Chapter 1 – Understanding Crime and Criminology

1) How can ‘crime’ be understood as (a) a legal definition, and (b) a social
construction definition?

2) In what ways can criminology be considered an ‘interdisciplinary subject’?

3) What, does Garland argue, are the two initially separate streams of work,
which produced modern criminology?

4) Which of the following is not a problem for bringing cases to justice since
the era of globalisation?
There is a universality of jurisdictions.

5) What does it mean to say that 'crime has no intological reality'?

Acts themselves are not intrinsically criminal.

6) What does it mean to say that criminology is an interdisciplinary subject?

Many disciplinary approaches are used.

7) How does David Garland say criminology differs from the study of deviance
and control?
It fokuses upon crime.

8) The concept of crime can be understood as:

Legal and socially constructed.
Chapter 2 – Crime and Punishment in History

1) Why is history important to our understanding of criminal justice?

2) What are the main differences in approach in ‘traditional’ and ‘revisionist’
histories?
3) In what ways did Robert Peel and the other main architects of the ‘new police’
seek to minimise the threat they were perceived to pose?
4) What are the main elements of the modern, bureaucratic system of justice?
5) What was the ‘Bloody Code’?
6) What were the main reasons for the ending of transportation?
7) What are the main origins of probation?
8) What are the main differences between Gatrell’s and Taylor’s views of what
crime statistics tell us about trends in crime?
9) What are the main facets of a ‘modern’ understanding of crime?
10) In the absence of official criminal statistics, how have historians attempted
to assess levels of crime in previous periods?
11) What les to fears about the decline of the jury during the nineteenth
century?
The growing importance of the magistracy.
12) One of the most famous formalised policing initiatives of the eigfteenth
century was the:
Bow Street Runners.
13) In which century was term 'police' first used regularly?
18. century.
14) Police officers in uniform are:
A relatively new phenomenon.
15) Sistem of punishment are:
The product of historical and political contingency.
Chapter 3 – Crime Data and Crime Trends
1) When were official crime statistics first collected in Britain?
2) What is meant by attrition?
3) What are the main reasons people fail to report crimes to the police?
4) Why might the police decide to, or fail to, record crimes that are reported to
them?
5) What are the main ways in which the British Crime Survey has changed since it
was first undertaken in the early 1980s?
6) Why might local crime surveys differ in their findings from national surveys?
7) Why is it difficult to compare police-recorded crime with the findings of
victimisation surveys?
8) Which two main changes affected official crime statistics after 1998?
9) What is a ‘standard list’ offence?
10) Approximately what proportion of males have a criminal conviction by their
53rd birthday?
11) What sorts of studies use the self-report method?
12) Which of the following was a reason for attrition occurring?
The victim may be unaware of the offence, crime was not reported to the
police, crime was not recorded by the police.
13) Which of the following is not a reason for attrition occurring?
Changes in legislation.
14) What is said to be an example of a 'victimless' crime in surveys?
Drug sale and use.
15) The British Crime Survey (BCS) in primarily known as a:
Victimisation survey.
16) Why are 'official' statistics so called?
Because they are collected by government agencies.
17) In what years did crime in the twentieth century begin to rise quite
quickly?
Late 1960s.
Chapter 4 – Crime and the Media
1) What are the two main ways identified by Reiner of understanding why media
representations of crime come to be as they are?
2) What are some of the main values underpinning the idea of ‘newsworthiness’?
3) In what ways are the new social media, such as Twitter, Facebook and
BlackBerry Messenger thought to have an impact on crime?
4) How has ‘media effects’ research generally been conducted?
5) What is meant by ‘folk devil’ and ‘moral panic’?
6) Describe how ‘deviancy amplification’ works.
7) What are some of the main criticisms levelled at moral panic theory?
8) Think of recent examples of ‘moral panic’. How well do they fit the theory?
9) In what way might ‘an enduring, if not ecstatically happy, marriage’ be a good
description of the relationship between the police and the media?
10) What are some of the difficulties involved in policing the internet?
11) In what ways might the ‘war on terror’ illustrate the changing relationship
between war and the media?
12) Why did the policing of cybercrime said to be inhibited by the lack of
resources?
Because it is not a core policing priority.
13) What does it mean to debate whether the media are criminogenic?
That they encourage crime.
14) Soothill and Walby study the search fort he 'sex fiend' coverage in the
media. The coverage, they argue, is consistently oriented toward
identifying the existence of the:
»Sex beast«.
15) What is meant by Reiner's 'crime news as cultural conflict' approach?
Seeing crime news as the product of the interaction between a number of
factors.
16) In terms of crime and the media, what are 'representations'?
How crime and criminals are portraved on television, in the press and
elsewhere.
Chapter 5 – Politics of Crime and Its Control
1) What led to the advent of penal welfarism?
2) How can ‘managerialism’ be characterised within the UK?
3) How did the 1988 US presidential election portray three key messages for
politicians concerning crime?
4) What is penal populism also known as?
Populist punitiveness.
5) Who failed in their first attempt at being elected state governor, because
