Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Social Media in Higher Education
Social Media in Higher Education
Joshua Hutchinson
Introduction
Today’s students are the products of a digital world. For them, information has always
been available at the press of a button, and communicating with people hundreds of miles away
can be accomplished with a few simple key strokes. Growing up with this ease of access has led
to a shift in what students expect from peers, faculty, and institutions of higher education. This
shift is made increasingly harder to navigate as new forms of digital interaction become
popularized every day, and these platforms are capable of becoming obsolete as quickly as they
are established.
Higher education professionals today find themselves as the pioneers of this new, and
seemingly ever-evolving frontier. The aspect of this frontier that garners the most ambiguity,
and raises a great deal of questions is social media. Social media is the most versatile, and
volatile tool to emerge from the digital world. This is due to the wide variety of social media
platforms, and the fact that these platforms are constantly updating or becoming obsolete. Many
questions surround social media and what role, if any, that it should play in higher education.
The current state of uncertainty surrounding social media and its relationship with higher
education provides an opportunity for higher education professionals to define what this
relationship will look like, and establish standing best practices that can impact the future of the
field. This paper provides a review of the literature concerning social media in higher education.
The literature review will create a definition of what social media is, analyze how social media is
currently utilized in institutions of higher education, and provide examples of social media
integration into classrooms, and university initiatives. Based on the data collected from the
literature review this paper will formulate recommendations for the implementation of social
Literature Review
The literature review will analyze research, and articles that investigate social media, its
influence and impact on students, and its relationship with higher education. The literature under
review consists of articles, studies, and reviews that were all composed within the last ten years.
Social media and higher education are very large topics, and this paper will break them down
into key areas in order to better understand them. This literature review will define social media,
address how higher education professionals currently utilize social media, and provide examples
of how social media has been integrated into classrooms and university initiatives.
Social Media
In order to study a subject or phenomenon like social media, it must first be defined in
order to apply a contextual lens to the research being examined. Unfortunately, in the case of
social media there is no truly clear, concise, and concrete definition (Tess, 2013). A leading
reason for the difficulty creating a definition for social media is that social media is constantly
changing (Tess, 2013). Developers are constantly creating new applications, updating features,
and adapting to the ever changing needs and demands of their users.
Along with the lack of a universal definition for social media, there also appear to be
disputes over the name as well. The terms social networks, social networking sights, digital
communication and collaboration tools, electronic media, web 2.0, and of course social media
were all found and used interchangeably throughout the majority of the literature
Rios-Aguilar & González, 2012; Heiberger & Harper, 2008; Junco, Heiberger & Loken, 2010;
Legaree, 2015; Nyangau & Bado, 2012; Tess. 2013). In several contexts, each of these different
names have been given their own specific definitions that differentiate them from one another
SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION 4
(Davis et al., 2012Nyangau & Bado, 2012; Tess, 2013). However, regardless of the presence of
other terms, social media persisted as the dominant term, and will be used as such for the
While, as previously stated, there is no single definition of what social media is, there are
common themes that can be identified across the literature. The most obvious theme is that
social media are based within internet programs and applications (Ahlquist, 2015; Davis et al.,
2012; Junco et al., 2010; Nyangau & Bado, 2012; Tess, 2013), or as Tess (2013) refers to them,
web 2.0. Which is defined by O’Reilly (2005) as “active and open web architecture that enables
users to participate in facilitating active learning” (as cited in Ahlquist, 2015, p. 4). The second
overarching theme is the purpose of social media. Legaree (2015) outlined three main categories
that social media fall into: communication, collaboration, and media sharing. Davis et al. (2012)
echo this, and add that social media can also be used to create and share user-generated content
“through multi-way communication” (p. 1). Junco et al. (2010) also adds that social media
From these themes, we can build our own common definition for social media. Social
media are internet based entities that enable individuals and organizations to communicate,
collaborate, share, and create communities through multi-way communication methods. This
definition encompasses the many facets, layers, and dimensions of the various social media
platforms addressed in the current research, and will serve as the guiding frame work for the
Platforms. There is no single social media. Though it is easy to identify the term social
media with a single entity, there are a vast number of platforms that fall under the definition of
social media. Social media entities such as blogs, YouTube, LinkedIn, MySpace, Twitter, and
SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION 5
Facebook are just a selection of the platforms that have been studied, and represent only a
fraction of currently active services (Davis et al., 2012; Dunn, 2013; Junco et al., 2010; Lagaree,
2015; Nyangau & Bado, 2012; Tess, 2013). This section focuses on Facebook, Twitter, and
blogs as they most relevantly pertain to the research being analyzed throughout this literature
review.
