Unit 1: Epistemological bases of Education

Concept of knowledge
Chamber of dictionary answer the question for what is knowledge is (i) as the fact of knowing, (ii)
information or what is known; (iii) the whole of what can be learned or found out. Further, it also knowledge
as assured belief, that which is known, information, instruction, enlightenment, learning, practical skill and
acquaintance. Considering all the above that are worthy of knowing. A term widely used by teachers,
educators and policy makers is concept of knowledge and it refers to the body of information that teachers
teach and that students are expected to learn in a given subject or content area such as English, Language
Arts, Mathematics, Science, or Social Studies. Concept of knowledge generally refers to the facts, concepts,
theories and principles that are taught and learned rather than related to skills such as reading, writing, or
researching that student also learns in academic courses.
Importance of knowledge
Knowledge is not truth. Truth is inferred on the bases of available knowledge. The truth about the universe
around us or the macrocosm to the microcosm is inferred knowledge. The knowledge of galaxy is inferred;
so is the whole nuclear science, space, DNA etc,. Much of what we knew is not observed knowledge. They
are known through their effects, properties, and characteristics. It is at the stage of inference that
employment of methods for drawing inferences that philosophy is at work. Knowledge certified by the
philosophy enters the curriculum of education. Methods approved by philosophy for building knowledge
from the bases of methods and techniques of teaching. The truth arrived by philosophy sets the goals and
objectives of education as well as instruments and uses of evaluation. Like this knowledge helps philosophy
to interpret, guide, monitor and validating the educational process at every stages.
Distinction between knowledge, skill, teaching, training, information, reason & belief
Knowledge is information acquired through sensory input: Reading, watching, listening, touching, etc. The
concept of knowledge refers to familiarity with factual information and theoretical concepts. Knowledge
can be transferred from one person to another or it can be self-acquired through observation and study.

Skills, however, refer to the ability to apply knowledge to specific situations. Skills are developed through
practice, through a combination of sensory input and output. As an example, social skills are developed
through interaction with people by observing, listening, and speaking with them. Trial and error is probably
the best way to achieve skills mastery.

In education, teaching is the concerted sharing of knowledge and experience, which is usually organized
within a discipline and, more generally, the provision of stimulus to the psychological and intellectual
growth of a person by another person or artifact.

Training is an organized activity aimed at imparting information and/or instructions to improve the
recipient's performance or to help him or her attain a required level of knowledge or skill.

Information is stimuli that has meaning in some context for its receiver. When information is entered into
and stored in a computer, it is generally referred to as data. After processing (such as formatting and
printing), output data can again be perceived as information.

Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts,
applying logic, and changing or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or
existing information. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities
as philosophy, science, language, mathematics, and art and is normally considered to be a distinguishing
ability possessed by humans. Reason, or an aspect of it, is sometimes referred to as rationality.

Belief is that if we know something to be true, then it is more than a belief. The tricky question now is 'How
do we know that something is always true?' Just because in our experience it has always been true, it doesn't
necessarily follow that it will continue to be true.

We usually belief that things will happen as they have previously happened, because it is useful to do so.
As such, this means that everything is a belief. Which is good, from a persuasion standpoint. Because beliefs
can be changed.

Knowledge according to various school of thought i.e. idealism, naturalism, empiricism and pragmatism

Idealism

According to idealism a belief is true when it is logically consistent with the rest of our belief. Idealism is
the based on Coherence theory of truth. According to this theory truth is coherence within our experience.
Idealism adheres to principles of the priority of consciousness. This principle reveals that the idealist
accords primacy to mind over matter. Thus, the totality of the universe is spirit in essence. The idealists
subscribe to the doctrine of a latent and preordained harmony between men and universe. To know is to
rethink the latent ideas that are already in the mind. Idealistic curriculum reflects the cultural heritage and
civilization of the whole human race. Plato advocates three types of activities i.e. intellectual, aesthetic and
moral for the attainment of ideals of life i.e. truth, beauty and goodness. He stresses language, literature,
history, geography, maths, science for intellectual activity. He emphasizes arts and poetry for aesthetic
activity. He assigned religion, metaphysics and ethics for moral activities.

Naturalism

Naturalism advocates the selection of learning experience according to the present needs, interests and
activities of the child. It insists that adult interference should be reduced to the minimum and that the child
should grow up in the free atmosphere. Naturalists emphasises the child centered methods of teaching. They
recommend proper motivation and effective use or illustrative aids to capture and maintain the child’s
interest in the lesson. They advocate perfect freedom for the child. They believe in discipline by natural
consequences.

Empiricism

Empiricism is the theory that the origin of all knowledge is sense experience. It emphasizes the role
of experience and evidence, especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas, and argues that
the only knowledge humans can have is a posteriori (i.e. based on experience). Most empiricists also
discount the notion of innate ideas or innatism (the idea that the mind is born with ideas or knowledge and
is not a "blank slate" at birth).

In order to build a more complex body of knowledge from these direct observations, induction or inductive
reasoning (making generalizations based on individual instances) must be used. This kind of knowledge is
therefore also known as indirect empirical knowledge.
Empiricism is contrasted with Rationalism, the theory that the mind may apprehend some truths directly,
without requiring the medium of the senses.

Pragmatism

The pragmatist visualized the relationship between man and the world as one of perpetual (continuous)
growth towards a dynamic equilibrium. The utility theory of truth is to the effect that truth is what worked
in practice. It is based on change, process and relatively. It constructs knowledge as a process in which
reality is constantly changing and rejects the dogmas of pre-conceived truths and external values. Pragmatic
curriculum reflects practical utilitarian subjects. The curriculum designed based on the principle of utility,
integration and child’s personal needs, interests and experience. Curriculum must not exist apart from the
social context. The pragmatism places heavy emphasis on broad-field curriculum, diversified curriculum,
experience-centered curriculum, problem-based curriculum. In brief, the pragmatic curriculum is built on
people’s experiences and needs.