they were seen as 'too soft' on crime?
Bill Clinton.
6) Which of the following is not a policy introduced by the 2010 Coalition
government?
Harsher punishment for summary offences.
7) Which political party had the famoise soundbite 'tough on crime, tough on
the causes of crime'?
Labour Party.
8) Which of the following best describes the bipartisan consensus?
The existence of little difference in the general approach to law and order by
the two main national political parties.
Chapter 6 – Classicism and Positivism
1) What are the main features of classical criminology?
2) What three factors did Beccaria identify as being central to the prevention of
crime?
3) What is utilitarianism and how is it applied to punishment?
4) What is the pleasure–pain principle?
5) Of what types of punishment was Bentham particularly critical?
6) What are the main features of positivistic criminology?
7) What is meant by ‘atavism’?
8) What is ‘somatyping’?
9) What are the three main body types identified by William Sheldon?
10) Who are the main thinkers associated with classicism?
Beccaria and Bentham.
11) Why are the main thinkers associated with positivism?
Ferri.
12) Much of Beccaria's approach to the prevention of crime is often distilled
down to three ideas:
Certainty, celerity and severity.
13) What is said to be one od the key problems with classical thinking?
Not all individuals are equally able to make rational decisions.
14) Positivism is based on the premise that:
Natural scientific methods can explain human behaviour.
Chapter 7 – Biological Positivism
1) What is meant by ‘eugenics’?
2) In what ways might the study of identical twins be useful in the study of crime?
3) What is the link thought to be between the possession of an extra Y
chromosome and criminal behaviour?
4) What might the links be between ADHD and offending behaviour?
5) What are the main methodological difficulties in trying to establish a link
between brain dysfunction and criminality?
6) In what ways might nutrition and diet be linked to criminality?
7) Some of the controversial and negative effects of the early genetics
movement were policy initiatives such as:
Marriage restraints and sterilisation.
8) The 'nature versus nurture' debate is important for criminologists because:
They want to know if family and upbringing or inherited traits have any effect
on offending beaviour.
9) What are the problems with so-called twin studies?
Separated twins might share similar home environments.
10) Biological positivism is primarly concerned with:
Genetic predisposition and criminality.
11) What has Owen identified as the main obstacle(s) that criminological
theory needs to overcome in order to accept the relevance of biological
influences on criminal behaviour?
Nihilistic relativism, the oversocialised gaze, genetic fatalism, bio-phobia.
Chapter 8 – Psychological Positivism
1) What did Bowlby mean by ‘maternal deprivation’ and how was this thought to
link with crime?
2) What is the fundamental idea in ‘operant learning’ theory?
3) In what ways is ‘differential association’ a psychological theory?
4) What was being tested in the Bobo doll experiment?
5) In what ways might we consider offenders to be rational actors?
6) What are the three main types of ‘thinking error’ identified by Yochelson and
Samelow?
7) In what ways might ‘moral development’ be linked with offending behaviour?
8) What are the three main personality components identified by Eysenck?
9) How might intelligence be linked to crime?
10) Why are theories linking intelligence to offending often so controversial?
11) Early life experiance are said to have an impact on later criminality
because:
Socialisation depends on the internalisation of society's rules during early
chidhood.
12) Learning theories within psyhology see offending as something that is
learnt because they:
Understand behaviour to be a consequence of contact with others, particularly
via primary sources of socialisation such as the family and peer groups.
13) What are the main elements of differential association?
The idea that conduct is learned through coming into contact with social
norms.
14) What are the criticisms of Sutherland's theory?
It does not address why some people choose to deviate and others do not.
15) Social learning theory is said to have an element of motivation, types of
which include:
External reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement and self-reinforcement.
Chapter 9 – Durkheim, anomie and strain
1) What are the main characteristics of mechanical and organic solidarity?
2) Why does anomie occur in the process of social change?
3) What are the four main types of suicide identified by Durkheim?
4) What are the key criminological insights that might be said to have their origins
in Durkheim’s work?
5) What were Merton’s main criticisms of American culture?
6) What are the main forms of adaptation described by Merton?
7) What is meant by relative deprivation?
8) What are strains? Give some examples.
9) What are the central components of general strain theory?
10) Why do strains increase the likelihood of crime?
11) What are the main characteristics of institutional anomie theory?
12) For Durkheim crime plays a number of important functions, including:
It has an adaptive function in that it introduces new idea and practices into
society.
13) Organic solidarity is characterised by:
Social solidarity organised around difference rather than similarity.
14) In his study of suicide, Durkheim argued that:
Suicide rates were higher in times of economic crisis than stability.
15) Robert Merton saw anomie as regulating form:
Greed.
16) In contemporary society crime, for Mesner and Rosenfeld, is a product of:
Society's elevation of material success above all other goals.
Chapter 10 – The Chicago School, Subcultures, and Cultural Criminology

