ER 100/200 & Pub Pol 184/284:

Energy and Society

Lectures 5:
Energy (Biomass) Gender &
Development

Daniel Kammen

Version date: September 7, 2010

 Overview

• The fuelwood gap

• Gender and energy
• Stoves, biomass,and society
• Health and stoves … a new purpose … a new threat
• Development as marginalization/inclusion
 Uses of biomass for energy in 2007. Overall contribution:
about 10% of total primary energy supply.

Source: Sims (2010, in Industrial Crops and Uses, CABI, Wallingford, UK)
Trends in biomass use by type, with uncertainty bars for the
total
4000

Industrial
Biofuel Consumption (Mt/yr)

3000 Biofuels
Domestic
Charcoal
Domestic
Dung
2000 Domestic
Crops
Domestic
Fuelwood

1000

0
1900 1925 1950 1975 2000
Year
 Trends in biomass use by region
3000

North
2500 America
Latin
Biofuel Consumption (Mt/yr)

America
Western
2000 Europe
Eastern
Europe/FSU
1500 Africa

South Asia

1000 East Asia

Southeast
Asia
500 Oceania

0
1900 1925 1950 1975 2000
Year
 1. Energy and Poverty Reduction
Key Data: Deaths from Indoor Air Pollution
Biomass Resources and Use

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 7

Women and sustainable development

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 8

 Global Distribution of Household Energy

Coal
Sub-Saharan Africa
Biomass
India Non-Solid

South East Asia

China

North Africa and Middle East

Latin America and Caribbean

Former USSR and E. Europe

Market Economies

0 400 800 1200

WHO Air Quality Guidelines, 1999 1990 Population (million) ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 9
 Efficiency of different cooking fuel/technology
combinations, and ratio of total CO2-equivalent
GHG emissions to that using natural gas

0.8 16.0
Efficiency
0.7 14.0
Ratio to Gas including CO2

0.6 Ratio to Gas excluding CO2 12.0

0.5 10.0

GWP Ratio
Efficiency

0.4 8.0

0.3 6.0

0.2 4.0

0.1 2.0

0 0.0
Must-tm

Dung-ivm
Root-ivm
Acacia-tm

Dung-ivc
Rice-tm
Must-ivm

Dung-tm
Root-tm

Must-imet
Acacia-ivm

Must-ivc
Eucal-ivm

Acacia-imet

Acacia-3R

Rice-ivm
Eucal-imet

Eucal-3R

Acacia-ivc
Eucal-ivc

Dung-Hara
Root-imet
Kerosene
Kerosene
Gas
LPG
 The Fuelwood Gap - Actions (1980s)

Then: Focus on:

1. Efficiency
2. Large-scale
Improved Stove programs:

Largely omitted ...

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 11

Other approaches

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 12

 The Fuelwood Gap Theory - problems
(1980s)
1."In most countries, forests are disappearing not because people want the trees to burn, but
because they want the land under the trees for agriculture." (Eckholm, 1984)

2."Forests are predominantly cleared for agricultural land, not directly for energy products."
(CEC, 1984)

3."Little attention is paid to changing land-use despite evidence that it is not the demand for
fuelwood which creates deforestation but land clearance for agricultural production."
(Munslow, 1988)

4."To arrest deforestation one needs to halt the depredations caused by agriculture rather than
by fuelwood consumption. ... Indeed, if all woodfuel use stopped tomorrow, deforestation
rates would hardly be altered." (Leach, 1988)

5. "... in most cases, fuelwood collection is not a primary cause of deforestation. Furthermore,
it is now clear that fuelwood production and harvesting systems can be, and often are,
sustainable." (FAO, 1997)
ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 13
 A New Culprit Emerges

Daily Nation
August 28, 1997
Kenya
ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 14
 Air Quality and Health in China
Locally weighted regression smoothing plots of mortality, 1992 in Shenyang with SO2 and Total
Suspended Particulates [TSP]

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 15

 Dose-response Models
(ER200/PubPol284)
Assume a basic model for dose (d) and response P(d)
P(d) = 1- e -(q - Qd)
With q and Q parameters to fit
For d = 0 (no dose) P(0) is the background illness rate.
Since the expansion for an exponential is
x x2 xn
e 1 x   ...  1 x (for small x)
2! n!
P(d)  1 [1  (q  Q  d)]
= q  Q d  P(0)  Q d

Additional risk = Q d
Q  the potency factor, or the slope of the dose - response relationship
Incremental risk
Q
Chronic Daily Intake (mg/kg - day)
Incremental Risk = (chronic daily intake)  (potency factor)
 Lessons from Bose
Rural women and men often allocate resources very differently.

