Ocroner 1979 DAVID W. MARTIN AND DHIRENDRA N. SIKDAR Davip W. Martin Space Science and Engineering Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison $3705 DuireNpRa N. SIKDAR Geological Sciences Department, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee 53201 (Manuscript received 19 June 1978, in final form 13 June 1979) ABSTRACT We describe the behavior, dynamics and setting of three cloud clusters. The clusters occurred in the western Atlantic Ocean between 21 and 24 July 1969. Wind and cloud analyses made from intensive ship and satelite observations ofthe Barbados Oceanographic and Meteorological Experiment (BOMEX) Were supplemented by analyses of thermodynamic structure (temperature, moisture and stability) from Martin and Sikdar (1975). Each of the clusters moved west to northwest. In each cluster high-energy near-surface air was in- ‘gested on the front or right lank and vented in the upper troposphere toward the right lank or rear. The Clusters were distinguished by a range of speeds (6-15 ms"). maximum areas (30 000-200 000 km!) and lifetimes (80% hatched and areas ‘<20%6 stippled. Equivalent potential temperature is contoured in intervals of2 K, with areas warmer than 338 K sd, and areas colder than 330 K hatched. The 300 diitis omitted. Arrows along the bottom of each sec- tion show soundings. The tops of soundings are marked by small circles. The passage of major cloud systems is indicated at the bottom of the & section by the following convention; ful lines, broken cluster; double lines, solid cluster; dashed lines, ITCB, Surface reports are plotted across the bottom. A full barb on the wind arrow represents 2.5 msFto, 4, 950 and 250 mb flow around the ITCB cluster. Thick dashed lines mark the leading and trailing edges of the cloud ‘wave (described further in Section 4). {@) 1600 GMT 22 July. Top panel: vector winds and streamlines. Light arrows are cloud drift winds, heavy arrows are balloon ‘winds interpolated 10 map time, and double arrows show cluster motion, Cloud features having an albedo >~30% are shown by stippling. Middle panel: relative vorticity, contoured in intervals of 10 > 10-* s“. Cloud features are indicated by heavy lines, ‘Which correspond to ulbedos of ~30 and ~60%6, Lower panel: divergence, contoured in intervals of 10 x 10-* 5, (b) 1600 GMT 23 July. Vector winds, streamlines and cloud features.1350 Fic. 5. Movement ofthe ITCB cluster and hodograph of winds for the Mr. Micchell (1450 GMT, dashed) and Discoverer (1459 GMT, solid), 21 July. Wind speeds are in-ms-'. Numbered points along the hodograph indicate pressure levels (in hundreds (of milibar) convective system. However, there were half as many convective cores, and ‘these were concen- trated on the western end. All that remained of the cluster on 23 July were widely scattered patches of clouds—cirrus, stratus, cumulus and congestus, and a few small cumulonimbus. 2) MoISTURE AND EQUIVALENT POTENTIAL TEM- PERATURE At the Mt. Mitchell as the cluster approached moisture increased from unusually dry conditions, first in the lower troposphere, late on 20 July, and then in the middle and upper troposphere on 21 July (Fig, 3, also see MS Fig. 8). Although rela- tive humidity exceeded 90% in the low and high troposphere, it remained below 70% through most of the middle troposphere. @, increased by up to 15K near 750 mb, but not enough to erase the normal mid-tropospheric minimum. Surface 8, was igh until 1200 GMT on 22 July, when a part of the trailing ITCB crossed the Mr. Mitchell. Evidence of deep updrafts is absent in these time sections. More surprising, considering the age of this system, is the lack of evidence for extensive downdrafts: potentially cold air appeared at the surface only with passage of the trailing ITCB. 3) Winps ‘The ITCB cluster evolved in the northeast trades, within and north of a belt of strong low-level zonal shear (Fig. 4; also see surface ship winds in MS Figs. 7, 8 and 9). At 1600 GMT 22 July, as dissipa- MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW Vouume 107 tion set in, there was a mostly zonal belt of cyclonic relative vorticity across and to the south of the cluster, with a strong gradient of vorticity from northwest to southeast. Despite the generally cy- clonic condition of relative vorticity, low-level flow around the cluster was predominantly divergent, No disturbance was apparent in 950 mb winds around the remnants of the cluster on 23 July (Fig. 4b). Winds at 250 mb on 22 July were southeasterly at 5-10 m s~ across the cluster, and diffuent (Fig. 4a). Flow was quite strongly anticyclonic. Diver- gence on the scale of the cluster was 10-20 x 10 s~?. Since no fall was apparent in surface pressure, convergence is implied in the middle troposphere. This is confirmed in soundings from a triangle of stations (Mr. Mitchell, Barbados, and Chaguaramos, Trinidad) enclosing most of the cluster. At 1200 GMT 22 July, convergence for the layer 700-800 mb was 15 x 10-* s, 4) RELATIVE FLOW At ~1500 GMT 21 July, as it passed between the Discoverer and the Mt. Mitchell, the growing cluster received air in the surface layer (up to ~900 mb) from the north-northeast, on its right flank (Fig. 5). Winds in the middle troposphere were quite variable with marked difluence present be- tween 700 and 400 mb. An average of wind soundings for Barbados, Chaguaramos and the Mr. Mitchell at 1200 GMT 23, July, near the onset of dissipation, shows a different picture (Fig. 6). Winds gradually increased in speed from light values near the surface. One maximum, was present near 450 mb, and a: second, more southeasterly maximum was between 250 and 200 mb. Since the cluster was moving at this time toward the northwest (116°) at 13 m s~, the wind profile indicates inflow from the northwest to north (front and right flank) at all levels up to 450 mb. The north- westerly inflow was strongest in the lower tropo- sphere, where Mr. Mitchell soundings had estab- lished the presence of unusually dry air ahead of the 8 Fic, 6. Movement of the ITCB cluster, and hodograph of 1200 GMT 22 July average winds for Chaguaramas (Trinidad), Barbados, and the Mr. Mitchel.Ocrone 1979 1429 24 July DAVID W. MARTIN AND DHIRENDRA N. SIKDAR 1351 1454 22 1426 Fic. 7. ATS 3 views of the northern cluster. Ships marked in the upper right panel are the Rainier (17°30°N, $4°00°W) and the Rockaway (1S00'N, 56°30'W). Otherwise as for Fig. 2 cluster. Winds between 250 and 200 mb approached cluster velocity. 