The Mole

by Doris Kolb
Illinois Central College

:tudrn t:How do you know how much material to use in a chemical
reaction?
"eoeher: Well, ordinarily you want to use amounts that are
chemically equivalent, or approximatelyso. Suppose we
wanted to react this 10 g sample of aluminum with iodine.
How mueh iodine do you think we would need?
Xudent: About log?
'eaeher: That would make the reactants equal in mass, hut try to
think in terms of atoms. An iodine atom is much bigger
than an aluminum atom. It weighs almost five times as
much.
rtudent: Then I guess we should use five times as much iodine.
How about 50 g?
'eacher: That would be about right if each aluminum atom reacted
with only one iodine atom, but don't forget that an a h -
minum atom can combine with three iodine atoms.
'tudent: In that case I guess we would need three times 50grams
of iodine. That would he about 150 g. Gosh! That seems
like a lot of iodine for only 10 g of aluminum!
Although the word mole was not used in that dialogue, the
ole concept certainly was. The discussion could not have
aken place without it. There is probably no concept in the
ntire first-year chemistry course more important for students
3 understand than the mole. There are also few things that
ive them quite so much trouble.
toichiometry
One of the main reasons the mole concept is so essential in
le study of chemistry is stoichiometry. That is what the
receding conversation was all ahout. Stoichiometry includes
I1 the quantitative relationships in chemical reactions. It has
do with how much of one substance will react with so much
f something else, how much product should he formed, etc.
toichiometrv is ordinarv chemical arithmetic.
r the first to use the term, based on the
Jeremias ~ i c h t ewas
reek words stoicheion (element) and metron (measure). His
lree volumes on "Foundations of Stoichiometry or the Art
"The Mole" is part of a series of
substantive reviews of chemical
principles taught first in hieh
.,,,~ !\ school c h e m ~ t kcourses.
~ ~ ~
0
of Measuring Chemical Elements" (1792-94) represented one
of the earliest efforts to provide a mathematical basis for
chemistry. Richter was especially interested in the definite
proportions in which various substances combined with each
other.
A thorough discussion of a topic as broad as stoichiometry
is not possible here, hut let us a t least consider the question
about aluminum and iodine referred to above. The problem
is
How many grams of iodine will react completely with 10 g of alu-
minum metal?
T o solve it we need first to know the atomic weights of alu-
minum and iodine, which are 27 and 127, respectively. (Hence,
the iodine atom weighs "almost five times as much" as the
aluminum atom.) A 27-g quantity of aluminum constitutes
one mole, so 10 g of aluminum is 10127 of a mole. The same
number of iodine atoms would he present in 10127 of a mole
of iodine. Since one mole of iodine weighs 127 g, 10127 mole
would weigh
10127 X 127 g = 47 g
In order to provide three iodine atoms for each aluminum
atom (because the compound formed is AIId, it would he
necessary to use three times that much iodine:
This is reasonably close to the student's 150 g estimate.
A more svstematic a o ~ r o a c hto the oroblem is to start with
the halanced equation.for the reaction. The equation in this
case is
2Al+312--2AlI~
The 10 g of aluminum given in the problem is best converted
to grams of iodine by dimensional analysis, sometimes called
the "factor-units" method. Each "factor" is a ratio in which
the numerator and denominator are exactly equivalent, and
the "units" are set uo so that all of them cancel out excent the
unit desired in the answer

In this case, of aluminum is first converted to moles;

Dr. Kolb received a BS degree
from the University of Louisville
and both MS and PhD degrees
from The Ohio State University.
She has been emdoved as a
- chemist at the standard Oil Cam-
moles of aluminum is converted to moles of iodine (in accor-
dance with the balanced equation); and then moles of iodine
is converted to grams. Using atomic weights with more sig-
-
nificant fieures does not change the value of the answer. but
i t does increase its precision.

-
%, .oanv. and as a television lecturer in
.... a series "Sootlieht on Research."

Doris Kolb
Illinois Central College
East Peoria. Illinois 61635
Corning Community College end
Bradley University. Since 1967,
she has been Professor of Chem-
istry at Illinois Central College.
Since most atomic weights are very close to whole numbers,
"rounded off" atomic weights are satisfactory in many cases
and are used here for simplicity.
Some students find it helpful to write the balanced equation
and then to indicate above it what the problem is and below
it what the equation tells them as in the example below.

