FOUNDRY PROCESS:

Casting:

Casting means pouring molten metal into a mold with a cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it to
solidify. When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the mold either by breaking the mold or taking the
mold apart. The solidified object is called the casting.

CASTING TERMS:
 1. FLASK: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed. Depending
upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred to by various names such as drag
– lower molding flask, cope – upper molding flask, cheek – intermediate molding flask used in three
piece molding.
2. PATTERN: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the help of
pattern.
3. PARTING LINE: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the mold.
4. MOLDING SAND: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a
mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.
5. FACING SAND: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the
mold cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
6. CORE: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create
openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
7. POURING BASIN: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten metal is
poured.
8. SPRUE: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mold
cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.
9. RUNNER: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
10. GATE: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
11. CHAPLETS: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its own
weight and overcome the metallostatic force.
12. RISER: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and solidifies.
Also known as “feed head”.
13. VENT: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.

STEPS IN MAKING SAND CASTINGS

There are six basic steps in making sand castings:

1. Patternmaking
2. Core making
3. Molding
4. Melting and pouring
5. Cleaning

1. PATTERN:

 Pattern is a model or the replica of the object to be cast.

  Pattern may defined as a model or a form around which sand is packed to give rise to cavity known as
mould cavity in which when the molten metal is poured, the result is the cast object.
 Pattern contain core prints (projection), runner, gate, riser.
1.1. Pattern Material:

Characteristics of pattern WOOD METAL

Number of casting to be For smaller production
produced
Dimensional accuracy & less accuracy and surface
surface finish finish of casting
Wear resistance They can be abraded easily by
sand
Warping of pattern They absorb moisture and
warp
Handling Smooth handling
Machinability Good Machinability
characteristics characteristics
Strength to weight ratio Less Strength to weight ratio
Weight of the pattern Less Weight
Cost of the pattern Less expensive
Corrosive resistance Good Corrosive resistance
Material used White pine, mahogany, teak,
deodar, shisham, maple
For larger production
high accuracy and surface finish
of casting
They are not abraded
They do not warp
Rough handling
Less Machinability
characteristics
High Strength to weight ratio
Heavy Weight
Expensive
Less Corrosive resistance
Aluminium, steel, cast iron, brass,
white metal

TYPES OF PATTERNS:

Single Piece Pattern:

Pattern is made from one piece and does not contain loose piece or joints.

For making the mold, one piece pattern is accommodated either in cope or drag.

Molding operations like cutting runners, gates and providing risers that consumes lot of

time.

It is simple type and in expensive.

It is used for making prototype, stuffing box of steam engine.

Split pattern:

Pattern of intricate casting cannot be made in single piece because during the molding

Operation difficulties may occur while withdrawing the pattern from the mould.

It contains upper and lower parts which are accommodated in cope and drag portion of the

Mold.

Dowel pins are used for alignment between the two parts of the pattern.

The provision for molding runner and gates are not present and it is manually done.

Cope and drag pattern:

It is a another form of split pattern and each half of the pattern is fixed to a separate metal
or wood plate.

Each metal or wood plate has the provision for molding runner and gates.

Cope and drag pattern are used for producing big castings.

Match plate pattern:

Match plate pattern consist of a match plate, on either side of which each half of a number

of split pattern is fastened.

It consists of locator holes which can be clamped with the drag using dowel pin. Match plate

pattern also has runner and gates attached to plate.

Match plate pattern are preferred for producing small accurate casting and at the faster rate

It is normally used in machine moulding.

Loose piece pattern:

Certain patterns cannot be withdrawn once they are embedded in the molding sand.

Such patterns are made with one or more loose piece for facilitating their removal from

the molding box and are known as loose piece pattern.

Loose piece remains attached with the main body of the pattern, with the help of dowel pin.

Moulding with loose piece is highly skilled job and is generally expensive.

Follow board pattern:

A follow board pattern is a wooden board and is used for supporting a pattern which is very

thin and fragile.

With the follow board support under the weak pattern, the drag is rammed, and then

follow board is withdrawn .The rammed drag is inverted, cope is mounted on it and

rammed. During this operation pattern remains over the inverted drag and gets support
from the rammed sand of the drag under it.