The Chicago School

1. What is meant by an ecological approach?

2. Explain what is meant by the zone of transition and what its importance was
held to be
3. What is differential association?
4. Why might critics have suggested that Chicago sociology was atheoretical?

Cultures and subcultures

1. What are the three main forms of subculture identified by Cloward and Ohlin?
2. What are the main techniques of neutralisation?
3. In what ways do subcultures offer ‘magical’ solutions to structural problems?
4. What are the main criticisms of subcultural theory?

Cultural criminology

1. In what ways does cultural criminology link with earlier interactionist and
subcultural theory?
2. In what ways might ‘culture’ and ‘crime’ link? Give examples
3. Do rational choice and situational crime prevention have anything to offer the
study of expressive crimes?
Chapter 11 – Interactionism and Labelling Theory

Part 1

1. What was Garfinkel attempting to illustrate when he asked his students to

behave as if they were in a hotel when they went home?
2. How might social control create deviant activity?
3. Why is the concept of ‘the self’ important to an understanding of deviant
activity?
4. What is the difference between primary and secondary deviance?

Part 2

1. How did Becker define deviance?

 2. What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?
3. How does the process of deviancy amplification work?
4. What is meant by disintegrative and reintegrative shaming?
Chapter 12 – Control Theories

Part 1

1. What, for Reckless, are the main differences between inner and outer
containment?
2. In what way is the idea of ‘techniques of neutralisation’ linked with control
theory?
3. What did Matza mean by the idea of ‘drifting’ into delinquency?
4. According to Hirschi, what are the four main elements of the social bond?

Part 2

1. What do Gottfredson and Hirschi mean when they call their approach to
explaining crime a ‘general theory’?
2. What are the main lines of criticism of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory
of crime?
3. What is a control ratio?
Chapter 13 – Radical and Critical Criminology

Part 1

1. What is meant by ‘criminalisation’?

2. What is the ‘primitive rebellion’ thesis?
3. What is meant when we describe radical sociological theories as generally
structuralist in character?

Part 2

1. What is peacemaking criminology?

2. By describing itself as ‘new’ what was the ‘new criminology’ distinguishing
itself from?
3. What did Gramsci mean by the term ‘hegemony’?
 4. What is ‘zemiology’ and why are its proponents critical of traditional
criminology?
Chapter 14 – Realist Criminology

Left realism

1. What feature of earlier radical theories led Jock Young to characterise them as
‘left impossibilism’?
2. What are the four main parts of the ‘square of crime’?
3. Why did left realists embrace the crime survey as a useful research method?
4. What have been the main criticisms of left realism?

