02/10/2013

Comparing Prokaryotic and

Prokaryotes
Eukaryotic Cells

Common features:
Functional Anatomy of DNA and chromosomes
Cell membrane
• One circular chromosome, not
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Cytosol and Ribosomes membrane bound
Distinctive features: ?
• No histones
• No organelles
• Peptidoglycan cell walls
• Binary fission

Size, Shape, and Arrangement Spiral Bacteria Pleomorphic

Corynebacteria
Average size: 0.2 -1.0 µm  2 - 8 µm
Three basic shapes
1. Bacillus, -i Monomorphic
2. Coccus, -i E. coli
3. Spirals (Vibrio,
Spirillum, Spirochete)
Most monomorphic, some pleomorphic
Variations in cell arrangements (esp. for cocci)

Figure 4.4

Cell Arrangement
External Structures
located outside of cell wall

• Glycocalyx
• Flagellum /-a
• Axial filaments
• Fimbria /-ae
• Pilus /-i
Star shaped and rectangular prokaryotes: a. Stella (star
shaped), b. Haloarcula (a type of halophilic archaea-
rectangular cell

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Flagellar Arrangement
Glycocalyx Flagellum – Flagella
• Many bacteria secrete external surface layer composed of • Anchored to wall and membrane
sticky polysaccharides, polypeptide, or both
• Capsule: organized and firmly attached to cell wall • Number and placement determines if atrichous,
• Slime layer: unorganized and loosely attached monotrichous, lophotrichous, amphitrichous, or _______
peritrichous
• Allows cells to attach
 key to biofilms
• Prevents phagocytosis
 virulence factor
• E.g.: B. anthracis, S. pneumoniae,
S. mutans
Fig 4.7
___________

“Run and Tumble” Axial Filaments

Motility Fimbriae and Pili
• Endoflagella • Fimbriae allow
• Due to rotation of flagella Fig 4.9
attachment
• In spirochetes
• Mechanism of rotation: “Run and tumble” • Anchored at one end • Pili are used to transfer
of a cell DNA from one cell to
• Move toward or away from stimuli (taxis) another
• Rotation causes cell
• Chemotaxis (phototaxis and magnetotaxis) to move

• Flagella proteins are H antigens

(e.g., E. coli O157:H7)
Fig 4.10

Cell Wall Gram + Cell Gram –

• Rigid for shape & protection
Wall Cell Wall
 prevents osmotic lysis
• Thick layer of
• Consists of Peptidoglycan (murein)  polymer of 2 • Thin peptidoglycan
monosaccharide subunits peptidoglycan
– N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and • Outer membrane
– N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) • Negatively charged
• Linked by polypeptides (forming peptide cross bridges)
teichoic acid on surface • Periplasmic space
with tetrapeptide side chain attached to NAM
• Fully permeable to ions, aa, and sugars (Gram positive cell wall
may regulate movement of cations)
•

Fig 4.13

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Gram-negative Cell Wall

Gram-Positive Cell Walls
• Teichoic acids
– Lipoteichoic acid links to plasma membrane
– Wall teichoic acid links to peptidoglycan
• May regulate movement of cations
• Polysaccharides provide antigenic variation
Lipid A of LPS acts as endotoxin; O polysaccharides Gram Stain Mechanism
are antigens for typing, e.g., E. coli O157:H7
Gram neg. bacteria are less sensitive to medications • Crystal violet-iodine crystals form in cell.
because outer membrane acts as additional barrier.
• Gram-positive
LPS layer = outer layer of outer membrane
– Alcohol dehydrates peptidoglycan
– CV-I crystals do not leave

• Gram-negative
– Alcohol dissolves outer membrane and leaves holes in
peptidoglycan.
– CV-I washes out
(protein rich gel-like fluid)
Fig.4.13b Fig 4.13