proverbial face of social media (Tess, 2013). Facebook allows users to create profiles; engage
with other users and their profiles in an attempt to express interests and find commonalities; and
build connections around these commonalities (Davis et al., 2012). Facebook began as a private
social network that was restricted to the students of Harvard University (Davis et al., 2012). The
platform allowed students to connect and engage with one another across campus. Facebook
soon expanded to other universities, granting access to users that had an .edu email address
(Ahlquist, 2015). “Ellison, Steinfield, and Lampe (2007), found that 94% of their college
students were users of Facebook” (as cited in Tess, 2013, p. A61). Today Facebook is an
international platform, connecting people around the world, and taking the concept of social
media global (Davis et al., 2012). Thanks to its worldwide circulation, Facebook reached 1.35
billion users by October of 2014 (Ahlquist, 2015). More recently, there has been an observable
trend of users, specifically those in the United States, leaving Facebook (Tess, 2013). However,
despite this decline, Facebook is still the most popular and widely used social media amongst
Twitter. Twitter began in the wake of Facebook’s rise to popularity, and as the concept
of social media was in its early stages (Nyangau & Bado, 2012). Twitter offers its users a vastly
different method of social interaction than Facebook. Twitter users engage in microblogging
SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION 6
(Tess, 2013). Twitter utilizes tweets that restrict the user to 140 characters, which encourages
ongoing conversations and interaction (Ahlquist, 2015). Junco et al. (2010) characterized
Twitter as a condensed blog that operates through “the functionality of social networking” (p. 2).
Davis et al. (2012) stated that Twitter allows users to connect their account to other social media
services like Facebook, and allows for a much faster, and less involved processes. Twitter users
are able to share small amounts of content to large numbers of people in a very quick and simple
process (Davis et al., 2012). Because of these traits, Twitter is better adept at creating, and
cultivating dialogues than services like Facebook (Junco et al., 2010). The ease of access, and
communication, and increase the rate at which information flows through the platform (Tess,
2013). While data shows that Facebook is by far the most popular and widely used social media
platform, Twitter has been steadily growing the number of users that it has (Ahlquist, 2015). In
2011 it was reported that Twitter had over 100 million users worldwide, and that there had been
an 80 percent increase in tweets since the beginning of that same year (Davis et al., 2012). The
Blogs. 1997 was the first time that uses of the word weblog were recorded (Tess, 2013).
By 2004, weblogs had become so popular and prominent in popular culture that Meriam-Webster
made blog the word of the year (Tess, 2013). With its foundation in the year 1997, blogging was
an established medium before social media was ever a concept. Blog’s recognition as word of
the year came about the same year as Mark Zuckerberg founded the social media cultural titan,
Facebook. With a history that predates social media, components and influences of blogs can be
found throughout most forms of social media (Ahlquist, 2015; Tess, 2013). Blogs provide users
SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION 7
with an outlet for personal expressions, and self-reflection (Nyangau & Bado, 2012). Tess
(2013) sums up blogging perfectly as “essentially an online journal” (p. A61). However, unlike
a typical journal, blogs allow for collaboration from several people (Nyangau & Bado, 2012;
Tess, 2013). Blogs also allow users to share their thoughts, opinions, and stories with other
people around the world who may share their interests, or are looking to learn more about
particular subjects (Tess, 2013). The blogging format also makes it easy for users to comment
on blogs, and share content that they find interesting across nearly any digital platform
(Ahlquirst, 2015; Nyangau & Bado, 2012). The versatility, and simplicity of blogs has
contributed heavily to the platform’s popularity. According to blog tracking services, there were
Impact. Social media platforms were originally designed for, and targeted at college
students, as a means to help them build and maintain networks of relationships (Nyangau &
Bado, 2012). This is clearly demonstrated in the founding and early years of Facebook, as the
platform started as an exclusive service for Harvard University students, and slowly spread to
other universities across the country before being made accessible to the general public
(Ahlquist, 2015). With the foundation of social media being rooted in college and university
student culture, it comes as no surprise that 83 percent of internet users ages 18-29 reported
using social media (Tess, 2013). While 18-29 year olds have the highest percentage of
participation, the level of participation in nearly every other age group has been increasing at an
exponential rate over the past several years (Ahlquirst, 2015; Davis et al., 2012; Junco et al.,
2010; Nyangau & Bado, 2012; Tess, 2013). As the number of users grows throughout all age
ranges, the influence that social media has increases with it, and with this increase in users comes
an increase in the diversity of the services social media offers. As new technologies rise they
SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION 8
provide new avenues for engagement and interaction, and new ways for individuals to network
and connect with one another (Ahlquirst, 2015). The ongoing creation of new social media
technologies means that research in this area needs to be constant, and innovative (Ahlquirst,