5) SUMMaRy This cluster persisted longer than most. Other- wise, in size, growth and movement, the ITCB cluster appeared to be typical of west Atlantic clusters (Martin and Suomi, 1972), It formed along the ITCB, and remained attached to it throughout its life. Deep convection occupied a small fraction of total cloud area. Downdrafts apparently were weak. The ITCB cluster occurred in and was ori- ented with the shear zone along the equatorial margin of the northeast trades. While the cluster was still bright and solid, low-level flow became divergent. Persisting outflow at the cirrus level was compensated by inflow of dry air in the middle troposphere. Because decay began in the roots, the onset of dissipation was registered in satellite ‘pic- tures mainly as a decrease in the number and intensity of deep convective cells. Layer clouds in the upper troposphere persisted several hours after deep convection had subsided. Because these moved stronger southeasterly winds above 500 mb, the cluster accelerated and veered before disinte- grating b. The northern cluster At sunrise on 22 July an arc of congestus clouds appeared over the open ocean 800 km northeast of Barbados. This cloud arc, part of a northwest to southeast band of scattered cellular cumulus and congestus clouds, became the northern cluster (Fig, 7; also sce MS Fig, 4). At first movement was westward at 10.5-11.0 ms, becoming west- northwestward by 1600 GMT 22 July. Veering continued as the cluster passed between the Rack: away and the Rainier during the night of 22 July. At 1600 GMT 23 July the cluster was moving toward the northwest (139°) at 13 m s~. It continued on a northwesterly course, disintegrating late on 24 July hear 23°N, 67°W, 2000 km northwest of its origin. At no time did it cross land. 1) CLOUD DIMENSIONS AND ORGANIZATION The northern cluster grew in two stages, the first characterized by vertical growth, the second characterized by lateral growth. Slow expansion of a 100 km arc of congestus clouds ended at about 1400 GMT 21 July with the abrupt appearance of a single cumulonimbus (MS Fig. 4). Two new cumulonimbi appeared in the next hour, and the1352 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW Vouume 107 950 mb. a 250 mb Fia, 8a, 950 and 250 mb flow within and around the northern cluster for 1600 GMT 22 July. ‘See Fig. 4 for a detailed explanation. (a) 1600 GMT 22 July. first cell began to fade, Thereafter, the system was dominated by cumulonimbus clouds (Fig. 7). By the morning of 23 July the compact con- vective entity of 22 July had given way to a cluster composed of several cumulonimbus ensembles, some larger than the whole system on 22 July. Deep convection was concentrated on the forward (west and northwest) sides of these ensembles. OutliersOcronen 1979 DAVID W. MARTIN AND DHIRENDRA N. SIKDAR 1353 70 Fig. 8. As in Fig. 8a except for 1600 GMT 23 July of weaker line convection were present west of the _In the 24 h from 1130 GMT 22 July the area of the main ensembles. Convection was strongly sup- cluster increased by one order of magnitude. Total pressed to the east. Ensembles were aligned north- cluster area continued a slow increase over the northwest to south-southeast, along the extended next 24h, but growth was overshadowed by the axis of the cellular band. cluster’s tendency to fragment. In its decaying phase1354 -4 Fic. 9. Movement of the northern cluster and hodograph of ‘Discoverer winds from 1512 GMT 22 July sounding, the cluster was reduced to widely scattered con- gestus and cumulonimbus clouds. 2) TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE STRUCTURE From thermodynamic time sections for the Dis- coverer [MS Fig. 7 and Rainier (not shown)], it is apparent that the northern cluster developed alos, the leading edge of the Saharan air layer (MS). Large temperature and moisture contrasts were observed across the cluster as it passed between the Rainier and the Rockaway during the night of 22 July (MS Fig. 14). Ahead of the cluster layers were inter- leaved and indistinct. Sixty percent relative humidi- ties extended as high as 500 mb. Behind the cluster, two primary layers were separated by a sharp 2-4°C trade inversion between 850 and 800 mb. Humidities above the inversion were mostly below 20%. A2°C gradient of temperature (with warm air to the east) was present at 800 mb between the Rainier and the Rockaway. Thickness differences implied a southeast 3-4 ms~’ thermal wind between 850 and 700 mb increasing to 6-7 m s~ at 500 mb. Observations at the Rainier and Rockaway as the cluster approached indicate a 6, for surface air ahead of the cluster of 351-355 K (8, = 24~25°C). There is no evidence of large-scale downdrafts during this period (MS). 3) Winps The northern cluster formed in an east-north- easterly trade flow (Fig. 8a). Winds near the surface were slightly difiuent and convergent in speed across the cluster. A very weak wave trough extended northwestward from the cluster. Convergence on the scale of the cluster at the time of formation was surprisingly weak (~$ x 10-* s~) and vorticity was anticyclonic. There are few clues in the 950 mb winds to indicate why one place should have MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW Votume 107 been preferred for convection over others in the near vicinity. By 23 Juiy flow around the cluster was south of east, owing to movement of the cluster around a significant are of the Atlantic high and to marked amplification of the wave (Fig. 8b). The cluster held a position between the trough and the strong following, ridge of this wave. Centers and gradients of vorticity and divergence were much stronger than those of 22 July. The cluster occupied a zone of strong vorticity gradient, oriented roughly north and south, with a cyclonic 20 x 10-*s~* center on its west and southwest side. A modest 10 x 10-* s~* center of convergence was centered on the north half of the cluster, with divergence edging under the south- west comer, ‘Ambient flow at the cirrus level when the northern cluster formed was southeast to east (Fig. 8a). Vorticity was anticyclonic, ~10 x 10-* s“* over the cluster, and divergence was positive, also ~10 x 10°*s~, On 23 July ambient flow was mostly from southeast through southwest (Fig. 86). Vorticity was quite strongly anticyclonic, with values up to 35 X 10-8 s1 on the cluster’s upstream (southeast) side, and absolute vorticity there close to zero. Divergence had increased to 30 x 10-* s~! over the cluster. 