Problem:
Eouation:
2 moles requires S mdes and yields 2 m&s
or, in terms of mass: requlres and yields 2(2(27)+ 3(127)(2))
Information from equation:

728 1 Journal of Chemical Education

(It is important that the units used below the equation be
consistent with those in the problem above.) This equation
says that 54 g of Al will react with 762 g of Ip. If we use only 10
zrams of Al. which is 10154 of the amount shown in the equa-
tion, then we will need only 10154 as much iodine
10
5dX762g12=141gIz
.. .
Or, since 54 gof Al is seen to be equivalent to 762 g of Ip in this
reaction, we can use the method of dimensional analysis.
Or, the problem and the information from the equation can
be set UD as a simple algebraic proportion, from which the
unknown quantitiis easily determined.
therefore
There are various ways to solve a given stoichiometric
prohlem, but regardless of what approach he chooses, a stu-
dent must first of all understand what a mole is.
What Is a Mole?
Chemistry is the study of matter, hut matter comes in such
tiny packages that no one can see them. Since much of what
the chemist does is ouantitative. he must be able to count the
particles of matter (atoms, ions, and molecules) no matter how
infinitesimal thev are. He needs a counting unit sufficiently
large so that thiset of particles making ipthe unit is big
enough to be seen and handled conveniently. The counting
unit he uses is the mole.
T h e word mole appears to have been introduced by Wil-
helm Ostwald (1896), who took it from a Latin word moles
meaning "heap" or "pile." A mole is a very large pile of atoms
or molecules that can he described as follows
A mole is a certain amount of substance.
It contains 6.02 X loz3(Avogadro's number) atoms, malecules, ions,
or formula units.
Its mass is equal to its formula weight expressed in grams.
If in the gaseous state, it occupies about 22.4 I at standard tem-
perature and pressure (STP), which is O°C and 1 atm.
". . . the mass in grams of 6.02 X 102hmoleculesof any sub-
stance."
". . . a gram-molecule."
". . . a unit of number equal to Avogadro's number."
". . .one gram formula weight of a substance."
". . . Avogadro's numher of particles."
Etc.
These examples, some of which are clearly in error, are suffi-
cient to show that a mole has sometimes been defined as a
weieht or mass. sometimes as a volume of pas... . and sometimes
as a number, or a number of particles. In the older literature
the mole has even been defined as "a weight of material which
reacts with 16 grams of oxygen." ~ c c o r d k to
g some textbooks
agram molecular weight is properly called a mole, but agram
atomic weight is not. In modern usage the mole has taken on
more generalized meaning.
(Elements) gram atomic weight
gram atomic mass
eram-atom
(Compounds) gram molecular weight
gram molecular mass \ mole
gram-molecule
gram formula weight
(Ions) gram ionic weight
gram-ion
Then iust what is the best definition for the word mole?
In i9fi0fhe Elrvenfh Contwnceun Weightsand Measures
met in P m s and driienated the mole as one of the sewn basir
units in the ~ ~ s t e m e h t e r n a t i n n(SI),
a l a unifying system of
units endorsed by both the U S . Bureau of Standards and the
IUPAC (~nternationalUnion of Pure and Applied Chemistry).
The mole is the SI unit for measuring "amount of substance."
The official definition of the mole reads as follows
A mole is the amount of substance which contains as man" ele-
mPntw).partirlrsns therearerarhon atom5 i n O O I L kgofrarhon-
.
12. Theclemrntaryentity must twspcciiied and may bean atum,
a mdcrulr. au iuu, an electron. ctr ur a aprcif;rd g r w p of such
particles.
A briefer version of the definition is
A mole is an amount of substance that contains as many formula
units as there are atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12.
or simply
A mole is an amount of substance containing Avogadro's number