Process of Knowing
As you know, in today’s world, the knowledge and the capability to create and utilize knowledge are
considered to be most advantageous to an individual. Knowledge creation is a dialectical process, which
involves systemization of various facts through dynamic interactions between individuals and the
environment. Knowledge creation is a spiral that goes through seemingly opposing concepts such as order
and chaos, micro and macro, part and whole, mind and body, tacit and explicit, self and other, deduction
and induction, and creativity and efficiency. There is a need to understand that knowledge creation is a
transcending process through which entities (individuals, groups, and institutions) go beyond the boundary
of the old into a new self by acquiring new knowledge. In the process, new conceptual artifacts and
structures for interaction are created, which provide 114 Basics in Education possibilities as well as
constrain the entities in consequent knowledge creation. Thus, knowledge creation is a cyclic process.
Figure below illustrates the levels of the mind and the relationship among knower, process of knowing, and
known. The level of awareness of the knower determines the corresponding process of knowing, as well as
the nature of the knowledge gained. Education traditionally trains the knower to use deeper levels of the
mind to gain more useful and fulfilling knowledge. Knower and known are united on the ground of
transcendental consciousness. The result is complete knowledge of natural law, and on that basis, thought
and action are spontaneously most effective.
The process of knowing is a personalized, individual task that is influenced by experience and
unintentional contextual cues. There are three aspects of knowledge – the knower (the consciousness of
the participant), the known (the field of study), and the process of knowing (which connects the knower to
the known). Modern education focuses only on the known, the field of study, and excludes the other two-
thirds of knowledge, the knower and the process of knowing.
Ways of Knowing
The different ways by which students can be initiated into the process of knowing are:
• By perceiving concrete objects and acquiring sensory knowledge.
• By experiencing situations themselves.
• By relating to previous knowledge/associations.
• By relating to real life situations.
• By dealing with problematic situations and developing rational and abstract knowledge.
• By interacting with others and gaining knowledge of relationships
Sense Perception
Though sense perception is the most basic and immediate ‘way of knowing’, sometimes it might not be a
very reliable source. All the five senses, i.e., touch, taste, sight, smell and hearing, contribute immensely
towards our quest for knowledge acquisition. They are sometimes referred to as the gateways of knowledge.
Language
Language acts as a carrier or medium for conveying the knowledge from one individual to the other. It
integrates knowledge acquired through varied sources at varied places and names it (concept- name). It
helps in memorizing and recalling. In this context, the followings should be kept in view.

Contribution of Language to Knowledge

Acquisition and Transmission
The acquisition of a first language occurs so easily for most people, and communication with others is so
effortless, that the influence of language in shaping thoughts is seldom noticed. The appeal of a well-
constructed argument can be sensed even without any formal training in logic or other forms of reasoning.
Language is so much a part of human activity that it is easily taken for granted. The issues related to
language and knowledge call for conscious scrutiny in order to recognise its influence on thought and
behaviour.
Knower–Known Relationship
Language facilitates the process of knowing. The role of language in constructing knowledge is vital.
Language is commonly understood as a tool to describe and report the reality. However, this is a limited
view of language since language is not only content; it also provides context and a way to re-contextualise
content. We do not only describe and report with language but we create with it. It is argued that language
significantly influences how we construct knowledge while interacting with each other. Words expressed
through language and their meaning influence how we perceive and interpret the world around us. Language
affects our thinking. While constructing knowledge, we are processing cognitions through language.
Therefore, language is considered as a vehicle of thought.
Reason
Developing rational and critical thinking abilities is pivotal to acquiring reliable knowledge. It involves
both conscious and unconscious reasoning. Sometimes what has happened in the past (previous experience)
teach us to reason with reference to the future. Developing association between past, present and future
occurrences is part of the reasoning process creating patterns/chains in process of learning. In logic, we
often refer to the two broad methods of reasoning as the deductive and inductive approaches. Deductive
reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a
‘topdown’ approach. Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to
broader generalisations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a ‘bottom-up’ approach.
Emotion
The emotions and their expression vary across cultures and hence knowledge so acquired may not be as
reliable. It is subjective and less measurable. It helps as well as hinders in the process of knowledge
construction. The training of emotions is a key factor in enhancing the teaching-learning process. Arousing
positive emotions in the knower facilitates smoother transmission of knowledge. The teacher should help
create positive emotions in the knower about the known. Curiosity and eagerness are the most essential
ones.

Process of Knowledge
Construction In the context of school, the knowledge construction process relates to the extent to which
teachers help students to understand, investigate, and determine how the implicit cultural assumptions,
frames of references, perspectives, and biases within a discipline influence the ways in which knowledge
is constructed. Three processes are singled out as crucial to constructing this knowledge: activation of
existing knowledge, communication between stakeholders, and envisioning of how a new system will
change work practices. Activating knowledge refers to making it explicit and accessible to all stakeholders.
Both users and developers of knowledge benefit from activation.

Reorganizing knowledge in schools at suitable intervals is an accepted practice in educational science. Such
an exercise is inevitable to take care of a good deal of knowledge explosion taking place that makes in a
certain span of years, a significant portion of formal knowledge informal. In case of a scientific exercise,
the evaluation of the existing manner of knowledge organisation becomes the basis for reframing of
knowledge organisation strategies–technique as well as content.

The knowledge in school is organized in terms of curricular areas. While organizing such knowledge, a
number of things are kept in mind. In India, there are several agencies responsible for selection and
organisation of knowledge, such NCERT, CBSE, SCERTs and State Boards of Education. At the national
level, so far four times curriculum has been developed. The latest being the NCF–2005, which focuses on
constructivist principle of learning.

Unit 2 Meaning and Nature of Education

Education is a systematic process through which a child or an adult acquires knowledge, experience, skill
and sound attitude. It makes an individual civilized, refined, cultured and educated. For a civilized and
socialized society, education is the only means. Its goal is to make an individual perfect. Every society
gives importance to education because it is a panacea for all evils. It is the key to solve the various problems
of life.

Education has been described as a process of waking up to life:

Waking up to life and its mysteries, its solvable problems and the ways to solve the problems and celebrate
the mysteries of life.

Waking up to the inter-dependencies of all things, to the threat to our global village, to the power within
the human race to create alternatives, to the obstacles entrenched in economic, social and political structures
that prevent our waking up.

– Education in the broadest sense of the term is meant to aid the human being in his/her pursuit of
wholeness. Wholeness implies the harmonious development of all the potentialities God has given to a
human person.

– True education is the harmonious development of the physical, mental, moral (spiritual), and social
faculties, the four dimensions of life, for a life of dedicated service.

DEFINITIONS
Since time immemorial, education is estimated as the right road to progress and prosperity. Different
educationists’ thoughts from both Eastern and Western side have explained the term ‘education’ according
to the need of the hour. Various educationists have given their views on education. Some important
definitions are:

NATURE OF EDUCATION
As is the meaning of education, so is its nature. It is very complex. Let us now discuss the nature of
education:

1. Education is a life-long process- Education is a continuous and lifelong process. It starts from the womb
of the mother and continues till death. It is the process of development from infancy to maturity. It includes
the effect of everything which influences human personality.
2. Education is a systematic process- It refers to transact its activities through a systematic institution and
regulation.
3. Education is development of individual and the society- It is called a force for social development, which
brings improvement in every aspect in the society.
4. Education is modification of behaviour- Human behaviour is modified and improved through educational
process.
5. Education is purposive: every individual has some goal in his life. Education contributes in attainment
of that goal. There is a definite purpose underlined all educational activities.
6. Education is a training- Human senses, mind, behaviour, activities; skills are trained in a constructive
and socially desirable way.
7. Education is instruction and direction- It directs and instructs an individual to fulfill his desires and needs
for exaltation of his whole personality.
8. Education is life- Life without education is meaningless and like the life of a beast. Every aspect and
incident needs education for its sound development.
9. Education is continuous reconstruction of our experiences- As per the definition of John Dewey
education reconstructs and remodels our experiences towards socially desirable way.
10. Education helps in individual adjustment: a man is a social being. If he is not able to adjust himself in
different aspects of life his personality can’t remain balanced. Through the medium of education he learns
to adjust himself with the friends, class fellows, parents, relations, neighbours and teachers etc.
11. Education is balanced development: Education is concerned with the development of all faculties of the
child. it performs the functions of the physical, mental, aesthetic, moral, economic, spiritual development
of the individual so that the individual may get rid of his animal instincts by sublimating the same so that
he becomes a civilized person.
12. Education is a dynamic process: Education is not a static but a dynamic process which develops the
child according to changing situations and times. It always induces the individual towards progress. It
reconstructs the society according to the changing needs of the time and place of the society.
13. Education is a bipolar process: According to Adams, education is a bipolar process in which one
personality acts on another to modify the development of other person. The process is not only conscious
but deliberate.
14. Education is a three dimensional process: John Dewey has rightly remarked, “All educations proceeds
by participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race.” Thus it is the society which will
determine the aims, contents and methods of teachings. In this way the process of education consists of 3
poles – the teacher, the child and the society.
15. Education as growth: The end of growth is more growth and the end of education is more education.
According to John Dewey, “an individual is a changing and growing personality.” The purpose of education
is to facilitate the process of his/her growth.
Therefore, the role of education is countless for a perfect society and man. It is necessary for every society
and nation to bring holistic happiness and prosperity to its individuals.

Notion of an Educated Person

Education is a misunderstood term. It is often confused with related concepts such as knowledge and school.
Education sometimes happens at school (and sometimes doesn’t), and knowledge can be a sign of an
education, but neither are education itself. Simply put, education is the willingness and ability to learn for
the sake of learning. The truly educated person learns constantly without supervision or external reward.
To truly define what education is, we must first look at what it is not.

People generally think of school when education is brought up. School can be more than learning skills,
memorizing facts, and putting them down on paper hoping to be rewarded with a good grade. The intended
purpose of school is to teach students to think critically, which is something it often accomplishes. However,
school is not education itself; it is a medium for students to reach their goal of being educated. School
traditionally attempts to do this by setting up a course of external rewards for students to attain, each
supposedly bringing the student closer to being truly educated. College is seen as the final goal for high
school students.

College represents the ultimate form of education, and graduating from college is when people are certified
as educated. It is not that simple. After college, an infinite amount of learning can be accomplished. School
is like a trail to follow in a deep forest, giving students a taste of knowledge. However, to truly learn, people
have to do it themselves. Educated people should develop a habit of constant learning without structure and
reward.

An educated person in some people’s eyes is someone who knows a lot, someone who has retained a large
amount of information, someone who can state facts without having to look them up. Broad knowledge can
be valuable, but this is not an educated person. This is a knowledgeable person. To be educated is not about
how much someone knows. It is about how someone can use what that person knows to enhance their
learning experience. Knowing all the facts in the world won’t make a person educated unless that person
can use those ideas for the sake of gaining more knowledge. On the other hand if someone is full of ideas
but lacks the knowledge to put them to use, their creativity is void. It takes both creativity and knowledge
to make a truly educated person.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
Aims give direction to activities. Aims of education are formulated keeping in view the needs of situation.
Human nature is multisided with multiple needs, which are related to life. Educational aims are correlated
to ideals of life.
The goal of education should be the full flowering of the human on this earth. According to a UNESCO
study, “the physical, intellectual, emotional and ethical integration of the individual into a complete
man/woman is the fundamental aim of education.”
The goal of education is also to form children into human persons committed to work for the creation of
human communities of love, fellowship, freedom, justice and harmony. Students are to be molded only by
making them experience the significance of these values in the school itself. Teachers could achieve this
only by the lived example of their lives manifested in hundreds of small and big transactions with students
in word and deed.
Individual and Social Aims:
Individual aims and social aims are the most important aims of education. They are opposed to each other
individual aims gives importance for the development of the individuality. Social aim gives importance to
the development of society through individual not fulfilling his desire. But it will be seen that development
of individuality assumes meaning only in a social environment.

Individual Aims – Sir Percy Nunn observes, “Nothing goods enters into the human world except in and
through the free activities of individual men and women and that educational practice must be shaped the
individual. Education should give scope to develop the inborn potentialities through maximum freedom.”
Because:
(1) Biologists believe that every individual is different from others. Every child is a new and unique product
and a new experiment with life. Thompson says, “Education is for the individual”. Individual should be the
centre of all educational efforts and activities.

(2) Naturalists believe that central aim of education is the autonomous development of the individual.
Rousseau said, “Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Author of Nature, but everything
degenerates in the hands of man.” God makes all things good, man meddles with them and they become
evil. God creates everything good man makes it evil. So individual should be given maximum freedom for
its own development.
(3) Psychologists believe that education is an individual process because of individual differences. No two
individuals are alike. So education should be according to the interest of the individual.

Social Aim:
The supporters believe that society or state is supreme or real. The individual is only a means. The progress
of the society is the aim of education. Education is for the society and of the society. The function of
education is for the welfare of the state. The state will make the individual as it desires. It prepares the
individual to play different roles in society. Individuality has no value, and personality is meaningless apart
from society. If society will develop individual will develop automatically. Here society plays an important
role.

The term ‘education’ has been interpreted by different people in different ways. Some people refer to it as
formal schooling or to lifelong learning. Some others refer to it as acquisition of knowledge, skills and
attitudes. Some say that education is nothing, but training of people’s mind in a particular direction to bring
about desired changes. If you ask a statesman, an artisan, a teacher, a parent, a philosopher and a student
about what education means to them, you would be surprised to know the multiple interpretations and views
people have about education.

This only shows that education doesn’t have one precise universally accepted definition. It has various
meanings with various functions. Analysis of these meanings would help us to understand what education
really is. To begin with, let us look into how the term ‘education’ has evolved and some of the views of
great thinkers that exemplifies the concept and meaning of education.

Vision of Education in Contemporary Indian Society

The most important and urgent reform needed in education is to transform it, to relate it to the life, needs
and aspirations of the people and thereby make a powerful instrument of social, economic and cultural
transformation, necessary for realization of the national goals. For this purpose the Kothari commission has
suggested the following objectives of education:
(a) Increasing productivity.
(b) Social and national integration.
(c) Acceleration the process of modernization.
(d) Developing social, moral and spiritual values.