4) RELATIVE FLOW In the first few hours of its life the northern cluster’s westward motion of 10.5—11 m s~* was practically identical to the ambient low-level wind inferred from cloud tracers. By 1600 GMT 22 July, when deep convection was well established, the cluster was moving west-northwestward, about 25° to the right of the ambient flow (Fig. 8a). Since cloud drift and cluster speeds remained about equal, low-level flow relative to the storm was from the north at ~4 m s~*, At 250 mb relative winds were from the northwest at ~5 m s~, Relative motion in IN 10 Ww 55 Fic. 10. ATS 3 view of the squall cluster and cloud ting at 1426 GMT 23 July. The Oceanographer is marked by a circle, JOcroven 1979 DAVID W. MARTIN AND the middle troposphere is inferred from a sounding of the Discoverer, taken at 1512 GMT 22 July as the center of the growing cluster passed 250 km to the north (Fig. 9). This sounding indicates that winds relative to the cluster were out of the north to north- west and west as high as 750 mb. Between 600 and 450 mb relative winds blew from back to front through the cluster. Shear through the convective layer was remarkably small. Cluster motion remained 20-30° to the right of ambient low-level winds on 23 July, and relative flow continued out of the north. Inflow speeds increased to 6-8 m s“, Relative winds at 250 mb were from the west and northwest at 7-14 ms. In coordinates fixed to the cluster, inflow of low- level air occurred on the front and right flank. Out- flow in the upper troposphere was toward the rear and (on 23 July) the right flank. Between 600 and 500 mb winds blew through the cluster from back to front, with trends at the Discoverer (see Fig. 18) indicating inflow stronger than outflow. This rela- tive wind profile is similar in shape to the patterns found by Betts et al. (1976), Zipser (1977) and Houze (1977) for tropical squall lines. The principal differences are the strength of lateral flows in the present cluster and the apparent presence of relative ‘outflow toward the front in the middle troposphere, 5) Mass FLUX Vertical mass flux was calculated for the cluster at 1600 GMT 22 July from satellite winds and from anvil expansion. Anvil expansion was inferred from Mosher’s (1976) cloud model, which provides an estimate of the volume of citrus. The change in the volume of the anvil is assumed to be adirect measure of the mass carried upward in cumulonimbus towers (Sikdar, 1969; Sikdar and Suomi, 1972; also see the Appendix). Divergence at inflow and outflow levels was inferred for the cluster from trade cumulus and cirrus cloud drift winds, as described by Suchman et al. (1977). On the basis of Rainier, Rockaway and Discoverer soundings, the inflow layer was assumed to extend from the surface (1015 mb) to 840 mb, which in the vicinity of the cluster marked the top of the layer of high (>340 K) 6, air. The top of the outflow layer was taken to be 200 mb, and the base 300 mb, giving an outflow thickness of 2.7 km. This is ~1 km less than the maximum thickness calcu- lated for the cirrus shield from the cloud model. Inflow mass flux on the 150 km scale of the cluster was 1.6 10*kg s~', This compares fairly well with outflow flux, 2.4 x 10* kg s~!. However, it is less than half the 4.5 x 10* kgs“ flux calculated from volume expansion. Because much smoothing oc- curred in the analysis of the winds, the fluxes based ‘on cloud winds are likely to be low. A flux of 3-4 X 10" kg s~! places this cluster in the company of a DHIRENDRA N. SIKDAR 1355 strong midlatitude thunderstorm (Auvine and ‘Anderson, 1972; Newton, 1966). ©) SuMMARY The northern cluster existed entirely within the northeast trades. It formed along the cellular band. Subcloud moist static energy there was high, the trade inversion was weak, and 950 mb flow was mildly disturbed by a very weak wave. Close be- hind the cluster, Saharan air in the middle tropo- sphere was associated with a marked strengthening of the trade inversion and suppression of cumulus clouds. The 950 mb wave amplified as the cluster grew. At maturity on the second day the cluster occupied the space between the trough of this wave and a strong ridge to the east. Convection was aligned roughly parallel to the trough-ridge axes and extended north-northwestward from the cellu- lar band. The changes observed as this cluster expanded from a single ensemble of a few cells to a group of ensembles were mostly of degree: inflow level (950 mb) convergence tripled and became consolidated, outflow level (250 mb) divergence and vorticity doubled or tripled and spread. A strong anticyclonic circulation developed over the cluster, but a more striking change was the amplification of the low- evel wave and concomitant development of a distinct cyclonic center on the forward side of the cluster. In some respects the northern cluster was like several others observed in the western Atlantic— the “blowups” of Frank (1969), the non-deepening disturbance of Simpson ef al. (1967), and the meso- cyclone of Smith er al. (1975a). All share the same attributes of location, development on a meridional, wavelike band of enhanced cloudiness, transience, and apparently, involvement of Saharan air. The clusters differ in intensity—which evidently is re- lated to the strength and scales of the associated wave disturbance—and in organization. Unlike the cluster of Smith e7 al., the northern cluster did not have a meso-cyclone. It was organized not as a single burgeoning cumulonimbus but as a compact ensemble of cumulonimbi. Later the northern cluster developed morphological characteristics like the squall lines of Zipser (1977) and Houze (1977). Saharan air closing on the cluster may have caused this change through drier air and stronger inflow in the middle troposphere. The northern cluster is believed to represent a transitional type of convec- tive disturbance where the role of downdrafts in the dynamics and thermodynamics of the system is small initially but grows as the system evolves. ¢. The squall cluster The last and, in some ways, most interesting of the study clusters formed in the predawn hours of1356 Lonorrupe Fig. 11. Successive positions of the cloud ring, 1112-1637 GMT '23 Suly. Times are indicated next to each position ‘The squall cluster at 1112 and 1637 GMT is shown by stippli ‘The location of the Oceanographer is marked by a ci cross bair. 23 July. At daybreak, about 0930 GMT, it was fully developed and positioned at 08°36'N, 53°51'W. Around the cluster there was a ring of cumulus