Right realism

1. Why might critics refer to right realism as ‘naïve realism’?

2. What are the main differences between left and right realism?
3. Why, according to James Q. Wilson, did crime increase so markedly after the
Second World War?
4. How did Herrnstein and Murray link IQ and crime?
5. According to Charles Murray, what is the connection between crime and the
underclass?
Chapter 15 – Contemporary Classicism

Rational choice theory

1. Why might approaches to understanding crime which focus on opportunity and

rational choice rather than, say, strain, anomie or labelling, have become
popular since the 1970s?
2. What is meant by ‘bounded rationality’?
3. What is a ‘crime script’?

Routine activity theory

1. How do Cohen and Felson link changes in routine activities to post-war trends
in crime?
2. What are the three components necessary for the commission of a crime
according to routine activity theory?
 3. In relation to target suitability what does VIVA stand for?
Chapter 16 – Feminist Criminology

Part 1

1. What did Lombroso and Ferrero suggest were the major indications of the
‘extreme perversity’ of the female born criminal?
2. What is the ‘emancipation thesis’?
3. What was Carol Smart’s major criticism of the idea of a feminist criminology?

Part 2

1. What does Carlen mean by the term ‘carceral clawback’?

2. What are the main characteristics of a feminist methodology?
3. What have been the major impacts of feminism in the area of victimology?
4. What is meant by ‘hegemonic masculinity’?
Chapter 17 – Late Modernity, Governmentality and Risk

Part 1

1. How might you distinguish between the Nightwatchman State, the Keynesian
State and the New Regulatory State?
2. How was it intended that the panopticon should work?
3. What evidence can you see of the dispersal of surveillance techniques in modern
society?
4. What is responsibilisation?

Part 2

1. What was Cohen attempting to convey with his fishing metaphor?

2. According to Shearing and Stenning how does social control work within Disney
World?
3. What other examples can you think of in which control systems are largely
informal and rely on cooperation rather than punishment?
4. What are the main characteristics of the ‘new penology’?
Chapter 18 – Victims, Victimisation and Victimology
 1. What are the main differences between positivist and critical or radical
victimology?
2. In what ways is criminal victimisation unevenly distributed?
3. What is meant by ‘multiple’ or ‘repeat victimisation’?
4. What is the range of potential consequences of criminal victimisation?
5. Why is crime experienced by the homeless or the elderly relatively invisible?
6. What is meant by the idea that fear of crime is a ‘problem in itself’?
7. How might fear of crime be ‘functional’?
Chapter 19 – White-collar and Corporate Crime

1. What have been the main criticisms of Edwin Sutherland’s definition of white-
collar crime?
2. How might you distinguish between corporate and white-collar crime?
3. What are the main forms of white-collar crime?
4. Can Ditton’s observation that fiddling ‘epitomises the capitalist “spirit”’ be
applied to white-collar crime generally?
5. What is meant by the term ‘state-corporate crime’?
6. What are the main theoretical approaches to understanding white-collar crime?
7. What are the problems with the ‘bad apple’ theory of corporate offending?
8. Why should we be concerned about fraud if many of the losses are covered by
insurance?
9. Why are legal controls considered to be so ineffective against white-collar
crime?
Chapter 20 – Organised Crime

1. In relation to organised crime what is meant by an ‘alien conspiracy theory’?

2. What is meant by ‘ethnic succession’ in relation to organised crime?
3. What have been the main criticisms of the Mafia-conspiracy thesis?
4. In what ways were the conditions in which organised crime took place different
in America and Britain in the mid-twentieth century?
5. What is the main difference between human smuggling and trafficking?
6. What are the main ways of conceptualising drugs trafficking?
7. What have been the main lines of criticism of some of the work on transnational
organised crime?
 8. What is meant by the phrase transnational policing?
9. Who is more ‘organised’, law enforcement agencies or the organised criminals?
Chapter 21 – Violent and Property Crime

Part 1

1. What are the main forms of violent crime?

2. What proportion of overall crime does violent crime account for?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the two main methods of
measuring levels of violent crime?
4. Why is stalking considered to be a crime of violence?
5. Are we right to show such concern about levels of gun crime?