Science Education
Science education must become an integral part of school education and ultimately some study of science
should become a part of all courses in the humanities and social sciences at universities also. The quality
of science teaching must also be improved considerably so as to promote a deep understanding of basic
principles, to develop problem solving and analytical skills and to promote the spirit of enquiry and
experimentation. Work Experience. In the programmed of relating education to life and productivity, work
experience must be introduced as an integral part of all education general and vocational. To commission
work experience implies participation in productive work in school, in the home, in a workshop, on a farm,
in a factory or in any productive situation. Along with other elements of education work experience should
be greatly emphasized for the following reasons:
(a) It will bridge the gap between intellectual and manual work.
(b) It will decrease the over academic nature of formal education.
(c) It will make the entry of youth into the world of work and employment easier by enabling them to adjust
themselves to it.
(d) It will relate education to productivity and also as a means of social and national integration.
Vocationalization
Every attempt should be made to give a vocational bias to secondary education and to increase the emphasis
on agricultural and technological education at the university stage. This will surely bring education into
closer relationship with productivity. In the modern Indian society which is heading towards
industrialization, it is essential to considerably expand professional education at the university stage,
especially in agricultural and technological fields.
Education for National Integration
India is a land of diverse social groups. Unity and harmony among these groups is the basis of national
integration. Social and national integration is an important objective of a national system of education. The
Kothari Commission has suggested the following steps for strengthening the nation through education.
The Common School System
The present educational system in our country instead of bringing social groups and classes together is
tending to increase social segregation and class distinctions. The schools for the masses (generally
maintained by the government) are of poorer quality than those run by private bodies. Good schools are not
within the reach of a common man’s pocket. This is one of the major weaknesses of the existing educational
system. In the opinion of the Commission, “If our educational system is to become a powerful instrument
of national development in general, and social and national integration in particular, we must march toward
the goal of a Common School System of public education.” The common school must be opened to all
children irrespective of caste, creed, community and economic or social status.

Social and National Service

Social and national service should be made obligatory for all students at all stages. It should form an integral
part of education at secondary school and university levels. This programme will prove an effective
instrument for building character improving discipline, inculcating a faith in the dignity of labour and
developing a sense of social responsibility, if it is organized concurrently with academic studies in schools
and colleges.
Promoting national consciousness
India is a land of different castes, peoples, communities, languages, religions and cultures. The main role
of our schools, colleges and universities should, therefore, be to enable our students to discover ‘unity in
diversity’ and in this way, foster a sense of national solidarity and national consciousness among them. The
Promotion of Understanding and Re-evaluation of Our Cultural Heritage this can be achieved by the well-
organized teaching of language and literature, philosophy, religion and history of India and by introducing
the students to Indian architecture, sculpture, painting, music, dance and drama

Education for International Understanding

There is no contradiction between national consciousness and developing international understanding.
Schools should promote international outlook through the study of humanities and social sciences,
simultaneously with developing national consciousness.
Democratic Values
The educational programme in schools and colleges should be designed to inculcate democratic values,
such as scientific temper of mind, tolerance, respect for the culture of other national groups etc. This will
enable our young citizens to adopt democracy not only as a form of government but also as a way of life.
In a modern society stock of knowledge is far greater, the pace of its growth is infinitely quicker and social
change is very rapid. This needs a radical change in the educational system. Education in a modern society
is no longer concerned mainly with the imparting of knowledge or the preparation of a finished product but
with the awakening of curiosity, the development of proper interests, attitudes and values and the building
up of such essential skills as independent study and capacity to think and judge for oneself, without which
it is not possible to become a responsible member of a democratic society.

Education for Social, Moral and Spiritual Values

The expanding knowledge and the growing power which it places at the disposal of modern society must
be combined with the strengthening and deepening of the sense of social responsibility and a keener
appreciation of moral and spiritual values. For this purpose, active measures should be adopted to give a
value-orientation to education. These measures are:
(a) The central and state Governments should introduce education in moral, social and spiritual values in
all institutions.
(b) The privately managed institutions should also follow the same steps.
(c) Some periods should be set apart in the time table for this purpose.
(d) University department should undertake preparation of special literature for this purpose by students
and teachers.
(e) For this purpose, syllabus giving well-chosen information about each of the major religions should be
included as a part of the course in citizenship or general education to be introduced in schools and colleges.
We may say that education is the most vital forces which can help in the realization of national objectives.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS ON EDUCATION

Fundamental Rights
Chapter III of the Indian Constitution has 24 Articles which deal with the Fundamental Rights of the Indian
citizens. The Fundamental Rights are classified into six categories. i) Right to Equality. ii) Right to Freedom
and Personal Liberty. iii) Right against Exploitation. iv) Right to Freedom of Religion v) Cultural and
Educational Rights. vi) Right to Constitutional Remedy.
Now, let us see how each of these rights is related to Education:
1) Right to Equality and Education: There was a time when education was the privilege of a certain class
of people. But the right to equality makes education open to all without any discrimination. Education will
be provided to all without any discrimination of caste, creed, religion, sex etc.
2) Right to Freedom and Personal Liberty and Education: This right includes freedom of expression.
Freedom of expression does not have any meaning at all unless one is educated enough to express his/ her
opinion on any issue. Similarly, personal liberty will also be hollow unless the person concerned knows
what personal liberty is and an illiterate person is not expected to know it.
3) Right Against Exploitation and Education: There are some Dalits and tribal groups in out country
who do not even realize how much they have been exploited in the traditional social system. Only education
can make them realize that they are being exploited
4) Right to Freedom of Religion and Education: This is an important fundamental right in the sense that
it talks about freedom of conscience and right to practice or propagate any religion by peaceful means. Only
an educated person will be able to comprehend the true meaning of this right.
5) Cultural and Educational Right: This is directly related to education. The minorities have the right to
establish and maintain educational institutions and also to preserve their culture.
6) Right to Constitutional Remedies and Education: Every Indian citizen has the right to go even to the
Supreme Court of India if he/she feels that his/her fundamental right has been violated. An illiterate person
will simply be unaware of the existence of such a right and will be ignorant about his right to challenge the
violation of his fundamental right. Therefore education is necessary to make one understand this right.
The Directive Principles of State Policy
One of the important features of the Indian Constitution is the enumeration of the Directive Principles of
State Policy in it. They have been included in Chapter IV of the Indian Constitution. The principal aim of
these principles is to convert India into a Welfare State. The Directive Principles act as the guide of all
authorities functioning in India under the Constitution. While the Fundamental Rights aim at protecting the
life, liberty and property of the people, the Directive Principles of State Policy direct the states to apply
these principles to making laws. From educational point of view, the Directive Principles emphasize on
free and compulsory education for all children within the age group of 6 to 14. Unless people are educated,
it will not at all be possible to raise the standard of living of the people and secure welfare of the county.

