ‘_ = i, DY 3(w-ka) wy F 5(w- key) ws (1.2.49) ee Fig. 1.2.16 shows the spectrum of impulse train given by above equation. fn Xo). Fig. 1.2.16 Spectrum of impulse train Theory Questions 1. Define CTFS. State its different types. 2. State following properties of CTFS. a) Time shift _b) Frequency shift) Convolution in time. 3. State and prove Parseval's theorem jor CTFS. Explain various types of Fourier series representation and compare them. What are Dirichlet conditions ? What is the significance of these conditions ? State Parseval's power theorem. Define Fourier transform for non-periodic signals and explain its significance. Explain the conditions which are required to be satisfied for the signal to be Fourier transformable. 1. State the following properties of Fourier representations. i) Multiplication in time domain. ii) Convolution in time domain. iii) Differentiation in time domain. iv) Integration in time domain. 10. State the following properties of Fourier transform. i) Time scaling ii) Time shifting ii) Frequency shifting 11. Define the Fourier transform for periodic signals and explain its significance. 12. Slate and prove Rayleigh’s energy theorem. SEN as ewaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-50 Amplitude Modulation Systems and Ee = Enax~En «= (13.6) = Emax — max — Emin by putting for Ey from equation (1.3.5) = Frax +Emin (137) 2 Taking the ratio of equation (1.3.5) and above equation, Enox ~ Emin = Fm 2 "Ee Emus +Enin Z Emax —E, m= Et wa (1.3.8) This equation gives the technique of calculating modulation index from AM wave. 4.3.3 Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth The modulated carrier has new signals at different frequencies, called side frequencies or sidebands. They occur above and below the carrier frequency. ie. fuss = fe+ fu fuss = fe-fu Here fis carrier frequency and fu is modulating signal frequency fiss is lower sideband frequency and usp is upper sideband frequency. Consider the expression of AM wave given by equation (1.3.3), ie., eam = (Ec +Em sin @nt) sin act on (1.3.9) We know that mai from equation (1.3.4). Hence we have Ey =mE,. Putting this value of E, in above equation we get, eam = (Ec +ME, sin yt) sin wet 0 E, (1+ m sin qt) sin Oct E, sin oet +m Ez sin Gye sin Oct (1.3.10) We know that sin (A) sin (B) =F eos -B) -} cos (A +B). Applying this result to last term in above equation we get,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-54 Amplitude Modulation Systems tm Example 1.3.3: An audio frequency signal 10sin 2nx500t is used to amplitude modulate a carrier of 50 sin 2nx 10° t. Calculate i) Modulation index ii) Sideband frequencies iii) Amplitude of each sideband frequencies io) Bandwidth required ») Total power delivered to the load of 600.2. Solution : i) The given modulating signal is v,, =10 sin 2nx5001. Hence, Ey, =10. The given carrier signal is e =50sin2nx105 f, hence, E, =50. Therefore modulation index will be, Em 10 _, ms fhas=02 or 20% ii) From the given equations, @y = 2nx500, Hence fy, =500 Hz And @, = Inx10, Hence f. =10° Hz or 100 kHz We know that fuss = fr + fm =100 kHz +500 Hz= 100.5 kHz fe — fn = 100 kHz —500 Hz = 99.5 kHz. iii) From equation (1.3.13) we know that the amplitudes of upper and lower sidebands is given as, and Pise mE, _ 02x50 5 2 =5V Amplitude of upper and lower sidebands = iv) Bandwidth of AM wave is given by equation (1.3.10) as, BW of AM = 2%, =2x500H7=1kHz v) Total power delivered to the load is given by equation (1.3.18) as By em) 50 (4 ¢ ‘) = 2.125 watts { +n 4 RT | ‘wm Example 1.3.4 : A 400 W carrier is modulated to a depth of 80 % calculate the total power in the modulated wave. Prot = Solution : Here carrier power P, =400W and m=08. From equation (1.3.19) total power is, 2 0.8)? \ Put = re(48F aoo[ +2" | = 528 Waa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Commu tion Theory 1-57 Amplitude Modulation Systems 4.3.6 Amplitude Modulation by Multiple Sine Waves In practice, modulation takes place due to multiple modulating wave. Here let us consider what will happen if two or more sine waves modulate the carrier simultaneously. Let the two modulating sine waves be represented as, emt = Emr SiN Oya t and Cn = Ena SIN Oye t Then the total modulating signal will be, em = ena benz = Ent SiN Ot t+ Enz SIN@n2 t On the basis of equation (1.3.3) we can write equation for AM signal as follows : Eam = Ee + Em Sin@mi t+ Enz SiN Ome t Cam = (Ee +E na Sin Qa f+ Eye Sin Ope f) sino f = —, ( Eat sin yy t+ 22 sin Oya sn wt E E Let m = and, =f, then above equation becomes, eam = Ec (L#my sin @ay t+ mz sin@mn A) sing. t = E, sin@, t+ mE, sin@y, t sin®. t Fitz Ee SiN Om2 | Sine F Here let us use sin A