Part 2

1. What has been the general trend in violent crime over the last 500 years?
2. What is meant by the idea of a ‘civilising process’ in relation to historical
trends in violent crime?
3. What has been the general trend in violent crime over the past 15 years?
4. What are the main factors affecting the measurement of recorded violent
crime in the last 15 years?

Part 3

1. When people talk about riots having a ‘flashpoint’, what do they mean?
2. In what ways might ‘consumerism’ have been a motivating force in the 2011
riots?
3. What were the main ways in which the events of August 2011 differed from
riots in earlier years?
4. What broad similarities might be identified?

Part 4

1. What are considered to be the main characteristics of ‘hate crime’?

2. What sort of social groups can ‘hate crime’ be directed against?
3. When did hate crime specifically enter the criminal law in the UK?
4. What difficulties might the police face in enforcing hate crime laws?
 5. What justification is there for the increased penalties attached to hate crimes?
6. What are the main criticisms of such increased penalties?

Part 5

1. What proportion of overall crime is made up of property crime?

2. Who is most at risk from burglary?
3. What have been the main trends in property crime over the last two decades?
4. Should we be concerned about car crime?
Chapter 22 – Drugs and Alcohol

Part 1

1. What is meant by ‘normalisation’ in the context of youthful drug use?

2. What are the main possible connections between drug use and crime?
3. How might you distinguish between high-level, middle-level and retail-level
drugs markets?
4. What is the difference between ‘open’ and ‘closed’ retail drugs markets?

Part 2

1. What are the main legal restrictions on the purchase and consumption of
alcohol?
2. What does the term ‘binge drinking’ mean?
3. What are the possible relationships between alcohol and crime?
4. What are the main ‘harms’ associated with alcohol consumption?
Chapter 23 – Penology and Punishment

Part 1

1. What are the main philosophical justifications for punishment?

2. What are the main differences between utilitarian and retributive approaches
to punishment?
3. What is meant by ‘Just Deserts’?
4. What is the difference between ordinal and cardinal proportionality?

Part 2
 1. Why, according to Durkheim, has there been a shift from repressive to
restitutive sanctioning?
2. What did Rusche and Kirkhheimer mean when they said, ‘Every system of
production tends to discover punishments which correspond to its productive
relationships’?
3. What did Elias mean when he talked of a ‘civilising process’?
4. What is the importance of the ‘panopticon’ to Foucault’s ideas?
5. Are contemporary commentators right to talk of ‘mass incarceration’?
Chapter 24 – Understanding Criminal Justice

Part 1

1. What are the main government departments with responsibilities for criminal
justice?
2. What are the main responsibilities of each?
3. In what ways might the term ‘system’ in criminal justice system be considered
problematic?

Part 2

1. What are the two main criminal courts in England and Wales and what are the
main differences between them?
2. Think of three reasons why criminal justice agencies might find it difficult to
work with each other
3. What is meant by managerialism or new public management?

Part 3

1. What are the main differences between an adversarial and an inquisitorial

system of justice?
2. What are the major differences between Packer’s models of ‘due process’ and
‘crime control’?
3. What are the two ways in which the term ‘crime control’ is used in Packer’s
model?
Chapter 25 – Crime prevention and community safety

Part 1
 1. What are the main differences between ‘primary’, ‘secondary’ and ‘tertiary’
crime prevention?
2. What did the shift in terminology from ‘crime prevention’ to ‘community
safety’ signal?
3. What did the shift in terminology from ‘community safety’ to ‘crime and
disorder reduction’ signal?
4. What is the basic argument in Wilson and Kelling’s ‘Broken Windows’ article?
5. What is meant by ‘pre-court disposal’ and what do they consist of?

Part 2

1. What different types of crime displacement are there?

2. What is meant by ‘hot spots’ and ‘repeat victimisation’?
3. What are the major types of ‘repeat victimisation’?
4. What are the shortcomings of situational and community crime prevention?
Chapter 26 – Policing

Part 1

1. What are the main representative bodies in policing?

2. What proportion of current police service strength is made of minority ethnic
officers?
3. What are the main functions of the police?
4. What are the main material traces collected at scenes of crimes?
5. How has the police use of the power of arrest changed in recent times?