1 Mass
Formula Weight
in grams
Gas Volume
(SIT)
2 2.4 liters
1
of formula units.
The Chemist's Dozen
It is often useful to compare the mole with other collective
terms, such as the dozen.
hems Kind of Set Number in Set
6.02 x units socks. dice pair 2
egg5 oranges dozen 12
bottles, cans case 24
brushes, pencils gross 144
Notice that a mole always contains the same number of for- sheets of paper ream 500
mula units (6.02 x 102"), regardless of the particular substance atoms, molecule^ mole 6.02 X loz3
or its comuosition. and a mole of gas a t standard conditions
always occupies about the same volume (22.4 l), regardless of The mole is then seen to be just another counting unit. It does
the nature or formula of the gas. Perhaps that is why students differ from the others in that the individual items in the set
sometimes mistakenly assume that all substances have the are invisible, and the number making up the set is quite ab-
. 1 g,
same molar mass (e.p-.. - or 12 p-, or 16 g). The potnt 1s worth struse, but the principle is still the same.
emphasizing that the mass of a mile must vary from substance The analogy of the mole with the dozen can be especially
to substance, the molar mass of each substance being its own helpful for students who have difficulty thinking in abstract
formula weight expressed in grams. terms. A dozen lemons and a dozen eraoefruit can orovide a
Over the years there has been some confusion as to what the concrete frame of reference for a studeniwho is having trouble
definition of the word mole should be. A mole has been var- comoarina a mole of lithium with a mole of sodium. T h e r e -
iously defined as action of; mole of oxygen atoms with 2 moles of hydrogen
atoms might be pictured in terms of a dozen tennis balls and
~ ~~~~
~. -
".. . . t h e weieht of a substance in grams numerically equal to its
~ ~ ~

two dozen ping pong balls. A mole of aluminum atoms will

molecular weight."
".. .22.4 liters of a gas measured at standard conditions." require exactly three moles of chlorine atoms just as a dozen