and congestus clouds (Fig. 10). Cloud ring and cluster were located at the southeastern end of a band of cellular (cumulus and congestus) clouds, with the ITCB on the southeast side of the ring. Both moved westward, the cluster at 13-15 m s~! on a heading of 92°, the ring at 10.4 m s~ on a heading of 8% (Fig. 11). Thus the cluster advanced along the inside of the ring from the northern side to its north- ‘west corner. In doing so it followed the intersection of the cellular band with the ring. The cluster passed a few kilometers north of the Oceanographer between 0700 and 0730 GMT. The ring crossed the Oceanographer between 0439 GMT (+1.6 h) and 1228 GMT (0.3 h). No trace of cluster or ring could be found the following day. 1) CLOUD DIMENSIONS AND ORGANIZATION The squall cluster was small. Its maximum area (estimated to have been ~3 x 10* km) is much less than the areas of most east Atlantic clusters ob- served in the summer of 1974 (Martin, 1975) and approaches the maximum areas of large, rapidly growing cumulonimbus clouds studied by Weick- man et al. (1977). Growth over the 7 h of ATS ob- servation was negligible. Initially several small cells, were present. At the end of the day only one large cell could be discerned, and the stratiform clouds around the cluster had all but disappeared. A short plume of cirrus trailed off the right (north) flank, The cloud ring, in contrast to the cluster, grew steadily larger (Fig. 11), increasing its area by 50% in 6h. 2) WINDS AND RELATIVE FLOW ‘The squall cluster and cloud ring were located near the equatorward edge of the northeast trades MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW Vouume 107 (Fig. 12). There was a marked center of difluence within the cloud ring at 950 mb, resulting in weak anticyclonic vorticity and positive divergence over northeastern and eastern parts of the ring. Cyclonic vorticity and convergence of up to 15 x 10-* s were concentrated on the forward sides of the ring and linked to stronger centers along the ITCB to the south. Flow at the 250 mb level was anticyclonic and divergent (Fig. 12). Easterlies dominated at intermediate levels (Fis 13; also see Fig. 19). Persistent maxima of up to 14 and 16 m s! were observed at the Oceanographer near 700 and 500 mb, respectively, in the hours before the cluster passed, Since easterly winds at 600 mb at the Mt. Mitchell exceeded 20 m s~* in 0632 and 0901 GMT soundings, it is evident that the pre-cluster environment was characterized by a dis- tinct mid-tropospheric maximum of easterly wind. These easterlies weakened at the Oceanographer as the cluster passed (Fig. 13). Relative to the westward moving cluster, low- level winds at 1600 GMT blew at 5—7 m s~! from the northwest and west-northwest, and high-level winds blew at 4-8 m s~! from the south and south- west. Relative winds in the middle troposphere were light and also from the west. Thus high 6, low- level air entered the cluster from the front, as in the squall lines described by Betts e¢ al. (1976), Houze (1977) and Zipser (1977). It exited as much laterally, on the right side, as toward the rear. Only Houze (1977) showed a marked right-lateral relative out- flow. The minimum of relative inflow in the middle troposphere is characteristic of tropical squalls (Betts et al. 1976; Zipser, 1977); however, the strengthening of relative outflow behind the system, which is apparent in Oceanographer winds, is not. 3) THERMODYNAMIC STRUCTURE AND ORIGIN OF ‘THE RING. Soundings from the Oceanographer (Fig. 14) indi- cate a weak presence of Saharan air after 1200 GMT. between 700 and 850 mb, with warmer and much drier air present between 700 and 800 mb immedi- ately to the north (MS Fig. 14; note also in Fig. 10 the clearing ~100 km north of the Oceanographer), The soundings also show a cell-like structure in the lower troposphere between 0300 and 1500 GMT. Air was cold and moist near the top of this cell and warm and dry toward the bottom, with the largest departures near 700 and 950 mb. Below 950 mb, the anomaly of temperature reversed. Air in the 25-50 mb layer at the surface under the cell was relatively cold and somewhat moister (though still dry relative to the air in front of the cell). Although gradients were small, the patterns of temperature and moisture observed here are similar to those described by Houze (1977) and Zipser (1977) for the wake region of tropical squall lines.Ocroser 1979 DAVID W. MARTIN AND DHIRENDRA N. SIKDAR 1397 250 mb Fig. 12, 950 and 250 mb flow within and around the squall cluster. See Fig. 4for a detailed explanation, In the cases studied by Houze and Zipser, cool, near-saturated air from convective-scale saturated downdrafts at the front of the squall line formed a surface mixed layer of 40-500 m depth. Above was a deeper layer of warm, dry air from mesoscale unsaturated downdrafts which were forced at least in part by evaporative cooling below the anvil. In the present case, low 6, air in the lower half of the cell (between 850 and 960 mb) is evident of recent large-scale downward transport of air. The patterns of temperature and moisture are consistent with forcing by evaporative cooling. This air sur- mounted a film of cool and somewhat moister air at the surface having, albeit weakly, the char- acteristics of the convective outflow layer. Chaiges in surface conditions as the cell passed the Oceanographer were subtle and not entirely as expected. The dry bulb temperature dropped 0.5°C and dew point temperature declined more gradually about 1°C. Winds veered and increased from 5 to 8 ms~.* Either the Oceanographer was distant from the outflow source or the outflow air in the present case was much more like ambient air than in the cases studied by Zipser (1969, 1977), Houze (1977), Fortune (1977) and others. Lateral boundaries of the cell coincided with the boundaries of the layer below and with the front and rear boundaries of the cloud ring. The source of the outflow must have been within the ring. For the daylight hours at least, this source, beyond any reasonable doubt, was the squall cluster. 4) MASS FLUX IN THE DOWNDRAFT ‘The spreading of the cloud ring corresponded to a 6 h average divergence of ~20 x 10°* st (Fig. 15). "Short-term changes in wind direction were masked by changes in ship heading.1358 i oxe|, Fic. 13. Movement of the sauall cluster, and hodograph of Oceanographer winds a 0600 and 902 GMT on 23 July. The cluster a 0600 was north-northeast ofthe Oceanographer and somtwest at 0502 If the pressure depth of the outflow is taken to be 165 mb, the total downward mass flux within the squall cluster was 2.5 x 10° kgs. This is six times the downdraft mass flux of a large, intense mid- latitude thunderstorm (Newton, 1966). It was main- tained over at least 6h and more likely 12h. Ap- parently in this cluster downdraft processes were operating with extraordinary efficiency. 