sinB=4cos(A~B)—}.c0s(A +B). Then above equation becomes, E E, Baume sina, += cos (@ Om) t- me €08 (0. +m)! ues 08 (0; 02) F= ie 608 (%¢ + Oy2)t ww (1.3.28) This equation has unmodulated carrier in the first term. Second and third terms represent two sidebands (0, ~ mi) and, +01) due to @y. Last two terms represent two sidebands (0; — G2) and (0, +@y2) due to q2. Fig. 1.3.4 shows the frequency spectrum of AM wave having two modulating frequencies 4 and On.2 with Oy < On2 and my > m2. The total power in the AM wave having two modulating sine waves will be written as, Pout = Po + Pasar +Pusn2 + Pisa + Prse2Communication Theory 1-58 Amplitude Modulation Systems @- Wing = Om, 0, WFO, e+ Oy Fig. 1.3.4 Frequency spectrum of AM wave having two modulating frequencies We can write the above equation on the basis of equation (1.3.17) as follows : Pog = CAMB! , MERE mi EE mp EB nd EB R 8R 8R 8R 8k ~H(,,m mmm - ape a eH mi ym = a pty vw» (1.3.29) ER " - Since P. = 5h, above equation will be, 2 ma Phat = o(g eh ww (1.3.30) Compare this equation with similar relation given by equation (1.3.19) for one sine wave. ie, 2 Poi = 2 (1+) (1331) Thus we can generalize equation (1.3.30) for many sine waves as, m2? m2 m2 Potat = n [itt a] .. (1.332) mp _ me mz ms , Let = “24724734... hence above equation will be, 2° 2°2°2 2 Potat = a(ie] ww (1.3.33) This equation is similar to equation (1.3.31). Now from equation (1.3.32) we can obtain total modulation index m, as, m = fm? +m? +m? (1334)‘Communication Theory 1-59 Amplitude Modulation Systems: 1.3.7 Transmission Efficiency The transmission efficiency of AM signal is the ratio of power contained in both sidebands to total transmitted power ic. = Puss + Pisa Transmission efficiency 1 - 7 m2 Pe (1+ (+ s 2 = aa a» (1.3.35) | tm Example 1.3.8 : Calculate the total modulation index if the carrier wave is amplitude modulated by three modulating signals with modulation indices of 0.6, 0.3 and 0.4 respectively. Solution : Let 7 =06, mz =0.3and ms =04, Consider equation (1.334) for total modulation index, my = fm? +m +m = [06 +03? +04? = 0.781 ‘=> Example 1.3.9: A certain AM transmitter radiates 10 kW with the carrier modulated, and 11.8 KW when the carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the modulation index. If another sine wave, corresponding to 30 % modulation, is transmitted simultaneously, determine the total radiated power. Solution : Here P. =10 kW, Prot =11.8 kW Modulation index, m = 2 Pt 1 2(18_1\-06 “PB 10 This is first signal. Hence mm =06. The another signal modulates 30 %. Hence mz =0.3, Hence combined total modulation index due to two signals is, m = mz +mz = J0.6? +03? = 0.67 Total power is, Pan = Pe ( +] by equation (1.3.33) 12.24 kW = 1o(1 05" }:Communication Theory 1-60 Amplitude Modulation Systems ‘mp Example 1.3.10 : The output voltage of a transmitter is given by 500 (1 + 0.4 sin 3140 1) sin 6.28 x107t. This voltage is fed to a load of 600 ©. Determine - i) Carrier frequency ii) Modulating frequency iti) Carrier power iv) Mean power output Solution : The equation of the amplitude modulated signal is given as, Cam = Ec(1 +m sin@yt)sinaet Comparing above equation with the given equation, we get E. = 500V, m= 04 ©, = 3140 rad/sec @ = 6.28x107 rad/sec i) Cartier frequency = f =o = 6.28% 107 =10 2n ii) Modulating frequency = Jn = _ 3140 Ot = 500 Hz iti) Carrier power = P. = Ei By equation (1.3.16) = (5007 _ ~ Sego5 7 20833 W . ER (, m2 , ix) Mean power output = $i {1+"5-] By equation (13.18) 2 = 208.33 [14-2 | ~ 295 w. L 24Communication Theory 1-61 Amplitude Modulation Systems 1.3.8 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) We have seen that there are two sidebands and carrier in the spectrum of AM wave. The carrier doesnot contain any power. At 100 % modulation, the amplitude of carrier is double of the sidebands. The power of the carrier is P, = Z Carrier doesnot convey any information. Hence most of the power is transmitted in the carrier, that is not used for carrying information. Hence carrier is suppressed and only sidebands are transmitted. Such modulation is Frequency ‘alled double sideband suppressed ! tthe carrier (DSB-SC). Balanced modulator is . discussed in next section. It is used to Fig. 1.3.5 Spectrum of DSB-SC signal _supress the carrier. Fig. 1.3.5 shows the spectrum for DSB-SC modulated signal. Advantages of DSB-SC i) DSB-SC is more efficient in transmitted power as compared to DSB-FC. ii) DSB-SC has better signal to noise ratio as compared to single sideband (SSB) transmission. Disadvantage Eventhough the carrier is suppressed the bandwidth of DSB-SC remains same as DSB-FC. wm Example 1.3.11 : A carrier wave is represented by equation