Some Articles of the Constitution on Education

1) Education for weaker section: Article 45 under the Directive Principles of State Policy states: “The
state shall promote with special care the educational and economic interest of the weaker sections of the
people and in particular the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes and shall protect them from social
injustice and all forms of exploitation.
2) Finance provision: Article 282 of the Constitution regarding miscellaneous financial provisions is
related to education also. The Article states:”The Union or a State may make any grants to any public
purpose …… Obviously, it includes education also as education is a “public purpose”.
3) Framing Educational Policies: The Union Government is empowered by the Constitution to lay down
guidelines for all the states with regard to a number of aspects – for example, Basic education, use of Hindi
etc. The relevant Article of the Constitution is 257 (i).
4) Secular Education: Article 28 states, “No religious instructions shall be provided in any educational
institution wholly maintained out of the state funds.” Again, Article 30 states, “The state shall not, in
granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that
it is under the management of a 106 Education in Contemporary Indian Society Unit 4 The Constitution of
India and Education minority, whether based on religion or language.”
5) Women’s Education: Article 15(i) provides that “the State shall not discriminate against any citizen on
the grounds only of ………..sex.” Article 16(i) provides equality of opportunity for all citizens. Hence, the
Constitution has given women absolute equality with men. It is only through full opportunity given to girls
for education that we can aspire for high level of literacy.
6) 86th Constitution Amendment Act. : Article 21 of the Constitution Amendment Act 2001, states that
“the State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in
such manner, as the state may, by law, determine.” The provision is self-explanatory.
7) The 11th Plan and Education: The 11th plan (2007-2012) document places development of children
“at the centre of the plan.” It aims at giving the right start of children from prenatal to 6 years through
effective implementation of the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) programme with active
community involvement

The Right to Education Act (RTE), 2009 was passed by the Indian Parliament on August 4, 2009, to
provide free and compulsory education for children between 6 and 14 years of age in India under Article
21A of the Indian Constitution. India has become one of 135 countries to make Educational a Fundamental
Right of every child. The law came into effect in the whole of India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir
from 1 April 2010.

Key Points of the Right to Education Act:

 Free and compulsory education to all children of India in from 6 to 14 years age
 The Government schools shall provide free education to all the children and the schools will be
managed by School Management Committees (SMC) with 75% of parents and guardians as
members.
 Private schools shall have to admit at least 25% of the children in their schools from the weaker
sections and disadvantaged groups of the society through a random selection process. Government
will fund education of these children.
 No school shall, while admitting a child, collect any donation and capitation fee.
 No school shall subject either the child or his/her parents or guardian to any screening procedure
such as, admission test, interview, etc.
 No child shall be denied admission in a school for lack of age proof.
 No child shall be held back, expelled, or required to pass a board examination until completion of
elementary education up to class VIII.
 No child shall be subjected to physical punishment or mental harassment.
 A child who completes elementary education that is up to class VIII shall be awarded a certificate.
It also calls for a fixed student-teacher ratio (30:1).
 No teacher shall engage himself or herself in private tuition or private teaching activity.
 Every teacher must obtain an adequate professional degree in teaching within a period of five years
from the date of commencement of the Act.
 The National Commission for Elementary Education shall be constituted to monitor all aspects of
elementary education including quality.
 School infrastructure (where there is problem) to be improved in three years, else recognition is
cancelled; Any schools to face penalty for violating RTE

NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK–2005 AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

The term National Curriculum Framework was articulated in the NPE, 1986 and the Programme of
Action (POA) 1992.National education policy, 1986 had proposed a national framework for curriculum
as a means of evolving a national system of education capable of responding to India’s diversity of
geographical and cultural milieus while ensuring a common core of values along with academic
components. It provides the framework for making syllabi, textbooks and teaching practices within the
school education programmes in India. As an apex national agency of educational reform, NCERT is
expected to review the school curriculum as a regular activity, ensuring the highest standards of rigour
and deliberative openness in the process.
Despite the review of the Curriculum Framework in 2000, the unsatisfactory issues of curriculum load
and the domination of examinations remained unresolved. Consequently, in 2004, the NCERT initiated
the review of National Education, Society and Curriculum Framework for School Education– 2000. In
the context of this exercise, a National Steering Committee chaired by Prof. Yash Pal and 21 National
Focus groups were set up. The position papers prepared by these National Focus groups provided inputs
to the National Curriculum Framework–2005.The National Curriculum Framework-2005 takes into
cognizance both positive and negative developments in the field, and attempts to address the future
requirements of school education at the turn of the century. In this endeavour, several interrelated
dimensions have been kept in mind, namely, the aims of education, the social milieu of children, the
nature of knowledge in its broader sense, the nature of human development, and the process of human
learning.

According to this framework the basic aim of everything done in schools should be geared towards
preparing students for the following factors:
1) Lifelong Learning: Education should develop a love for learning and the constant willingness to
unlearn and relearn. Thus, an important aim of education is to empower all students to towards
knowledge and learning.
2) Democratic Values: We should build in students a commitment to democratic values of equality,
justice, freedom, respect for human dignity and rights, based on sensitivity to others’ well-being and
feelings, together with increasing knowledge and understanding of the world.
3) Meaningful Work Leading to Social Transformation: Schools must prepare children to
participate in socio-economic processes and meaningful work in a spirit of self-reliance and
cooperation, contributing to the improvement of society.
4) Development of Creativity: Education must provide the means and opportunities to enhance the
child’s creative expression. Education should enable learners to respond to new situations in a flexible
and creative manner. Learner engagement is construction of knowledge and fostering of creativity is
necessary as well.
5) Development of Life Skills: Development of life skills such as critical thinking, interpersonal
communication, negotiation skills, problem solving, and self-management is also very critical towards
dealing with the challenges of everyday life.
6) Independence of Thought and Action: Another aim of education is the development of
independence of thought and action. It should teach people to think for themselves and make important
independent decisions. Education should make adequate room for voicing children’s thoughts,
curiosity, and questions in curricular practices.

State Curriculum Framework (BCF 2008)

Unit-3: Educational Ideas of Contemporary Thinkers

Concept and Meaning of Education

According To Indian Thinkers Besides knowing the narrow and the broad meanings of education and
various other interpretations, it may also be desirable to explore into the educational thoughts of great
thinkers in order to get a deeper understanding of the concept and the nature of education. The great
philosophers and thinkers, through different periods of human civilization, have attempted to define
education and, in doing so, have reflected their own philosophical ideals and thoughts. Let us try to
trace the educational thoughts of some of the great Indian thinkers whom you are familiar with. We
shall also examine briefly how education was conceived in ancient times in India.

Swami Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), a great thinker and reformer of India, provides an insight into what
education ought to be. According to him, “Education is the manifestation of the divine perfection,
already existing in man”. The word ‘manifestation’ implies that something already exists and is waiting
to be expressed. The main focus in learning is to make the hidden ability of a learner manifest.
Vivekananda believed that the system of education, which existed at that time, did not enable a person
to stand on his/ her own feet, nor did it teach him/her self-confidence and self-respect. To Swami
Vivekananda, education was not only collection of information, but something more meaningful.
He felt that education should be man-making, life-giving and character-building. The aim of education,
according to him, is to manifest in our lives the perfection, which is the very nature of our inner-self,
which resides in everything and everywhere, which is known as ‘satchitananda’ (existence,
consciousness and bliss).

Sri Aurobindo
Sri Aurobindo, a great philosopher and a nationalist, who was born in 1872, contributed to education
immensely. His educational ideas can be obtained from two basic sources: On Education (1990) and A
System of National Education (1907). According to Sri Aurobindo, education is meant to bring out the
best in man, to develop his potentialities to the maximum, to integrate him with himself, his
surroundings, his society, his country and humanity to make him the ‘complete man’, the ‘integral
man’. The purpose of education cannot be merely to create a literate individual, or a highly informed
person crammed with information and facts, or to create an individual to find a job. The more important
aspects of an individual are his character, his personality and his values.