5) SUMMARY The squall cluster was small, intense and short- lived. It occurred at the southern end of the cellular band close to the ITCB, in the northeast trades but on the poleward side of an extended shear zone. Subcloud moist static energy ahead of the cluster was relatively high, and inversions and stable layers were weak. Saharan air was present in the middle troposphere to the north and northeast of the cluster, and there: was a distinct maximum of easterly wind in the middle troposphere in the vicinity of the cluster. Three characteristics make this cluster unique: it moved faster than any cloud or measured wind in its vicinity; its size and motion were nearly constant; and it was enclosed in an ex- panding ring of low-level clouds. The ring was found to mark the boundaries of drier air—relatively cool near the surface and relatively warm above 950 mb. The origin of this air was downdrafts and sinking within the cluster. Its production was prodigious. ‘The cloud ring is similar to the arcs, described by Oliver and Purdom (1974) and Purdom (1974), which emanate from thunderstorms and are at- tributed to surface outflow from rain-cooled air within the thunderstorms. Zipser (1969) has docu- ‘mented an east Pacific equatorial disturbance char- acterized, like the present case, by massive trans- port of potentially cold mid-tropospheric air in unsaturated downdrafts, spreading of this air near the surface, and formation of a cloud arc marking the boundary of the outflow air. Decay had begun in the Pacific cluster by the time the cloud arc appeared. In contrast, the Atlantic cluster coexisted with its outflow for 6h or more. MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW Votume 107 It is suggested that the difference arises from two factors: 1) a persisting supply of moist, warm air in the cloud band along which the present cluster was moving; and 2) vertical shear through the convective layer which provided a lateral outflow in the upper troposphere. In the present cluster, anvils were sheared northward toward dry, high-velocity air in the middle troposphere. In this respect, the Atlantic cluster is like the squall lines of west Africa (Fortune, 1977). ‘The lateral shear, in turn, implies baroclinicity in the upper troposphere with warm air toward the east. Time sections of temperature for the five BOMEX ships show a substantial warm anomaly, with its base at 500 mb, moving westward through the period (see MS 6, 7, 8, 9). At the four northern ships, the anomaly lagged the leading edge of Saharan air by about one-half day. At the Oceanographer, it appeared as the squall system, passed, PRESSURE (hundreds of mb) Fic. 14, Oceanographer time sections of relative humidity, temperature departure and equivalent potential temperature across the cloud ring. Temperature departure is contoured in intervals of UK, with stippled areas >1-K warmer than the standard, and hatched areas >1K colder than the standard. ‘Otherwise as for Fig. 3, except only the cloud ring is marked.OcroneR 1979 DAVID W. MARTIN AND DHIRENDRA N. SIKDAR 1359 AREA (10*km*) DIVERGENCE. (10“Sec~) DIVERGENCE TOO TOO T2000 1401800 Tine 2. 1600 GMT Fic. 15. Area (dashed line, solid circles) and divergence (solid ine, ‘open circles) forthe cloud ring on 23 July. 4, The large-scale setting The distinctiveness of the clusters, in size, speed, lifetime and convective organization, implies sub- stantial gradients and changes on a synoptic scale. This section is concerned with the question of how the clusters were related to clouds and circulation in their environment. a. Circulation 1) LoweR TROPOSPHERE —950 MB WINDS Cloud drift and ship winds at 950 mb for 22 and 23 July (Figs. 16a and 16b) show northeast trades turning anticyclonically across the analysis region. Weak difluence was compensated by a slight upstream increase of speed—a surge in the trades. At 1600 GMT 22 July (Fig. 16a) the leading edge of the surge lay between 54 and 56°W, close to the forward side of the cellular cloud band. Just ahead of the surge was a very weak wave. Eastward of the south end of the surge the northeast trades turned cyclonically and slowed. Westward there was a weak anticyclonic center off the coast of South America and a strong cyclonic shear zone near IPN. Cyclonic relative vorticity was concentrated in a band, with values up to 35 x 10-* st, centered between 10 and 11°N (Fig. 16a). Most of the ITCB ‘was contained within this band. Vorticity tended to be rather strongly anticyclonic north of 15°, The exception was a broad wedge between 49 and 59°W, which was positioned over and slightly east of the cloud wave. The cellular band lay within the wedge, the clearing along its easter flank, and the stratocumulus patches within an area of moderate anticyclonic vorticity further to the northeast. ‘A day later (Fig. 16b) the wave in the trades was 6-7? of longitude to the west-northwest and much stronger. It was followed closely by a well-developed ridge. The surge front, though weaker, maintained an association with the cellular band. A marked confluence line separating northeast and southeast trades extended westward and northeastward from a cyclonic circulation at 5°N, 52.5°W. Bands of intense convection were located along both parts of the confluence line. Vorticity was strongly cyclonic along the con- fluence line. The northward pointing wedge of cyclonic and weak anticyclonic vorticity had moved westward with the cloud wave some 8° of longitude. This wedge and the stronger band of cyclonic vorticity to the south formed a large arc defining the boundaries of the advancing Saharan air. 2) UpPER TROPOSPHERE —250.MB WINDS The 250 mb winds (Figs. 17a and 17b) also show two main currents, one from the southeast and south, covering most of the analysis area, and the1360 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW Vouume 107 vorticity at 950 mb, See Fig. 4 for a detsiled explanation. (a) 1600 GMT 22 July, (b) 1600 GMT 23 July. Fic, 16. Synoptic-scale winds and relativeMONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW Vouume 107 1362 ) 89m sateoIpu