Sweep pattern:

Sweep pattern is a form of wooden board which sweeps the shape of the casting into the

sand all around the circumference producing large casting of circular cross section and

symmetrical shapes.

Sweep pattern rotates about the post.

Segmental pattern:

Both segmental and sweep pattern generates circular shapes.

A segmental pattern differs from a sweep pattern in the sense that it does not revolve,

Continuously about the post to make the mold; rather segmental pattern prepares the

mold by parts.

Gated pattern:
Gated pattern consist of the sections connecting different pattern serve as runner and

gates. This facilitate filing of the mould with molten material in the better manner and at

the same time eliminates the time and labour.

A gated pattern are employed for mass production of small casting.

Skeleton pattern:

Skeleton pattern is the skeleton of the desired shape which is made from wooden strip and

is then mounted on the metal base.

The skeleton pattern is filled with sand and is rammed.

A skeleton pattern is very economical as compared to a solid pattern, because it involves

less material cost.

Pattern allowances:

A pattern is always larger in size as compared to the final casting, because it carries certain

allowance due to the metallurgical and mechanical properties.

The various pattern allowance

1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance

2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Shake or Rapping allowance

Shrinkage or contraction allowance:

All the metals shrink when cooling except bismuth. This is because the inter atomic vibration which are
amplified by an increase in temperature.

i. Liquid Shrinkage:

It refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid state to solid state at the
solidus temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid metal to the casting,
are provided in the mold.

ii. Solid Shrinkage:

It refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses temperature in solid state. To account
for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns

When the graphitisation is more, the shrinkage would be less and viceversa.

Table 1 : Rate of Contraction of Various Metals

Material Dimension(mm) Shrinkage allowance (mm/m)

Grey Cast Iron Up to 600 10.5

600 to 1200 8.5
over 1200 7.0
Cast Steel or Plain Carbon Steel Up to 600 21.0
600 to 1800 16.0
over 1800 13.0
Aluminum 13.0
Magnesium 13.0

Wood patterns that are used to make metallic pattern that are given double allowance; one for the
shrinkage of the metal of the pattern and the other for the metal to be cast.

The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern. Assuming only shrinkage allowance, calculate
the dimension of the pattern. All Dimensions are in Inches
Solution 1

The shrinkage allowance for cast iron for size up to 2 feet is o.125 inch per feet (as per Table 1)

For dimension 200, allowance = 200*21/1000 = 4.20

For dimension 150, allowance =150*21/1000 = 3.20

For dimension 100, allowance = 100 X 21.0/1000 = 2.10

For dimension 80, allowance =80*21.0/1000 = 1.70

The pattern drawing with required dimension is shown below:

2. Draft or taper allowance:

Draft allowance is given to all surfaces perpendicular to the parting line

Draft allowance is given so that the pattern can be easily removed from moulding material tightly packed
around it without damaging the mould cavity.

Taper on external surfaces=10 to 25 mm/m

Taper on internal surfaces=45 to 65 mm/m

Machining allowance:

Dimensions Allowances
(mm) (mm)
cast iron
Up to 300 3.0
301 to 500 4.0
501 to 900 5.0
Cast steel
Up to 150 3.0
151 to 500 5.5
501 to 900 6.0

Casting get oxidized in mold and during heat treatment and scales etc…thus formed need to be removed.
It is intended to surface roughness and other imperfection from the casting.

4. Distortion or camber allowance

A casting will distort or warp

All its parts do not shrink uniformly that is some parts shrink while others are restricted from doing so

Distortion can be practically eliminated by providing a allowance and constructing the pattern initially

distorted that is out size in the opposite direction so that the casting after cooling neutralizes the initial

distortion given to the pattern.

This allowance can vary from 2 to 20 mm depending on the size shape and the material of the casting.

Shake allowances

Shake allowance is the negative allowance given to the pattern, while others are positive.

The pattern is shaken or rapped by striking the same with a wooden piece from side to side

This is done so that the pattern loosened from the mould cavity which in turn enlarges the mould cavity.