Both neo-classical (rational choice) and Marxist (means of

production) perspectives marginalize/trivialize women’s work
because it often does not lead directly to monetary gains

Lack of valuation of women’s time and lack of valuation of

biomass are related issues.

Development projects focused on gender can marginalize

women just as easily (or more?) as they can empower women.

Poor, rural, and female can be a triple whammy.

Energy and Politics … in Zambia

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 18

 The Disease of the Month Year?
ITDG:
Indoor smoke • Low weight children and mothers
'kills millions' • Unsafe sex
• High blood pressure
• Tobacco Alcohol
• Unsafe water, sanitation & hygiene
• High cholesterol
• Indoor smoke from solid fuels
• Iron deficiency
• Obesity

US EPA Partnership for Clean Indoor Air

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 19
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http:// socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
 The UN Takes a Stand …
• Millennium Development:
• Eradicate extreme poverty & hunger
• Universal primary education
• Gender equality & empower women
• Reduce child mortality
• Improve maternal health
• Combat HIV, malaria & other diseases
• Endure environmental stability
• Develop a goal for partnership and development

And the stove-centric world view says …

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 20
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http:// socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
 Key issues - 1
Energy in SSA
• Very low rates of electrification (~20% of households - IEA)
– Where electricity is available, it is the most expensive cooking option
• Few countries have indigenous sources of fossil fuels
• Energy primarily derived from solid biomass fuels
– Mainly wood and charcoal, with some crop residues and dung
– Burned in simple conversion devices with poor efficiency

Source: Majid Ezzati Source: Stove Images Source: Kirk Smith Source: www.tve.org
ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 21
University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http:// socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
 Global Exposure to Air Pollution
Exposure = Population • Time • Pollution
60
Outdoor
6%
Indoor
% Total Global PM Exposure

40

3%

49%

20 30%

0.8%

9% 0.1%
2%
0

Urban Rural Urban Rural

Smith, 1988 Industrialized Developing ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 22

 Enter the Home, and the Site of Exposure
• Material: Mud, Dung, Wood, and Grass
• Diameter: 3 - 4 meters
• Height: 3 meters

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 23

 The Global Distribution of Disease
(Mortality)
Resp. Infections
N.C. Respiratory
6.5%
Other 5.6% Resp. Tract Cancer

23.7% Diarrheal Diseases

4.1%
Malaria
TB
2.8%
Total
4.2% HIV / AIDS
54 M
10.7% 3.1%
Injuries Childhood Diseases
4%
Perinatal Conditions

source: WHO, 1999 30.9%

Cardiovascular ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 24

Global Distribution of Disease: Mortality

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 25

 The Global Distribution of Disease (DALY)
Resp. Infections
DALY = disability N.C. Respiratory
adjusted life year
6.2% Resp. Tract Cancer
(= healthy years) 4.5%
Diarrheal Diseases
Other
5.3%
Malaria
32.9% 2.8%
TB

Total 5.1% HIV / AIDS

1.4 B
4.1%
Childhood Diseases

source: WHO, 1999 5.8%

16% Perinatal Conditions
4.2%
10.3%
Injuries Depression

Cardiovascular ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 26

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 27
 Figure 4.13 Cookstove efficiency and cost
80 80

70 70

60 60

Stove Capital Cost ($)

Stove Efficiency (%)

50 50

40 Stove Efficiency 40

30 30

20 20
Stove Capital Cost
10 10

0 0

Increasing Affluence
Source: Kammen et al (2001, Policy Discussion Paper for the United Nations Development Program, Environmentally Sustainable
Development Group (ESDG) and the Climate Change Clean Development Mechanism (CDM))
 Figure 4.16 Fuel sources for Swedish district heating
70 Waste Heat
Heat Pumps
Electric Boilers
60 Biofuels
Coal
Natural Gas
50 Oil
Heat Produced (TWh/yr)

40

30

20

10

0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Source: Swedish Energy Agency (2008, Energy
in Sweden 2008, www.stem.se)
 Charcoal Production

Traditional production:
As little as one tree/batch
(often illegal, hit-and-run
production)

Large-scale production
Industrial kilns (Brazil, Thailand)
over 50 tons/batch

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 30

 We will study the chemistry of pyrolysis in the lecture on
Pyrolysis: advanced combustion/applications
Combustion in reduced
oxygen environments
(super fuel rich).