Rabindranath Tagore
Rabindranath Tagore was born in 1861 in Calcutta, and was one of the early educationists of India
whose ideas gleamed through his various writings and educational experiments at Shantiniketan. As an
alternative to the existing forms of education, he started a small school at Shantiniketan in 1901 that
developed into a university and a rural reconstruction centre, where he tried to develop an alternative
model of education that stemmed from his own learning experiences. In general, he envisioned an
education that was deeply rooted in one’s immediate surroundings but connected to the cultures of the
wider world, predicated upon pleasurable learning and individualised to the personality of the child. He
felt that a curriculum should revolve organically around nature with classes held in the open air, under
the trees, to provide for a spontaneous atmosphere. In his opinion, schools should not be factories, but
should provide a free atmosphere for the pupils to have close contact with the nature and universe. To
Tagore, “the highest education is that which does not merely give us information but makes our life in
harmony with all existence.

Mahatma Gandhi
As you all must have studied, during the pre-independence period, the education system in India was
governed by the British. The goals of education during British period were not akin to the Indian ways
of thinking. The medium of instruction was English which was foreign to many Indians. Mahatma
Gandhi’s interest in education was the outcome of a revolt against the British system of education that
had many limitations and drawbacks. His educational thoughts emerged out of his own experiments
with truth and nonviolence. According to Mahatma Gandhi, education not only moulds the new
generation, but reflects society’s fundamental assumptions about itself and the individuals who
comprise it. By education, he meant, an all-round development drawing out of the best in the child’s
body, mind and spirit. He stated that literacy is not the end of education, and even the beginning. It is
only the means by which men and women can be educated. In his opinion, education should aim at
developing self-reliance, where people learn to earn their livelihood. His aims of education also
emphasised on character formation and all round development (physical, mental, social, moral,
aesthetic, and religious). According to him, education should make children ideal members of the
democratic society. He wanted a school to be a ‘doing and thinking school’, rather than a listening
school. He emphasised on experiential learning through which the child acquires knowledge and utilises
it for the understanding and control of his social environment. He aspired that education should enable
the child to relate what is learnt in the school to the real life situations.

Gijubhai Badheka
Gijubhai Badheka was a famous patriot, devoted teacher and an inspiring pillar of education. He was
born on 15 November, 1885 in Gujrat. His parents were religious by nature. So, it was natural for him
to inculcate religious tendency. Gijubhai was much influenced by the ideas of famous educationist
Maria Montessori. He studied Montessori educational system deeply and transformed it as per the
Indian circumstances. Ø Education and Schooling as visualized by Gijubhai : Gijubhai Badheka is an
educational thinker of high quality. He has given a very important place to child in his educational
thought. Gijubhai advocated child centred education. Perhaps he was the first great educator in India
who focused his attention at the pre-primary stage of education in India. His principles of child-centred
education was based on Gijubahi Badheka Downloaded from http:// www.kaavyasoor.word press.com
Education, Society and Curriculum 2 5 Philosophical Understanding of Education Unit 1 such concepts
as freedom for the child, respect for the child, spiritual development for the child, creativity of the child
and development of good qualities of citizenship. He emphasized on the method of self-learning
through self-dependence, self-discipline, self-expression, sense training and nature study. Education
prepares the mind of our young men and women, so that they can accept the good and life giving
elements of our culture. According to him, the curriculum of education should be purposeful. The
curriculum or content should as such that it can meet the aims of teaching that subject. Gijubhai dreamt
of a school for children that do not instill fear in their mind and a place where they would go happily
and willingly. His dream was turned into a reality in his 'Bal Mandir' - a school which he set up for
children between two and half years to six years of age in 1920 at Bhavnagar, Gujarat. There he devoted
himself to child education fully. In this Bal Mandir, Gijubhai conducted a new experiment. He provided
free opportunities to children for playing, singing, poetry reciting, storytelling, gardening, nature study
and used the play-way method. It gave maximum freedom to the children to develop their potential. As
a result of this, Bal Mandir became a centre of attraction for children and Gijubhai became a great
source of inspiration for those engaged in nursery education.

Jiddu Krishnamurthi
Jiddu Krishnamurthi, a philosopher and one of the 20th century’s most influential teacher, devoted his
life to the awakening of ‘intelligence’ and transformation of society. Krishnamurty’s interest in
education was long standing and always passionate. He addressed the nature of education in majority
of his books as well as in his speeches to the public and students in India as well as abroad.
Krishnamurthi’s (1994) ideas on education, though radical, attempt to meet the challenges of living at
a profound level, and they do so at a time when such insights are desperately needed. According to him,
modern education is unable to prepare students for the fundamental challenges of living. In his book
titled Education and the Significance of Life (1962), we see his concern for education and his views on
right kind of education. According to Krishnamurthi, the education system that exists is quite
conventional. The educational system in practice now leads to conformity where independent thinking
is not possible. It produces the kind of human beings whose primary interest is to find security, to
become somebody important, or to achieve some degrees and jobs. While discussing about significance
of life, he propounds that as long as education does not cultivate an integrated outlook on life, it has
very little significance. In his view, today’s education has very little significance as it makes us
subservient, mechanical and thoughtless, though it awakens us intellectually; it leaves us incomplete
inwardly, stupefied and uncreative.

John Dewey
According to John Dewey (1916), “Education is reconstruction or reorganisation of experience which
adds to the meaning of experience and which increases the ability to direct the course of subsequent
experiences.” This view implies that the child already has acquired some experiences from his/her
interaction with the environment. And education plays a role in reconstructing these experiences in the
required direction in order to add meaning to those experiences. Let us take an example from your
childhood experiences. Try to recall your idea about the earth and the other celestial bodies when you
were a child. Through your everyday observations, you must have felt that earth was flat, and you are
on the flat surface of the earth, and the sun, moon and stars move around the earth. But after you joined
the school and were exposed to the knowledge that ‘  the earth is round, not flat; it is not the sun, moon
and stars that go round the earth, but it is the earth that goes round the sun’, with proper scientific
explanation by the teacher, supported by visuals, you must have changed your idea about the earth, its
motion and your place on the earth. This is what meant by John Dewey as ‘reconstruction of experience’
that results in knowledge which further helps in understanding subsequent knowledge through
subsequent experiences.

Paulo Freire
Paulo Freire (1921 – 1997), the Brazilian educationalist, has left a significant mark on thinking about
progressive practice. His Pedagogy of the Oppressed is currently one of the most quoted educational
texts (especially in Latin America, Africa and Asia). Freire was able to draw upon, and weave together,
a number of strands of thinking about educational practice and liberation. Sometimes some rather
excessive claims are made for his work e.g. ‘the most significant educational thinker of the twentieth
century’. He wasn’t – John Dewey would probably take that honour – but Freire certainly made a
number of important theoretical innovations that have had a considerable impact on the development
of educational practice – and on informal education and popular education in particular.