Pattern colours:

Patterns are imparted certain colours and shades in order to

1. Indicate the type of metal to be cast

2. Identify quickly the main body of the pattern and different parts of the pattern
3. Identify core prints, loose piece
4. Visualize the surface to be machined etc

Pattern colour schemes

black Cast surfaces, left unmachined

Red Cast surface to be machined
Red stripe on yellow base Loose pieces and seating
Black stripe on yellow Stop-off or supports
back ground
Yellow stripes on black Core print for machined openings
background
Core print seats Yellow
Parting surface No colour

MOULDING SAND:
Mould materials
1. A mould material should be such that the mould cavity retains its shape till the molten metal has
solidified
2. Casting can be made by
Permanent moulds – made up of ferrous metals and alloys
Temporary refractory moulds- made up of refractory sands and resins
 3. As compared to permanent moulds, the refractory sand moulds can cast high melting point materials
and bigger objects whereas permanent moulds produce small castings better quality and
dimensional accuracy.
Moulding sand ingredients
1. Refractory sand grains
2. Binders
3. Waters
4. Additives
1.REFRACTORY SAND GRAINS:
Refractory sand maintain their shape and other characteristics even at higher temperature, while
they are in contact with molten metals.
They should be moulded into intricate shapes
They should be used repettedly for making moulds
The grain shape and size of the moulding sand determines its specific surface which may be
defined as the total surface area of grains contained in the unit mass
2.MOULDING SAND BINDERS:
1. Binder produce cohesion between the moulding sand grains in the green or in the dry state
2. Binder give strength to the moulding sand so hat it can retain its shape as mould cavity
3. Increasing the binder content reduces the permeability of the moulding sand
Clay binders used are:
1. Fire clay
2. Bentonite
a) Sodium montmorillonite
b) Calcium montmorillonite
3. Illite
4. Limonite
5. Kalonite

BENTONITE:
The most commonly used clay binders are bentonites as they produce strongest bonds in foundry
molding sands.
Bentonite are weathered product of volcanic ash and are soft creamy white powder.
 SODIUM CALCIUM
(WESTERN BENTONITE) (SOUTHERN BENTONITE)
COMPOSITION 90% montmorill 85% montmorill
10% quartz 15% quatz

SOFTENING POINT 2100-2450 F 1800 F and above

SHRINKAGE DUE TO LOSS OF Very high Very high
WATER
PARTICLE SIZE Flake size of < 0.00025mm Flake size of < 0.00025mm
SWELLING DUE TO WATER Very high gel forming Slight, little tendency to gel

3.WATER:
The amount of water required for the molding sand is 1.5 to 8 %
Water is responsible for the bonding action
Water activates the clay in the sand and the clay-sand mixture develops strength and plasticity.
4.ADDITIVES:
Material other than the basic ingredients are also added to molding mixture, of course in small
quantities, in order to
1. enhance the existing properties
2.to confer special qualities like resistance to sand expansion defects.
Some of the additive materials are:
FACING MATERIAL:
Facing materials tend to obtain smoother and cleaner surfaces of castings and help easy peeling of
sand from the casting surface during shake out.
SEA COAL (OR) COAL DUST (OR) BITUMINOUS COAL To improve stripping and surface appearance of cast
iron.
PITCH AND ASPHALT Improve hot strength.
GRAPHITE Improve surface finish of the casting and moldability
of foundry sand mixtures.
SILICA FLOUR It improves surface finish and hot strength
It resists metal penetration and minimizes sand
expansion
COKE
CUSHION MATERIAL:
Cushion material burn when the molten metal is poured and thus give rise to space for
accommodating the expansion of silica sand at the surface of mold cavity.
A few cushion materials are
1. Wood flour
2. Perlite

PROPERTIES OF MOULDING MATERIAL:

1. FLOWABILITY:
Flowability is the ability of the molding sand to get compacted to a uniform density.
Flowability increases as clay and water content increases.
2. GREEN STRRENGTH:
It is the strength of the sand in the moist condition.
A mold having adequate green strength will retains its shape & will not collapse & will not
collapse even after the pattern has been removed from the molding box.
Green strength helps in making and handling the molds.
3. DRY SYRENGTH:
It is the strength of the molding sand in the dry condition.
A mold may either be intentionally be dried, skin dried or a green sand may loose its moisture
and get dried while waiting for getting poured or when it in contact with the molten metal
being poured.
The mold cavity dried must have dry strength to
Withstand the erosive force due to molten metal
Withstand pressure of the molten metal
4. Hot strength:
It is the strength of the mould cavity about 212°F
In the absence of adequate hot strength, the mould may enlarge, break erode, or get cracked
5.Permeability:
Much of the gases escape through vents and open feeder head, yet some amount of the
gases tends to pass of through the pore spaces of the moulding sand
To provide a path for free gases to escape the moulding sand should be permeable or porous
Soft ramming and clay addition in lesser amount also improves permeability
 In the absence of adequate permeability, defects like surface blows, gas holes, mould blast etc
may be experienced
6. Refractoriness:
It is the ability of the moulding sand to withstand high temperature without
a).Fusion
b)Cracking, Buckling or Scabbing
7. Adhesiveness :
It is the property of the moulding sand to stick with the walls of moulding boxes and gaggers
8. collapsibility :
It is the property of the moulding sand which automatically get colapsed after the casting
solidifies
TYPES OF SANDS USED IN MOULDS :
a) Green sand
b) Dry sand
c) Parting sand
d) Facing sand
e) Baking sand
a) Green sand :
It is the sand in moist condition containing 5% water and 15 – 30% clay, remaining silica sand
Mould and cores both can be made out of green sand
b) Dry sand :
Green sand mould cavity when dried results in a dry sand mould
Since the dry sand contain less water content, the amount of venting even less than that
provided in green sand moulds, will let the mould gases escape
c) Parting sand :
Parting sand consist of dried suilica sand or burnt sand
The parting sand when sprinkled
a) Over the rammed drag avoids the sticking of sand in the drag with the sand of the
cope
b) Over the pattern avoids its sticking with the green sand, and makes patern
withdrawal easier
d) Facing sand :
The facing sand mixture for green sand moulding of cast iron consist of
 Fresh and specially prepared sand – 25%
Old sand - 70%
Sea coal - 5%
Facing sand covers the pattern from all around and the ordinary floor (backing sand)
remaining mould.
facing sand may have a thickness of bout 2-3cm
e) Baking sand :
It is the sand which backs up the facing sand, it does not come in contact with the pattern
baking sand has black colour and is sometime known as black sand
CORE SAND :
A core may be defined as any projection into the mould and made up of core sand
CORE SAND PROPERTIES :

properties effects
1. Green strength To retain its shape before baking
2. Adequate permeability For letting go the gases generated during pouring
3. High refractoriness To withstand the effect of high temperature molten
metals
4. High collapsibility Core breaks away easily as the casting cools and
shrinkages. It avoid introduction of hot tears and
cracks in the cast metals
5. Good friability Core crumbles and falls apart when it must be
removed from the casting

Core sand ingredients:

1.granular refractories
2.Core binders (self made and patented)
3.water
4.special additives
TESTING OF MOULDING SANDS:
Sand test indicate the moulding sand performances and help the foundry men in controlling the
property of the moulding sand.
Sand testing controls the moulding sand properties through the control of its composition.
 Production of sound casting largely depend upon uniform and good quality of moulding sand.
TESTS ON MOULDING SANDS:
a. Moisture content test
b. Clay content test
c. Grain fineness test
d. Permeability test
e. Strength test
Green and dry compression
Green tensile
Green and dry shear
Transverse (bending)
f. Hot strength test
g. Refractoriness test
h. Mould hardness test
PRINCIPLE OF GATING SYSTEM:
The term gating system refers to all passageways through which the molten metal passes to enter
the mold cavity.
The gating system is composed of
Pouring cups and basins
Spruce
Runner
Gates
Risers
A gating system should avoid sudden or right angle changes in the mould.
Sudden change in direction causes mold erosion, turbulence and gas pick-up.

POURING CUPS:
A pouring cup makes it easier for the ladle or crucible operator to direct the flow of metal from
crucible to spruce.
A pouring cup is a funnel shaped cup which forms the top portion of the spruce.
POURING BASIN:
Pouring sand may be made out of core sand, metal or it may be cut or molded in the cope of sand
mold.
 A pouring basin
a. Makes it easier for the ladle operator to direct the flow of metal from crucible to spruce.
b. Helps maintaining the required rate of liquid metal flow.
c. Reduces turbulence and vortexing at the spruce entrance.
SPRUES:
Spruce feed the metal to the runner which in turn reaches the casting through the gates.
Spruce is tapered with its bigger end at the top to receive the liquid metal. The smaller end is
connected to the runner.
Rectangular spruce produce less turbulence
GATES:
Core making

Cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a mold cavity to form the interior
surfaces of castings. Thus the void space between the core and mold-cavity surface is what eventually
becomes the casting.