The introduction, and popularization of social media has drastically changed the way that
individuals interact with each other and the outside world. As college students make up the
majority of social media users, the potential impact that these services can have on colleges and
universities is significant (Davis et al., 2012). This potential influence has led many higher
education professionals to establish policies and procedures addressing the use of social media
on their campuses (Gonzalez, Davis, Lopez, Munoz & Soto, 2013). Several of the sources for
this literature review analyze the existing view points and relationships that universities and
higher education professionals have in regards to social media. This section establishes an
understanding of what that relationship looks like, and the role that social media currently plays
on college campuses. While social media is an ever-changing, and difficult to define concept,
one thing about it can be certain. Institutions of higher education, and the professionals who
work at them cannot agree on how these services should be implemented, or if they should be
implemented at all (Abreu, 2010; Davis et al., 2012; Legaree, 2015; Levine, & Dean, 2012; Tess,
Professionals and social media. Recently higher education professional have been
facing increasing pressure to educate themselves about social media, and consider how they
might best implement it into their positions to best benefit themselves and their students. The
competency. This new competency primarily focuses on the need for higher education
professionals to be familiar with the physical technology that they, and their students are likely to
encounter (ACPA/NASPA, 2016). However, two of the technology competency’s areas directly
address what higher education professionals need to understand in regards to social media.
The “Digital Identity and Citizenship,” and “Online Learning Environments” areas of the
technology competency layout the components of social media literacy that professionals need to
be competent in, as well as what they should be prepared to educate their students on
(ACPA/NASPA, 2016, pp. 33-34). These areas also outline expectations for how professionals
should try to network with one another, and aim to educate each other through their use of social
media tools (ACPA/NASPA, 2016). This new competency prompted Ahlquist (2016) to outline
digital identity for student affairs professionals, and how to maintain it. Ahlquist (2016) defines
digital identity as “the self-presentation method one displays online, in both personal and
professional contexts” (p. 29). The competency rubrics, and Ahlquirst’s (2016) concept of
digital identity not only set expectations for how professionals should conduct themselves when
using social media, but also place responsibility on them to educate their students on the
in higher education have been trending towards over the last several years. There has been a
growth in the level of involvement that professionals engage in with social media (Gonzalez et
al., 2013). Faculty members have grown more willing to utilize different social media platforms
in their classes, and advisors have begun to experiment with connecting to students via Facebook
(Gonzalez et al., 2013; Junco et al., 2010; Legaree, 2015; Levine & Dean, 2012). A study
reported that 70 percent of faculty members use social media for personal use, and that that
SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION 10
number is increasing every year (Legaree, 2015). The same study showed that 55 percent of
faculty also use social media for professional purposes (Legaree, 2015). This trend goes beyond
just faculty. In a recent study 100 percent of institutional representatives polled reported that
their schools use some form of social media in their university initiatives (Barnes & Lescault,
2011). Based on these findings, it would appear that higher education is moving quickly to adopt
Critiques of social media’s implementation. While the ACPA and NASPA have
created a competency that requires higher education professionals, and by association the
institutions that they work at to become familiar with social media, and strive to establish a
digital identity, the use of social media in higher education still has its critics. While the benefits
of utilizing social media in higher education appear to be tremendous, and many researchers
advocate for its use (Abreu, 2010; Ahlquist, 2015, 2016; Herberger & Harper, 2008; Junco et al.,
2010; Tess, 2013), there are still concerns that need to be considered and addressed (Legaree,
2015; Levine, & Dean, 2012; Nyangau & Bado, 2012; Wilson, 2013).
A concern at the forefront of the use of social media in higher education is the lack of
training professionals have, and the amount of time it will take to develop this competency
(Legaree, 2015). Along with this concern, when looking at incorporating social media into
different aspects of their organization university faculty and staff are worried about the amount
of time that it takes to do so (Wilson, 2013). As previously stated, social media platforms allow
users to do a multitude of things. Profiles, posts, comments, and chats take time to create and
share, and if these posts are being used for an organized purpose then the organizer must take the
additional time to facilitate, critique, and guide the connections being made. One common
SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION 11
example is moderating posts or discussions to ensure that negative and controversial posts
This concern over moderating content for controversial or negative interactions also
brings to light the concern over a lack of policies and guidelines that dictate how higher
education professionals should interact with students on social media (Nyangau & Bado, 2012).