Unit 4: Concept of Curriculum

Meaning of curriculum
Etymologically, the term curriculum is derived from the Latin word “currere” which means run or run-
way or a running course. Thus curriculum means a course to be run for reaching a certain goal. Arthur
J. Lewis and Mid Alice (1972) defined curriculum as “a set of intentions about opportunities for
engagement of persons to be educated with other persons and with things (all bearers of information
process, techniques and values) in certain arrangements of time and space.” A curriculum means, the
total situation (all situations) selected and organized by the institution and made available to the teacher
to operate and to translate the ultimate aim of education into reality.
Nature of Curriculum
Curriculum as a Plan
Oliva (1982) stated that “Curriculum is a plan or programme for all experiences which the learner
encounters under the direction of the school.” Carter V. Good (1959) defined curriculum as “a general
overall plan of the content or specific materials of instruction that the school should offer the student by
way of qualifying him for gradation on certification for entrance into a professional or a vocational field.”
Curriculum as an Experience
Tanner and Tanner (1980) stated that “Curriculum is that reconstruction of knowledge and experiences
systematically developed under the auspices of the school (or university) to enable the learner to increase
his or her control of knowledge and experience.”
Curriculum as a Subject
Matter Doll (1978) defined that Curriculum is both a subject to be taught at colleges and universities and a
field in which practitioners work. Curriculum is the formal and informal content and process by which
learners gain knowledge and understanding, develop skills and alter attitudes, appreciations and values
under the auspices of that school”.
Curriculum as an Objective
B.F. Skinner views the curriculum as being formulated according to behaviouristic objectives. The
curriculum is the series of experiences which children and youth must have by way of attaining activity-
based objectives.
Curriculum as a system
Curriculum can be considered as a system for dealing with people and the processes or organization of
personnel and procedures for implementing the system (Babcock, McNeil, Untruth).
Curriculum as a field of study
Curriculum can also be viewed as a field of study, comprising its own foundations and domains of
knowledge, as well as its own research, theory, and principles (Orlosky and Smith, Schubert and Tanners).

An effective curriculum provides teachers, students, administrators and community stakeholders with a
measurable plan and structure for delivering a quality education. The curriculum identifies the learning
outcomes, standards and core competencies that students must demonstrate before advancing to the next
level. Teachers play a key role in developing, implementing, assessing and modifying the curriculum. An
evidenced-based curriculum acts as a road map for teachers and students to follow on the path to academic
success.
Curriculum framework
A curriculum framework is an organized plan or set of standards or learning outcomes that defines the
content to be learned in terms of clear, definable standards of what the student should know and be able to
do.
A curriculum framework is part of an outcome-based education or standards based education reform design.
The framework is the first step, defining clear, high standards which will be achieved by all students. The
curriculum is then aligned to the standards, and students are assessed against the standards. As compared
with traditional education which is concerned only about delivering content, a standards based education
reform system promises that all will succeed if all are held to high expectations. When the standards are
reached, there will be no achievement gap where some groups are allowed to score lower than others, or
the disabled are offered different opportunities than others. All will meet world class standards and be
qualified for good colleges and trained for good jobs which pay good wages. In a traditional
education system, the curriculum was defined by those who created textbooks rather than government
bodies which assembled groups of stakeholders to create standards based on consensus of what students
should know and be able to do.
In some states, curriculum frameworks have been adopted based on traditional academic standards rather
than outcome-based constructivist standards, but many frameworks were originally or still based on
student-centered learning and constructivism such as reform mathematics, whole language and Inquiry-
based Science which have been controversial in some states and communities. High school graduation
examinations tie awarding of diplomas to demonstration of meeting the standards set out in the frameworks.
Curriculum
The term curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a specific course
or program. In dictionaries, curriculum is often defined as the courses offered by a school, but it is rarely
used in such a general sense in schools. Depending on how broadly educators define or employ the
term, curriculum typically refers to the knowledge and skills students are expected to learn, which includes
the learning standards or learning objectives they are expected to meet; the units and lessons that teachers
teach; the assignments and projects given to students; the books, materials, videos, presentations, and
readings used in a course; and the tests, assessments, and other methods used to evaluate student learning.
An individual teacher’s curriculum, for example, would be the specific learning standards, lessons,
assignments, and materials used to organize and teach a particular course.
Syllabus
Syllabus refers to the program or outline of a course of study. In other words, syllabus refers to the portions
of the study prescribed in a particular subject meant for a particular course of study. For example,
if Physics is a subject meant for a course of study called ‘material science’, then the portions of study
prescribed in the subject of Physics is called as syllabus.
As a matter syllabus is prescribed once in a year and the particular syllabus that is prescribed for the year
should be completed both by the teacher or the professor and the student during the year. Examinations will
be conducted at the end of the year only from the particular syllabus of the year in the particular subject.
This shows that the student will follow another syllabus in the next year of a given three-year undergraduate
course.

Textbooks

The definitions for Textbooks are wide and varied. One common definition is that a textbook is a printed
and bound artefact for each year or course of study (Encyclopedia of Education, 2008b). They contain facts
and ideas around a certain subject.

Textbooks are not like other books. Today, textbooks are assembled more than they are written. They are
not usually written by a single author, nor are they a creative and imaginative endeavor. They are, in fact,
usually specially made by a corporation to follow a set standard curriculum for a school system or larger
organization, such as a province.

Core curriculum
The term core assumes many meanings. Traditionally includes all required content areas in the
school programme. More recently, the term “core” refers to type of course such as general
education, united studies, common learning, social living and integral programmes. Regardless of
the term that is employed in the school the two ideas common to the concept of core are that they
provide experiences needed by all youth and the experiences cut across subject lines. The core
curriculum deals problems of persistent and recurring deal with youth and of society irrespective
of subject matter lines from martial may be down for the solution of the problems. Experiences
have shown that “core” should occupy only portion of the school day
Hidden/ Latent Curriculum
A hidden curriculum can be defined as the lessons that are taught informally, and usually
unintentionally, in a school system. These include behaviors, perspectives, and attitudes that
students pick up while they are at school. This is contrasted with the formal curriculum, such as
the courses and activities students participate in. A hidden curriculum is a side effect of an
education which are learned but not openly intended" such as the transmission of norms, values,
and beliefs conveyed in the classroom and the social environment. Any learning experience may
teach unintended lessons. Areas of hidden curriculum in our schools that mold perspectives of
students deal with issues such as gender, morals, social class, stereotypes, cultural expectations,
politics, and language. Hidden curriculum is often found within the formal curriculum of a school;
this may be partially in what is not taught. Various aspects of learning contribute to the success of
the hidden curriculum, including practices, procedures, rules, relationships, and structures. Many
school-specific sources, some of which may be included in these aspects of learning, give rise to
important elements of the hidden curriculum.

