1

Errors and Uncertainties

In Physics errors are not considered to be mistakes. An error in measurement is defined as the difference
between the measured value of the quantity and the true value of the quantity.

There are two types of errors which are random error and systematic error.

Random Errors

A random error causes the measured value of the quantity to lie on either side of the true value with the
equal probability.

A random error occurs when:

 the experimenter has to estimate the measurement

 the instrument which is being used lacks precision or sensitivity
 lack of care on the part of the experimenter

Random error cannot be completely eliminated; however the effects of these types of errors can be greatly
reduced by:

 taking several readings with the instrument and finding the average of the readings
 using instruments which are more precise and have greater sensitivity

Systematic Errors

A systematic error causes the measured value of the quantity to lie on one side of the true value all the
time (measured value is always too big or always too small).

A systematic error occurs when:

 The instrument is not calibrates properly (Example: metre rulers without zero markings)
 when the conditions under which the experiment is carried out affects the measurement

Systematic errors can be greatly reduced by:

 checking and comparing the instrument to be used to known accurate instruments

 changing the conditions under which the experiment is carried out

D.Whitehall
 2

Precision

A precise instrument (or measurement) is one which produces a small random error. This means that
when several readings are taken, the measurements are close to each other.

Precision is a measure on how carefully the results are determined without reference to the true value.

Accuracy

An accurate instrument (or measurement) is one which produces a small systematic error. This means that
the measurement is close to the true value.

Accuracy is how close the results are to the true value.

[Note: An instrument can be precise but not accurate]

Error and Uncertainty

Uncertainty is an estimation of the random error. It is the magnitude of error that is estimated that have
been made in the determination of the measurement.

Addition and the Subtraction Uncertainties (or Errors)

When the two quantities are added or subtracted, the absolute uncertainties (or errors) are added together
to obtain the final absolute uncertainty (or error) in the answer.

For A=B+C or A=B–C

The absolute uncertainties (or errors) of B and C are ΔB and ΔC respectively

Therefore the absolute uncertainty of A is ΔA = ΔB + ΔC

Example 4.1 Adding and Subtracting Uncertainties (or Errors)

a. Given that: = ± . � = ± . �
Calculate: (i) Q = A – B (ii) Q=A+B

∆� = ∆ + ∆ = . + . = ± . �

i. � = [ − ± . ]= ± . �
ii. � = [ + ± . ]= ± . �

D.Whitehall
 3

b. Calculate the error in y, given that:

(i) � = + (ii) �= − (iii) �= +
where = ± . = . ± .

i. ∆� = . + . = .
∴ �= [ + . ] ± .
�= . ± .

ii. ∆� = . + . = .

∴ �=[ − . ] ± .
�= . ± .

iii. ∆� = . + . = .
∴ �= [ + . ] ± .
�= . ± .

Multiplication and the Division of Uncertainties (or Errors)

When the two quantities are multiplied or divided, the fractional (or percentage) uncertainties (or errors)
are added together to obtain the final fractional (or percentage) uncertainty (or error) in the answer.

For = or =

� �
The fractional (or percentage) uncertainties (or errors) of B and C are and respectively

� � �
Therefore the fractional uncertainty of A is = +

Example 4.2 Multiplying and Dividing Uncertainties (or Errors)

Given that: = ± . � = . ± . �
Calculate: (i) Q = AB (ii) � =

∆� ∆ ∆ . .
= + = + = .
� 6 .

i. � = × . = .

∆� = . . = .

∴ �= . ± .

D.Whitehall
 4

6
ii. � = = .
.

∆� = . . = .

∴ �= . ± .

Uncertainties (or Errors) raised to the power n

When a quantity is raised to the power n, then the fractional (or percentage) uncertainty (or error) is
multiplied by n to obtain the final fractional (or percentage) uncertainty (or error) in the answer.
�
For =
� ��
Therefore the fractional uncertainty of A is =

Example 4.3 Uncertainties (or Errors) raised to the power n

a. Calculate the value of error in given that = ½

Where = . ± . = . ± . = . ± .

∆ ∆ ∆ ½∆
= + +

∆ . . ½ .
= + + = .
6 . .

6 .
= = 19.4
½

` ∆ = . . = .

∴ = . ± .

b. Calculate the error in given that = +

Where = . ± . and = . ± .

Let = ∴ = +

� �� .
= = = .
6

∆ = . = . = . × = .

D.Whitehall
 5

∆ = ± . + . =± .

=[ + . ]± .

∴ = . ± .

Problems 4.3

a. Find the value of with its error, given that =

Where = . ± . = . ± . = . ± .

−
b. Given that = find the value of with its error.
Where = . ± . = . ± .

c. Find the value of � with its error, given that � = +

Where = . ± . = . ± .

D.Whitehall