Volume 55, Number 11, November 1978 / 729

candelabra (3-place) will require exactly three dozen can-
dles.
A dozen blueberries, a dozen plums, and a dozen apples
represent a standard quantity (a dozen) of three different
kinds of fruit. Obviously they do not all weigh the same. Let
us assume that each hatch of fruit is homogeneous with respect
to size. If one a o ~ l weighs
e four times as much as one plum,
then a dozen apples wifweigh four times as much as a dozen
olums (and a million apples
.. should weigh four times as much
as a million plums).
A very simple but highly effective visual display is an as-
sortment of flasks each containing exactly one mole of a sub-
stance (12 g of carbon, 24.3 g of magnesium, 58.5 g of sodium
chloride.,~
~ ~ 342 "
z of sucrose., etc.). olus
~~~
& a dozen stvrofoam balls
in each of several sizes (% in., 1in., and 1'12 in. in diameter).
A dozen balls will fill a small beaker or a very large one de-
pending on the size of an individual ball. Likewise, a mole of
substance will fit in a small flask (carbon) or will require a
large one (sucrose) depending on the size of the individual
atom or molecule.
What ahout rhestudpnt who understands theduzen and the
cross hut still has tn~ul)lewith the mole? It n)uld be that the
sheer size of Avogadro's number is part of the problem.
How Big Is Avogadro's Number?
When written in its exponential form, 6.02 X loz3, Avoga-
dro's number looks extremely large, hut to most people it does
not appear to he nearly so huge as i t really is. I t may seem
somewhat larger when written in the form
602,000,000,000,000,000,00.000
or when recognized as heing equal t o
602,000 X a million X a million X a million,
but the number is actually too gigantic for the mind to com-
prehend.
The fact that vou can hold Avoeadro's number of atoms in
the palm of you; hand belies the size of the numher because
atoms are so incrediblv small. T o convev the magnitude of
Avogadro's number weneed to use moretangible;nits.
If you had Avogadro's numher of tiny grains of sand, for example, you
could spread them out evenly over the entire state of California,
and you would end up with a layer of sand as high as a ten-story
hnilrlinv
600 miles deep.
If Avogadro's number of pennies were distributed equally among all
the people on earth (currently around 4 billion), each one would
have enough money to spend a million dollars every hour, day and
night, throughout his lifetime,and he still would not spend half of
it. (Of course, humanity could not actually survive buried under
all those pennies. They would be more than 50 miles deep.)
Today there are computers that can count about 10 million times per
second. For such a computer to make Avogadro's number of counts
would require almofit 2 billion years.
Avogadro's number is so enormous it defies human com-
prehension. On the other hand, one need not be able to com-
nrehend Avoeadro's number in order to use it. There is no
reason why 6 k 102"annot he treated the same way we would
A~ ~ ~
treat 6 thousand, or 6 hundred, or a dozen. The important
thing to remember is that, overwhelming though its size may
be, Avogadro's number is still a real and finite number.
Students sometimes wonder why Avogadro happened to
choose such a strange number. He didn't choose it, of course.
No one did. ~voga&o'snumber is the number of atoms in a
gram atomic weight of any element. The numher was prede-
termined when the gram was established as a basic unit of
mass. But just where did that number 6.02 X 1023come from?
How do we know that really is Avogadro's number?
730 1 Journal of Chemical Education
Determination of Avogadro's Number
Amedeo Avogadro was an Italian physics professor who
never knew the numerical value of the constant that bears his
name. I t was not measured until after his death. He did con-
ceive the basic idea, however, when he suggested (1811) that
eaual volumes of eas contain eaual numbers of molecules (at
s a k e conditions) and thereforelthat the weights of individ"al
molecules must be proportional to their gas densities. The
concept of standard molar gas volume (22.4 1a t STP) and the
mole concent itself are direct outerowths of this hvnothesis.
~ l t h o u g hit would later become a cornerstone 6;quanti-
tative chemical relationships, there were few who accepted
Avogadro's hypothesis during his lifetime. Ampere (1814) and
Dumas (1826) both tried to stir up interest in the idea, but
they were as unsuccessful as Avogadro had been. Later Ger-
hardt (1842) attempted to use it to determine molecular
weights of organic compounds (referring to it as "Ampere's
hypothesis"), but he did not use it correctly. I t was another
Italian scientist. Stanislao Cannizzaro. who finallv succeeded
in convincing his fellow chemists of the significance of Avo-
eadro's hwothesis. This oecurred a t an international conmess