SuyddnS ",.s wi UL axe speads ors Jo woriog ay Buoye Smose TwORIPA “6561 finn 2, mo uz sz osu 605i zoe HB roco eae Eo ane 1DAVID W. MARTIN AND DHIRENDRA N. SIKDAR 1363 crower 1979 “saydessouv299 ayy 30} w420x0 81 “Sig WI SV “61 “ON $ 8 8 8888 (qu) 3unssaud1364 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW Vouvwe 107 “0-8 64D o 2 4 6 fh 80 60 240 -320km lous patches 1G. 20. Time-height section of Discoverer, Mr. Mitchell and Barbados winds relative to the trail- ing edge of the cloud wave. Solid lines are isotachs at intervals of 2 m s-'. Hatching denotes wind speeds >20 m Dotted lines are isogons at intervals of 20° ippling denotes winds of a southerly ‘component. Soundings are shown by arrows along the bottom. The wave cloud trailing edge moved westward at am average speed of 11'ms-*. A distance scale is given below the time scale. other from the northeast. Between these currents was a pronounced trough trending northeast to southwest through 70°W, 20°N. The area eastward from the trough was dominated by an east-west ridge. Within the ridge on 22 July (Fig. 17a) there ‘was secondary trough centered at 14°N with a small center of difluence north of the trough axis at 1S°N, 58°W. Between 22'and 23 July the ridge intensified, especially toward the south, and the trough to the west became very sharp (Fig. 17b). Growing five- fold, the difluent center, originally at 15°N, 58°W, moved 6° northwestward. The secondary trough practically disappeared. 3) MIDDLE TROPOSPHERE Ship winds for the Discoverer, Mt. Mitchell and Oceanographer were transformed to time-height sections of w and v. Analysis procedures are de- scribed in MS. Primary tropospheric structure is illustrated in two pairs of w, v sections, those of the Discoverer and Oceanographer. These show zonal and meridional flow in the vertical plane parallel to ‘the mean (easterly) wind. Zonal flow at the Discoverer (Fig. 18a) was dominated by easterlies. Two jetlike wind maxima were measured near 650 mb with light easterlies between. The main jet intensified as it descended to 650 mb at ~0600 GMT 23 July. Zonal shear below ‘650 mb was from the east on 23 July and from the west late on 20 July and early on 21 July. In between it practically vanished. The cloud wave marked the transition from westerly to easterly shear in the lower troposphere and concurrently the develop- ment of a jet at 650 mb. Winds of a northerly component prevailed at the Discoverer near the surface, of a southerly com- ponent in the middle troposphere (Fig. 18b). Southerlies alternated with northerlies between 600 and 850 mb. A major deep-layer change, from strong southerly to strong northerly flow, occurred between 0300 and 0600 GMT on 23 July. ‘The ridge here marked the passage of the trailing edge of the cloud wave. There was a weak trough below 600 mb with the center of the cloud wave. At the Mt. Mitchell (not shown) there was a weak over-arching connection between the main and secondary easterly wind maxima. Most features were less pronounced—this was especially true of the trough and shear minimum in the center of the cloud wave—and surface easterlies weakened and vanished for a day in the center of the cloud wave (this corresponded to the period when the ITCB cluster was north of the Mz. Mitchell). Otherwise winds were like those of the Discoverer. Winds at the Oceanographer also were dominated by easterlies (Fig. 19a), however, these were light below 900 mb until the squall cluster passed near 0900 GMT 23 July, and the stronger easterlies of the middle and upper troposphere lacked the jet character of maxima at the Discoverer and Mt. Mitchell. There was little evidence of troughs and ridges. ‘A composite time section of wind speed and direc- tion was prepared from Discoverer, Mt. Mitchell and Barbados soundings (Fig. 20). The section is referenced to time of passage of the cellular band (0430 GMT + 1.5 h, 1300 GMT + 0.5 h and 1830 GMT = 0.5 h, respectively, all 23 July). Between ~500 and 800 mb there is a distinct wind may mum with core speeds near 650 mb exceedingOcronen 1979 DAVID W MARTIN AND DHIRENDRA N SIKDAR 1365 LATITUDE. LONGITUDE Fic, 21, 650 mb winds and streamfineisotach analysis for 1200 GMT 23 July 1969. Of: time winds have been plotted assuming an 11m s~! westward displacement of the cloud ‘wave boundary. This is shown (at 1200) as a thick dashed line. Thin lines are streamlines, and dashed lines ate isotachs in m s-. The inset (upper right) shows thermal winds through the depth of the Saharan layer, ploited relative to the cloud wave boundary. Thermal ‘winds were caleulated from single station soundings across the cloud wave boundary, and from pairs of simultaneous soundings across and along the boundary. Circled vectors represent cases of simultaneous soundings from four stations, 201 st. At its downstream (western) end the maximum tilted upward and narrowed, and core speeds diminished. A much weaker wind maximum near 900 mb nosed downward toward the surface below the main maximum. ‘Along the core winds tended to have a southerly component. Distinct northerly flows were located to the west of and above and below the core. Southerly flow along the wind maximum and northerlies ahead marked a wave trough in the mid- dle troposphere. The lower northerly airstream was associated with the secondary wind speed maximum. The core of strong wind was positioned over the cellular band and clearing. The wave trough to its west was colocated with the cloud wave. Winds backed across the cloud wave boundary at all levels up to 400 mb, and the surface extension of the northerly airstream coincided with the cloud ‘wave boundary. Spacial relationships of the main wind maximum, ridge, trough and cloud wave were examined by extrapolating 650 mb winds as space plots relative to the cloud wave boundary (Fig. 21). Winds were from 1200 GMT 23 July +12 h. It is seen that the main wind maximum was a zonal feature, covering at least 5° of latitude. On this maximum there was a distinct “head”, elongated north and south. The ridge ran north to south and southeast through the head, the trough (which was stronger at 600 mb) northwest to southeast, 250-500 km west of the ridge axis. No trough was present a comparable distance 10 the east of the ridge axis. Ridge axis and cloud wave boundary were Virtually coincident, and the trough was within the cloud wave. In MS it was shown that the cellular band was associated with the front of a layer of warm Saharan air between 660 and 800 mb, with the horizontal gradient of temperature as large as 2°C over 200 km. Thermal winds calculated along and across the Saharan front from simultaneous pairs of soundings blew toward the northwest and west-northwest at speeds approaching 10 m s~' (Fig. 21). Since ob-1366 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW Vowune 107 5.0 19 z 4 8 3 = y “io 30, ‘50. 