Part 2

1. What are the main safeguards provided by PACE?

2. What are the primary responsibilities of the custody officer?
3. What are the main restrictions on police powers to stop and search?
4. What are the main types of ‘vulnerable suspect’?
5. How has the right to silence been reformed?

Part 3

1. What are the main characteristics of police culture?

 2. What are the main causes of police corruption?
3. What do we mean by zero-tolerance policing?
4. Distinguish between the three main models of police governance
Chapter 27 – Criminal Courts and the Court Process

1. What is the relevance of Article 5 of the European Convention to questions of

bail/remand?
2. What are the four main options open to courts in relation to the bail/remand
decision?
3. What are the three main grounds for refusing bail?
4. What are the main considerations in the mode of trial decision?
5. What is the difference between charge bargaining and plea bargaining?
6. What are the main avenues of appeal in criminal cases?
7. What are the main sources of miscarriages of justice?
Chapter 28 – Sentencing and Non-custodial Penalties

Part 1

1. What are the main non-custodial sentences available to the criminal courts?
2. What have been the major trends in the use of non-custodial penalties in the
last 20 years?
3. What were the major reasons for the swift retreat from the 1991 Criminal
Justice Act?
4. What was the purpose of renaming probation and community service orders?
5. What is meant by ‘limited retributivism’?

Part 2

1. What are the main aims of the modern probation service?

2. How do these differ from probation service aims earlier in the twentieth
century?
3. What are the main changes in the governance of the probation service in the
past decade?
Chapter 29 – Prisons and Imprisonment

Part 1
 1. What did Woolf consider the three main elements contributing to a stable
prison system?
2. What is meant by ‘incarceration rate’?
3. What have been the main contributory factors to the increasing use of the
prison in England and Wales?
4. How would you describe the current pattern of the use of the death penalty
around the world?

Part 2

1. In the context of imprisonment, what does Goffman mean by the ‘mortification

of the self’? Give examples.
2. What is the importance of the distinction between being sent to prison as
punishment rather than for punishment?
3. What are the three main forms of early release from prison?
4. What are the main human rights protocols relating to the treatment of people
in prison?
Chapter 30 – Youth Crime and Youth Justice

Part 1

1. What did Hirschi and Gottfredson mean when they said the age–crime curve is
one of the ‘brute facts of criminology’?
2. What is meant by the ‘peak age of offending’?
3. What do self-report studies have to tell us about patterns of youthful offending
among different ethnic groups?
4. Why might young people feel over-controlled and under-protected?

Part 2

1. When did the punitive shift in youth justice begin to take place?
2. What are the main examples of the influence of managerialism in youth justice?
3. What are the main youth justice components of the Crime and Disorder Act
1998?
4. What was the principle of doli incapax?
5. How extensive has the influence of restorative justice been in youth justice?
 6. Can the exemplary sentences imposed on juveniles in the aftermath of the riots
be justified?

Part 3

1. What were the main criticisms levelled at the New Labour government’s anti-
social behaviour agenda?
2. What evidence is there that young people in custody are particularly
vulnerable?
3. What evidence is there of success in the use of referral orders in youth justice
– and what problems are there?
4. What are the main similarities and contrasts between New Labour’s youth
justice and what has followed since 2015?
Chapter 31 – Restorative Justice

Part 1

1. What are the main differences between mainstream criminal justice and
restorative justice?
2. What did Christie mean when he said conflicts had been stolen?
3. What are generally held to be the main objectives of restorative justice?
4. How do disintegrative and reintegrative shaming differ?

Part 2

1. What are the five main types of restorative justice programme?

2. What are the main differences between victim–offender mediation and
conferencing?
3. What are the main differences between healing and sentencing circles?
4. What are the three main stakeholders in restorative justice identified by
McCold?