of chemists held a t Karlsruhe in 1860. unhappily
Avogadro had died in 1856.
he idea of thinking of substances in terms of "gram-mol-
ecules," their molecular weights expressed in grams, did not
occur to chemists right away, but it was clear from Avogadro's
hypothesis that such a quantity should always contain the
same numher of molecules. he number was assumed to be
extremely large, but in order to know just how large one first
had to know how small a molecule was.
Probably the first attempt a t measuring the size of a mol-
ecule was that of Josef Loachmidt (1865),who tried tomeasure
the diameter of air molecules by application of the kinetic
molecular theorv. He found the diameter to be about a "mil-
lionth of a millimeter," or about 10& . (which compares fairly
well with todav's value of about 3 A). Loschmidt could have
gone on to calchate avalue for ~vogadro'snumber, but (like
most of the earlv investieators who were interested in mea-
suring molecula; dimensions) he stopped short of doing that.
The Avogadro constant as calculated from Loschmidt's figures
was 4.1 X 10z2.There is a related constant called the Losch-
midt number which is the number of molecules in 1cm3 of gas
a t standard conditions, and which has the current value of 2.70
X 1019 (although in German-speaking countries Loschmidt's
number, rather than AvogadGXs,is the name often given to
the numher of molecules in a mole).
A wide varietv of aonroaches have been used to measure
molecular size and/or the Avogadro constant. Over the years
Avogadro's numher has been determined bv a t least 20 dif-
ferent methods. During the latter part of thei9th century the
techniques tended to be indirect and not verv accurate. but
within the first decade or so of the 20th centuiy a number of
direct and quite accurate methods were develooed. Avogadro's
number is &ally determined by measurinhsome
of a unit particle and then comparing that same property a s
measured a t the macroscopic level for a mole. Some investi-
gators, for example, have sought by various means to deter-
mine Boltzmann's constant, k , which is the gas constant for
a single molecule. The molar gas constant R divided by k
yields Avogadro's number. A few of the best known methods
for measuring Avogadro's numher are the following.
Electric Charge Method
The determination based on electriccharge was the first reallydi-
rect method for obtaining Avogadro's number. In 1909 Robert Mil-
-~
It is interesting to note that, just as the standard molar gas volume
is 22.4 1, the standard gas volume of an ounce-mole (the formula
weight expressed in ounces) is 22.4 ft3. As Linus Pauling has pointed
out (J.CHEM. EDUC., 19,494 (1942)), this is pure coincidence. The
number of grams in an ounce just happens toequal thenumber of li-
ters in a cubic foot.
likan measured the charge on a single electron by means of his famous
oil drop experiment The corrected value for the charge an the electron
is 1.6022 X coulomb. (Millikan's original values were about 0.4%
low because of a slight error in air viscosity used in the calculation.)
The charge on a mole of electrons had been known for some time to
be about 96,500 coulombs (one faraday), the amount of electricity
needed to plate out one gram equivalent weight of a metal (e.g., 107.87
grams of silver). The currently accepted value for the faraday is 96,485
coulombs. Dividing the charge on a mole of electrons by the charge
on a single electron yields the number of electrons in amole, or Avo-
gadro's number.
= 6.0220 X loz3electrons per mole
For many years this was the most accurate method available for de-
termining Avogadro's numher.
Radioactive Disintegration Method
This technique is based on the fact that as radium undergoes ra-
dioactivedecay it gives off alpha particles (He2+ions) which pickup
electrons from the environment to become helium atoms. The number
of alpha particles given off by a sample of radium per unit time can
he measured with a Geiger counter. (This was first accomplished by
Ernest Rutherford and Hans Geiger in 1908.) The moles of helium
produced over a given time period can be determined by measuring
the volume of gas formed. (This was first done in 1910 by Sir James
Dewar, who measured the amount of helium produced from a 70 mg
sample of radium chloride over a period of 9 months. The total
quantity of helium was only about 9 cuhic millimeters.) Careful
measurements have shown that alpha decay of a mole of radium-226
yields 0.815 X lor3 disintegrations per second and produces helium
gas a t the rate of 1.35 X lo-" mole per second. Avogadro's number
is obtained directly from these measurements.
This is a very convincing method for obtaining Avogadro's numher
because the principle involved is so simple.
X-ray Diffraction Method
The
- - volume
~ ~ ~
~
. oer atom in a ervstal can be determined from X-rav
........... .. data throneh