Molding

Molding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a mold for receiving molten metal. Molding
usually involves placing a molding aggregate around a pattern held with a supporting frame, withdrawing
the pattern to leave the mold cavity, setting the cores in the mold cavity and finishing and closing the mold.

Melting and Pouring

The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as melting. Melting is usually done
in a specifically designated area of the foundry, and the molten metal is transferred to the pouring area
where the molds are filled.

Cleaning:

Cleaning refers to all operations necessary to the removal of sand, scale, and excess metal from the
casting. Burned-on sand and scale are removed to improve the surface appearance of the casting. Excess
metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is removed. Inspection of the casting for defects
and general quality is performed.

Molding Material and Properties

A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for manufacturing molds and cores. They include
molding sand, system sand or backing sand, facing sand, parting sand, and core sand. The choice of molding
materials is based on their processing properties. The properties that are generally required in molding
materials are:

Refractoriness

It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the liquid metal to be poured so that it
does not get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.

Permeability
During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases and steam is generated.
These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal during melting, air absorbed from the
atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding and core sand. If these gases are not allowed to
escape from the mold, they would be entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To overcome
this problem the molding material must be porous. Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the
gases that are generated inside the mold cavity.

Green Strength

The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand particles must have the
ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to the mold. The green sand must have enough
strength so that the constructed mold retains its shape.

Dry Strength

When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold cavity is quickly converted into dry
sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of the molten metal. At this stage the molding
sand must posses the sufficient strength to retain the exact shape of the mold cavity and at the same time it
must be able to withstand the metallostatic pressure of the liquid material.

Hot Strength

As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high temperature when the metal in the
mold is still in liquid state. The strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of the cavity is called
hot strength.

Collapsibility

The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the contraction of the solidified casting it
does not provide any resistance, which may result in cracks in the castings.Besides these specific properties
the molding material should be cheap, reusable and should have good thermal conductivity.

Molding Sand Composition

The main ingredients of any molding sand are:

 Base sand,
 Binder, and
 Moisture

Base Sand

Silica sand is most commonly used base sand. Other base sands that are also used for making mold are
zircon sand, Chromite sand, and olivine sand. Silica sand is cheapest among all types of base sand and it is
easily available.

Binder

Binders are of many types such as:

 1. Clay binders,
2. Organic binders and
3. Inorganic binders

Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the molding sands to provide the strength.
The most popular clay types are:

Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O)

Of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water which increases its bonding power.

Moisture

Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required amount of moisture. When water is
added to clay, it penetrates the mixture and forms a microfilm, which coats the surface of each flake of the
clay. The amount of water used should be properly controlled. This is because a part of the water, which
coats the surface of the clay flakes, helps in bonding, while the remainder helps in improving the plasticity. A
typical composition of molding sand is given in (Table 4).

Table 4 : A Typical Composition of Molding Sand

Molding Sand Constituent Weight Percent

Silica sand 92
Clay (Sodium Bentonite) 8
Water 4

a.MOISTURE CONTENT TEST

low moisture content in the moulding sand does not develop strength properties
high moisture content decreases permeability and acts to other problem associated with moulding
operations
STEPS INVOLVED IN MOISTURE CONTENT TEST:
a. 20-50 gms of prepared sand is placed in the pan and is heated by an infrared heater bulb for
2-3 minutes.
b. The moisture in the moulding sand is thus evaporated.
c. Moulding sand is taken out of the pan and reweighted.
d. The percentage of moisture can be calculated from the different in weight of the original
moist and the consequently dried sand sample.
b.clay content test :
clay is responsible for bonding sand particles together.
 Clay influences strength, permeability and other molding sand properties.
STEPS INVOLVED IN CLAY CONTENT TEST:
Dry thoroughly a small quantity of prepared moulding sand.
Separate 50 gms of dry moulding sand and transfer the same to a wash bottle.
Add in it 475 cc of distilled water and 25 cc of a 3% NAOH solution.
Using a rapid sand stirrer, agitate the whole mixture for about 10 minutes, siphon out the water from the
wash bottle.