Part 3

1. What are the main claims of restorative justice?

2. What are the main features of Ayres and Braithwaite’s ‘enforcement pyramid’?
 3. What is being suggested when critics talk of restorative justice re-colonising
indigenous practices?
Chapter 32 – Race, Crime and Criminal Justice

Part 1

1. What is the difference between ‘race’ and ‘ethnicity’?

2. What are the main sources of data we might use to examine ethnic differences
in offending patterns?
3. What is meant by a ‘racist incident’?

Part 2

1. What are the main barriers to increasing minority representation in the police?
2. What is meant by ‘available population’ in relation to stop and search?
3. What is meant by the phrase ‘over-policed and under-protected’?
Chapter 33 – Gender, Crime and Justice

Part 1

1. What are the main differences in the pattern of male and female offending?
2. Do men and women tend to give different reasons when explaining their
offending?
3. Why might levels of female offending be rising?

Part 2

1. Why might the cautioning rates for women be higher than those for men?
2. Given that, historically, imprisonment rates for women have been lower than
for men, why should we be concerned about women’s imprisonment?
3. Why are women’s imprisonment rates increasing?
4. What are the two main approaches to understanding women’s experiences of
criminal justice?

Part 3

1. What are the main ways of understanding levels of fear of crime among women?
 2. What have been the main policy changes in the policing of sexual violence
against women?
3. How might high levels of attrition in rape cases be understood?
Chapter 34 – Criminal and Forensic Psychology

Part 1

1. What are ‘risk’ and ‘protective factors’?

2. What are the main categories of risk factors?
3. In what ways, as Laub and Sampson argue, might historical time and geographic
place be crucial for understanding lives in their full complexity?
4. What are the differences between ‘adolescence-limited’ and ‘life-course
persistent’ offenders?
5. What are the main differences between Sampson and Laub’s, Moffitt’s and
Farrington’s theories?
6. What are the possible links between mental disorder and crime?

Part 2

1. What are the main differences between ‘statistical profiling’ and the FBI’s
approach?
2. What is ‘investigative interviewing’?
3. What are the main models for understanding confessions?
4. How does a polygraph work?
5. How might ‘cognitive load’ help one distinguish someone lying from someone
telling the truth?

Part 3

1. What are the three main stages involved in understanding the process of
remembering information?
2. How can vulnerable witnesses be protected?
3. What is ‘scientific jury selection’?
4. What are the basic facets of cognitive behavioural approaches to treatment?
Chapter 35 – Green Criminology

1. How might we set out the general features of ‘green criminology’?

 2. Why are discussions of ‘neo-liberalism’, ‘globalisation’ and ‘risk’ relevant to
the field of green criminology?
3. What is ‘environmental harm’?
Chapter 36 – Globalisation, Terrorism and Human Rights

Part 1

1. What are the main characteristics of globalisation?

2. What is meant by ‘criminalisation’ in the context of migration?

Part 2

1. What are the main characteristics of terrorism?

2. What are the main differences between ‘old’ and ‘new’ wars?

Part 3

1. What types of activity are classified as ‘state crime’?

2. What is meant by the term ‘genocide’?
3. What are we referring to when we talk of ‘war crimes’?

Part 4

1. Not all human rights are absolute. What are the other two main forms of rights
in the Human Rights Act?
2. What are the main neutralisation techniques in relation to human rights abuses?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of truth commissions?
Chapter 37 – Understanding Criminological Research

Part 1

1. For what types of research might you select primarily quantitative methods?
2. For what types of research might you select primarily qualitative methods?
3. What are the differences between ‘open’ and ‘closed’ questions?
4. What is a leading question? Why are leading questions problematic in the
context of research?
5. What are the main differences between structured, semi-structured and
unstructured interviews?
Part 2

1. What are the main differences between probability and non-probability

sampling?
2. What is quota sampling and where might it be used?
3. What is the difference between numerical and categorical data?
4. What is the primary difference between experimental and quasi-experimental
methods?
Chapter 38 – Doing Criminological Research

1. How does ‘the party’ scenario help you test whether or not you have a
researchable question?
2. Why is it important to carry out a literature review?
3. What steps are involved in hypothetico-deductive theory?
4. What are the three central limitations of grounded theory?
5. What are ‘gatekeepers’ in the research process?