diffractinn the use of the Braze .
,... eouation. while volume
~ ~~
"~~~~ ~
per mole can brohtmnrd i n m dm+ measurements (Max von L a w
llrit demonstrated X-raydiflraction in 1912,and M'. l.awrnre B n g g
developed his constructive interference equation, nA = 2d sint, soon
after in that same year.) Since density measurement and X-ray dif-
fraction can hoth be carried out with high precision on very pure
crystals, this can he an exceptionally accurate method for obtaining
Avogadro's number. For example, the silicon crystal is a diamond-like
stn~cturewith a cubic unit cell containine 8 silicon atoms. Braea's law
~ ~~~
calculations hosed ion X-ray diftrartwn measurcmrnts at the National
Hurcnu of Standards have shown the unir cell tu be 5 4310lXl X 10-"
cn, on s side. This givw rhr wlurnr ppr silinm atom as follows
(5.4310661 X lo-' = 2,0024666 Cm3
8 o u t a n a m o u n t of A equal t o its formula weight in grams
The molar volume of silicon is obtained bv dividing its molar mass
Dividing the molar volume by the volume per atom yields the number
of atoms in B mole.
At preirnt rhr X-ra) method is the must prerisr method available ior
detrrmin~ngAwgauru'j numher. Olwiously the accuracy of the d r -
terminnrwm must drprnd heady cm thr rurrcme purity and flawl~zs
condition of the crystals used.
Surface Film Method
This last method is included here mainly because it is a popular
laboratory experiment for chemistry and physics classes. It involves
dividing the molar volume of a fatty acid by the volume of a single
molecule, determined by floating afatty acid monolayer on water. A
small volume (V) of a long chain fatty acid (such as aleic) is dissolved
in a solvent (such aspentane) at a certain concentration (C)and de-
livered from a pipette onto a clean water surface. The acid spreads
across the water as a monomolecular film, the carhoxyl groups at-
taching themselves to the water layer and the hydrocarbon chains
remaining in the non-aqueous layer. The area ( A ) of the acid mona-
1 :-er (which only partially coven the water surface) is measured. Then
the height ( L )of the monolaver film is calculated from the density
(D) of ;he pure fatty acid and other recorded measurements.
For oleie acid L is calculated to be about 1.3 X cm. If one Bssumes
a cubic shape for the fatty acid molecule, then its volume is
L3 = (1.3 X ~ m= )2.2~X em3
(This is only a rough approximation of molecular volume because the
molecule is not really cubic.) The volume per mole of the fatty acid
is calculated by dividing its molar weight by its density. For oleic
acid
Molar volume = -mol. wt. -
- 0.873
286 g/mols = 327 cm31mol
D glcm
Avogadro's number is obtained by dividing this molar volume by the
volume of one molecule.
327 cm3/mol
= 1.5 X 102bmolecules/mol
2.2 X cm3/molecule
More accurate values are obtained when the shape of the molecule
is assumed to be rectangular or cylindrical with its length twice as
great as its width.
Using the Mole
T h e mole (abbreviated mol) is t h e scientific u n i t for
"amount of substance," so it is used frequently in chemistry.
It is usually represented b y n, which s t a n d s for n u m b e r of
moles. Since t h e convenient way t o measure quantity for most
substances is to weigh t h e m , i t is often necessary t o convert
moles to grams, or grams t o moles. All t h a t is needed to m a k e
the conversion is t h e formula weight. Expressed i n grams, it
is t h e molar weight.
T h i s relationship is indispensable i n t h e solving of most
chemical problems.
Solution concentration is normally expressed as molarity
(M), t h e n u m h e r of moles of solute p e r liter of solution.
molarity =
moles of solute or
liters of solution
= "
1
T h e n it is also t r u e t h a t
moles of solute = liters X molarity or n = 1 X M
a n d since n is also equal t o g l m . ~ . ,i t follows t h a t
l X M = - o r8g = l X M X m . w .
m.u.
I n other words, to make u p a solution of compound A, weigh
multiplied by t h e desired molarity of t h e solution a n d t h e
n u m b e r of liters being prepared.
I n cases involving colligative properties of solutions, it i s
usually more convenient to express concentration in terms of
molality (m), t h e n u m h e r of moles of solute p e r kilogram of
solvent.
moles of solute =n(Sdute1
molality =
kilograms of solvent k8n(80tveDt~
For example, the depression of freezing point of a solvent by
a solute is given b y t h e equation ATl = Kfm, where ATf is t h e
change in freezing point, K, is t h e molal freezing point con-
stant, and m is molality. Sometimes it is desirable to have t h e
a m o u n t s of h o t h solute a n d solvent expressed i n moles. Con-
centration c a n t h e n be expressed in terms of mole fraction.
number of mdrs c,tX
molr irnction of X =
total numhrr ot mobs
W h e r e gases a r e concerned, t h e n u m h e r of moles is depen-