Bacteria with No Cell Wall: Mycoplasmas

• Instead, have cell
membrane which
incorporates cholesterol
compounds (sterols),
similar to eukaryotic cells
• Cannot be detected by
typical light microscopy
Damage to Cell Wall
• Lysozyme digests
Acid-fast Cell disaccharide in
Walls peptidoglycan.
• Penicillin inhibits
peptide bridges in
• Genus Mycobacterium and Nocardia peptidoglycan.
This EM shows some typically
• mycolic acid (waxy lipid) covers thin
pleomorphic mycoplasmas, in this peptidoglycan layer
case M. hyorhinis

• Do not stain well with Gram stain  use acid-

fast stain

Internal Structures: Cell Membrane Cytoplasm and Internal Structures

Analogous to eukaryotic cell membrane: Location of most biochemical activities
• Phospholipid bilayer with proteins (Fluid mosaic model)
• Nucleoid: nuclear region containing DNA (up to
• Permeability barrier (selectively permeable)
3500 genes). Difference between human and bacterial
• Diffusion, osmosis and transport systems chromosome?
Different from eukaryotic cell membrane:
• Plasmids: small, nonessential, circular DNA (5-100
• Role in Energy transformation (electron transport chain
for ATP production) genes); replicate independently
Damage to the membrane by alcohols, quaternary ammonium • Ribosomes (70S vs. 80S)
(detergents), and polymyxin antibiotics causes leakage of cell
contents. • Inclusion bodies: granules containing nutrients,
Fig 4.14 monomers, Fe compounds (magnetosomes)

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Endospores
Dormant, tough, non-reproductive structure;  germination 
vegetative cells
Spore forming genera: __________
Resistance to UV and  radiation, desiccation, lysozyme,
temperature, starvation, and chemical disinfectants

Compare to Fig. 4.6

Relationship to disease Sporulation
Sporulation: Endospore formation
Germination: Return to vegetative state

Fig. 4.21

LE 6-9a
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER

Green endospores within pink bacilli. Many spores Flagellum Rough ER Smooth ER
Nuclear envelope

Nucleolus NUCLEUS

have already been released from the vegetative cells Chromatin

Centrosome
Plasma membrane

The Eukaryotic Cell

CYTOSKELETON

Microfilaments

Intermediate filaments

Microtubules

Ribosomes:

Microvilli

Golgi apparatus

Peroxisome

Mitochondrion
Lysosome

In animal cells but not plant cells:

Lysosomes
Centrioles
Flagella (in some plant sperm)

LE 6-9b LE 6-8
Nuclear
envelope Rough
NUCLEUS Nucleolus endoplasmic
reticulum
Chromatin
Smooth
Centrosome endoplasmic
reticulum

Ribosomes
• The plasma membrane is a selective barrier that allows
Outside of cell
(small brown dots)
sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, Carbohydrate side chain

Golgi
Central vacuole and waste to service the volume of the cell
• The general structure of a biological membrane is a
apparatus
Microfilaments
Intermediate Hydrophilic
CYTOSKELETON
filaments
Microtubules double layer of phospholipids region

Inside of cell 0.1 µm

Mitochondrion Hydrophobic
Peroxisome
region
Plasma Chloroplast Hydrophilic
membrane Phospholipid Proteins
region
Cell wall
Plasmodesmata TEM of a plasma membrane Structure of the plasma membrane
Wall of adjacent cell
In plant cells but not animal cells:
Chloroplasts
Central vacuole and tonoplast
Cell wall
Plasmodesmata

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Crossing the Membrane Modes of Transport Carrier-Mediated Transport

• Integral protein binds to the solute and undergo a
• Simple or passive diffusion conformational change to transport the solute
• Passive transport across the membrane
– Channels or pores
• Facilitated transport
– Assisted by membrane-floating proteins
• Active transport pumps and carriers
– ATP is required
– Enzymes and reactions may be required