70, 90 110 130 150) Brighiness (digital counts) Fic. 22 Cirrus cloud thickness and ATS-3 digital count brightness for nominal 5 viewing conditions (sun and satelite overhead). Digital count varies linearly from 0 (space) to 255 (very bright clouds) served shears through the lower forward half of the main wind maximum were comparable, evidently the maximum of mid-tropospheric easterly winds over the cellular band was forced by baroclinicity across the face of the Saharan layer. Carlson and Prospero (1972) also found jetlike wind maxima occurring near 650 mb in association with baro- clinic zones across Saharan fronts. In the present case baroclinicity along the Saharan front supported a ridge, close to the head of the main wind maximum, and a trough, a few hundred kilometers to the west. If the ridge-trough- jet system preserved its relation to the cloud wave boundary as the latter moved west at 11-12 m s“!, air close to the top of the Saharan layer would have moved through the ridge and into the trough. Supposing that parcels on such a trajectory con- served their potential vorticity, the air would descend as it approached the ridge, then rise in passing from ridge to trough (Riehl, 1954). There is, evidence for such a flow in temperature, moisture and clouds. Horizontal gradients of temperature in- creased as the cellular band-clear strip moved west- ward from the Discoverer to the Mi. Mitchell and Barbados. Relative humidity within the Saharan layer was highest in the wedgelike forward edge; it dropped 15-25% with the passage of the cloud wave boundary (MS, Fig. 12b). These changes imply verti- cal advection—with descent on the warm, upwind side of the clearing, and ascent on the cool down- wind side. More direct evidence of a vertical circula- tion is in the clouds themselves. Satellite sequences for both 22 and 23 July showed clouds dissolving on the upwind side of the clearing and forming on its downwind side. b. The relationship of circulation to cloud patterns In 950 mb winds (Fig. 16) the major persisting features were an east-west confluence of northeast and southeast trades and a westward moving north- south surge of the northeast trades. The confluence was marked by convergence and cyclonic vorticity, and it coincided closely with the ITCB. The surge marked a transition between mostly cyclonic, con- vergent flow (ahead) and anticyclonic, divergent flow (behind). It coincided with the cellular band (Figs. 1 and 16). The cloud wave, therefore, wasOcroven 1979 DAVID W. MARTIN AND associated with relatively cyclonic, convergent flow; the clearing and stratocumulus, with mostly anti- cyclonic, divergent flow. A wave in the trades developed just ahead of the surge in the cloud wave north of I5°N. This trade wave became closely associated with deep convection in the northern cluster. 1n 250 mb winds (Fig. 17) the major features were a quasi-stationary, intensifying ridge and trough. Divergence was closely coupled with deep convec- tion. There was little evidence of migrating synoptic disturbances. In the middle troposphere above the northeast trades, migrating disturbances stood out plainly (Figs. 18 and 20). The ‘central features of middle tropospheric structure were a jetlike maximum of easterly wind, a ridge near the head of this maximum, and a trough a few hundred kilometers down- stream. These were closely coupled to persisting synoptic cloud patterns (Figs. 20, 21). The cloud wave and cloud wave boundary were associated with the trough and ridge, and the clearing and stratocumulus patches with anticyclonic flow up- stream from the ridge. In the lower troposphere, there was a weaker east-northeasterly airstream. This extended down to the surface at the cloud wave boundary. The ridge and trough had weak ridge- trough reflections at 950 mb. The lower tropospheric northeasterly airstream corresponded with the surge at 950 mb. Migrating disturbances of the middie troposphere were not found south of the ITCB (Fig. 19). Organized large-scale ascent and descent linked the wave system in the middle troposphere with major patterns of clouds (Figs. 1, 20 and 21). Air moved through the 650 mb jet from east to west, inking as it approached the ridge, and apparently rising as it moved from ridge to trough. Low clouds cleared when the suppressive effect of warm, dry Saharan air was augmented by enhanced sinking close to the ridge. Deeper convective clouds were encouraged westward from the clearing as Saharan air ascended and cooled in moving from ridge to trough. A secondary effect (indicated in the clearing by a lowered trade inversion, a drying of the cloud layer and higher zonal wind speeds) may have been augmented low-level convergence in the cellular band owing to increased downward transport of easterly momentum behind the clearing. Ridge and trough were very close, indicating an asymmetric wave pattern. Otherwise the picture emerging from the large-scale analysis does not differ from the classic easterly wave model of Riehl (1954), 5. Conclusions There is much to be learned about the gross char- acteristics of cloud clusters and their relationship DHIRENDRA N. SIKDAR with disturbances of larger scales from geost satellite image data and serial sourdings the interval between soundings is not more than 3-6 h. In the present study the very fine vertical resolution of the BOMEX soundings was essential for defining convectively significant dynamic and thermodynamic structure. Concerning the cloud clusters examined here, we make the following conclusions: 1) Each of the three clusters ingested high-energy air on its front or right flank and vented this air toward the right or rear. There were marked differ- ences among the clusters in size, movement, life- time and the strength of downdrafts. 2) The most important factors determining where deep convection occurred were high (absolute) moisture content of the subcloud layer, high (rela- tive) moisture content in the middle troposphere, a weak trade inversion and large-scale low-level convergence. Deep convection occurred within or close to areas of cyclonic 950 mb relative vorticity and tended to be aligned along (but not coincident with) the axis of maximum vorticity. It did not occur where subcloud moisture was low, where the trade inversion was strong, where the middle troposphere was very dry, or where the lower troposphere was divergent. 