d e n t o n the pressure, volume, a n d temperature of t h e gas.
Volume 55, Number 11, November 1978 1 731
This is the equation of state for an ideal gas, hut it is ap-
proximately true for all real gases. Any units may be used for
pressure. volume. and absolute temperature so long as the
yalue f o i t h e gas constant, R , is correct for the unitschosen.
3ince n = gramsimol. wt., then it is also true that
Thus, the molar weight of a gas is easify obtained if the mass
, f a sample is known as well as its volume a t a certain tem-
perature and pressure.
These are only a few examples of how the mole is used in
first year chemistry courses. Not to understand the mole
concept is obviously a serious handicap for a chemistry stu-
dent.
When the mole is too large or too small to he convenient as
3 counting unit, its size can he modified by an appropriate
prefix (e.g., millimole or ton-mole). The mass of the new molar
unit still equals the formula weight, but expressed in mass
units other than grams. Modified molar quantities can he
treated just like gram moles as long as the units are used
consistently.
The molar mass of sulfur is ordinarilv taken to he 32 e, hut
sulfur exists as 8-membered rings, a n d a mole of Ss mol&ules
would weigh 256 g. There are also compounds for which it is
not alwaysclear just what constitutes ;mole. Should mercu-
ry(1) chloride he considered as HgCl or Hg2C12?Should alu-
minum bromide he treated as AIBr3 or as A12Br6?Should the
molar weight of acetic acid he based on CH3COOH or
(CHXOOH).,.
. ., , -. the hvdroeen-bonded
" dimer? How do vou
decide what formula weight touse for apolymer? And how do
vou calculate the formula weieht of a non-stoichiometric
- - --- - -- .- .
A chemical formula represents one molecule of a substance,
hut it also represents a mole of it. When thinking about
chemical reactions, we tend to think in terms of single mole-
cules, hut when we carry out the reactions we mustuse very
large numbers of molecules in order to see what we are doing.
So we count out the molecules by moles.
A mole is a oarticular amount

If formula weight t h e amount of with entities

is e x p r e s s e d in substance is a that number
A mole is a specificquantity:
Its volume measures twenty-two point four
g r a m s (gl m a l e (moi) 6.02 x loz3 In liters (for a gas at STP).
milligrams (mg) millimole (mmol) 6.02 X loz0 A mole's a counting unit, nothing more.
A mole is but a single molecule
nanograms (ng)
kilograms (kg)
pounds
nanomole (nmoll
kilomole (kmol)
pound-mole
6.02 X 10"
6.02 X 10''
2.73 X 10''
Rv
- A ~~ ~-~
One entity, extremely miniscule,
. .
Avoendro's number multiolied:

tans ton-mole 6.46 X lo2' A trillion trillion times intensified.

A mole is an expedient amount,
Changing the unit of mass simply alters the size of the basic For molecules are just too small to count.
counting unit.
The mole concept is useful for counting amounts of ele-
mentary entities other than atoms, ions, and molecules. A
mole of electrons, for instance, is a faraday, and a mole of References
photons (energy quanta) is an einstein. Guggenheim. E. A,. "The Mote and Related Quantities." J. CHEM. EDUC.. 38, 86
Even when speaking of a mole of an element or compound, 119611.
Hawthorne. R. M., Jr., "Avogadro's Number: Early Valuea by Lmehmidf and Others: J.
one should always make it clear what kind of unit he is talking CHEM.EDUC.,47.751 11970).
about. "A mole of hromine" can mean 80 g or 160g of hromine. Hawthorne. R. M., Jr.. "The Mole and Avogadre's Number." J. CHEM. EDUC.. SO. 282
A mole of hromine atoms weighs 80 g, hut a mole of bromine 119731.
Hildebrand. J. H., and Powell. R. E., "Principles of Chemistry,('7th ad., Chapter 21. The
molecules weighs 160 g. T o avoid ambiguity the nature of the MaemillanCo.,NewYork 1964.
elementary entity should he specified. Kidfor, W. F.."The Mate Concept in Chemistry: Reinhold. New York, 1962.
". C.. and Nielson. E. K.. "Estimation of Avozadro'r Number: J. CHEM. EDUC..
Kine. L.
35.19811958).
Novick, S..snd Menis, J.,"AStudy of StudentPerceptionsof theMoleConeept"J. CHEM.

.,....
EDUC.. 53.720 119761.
Sanders. J. H., "The Fundamental Atomic Constants:' Oxford Uniu. Press, London.
40 grams of bromine
-.-.'. 40 g = 0.25 mol
1961.
Slabaugh, W. H.. ~~Avogadro's
11969).
Number by Four Methods: 3. CHEM. EDUC.. 16, 40

Sunier,A. A,, "Some Methadsol Determining Auogadro'a Number." J. CHEM EDUC.,6.

"Bra = 160 g/mol 299 11929).

Chemistry Class Roster II

Ms. Spectrum (teacher)

"Ox" Alec Acid Cloe Form Mel T. Point

Mat Athesis Sol Furic Abe Solute
Desi Cator Nan 0.Gram Phil Trait
A1 Chemist Sis Isomer Pete Tridish
Vic Dial S. T. Joints Rhoda Vaporator
Ken Etics Lynn 0.Lenic I. Wash
R. B. Flask "Red" Litmus Kim Wipes
Cristol I. Zing

'For Chemistry Class Roster I, see Felty, W. L., J. CHEM. EDUC., 55,245 (1978).
Dwight
Northfield,
W. Chasar
Ohio

'32 1 Journal of Chemical Education