Channel Mediated Transport Coupled Transport Active Transport

• Proteins form aqueous pores allowing specific solutes to • Three main mechanisms:
pass across the membrane • Some solutes “go along for the ride” with a
– coupled carriers: a solute is
• Allow much faster transport than carrier proteins carrier protien or an ionophore driven uphill compensated by a
different solute being
Can also be a Channel transported downhill
coupled transport
(secondary)
– ATP-driven pump: uphill
transport is powered by ATP
hydrolysis (primary)
– Light-driven pump: uphill
transport is powered by energy
from photons
(bacteriorhodopsin)

Active Transport Endocytosis and Exocytosis Receptor Mediated Endocytosis

• Energy is required
• Exocytosis
- membrane vesicle fuses with cell membrane,
releases enclosed material to extracellular
space.
• Endocytosis
- cell membrane invaginates, pinches in,
creates vesicle enclosing contents

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LE 6-10
Nucleus

Nucleus
1 µm Nucleolus

The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in Chromatin

the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes The Nucleus: Genetic Library of the Cell Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane

• The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is

• The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic usually the most conspicuous organelle
Nuclear pore

cell
• The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating Pore
• Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make it from the cytoplasm
complex

proteins Surface of nuclear envelope

Rough ER

Ribosome 1 µm
0.25 µm

Close-up of nuclear
envelope

Pore complexes (TEM) Nuclear lamina (TEM)

LE 6-11

Ribosomes: Protein Factories in the Cell

Ribosomes Ribosomes ER Cytosol
• Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and Endoplasmic
protein • 80S reticulum (ER)

• Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations: – Membrane-bound Attached to ER Free ribosomes

– In the cytosol (free ribosomes) – Free In cytoplasm Bound ribosomes

– On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or • 70S

Large
the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes) – In chloroplasts and mitochondria subunit

0.5 µm Small
subunit
TEM showing ER Diagram of
and ribosomes a ribosome

LE 6-12
The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and Smooth ER

performs metabolic functions in the cell The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Rough ER Nuclear

Factory
envelope

• Components of the endomembrane system:

• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more
– Nuclear envelope
– Endoplasmic reticulum than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic
– Golgi apparatus cells ER lumen

– Lysosomes • The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear

Cisternae

– Vacuoles envelope
Ribosomes
Transport vesicle
Transitional ER

– Plasma membrane Smooth ER Rough ER

200 nm

• These components are either continuous or connected • There are two distinct regions of ER:
via transfer by vesicles – Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
– Rough ER, with ribosomes studding its surface

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Functions of Smooth ER Functions of Rough ER The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and

• The smooth ER • The rough ER Receiving Center
– Synthesizes lipids • The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous
– Has bound ribosomes
sacs called cisternae
– Metabolizes carbohydrates – Produces proteins and membranes, which are
• Functions of the Golgi apparatus:
– Stores calcium distributed by transport vesicles
– Is a membrane factory for the cell – Modifies products of the ER
– Detoxifies poison
– Manufactures certain macromolecules
– Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

LE 6-13 LE 6-14a
Nucleus 1 µm

Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

Golgi
apparatus
cis face
(“receiving” side of • A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes
Golgi apparatus)
• Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats,
Vesicles also
Vesicles move
from ER to Golgi
Vesicles coalesce to
form new cis Golgi cisternae
0.1 µm polysaccharides, and nucleic acids Lysosome

• Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle organelles and

transport certain
proteins back to ER Cisternae
Cisternal Lysosome contains Food vacuole Hydrolytic
maturation:
Golgi cisternae macromolecules, a process called autophagy active hydrolytic
enzymes
fuses with
lysosome
enzymes digest
food particles
move in a cis-
to-trans
direction Digestive
Plasma enzymes
Vesicles form and membrane
leave Golgi, carrying
specific proteins to Lysosome
other locations or to
the plasma mem- Digestion
brane for secretion
Vesicles transport specific trans face
proteins backward to newer
Food vacuole
(“shipping” side of
Golgi cisternae Golgi apparatus) TEM of Golgi apparatus

Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food

LE 6-14b LE 6-15
Lysosome containing
two damaged organelles 1 µm

Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments

Central vacuole
Mitochondrion
fragment • Vesicles and vacuoles (larger versions of vacuoles) are
Peroxisome membrane-bound sacs with varied functions
fragment
• A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several Cytosol

Lysosome fuses with Hydrolytic enzymes

vacuoles
vesicle containing digest organelle
damaged organelle components Tonoplast

• Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis

• Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater
Nucleus Central
Lysosome vacuole

protists, pump excess water out of cells

Cell wall
Vesicle containing
Digestion
• Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells,
damaged mitochondrion
hold organic compounds and water Chloroplast
Autophagy: lysosome breaking down
damaged organelle 5 µm

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LE 6-16-1 LE 6-16-2

The Endomembrane System: A Review Nucleus Nucleus

• The endomembrane system is a complex and

dynamic player in the cell’s compartmental Rough ER Rough ER

organization
Smooth ER Smooth ER
Nuclear envelope Nuclear envelope cis Golgi

Transport vesicle

trans Golgi

LE 6-16-3
Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one
Nucleus form to another Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
• Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells
• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration
Rough ER • They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner
• Chloroplasts, found only in plants and algae, are the membrane folded into cristae
sites of photosynthesis
• The inner membrane creates two compartments:
Smooth ER
Nuclear envelope
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts are not part of the intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix
cis Golgi
endomembrane system • Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are
Transport vesicle • Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix
• Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that
synthesize ATP

Plasma
membrane
trans Golgi

LE 6-17 LE 6-18

Mitochondrion Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy

Intermembrane space • The chloroplast is a member of a family of organelles
Outer called plastids
membrane
• Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as Chloroplast

well as enzymes and other molecules that function in

Free photosynthesis
ribosomes
in the
• Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green Ribosomes

organs of plants and in algae

Stroma
mitochondrial Inner Chloroplast
DNA Inner and outer
matrix membrane
• Chloroplast structure includes: membranes

Cristae
– Thylakoids, membranous sacs Granum

Matrix – Stroma, the internal fluid 1 µm

Thylakoid
Mitochondrial
DNA 100 nm

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LE 6-19

Endosymbiotic Theory
Peroxisomes: Oxidation Chloroplast

• Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic compartments Peroxisome

bounded by a single membrane Mitochondrion

• Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it

to water

1 µm
Figure 10.2

The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes Eukaryotic Flagella

structures and activities in the cell

• The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending

Flagella and Cilia • Microtubules
• Tubulin
throughout the cytoplasm
• 9 pairs + 2 arrangements
• It organizes the cell’s structures and activities,
anchoring many organelles
• It is composed of three types of molecular structures:
– Microtubules
– Microfilaments
– Intermediate filaments

Figure 4.23a, b Figure 4.23c

LE 6-20 LE 6-21a

Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support, Motility, and Regulation

Microtubule
• The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and maintain Vesicle
its shape ATP
• It interacts with motor proteins to produce motility Receptor for
motor protein
• Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along “monorails”
provided by the cytoskeleton
• Recent evidence suggests that the cytoskeleton may
help regulate biochemical activities
Motor protein Microtubule
Microfilaments
0.25 µm
(ATP powered) of cytoskeleton

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LE 6-21b

Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 µm

Components of the Cytoskeleton
• Microtubules are the thickest of the three components
of the cytoskeleton
• Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the
thinnest components
• Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a
middle range

Centrosomes and Centrioles

• In many cells, microtubules grow out from a
centrosome near the nucleus
• The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing center”
• In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles,
each with nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a
ring

LE 6-22

Centrosome

Microtubule

Centrioles

0.25 µm

Longitudinal section Microtubules Cross section

of one centriole of the other centriole

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