Pyrolysis Efficiency:
p = 20 - 50%

Stove Efficiency:
s = 10 - 40%

Total Efficiency:

Total =  i
= p • p [• transp. ]

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 31

 Charcoal Specifics (extra)
Pyrolysis is complex!

1. It is combustion in reduced oxygen conditions, so one version is

C6 H12O6  O2  N 2  CO2  H 2 0
When fuel rich by X% can be rewritten as :
C6 H12O6  (1 X%)O2  N 2  CO2  CO  H 2 0
Balancing this shows that CO  CO 2
Advanced topic:
2. Pyrolysis also involves sublimation, where gases are driven
directly off the solid fuel to the gas phase. Char is produced, too.
1 kg fuel  Yc kg char + (1- Yc) kg of gas, at a rate:
dW wood
 Ae (E / RT )
dt ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 32
 Life-cycle comparison of Kenyan
household energy technologies

GHG emissions from charcoal production and end-use

4500
Charcoal production
4000
Charcoal consumption
g-C per kg dry-fuel consumed

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
Smith/Pennise Brocard et al Smith/Pennise Brocard et al

KP GHGs All greenhouse gases

Charcoal kiln in the early stages of firing, Narok,

KP: Kyoto Protocol Kenya. Source: Rob Bailis

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 33

University of California, Berkeley • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory • http:// socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael
 Carbon/Energy Balance for Charcoal Production

“CO [56/112]” indicates 56 grams of carbon monoxide produced per

kilogram of wood combusted in the charcoal kiln; with a global
warming potential two times that of CO2, this step alone is the
equivalent of the emission of 112 g of CO2 in terms of climate
impact. ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 34
Time/Activity/Personal Exposure Daily Histories
Biomass Resources and Use

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 35

 The Effect of Exposure Patterns
8000
81% N = 342
Average PM10 Exposure (g / m3)

Exposure Calculated Using Average

Emissions at One Point

Underestimation from Actual

6000
Exposure (% Total)

73%
4000
67%

52%

35% 41%
2000
47%
59%

0
F M F M F M F M

0-5 5 - 15 15 - 50 > 50
Demographic Subgroups ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 36
 Stove and Fuel Comparison (Average Emissions)

5000

Recall: OECD do-not-exceed PM10

n=105
standards are 50 - 150 g/m3
PM10 Concentration (g / m3)

4000

3000
n=16

2000

n=6

1000

0
3-Stone Ceramic Wood Old Charcoal New Charcoal

Stove-Fuel Combination ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 37

 Exposure in Rural Kenya: Age and Gender

Ezzati and Kammen (1995 - 2002):

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 38
http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael/papers.html#cook
 Developed Country Studies
60
% Increase in Hospital Admissions

40 PM2.5

20 PM10

0
0 50 100 150 200

WHO Air Quality Guidelines, 1999

PM Concentration (g / m3)

• Valid for Concentrations below 200 g / m3 ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 39

 Illness Reduction Observed in Kenya
(ARI = acute respiratory infection)
0.15

Ceramic Wood Stoves

3-Stone Fire
Charcoal

All ARI
Probability (ARI)

0.1

0.05
ALRI,
Lower respiratory
Infections only

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000

Average Daily Exposure (g / m3)

ER100 - Lecture 5 Page 40
 So, does this actually help?

• Analysis presents a classic policy trade-off, but offers no

clear solution
• Highlights inequalities with most solutions
• What leads: technologies to be exploited, or social
understanding to guide technologies
 Anaerobic digestion of animal
and sewage wastes
• 5 million household cattle-dung digesters in China,
500 large-scale digesters at pig farms and other agro-
industrial sites, and 24,000 digesters at sewage
treatment plants
• 20 million households in China use biogas from
digesters for cooking and lighting needs, and 4
million households in India
• 5000 digesters in industrialized countries, primarily at
livestock processing facilities and municipal sewage
treatment plants
 Cattle dung digester in India

Source: Kartha and Larson (2000, Bioenergy Primer, Modernized Biomass Energy for Sustainable
Development, United Nations Development Programme, New York)
 Digester on a pig farm in England

Source: Unknown
 Indian digester design

Source: Kartha and Larson (2000, Bioenergy Primer, Modernized Biomass Energy for Sustainable
Development, United Nations Development Programme, New York)
 Chinese digester design

Source: Kartha and Larson (2000, Bioenergy Primer, Modernized Biomass Energy for Sustainable
Development, United Nations Development Programme, New York)