3) Migratory synoptic disturbances were strongest in the middle troposphere over the northeast trades. Dynamically, the most important event of the period was the advance of a layer of warm, dry Saharan air between 650 and 850 mb. A ridge wa present at the forward edge of the Saharan air and a trough immediately downstream. 4) Clouds were modulated by disturbances of the lower and middle troposphere. Patterns were di tinctive and persistent. With the leading edge of the Saharan air there was a cloud wave, marked on either side by a clearing and by patches of stratocumulus cloud. A zone of convergence and cyclonic relative vorticity along and north of the confluence of northeast and southeast trades was marked by bands of convective clouds (referred to here as the Intertropical Cloud Band). The cloud wave extended northward from the ITCB. In all significant respects the cloud wave is identical to the “inverted V's” first described by Frank (1969) and noted in association with outbreaks of Saharan air by Carlson and Prospero (1972). 5) Conditions favoring deep convection occurred along and north of the confluence of northeast and southeast trades and along the leading edge of Saharan air. 6) The wave-picture which emerges from this study is broadly consistent with the model of Riehl (1954) for easterly waves and that of Carlson and Prospero (1972) for outbreaks of Saharan air. By1368 emphasizing the intermittancy of convective dis- turbances, it helps to reconcile difficulties experi- enced in applying the Riehl model (see, .g., Frank, 1969). It is consistent, too, with Frank's (1969) ob- servations of a tendency’ toward convective de- ‘velopment in the west Atlantic-Caribbean region, but it suggests that deep convective cloud within the cloud wave is not symmetrically distributed about the trough axis. Rather, the deeper convective cloud tends to.occur on the trailing side, as Riehl had observed for easterly waves. (This apparently is not true for waves over the eastern Atlantic and west Africa; there Reed et al. (1977) found con- vective cloud and rainfall maxima just ahead of the wave trough.] Saharan air follows close behind the wave trough and has a profound influence on the nature of convection. Acknowledgments. Special contributions to this work were made by Ralph DeDecker, J. T. Young, Brian Auvine, Anthony Schreiner and Dana Wool. dridge. Dr. Sanjay Limaye calculated cloud volume and mass flux using sensor calibration and cloud measurement techniques developed by Fred Mosher. Drs. Jan-Hwa Chu and-David Suchman reviewed an early manuscript. Dr. Catherine Gautier made especially helpful review comments on an intermediate manuscript. The patience of Mrs. Angela Crowell in typing different versions of the manuscript is deeply appreciated, We are indebted to the Center for Experiment Design and Data Analysis, NOAA, for supplying BOMEX data and documentation This research was supported By the Atmospheric Sciences Section, National Science Foundation APPENDIX Calculations of Cloud Volume and Mass Calculations of cloud volume and mass are based ‘on Mosher’s scheme for estimating the heights of clouds in satellite images (Mosher, 1976). The method first requires calibration of the satellite radiometer, and second, specification of the relation between optical thickness and cloud thickness. The unique relation between (digital count) brightness and optical thickness is established through a “brightest cloud” calibration. It is assumed that for each day in the satellite field of view there is at least one calibration cloud—a cumulonimbus so large and deep that its intensity comes within a few percent of the (theoretical) limiting intensity for clouds in the atmosphere. This cloud is assigned an optical thickness of 512. Its digital brightness then fixes the digital brightnesses for all clouds in any normalized image for that day. Optical thickness is estimated from (normalized) digital brightness through the multiple scattering MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW Vouume 107 model of Hansen (1971a,b). The multiple scattering model yields reflectance for acloud of agiven optical thickness under a certain geometry of illumination and view. Once clouds have been normalized to a common geometry, their brightness is a direct measure of optical thickness. Optical thickness is related to geometry thickness as 7 = «AZ, where is optical thickness, AZ geometric thickness, and x an extinction coefficient given by the product of the scattering cross section o and the scatterer density p. For x we have used the cirrus extinction coefficient, 8.9 km, observed by Heymsfield and Knollenberg (1972). Curves relating normalized cloud brightness to geometric thickness are shown for the cirrus model in Fig. 18. In the simple model for cloud volume, cirrus was assumed to occupy the top portion of the cloud. The calculation proceeded in steps. First, cloud area at ital counts was subtracted from cloud area at ital counts. This area difference, represent the annulus between 40 and 60 digital counts, was multiplied by the geometric thickness correspond- ing to the mean brightness (50 digital counts). These steps were repeated for each annulus up to 160 digital counts, the threshold value for cumulus. The volume corresponding to 160 digital counts was calculated, and then all annuli were summed to obtain the total cirrus volume. In mathematical form, the cirrus volume is given by BAZ Ai ~ Avszad + AZiaeZioo- v Mass change was calculated for the interval 1545— 1638 from mean cirrus densities. Densities were calculated in steps, as described for volume, under the assumption that the top of the cirrus volume lay at 200 mb (~12.4 km MSL). This is 50 mb (1.8 km) below the level of neutral buoyancy for undilute parcel ascent in soundings from the Rockaway bracketing cluster passage. These sound- ings were extended from 300 to 150 mb using Jordan's (1958) July mean sounding for the West Indies. The density corresponding to each succes- sive annulus was estimated from the tables of Jordan (1958), then weighted by area in arriving at a mean density for each part of the cloud, REFERENCES ‘Auvine, B. A., and C. B. 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