Should university officials initiate, or accept friend requests or followings from students? In the
case of a number of administrators, and even some faculty members, accepting students’ friend
requests on Facebook could open the door to potential ethical violations or concerns (Nyangau &
Bado, 2012). However, moral ambiguity aside, the lack of university dictated policies and
guidelines can cause other concerns. On some campuses social media is used by various
departments and individuals to varying degrees, and in vastly different ways without contributing
to an overall institutional mission (Davis et al., 2012). This can lead to communication issues, as
none of the interaction students are having with an institution share a common message. While
there is a desire for organic, and individualized interaction between university officials and
students, standards help prevent ethical and communicative issues from arising (Davis et al.,
The third concern universities and higher education professionals express when
discussing the use of social media is how institutions and practitioners go about adopting these
technologies (Lagaree, 2015; Nyangau & Bado, 2012) There is a question as to whether social
media technologies are being adopted for no other reason than because everyone else is doing it.
Due to the high level of participation demonstrated by college aged students in social media,
researchers wonder if their adoption is solely driven by a desire to utilize these tools in an
attempt to win students over (Nyangau & Bado, 2012). In some cases, social media has been
SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION 12
implemented without any purpose, plan, or evaluative process to gage the tools effectiveness
(Davis et al., 2012; Nyangau & Bado, 2012). This behavior reflects similar concerns that have
been expressed regarding the general use of electronic media such as videos, and PowerPoint
presentations by faculty members in class rooms. In the end, Levine, and Dean (2012)
summarize the issue best with the following quote, “technology is not going to make up for a bad
teacher” (p. 49). In this case the same is also true for university officials and higher education
professionals.
As stated in the previous section, a concern expressed in regards to social media being
used in higher education is the lack of policies or guidelines that exist to help create a frame
work for how best to implement the technology. Despite the lack of preexisting case studies to
base practice off of, there have been several successful methods discovered for the integration of
social media into the field of higher education. This section will highlight cases were social
media platforms were used within classrooms, and incorporated into curriculum; used to
Twitter in the classroom. While the use of social media by students, and faculty
members alike is higher than it has ever been, few studies focus on how this technology is
utilized in the classroom. In 2010, Junco et al. conducted an experiment that spanned a whole
semester. The study observed 125 students taking a first year seminar class, and throughout the
class Twitter was used for assignments and class discussions (Junco et al., 2010). Twitter allows
users to share condensed, 140 character tweets, in an interactive microblog (Tess, 2013). This
medium lends itself well to a classroom setting as it allows for the cultivation of highly
interactive exchanges, and resource sharing (Ahlquist, 2015; Junco et al., 2010; Tess, 2013).
SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION 13
The study observed that use of Twitter for “educationally relevant purposes” showed
increased levels of engagement with both their peers and their instructor (Junco et al., 2010, p.
10). The study also stated that the courses use of Twitter had a positive effect on the grades of
the students who participated (Junco et al., 2010). Junco et al.’s (2010) use of Twitter’s
the education of certain science disciplines. Several faculty members and various colleges and
universities have used blogs, and blogging platforms in their classes cultivate student discussion,
Facebook users (Tess, 2013), utilizing the social media platform to engage students is in the best
interest of higher education professionals. According to a study by Heiberger, & Harper (2008),
Facebook utilizes Astin’s (1984) model for student involvement in the way that its users engage
with one another. Astin’s (1984) involvement theory outlines five postulates, or tenants, that are
used to identify involvement. Heiberger, & Harper (2008) compared how users engage with and
through Facebook with Astin’s tenants and drew several parallels between the two. Davis et al.
(2012) echoes this assertion, stating that social media platforms, when used for academic
purposes, increase student engagement at their institutions. This also reflects the results of Junco
et al.’s (2010) study on the effects of Twitter on college students in the classroom.
The study then goes on to prove how engagement through Facebook benefited students’
academic and social success. Heiberger, & Harper (2008) reported that the around 73 percent of
students who use Facebook for less than an hour a day, expressed having a stronger connections
to their friends as well as their institution. Around 63 percent of students who used Facebook for
less than an hour a day where involved in at least one student organization, and 15 percent of
SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION 14
students that spent six hours a week on Facebook also sent over six hours a week engaged in
student activates (Heiberger & Harper, 2008). These trends show that there is an observable
correlation between a student’s Facebook use, and their involvement and connection to the
University recruitment. Studies surrounding how colleges and universities use social
media have been circulating since as early as 2007 (Barnes & Lescault, 2011). However, while
the previous aspects of this paper looked at the academic and involvement aspects of social
media, the majority of these studies have focused on how institutions of higher education are
utilizing these tools to recruit new students (Barnes & Lescault, 2011; Davis et al., 2012;
Nyangau & Bado, 2012; Sandlin & Peña, 2014; Wilson, 2013). These studies have analyzed
every aspect of universities’ social media strategies used in their recruitment and admissions
efforts, and how students respond to them. It comes as no surprise to platforms such as
Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, YouTube, and even MySpace among the tools institutions have
begun to utilize over the last several years (Barnes & Lescault, 2011).