e,() = 12 sin wt. Draw the waveforms of an AM wave for depth of modulation of i) 1, ii) 0.5, iii) 32 iv) 2/3. Solution : i) For m= 1 m= ie 1- Eq = =m Soin = Emax ~ Fn Emax = Ec + Em = 12412 = av And 2 = 24=Emin W,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-66 Amplitude Modulation Systems Collector modulator The modulated output can be obtained by making the voltage on output electrode to vary according to input modulating signal. Fig. 14.2 shows the collector modulator. ‘The transistor is biased well beyond cutoff so that it operates in class C mode. The class C mode is used because of its high efficiency. The RF drive is a carrier signal used for AM. This carrier amplitude is such that it drives transistor in conduction over part of its cycle. It is applied to the base of transistor. The modulating signal is passed through the power amplifier and applied to the collector through a low frequency transformer. This voltage is shown as v, (1) in figure. This modulating voltage is in series with the supply voltage Vcc. Hence the collector voltage becomes Véc= Voc +m (0. The tuned LC circuit associated tuned transformer on the collector receives the AM signal. Because of modulating voltage, the net supply voltage of transistor changes according to slow variations in v (. Hence the RF carrier signal amplitude is also varied according to variations in v», (t). Thus AM signal is produced across the LC circuit at the collector. Modulating RF bypass capacitor Modulated RF output RF drive Bias T = Fig. 1.4.2 BJT collector modulator (class € amplifier) Advantages of high level modulators i) There is no constraint of linear operation on amplifiers preceding modulator stage. ii) Power efficiency is good.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-70 Amplitude Modulation Systems 499 kHz and amplitude = a 03x10 = fe +f = 500 kHz+1kHz = 501 kHz and amplitude = Similarly sidebands due to fy2 will be, ff: —fora = 500kHz-3kHz = 497 kHz and amplitude = fet fina = 500kHz+3kHz a my E, = 503kHz and amplitude = = =25V The spectrum is shown below in Fig. 1.5.4. 10V 28Vv 25v 15V 15V Frequency 497 kh 490 kHz 500 kHz 601 kHz 503 kHz Fig. 1.5.4 Spectrum of AM signal of example 1.5.2 The carrier power in 50 2 load will be, EW. 2R 2x50 Pos From equation 1.3.19, total power is given as, Prat = Pe (+4) 2 1.58 and P. = 1 W, hence above equation will be, : Pout = 1 (1 | Here m, = 2 = 1168 W um Example 1.5.3 : Calculate the percentage power saving when a carrier and one of the sidebands are suppressed in AM wave modulated to the depth of i) 100 % and it) 50 %.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-74 ‘Amplitude Modulation Systems 1.6 Single Sideband Modulation In the last section we studied Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC) amplitude modulation system. We know that the modulated signal in the DSBFC system contains unmodulated carrier and two sidebands. The unmodulated carrier conveys no information, but consumes around two-third of total power. The two sidebands carry the information. Since the two sidebands are images of each other, they carry the same information. Thus only one sideband is capable of carrying the same information that would be carried by DSBFC system. Thus if carrier and one of the sideband in AM is suppressed, then only one sideband remains. It is then called Single Sideband Carrier (suppressed) Lower sideband (suppressed) t 1 i | Upper sideband (transmitted) fe fot fm Frequency Fig. 1.6.1 SSBSC system Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC) system. Fig. 1.6.1 shows the spectrum of SSBSC system. In this figure dotted line indicates that the component is suppressed. Only upper sideband is transmitted. SSBSC is also called SSB transmission. It has following advantages - Advantages of SSB : 4) Since only single sideband is transmitted, the bandwidth of the transmitter and channel is only f,,. This bandwidth is half of that required by DSBFC system. Thus SSB conserves bandwidth and allows more number of channels to be transmitted in the same band. ii) The power of the suppressed carrier and sideband is saved. Hence transmitter power requirement in SSB is reduced. iii) Because of narrow bandwidth of SSB, the effect of noise at the receiver circuits is reduced. This gives better quality of reception in SSB. iv) Fading effect is absent because of SSB. Fading effect arises at the receiver because of two sidebands and carrier interfere with each other at the receiver. If only carrier is suppressed and both the sidebands are transmitted, then it is called Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) or DSB system. But instead of DSB, SSB is mostly preferred.