What is surprising about these studies however, is the overwhelming emphasis that has
been placed on blogging (Barnes & Lescault, 2011; Davis et al., 2012; Nyangau & Bado, 2012;
Sandlin & Peña, 2014). According to research, the number of universities that utilizing blogs in
their recruitment efforts has been rising rapidly over the past several years (Sandlin & Peña,
2014). Nyangau, & Bado (2012) reported that as of 2011, 66 percent of schools were using
blogs. When asked, admissions professionals credit the increase in blog use to the desire to
create an authentic portrayal of their institution (Sandlin & Peña, 2014). This emphasis on
authenticity is derived from students wanting to see how a university truly is, or an “insider”
view (Sandlin & Peña, 2014). In order to create more authentic blogs, and provide students with
SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION 15
a view point that appears to be independent, many schools are now using current students to
write their blogs (Barnes & Lescault, 2011; Davis et al., 2012; Nyangau & Bado, 2012). This
approach to student recruitment not only benefits the institutions that employ them, but also the
students who are exposed to this information. Students who read these authentic blogs are able
to create more accurate expectations of what their college experience will actually be like, and
are more likely to be engaged with the institution during their college career (Nyangau & Bado,
2012).
Recommendations
As social media begins to leave its adolescent faze and begins to become a more stable
medium, there are several steps that higher education professionals and organizations can take.
The first step to take is education. Since ACPA, and NASPA (2016) have now added a
in the amount and quality of resources made available to help train higher education
professionals in the use and nuances of social media services. This also means that universities
and academic departments needs to commit to devoting time and resources to training their staff
and creating strategies and plans for how they would like to implement these tools (Wilson,
2013). The greatest strategy that can be considered when planning how best to utilize social
media is to be intentional with it (Davis et al., 2012; Nyangau & Bado, 2012). “When the first
student unions were created, responsible administrators hired staff members to create programs
and services for students in these campus centers” (Heiberger & Harper, 2008, p. 33). In this
same regard, institutions of higher education need to do all that they can to meet students where
This literature review also covered several social media strategies that would be
beneficial to higher education professionals to consider when looking for promising practices to
implement. Junco et al.’s (2010) incorporation of social media platforms in the class room, and
the impact that it had on student engagement and academic success provides a model of how to
utilize social media through academia. While Heiberger, and Harper’s (2008) parallels between
Astin’s (1984) involvement theory and Facebook engagement provide a foundation upon which
institutions can create systems to better connect students to the institutions that they attend.
Lastly, the use of blogs, and the emphasis placed on authentic content by university recruitment
initiatives not only paints a vivid picture of how institutions can better recruit students, it also
provides an epistemological lens on what students are looking for and need from their social
media engagement with institutions and professionals (Sandlin & Peña, 2014).
Conclusion
Higher education is a field that seeks to innovate and improve itself for the betterment of
the students that it serves. In the digital age of social media, students and their needs have
changed faster than higher education has been able to keep up. Institutions and professionals are
adapting to technologies that are foreign to them, but that their students have always had.
Although universities and higher education professionals are begging to implement these new
technologies, there is still a great deal of room for growth and development.
This literature review composed a definition of social media, and analyzed several key
platforms that are already widely used by both students and universities. The review also
investigated the relationship between social media and higher education, reflecting on the current
views that professionals hold about these new technologies, and highlighting the concerns that
many hold about their implementation. Then examples of how social media has already been
SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION 17
integrated into academic, involvement, and recruitment initiates where presented and analyzed.
Lastly, recommendations for how higher education professionals and organizations can move
forward in utilizing social media were made based on the results of the literature review.
Social media has great potential, and can help higher education professionals better
connect with, and engage students. There is also great support and enthusiasm from
professionals, as well as professional organizations like ACPA and NASPA when it comes to the
development and implementation of social media within higher education. However, there are
still legitimate concerns surrounding how, and why institutions and individuals are using social
media. While these concerns need to be addressed, they should not prevent the use of social
media, as there have been several successful examples of how the technology can be used to the
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