Curriculum Visualized at different Level

LEVELS OF CURRICULUM PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT
There are different levels of curriculum planning and development but five levels can be
easily identified within the education system. The levels include:
1 National level
2 State level
3 Local level
4 School level
5 Classroom level

At each level of planning; certain agencies or bodies are involved and they produce
particular curriculum products. At the national level, the Federal Government usually, through its
Ministry of Education and its agencies like the Central Educational Research and Development
Council (CRDC), National Teachers Institute (NTI), National Commission for College of
Education (NCCE), University Grants Commission (UGC) and National Board for Technical
Education (NBTE) produce required national guidelines and policy statements, minimum
standards curriculum guides, requirements for certification and syllabus for external examinations.
Whatever comes out of the classroom level is translated from the state level down to the curriculum
through different teaching-learning processes.
At the state levels, the various Ministries of Education, Schools Boards Curriculum
development centers and professional bodies translate federal guidelines into specific subject area
syllabi, possibly produce text materials, supply teaches and resources materials.
At the Local Government Area level, various ministries of education/schools Boards,
harmonize subject area syllabi for adoption in schools. Textbooks are distributed at this level; in
addition seminars and workshops are planned and executed.
 At the school level, the principals and headmasters, head of various subject departments and
some support staff develop scheme of work, some curriculum materials and schedules for teaching
and learning.
At the classroom level, the teachers who are the key agents in curriculum implementation,
and other required resources persons within the environment, develop unit plans, lesson plans,
lesson notes and evaluation instruments.

Unit 5: Curriculum Development (at School Level)

Determinant of Curriculum Making

Several factors affect all curriculum development in meeting the needs of 21st century learners in
both organized academic settings and corporation learning centers. Factors affecting curriculum
development include government rules, which in turn brings other factors into the process. Valid
curriculum development requires awareness of the diversity of the target community socially,
financially and psychologically.

Political factor

Politics affect curriculum development in numerous ways.

How politics influences curriculum design and development starts with funding. Both private and
public educational institutions rely on funding for hiring personnel, building and maintaining
facilities and equipment. All aspects of curriculum depend on local, state and national political
standards.

Example

Politics affects curriculum development from defining goals, interpreting curricular materials to
approving examination systems,

Social factor

Society has its own expectations about the aims and objectives that should be considered when
designing the curriculum. It also has a perception of what the product of the school system should
look like. It is therefore necessary for curriculum designers to take in to account these societal
considerations.

Example

Subjects which has gender education and political economy have proved difficult to include in the
curriculum because of the resistance from some religious groups.
Economic factor

Economics influences curriculum development.

Curriculum developed for in house training in corporations focuses on educating employees for
promotions that bring better returns in profits. Nations financing education expect an economic
return from educated students contributing to the country's economy with global competition
abilities in technical fields

Example

Nations financing education expect an economic return from educated students contributing to the
country's economy with global competition abilities in technical fields

Technological

Technology driven curriculum development is the norm of the 21st century.

The computer technology of the 21st century influences curriculum development at every level of
learning. Learning centers and classrooms increasingly provide computers as requisite interaction
for studies among students. Technological multimedia use influences educational goals and
learning experiences among students.

Example

 Undergraduate and graduate degrees in computer technology increases in popularity.

 Diversity

Curriculum development affect from diversity opens learning opportunities.

Social diversity including religion, culture and social groupings affects curriculum development
because these characteristics influence the types of topics and methods for teaching information.
Developing relevant curriculum takes into account society's expectations, accommodating group
traditions and promoting equality.

Environment

Environment issues affect curriculum development.

World awareness and action toward reversing and ending pollution continues affecting curriculum
development. Typical elementary classrooms teach recycling and healthy environmental practices.

Example:

Higher education in the sciences offer environmentally-focused degrees. e.g

Environmental degree, bio-technology etc.

National Priorities in Curriculum Development
Ensure timely and reliable learning data on all children
The emphasis on improving learning outcomes through the NEP is opportune. An important pre-
condition to do so is to improve the capacity to design, administer and use data from robust and
standardized learning assessments. We need to strengthen the entire framework of assessments -
from classrooms to the district, state and national levels.
At the national level, the National Achievement Survey (NAS) should be reformed and
strengthened to provide a national benchmark for education, compare state performance, and
monitor improvement. This could usher in a new generation of inter-state sharing of innovative
programmes and policies which improve learning. At the state level, a similar role could be played
by the State Learning Achievement Surveys (SLAS). They provide flexibility to the states to adapt
assessments to the requirements of their own programmes and conditions, and provide granular
and in-depth analysis.
Strengthen school-based management
School management rests on the twin pillars of school leadership and SMCs. Unfortunately, the
centralising tendency of the bureaucracy has ensured that decisions which can and should be taken
at the school level are regularly ‘passed up’. NEP should explicitly aim to institute a merit-based
selection process for school leaders (which is the international norm and current policy in states
like Gujarat), and put in place a continuous professional development programme for school
leaders.
Integrate early childhood education into the school system
India’s previous policy goals have been primarily focused on universalizing primary education.
The NEP could break from the past by including early childhood education (ECE) as one of the
critical levers. Global research establishes the significance of ECE for a child’s future
success (Heckman et al. 2009). It is critical that we introduce two years of free and compulsory
pre-primary education and build awareness about the importance of ECE among parents. We also
need a ‘School Readiness Framework’ that helps identify learning strengths and gaps of children
entering grade 1 and assists the teachers in providing focused support to students.

Considerations in curriculum development- forms of knowledge, learner’s

characteristics, and teachers experience
Distinguish between various types of knowledge, is an essential step for Knowledge Management.
For example, it should be fairly evident that the knowledge captured in a document would need to
be managed in a totally different way than that gathered over the years by an expert craftsman.
Over the centuries many attempts have been made to classify knowledge, and different fields have
focused on different dimensions.
However, looked at more analytically, the curriculum of the school reflects layered cultural
understandings of what is considered necessary for young people to know or experience if they
are to take their place in the social and cultural order. Thus, as the central component of a pervasive
modern institution, the curriculum is necessarily a part of all of the sociological and cultural
ambiguities within societies. As such, the scope and nature of the curriculum are viewed as
critically important for teachers, parents, cultural critics, interest groups, and the employers of the
graduates of the school. As the curriculum as an idea is seen through the eyes of all such groups,
it becomes a mirror that reflects different visions of the society and culture, and the tensions within
the society around, say, the proper nature of the work of schooling and/or status attainment and
employment possibilities. As a result inevitable and unresolved differences of viewpoint
characteristically surface around all discussions of the curriculum as a symbol of both a normative
order for education and of the quality and character of what schools are understood as doing.
Learner Centered curriculum the center of interest is the learner. The students are given more
importance in this type of curriculum design. Most of the education experts and educational
psychologists are in favor of this learner centered curriculum. First of all Rousseau emphasized
that education should be according to the interests of the child. He should be provided a free and
democratic environment. The interest of the child should be a base for the curriculum design.
Learner centered design emphasizes individual development and their approach to organizing the
curriculum merges from the needs, interests and purposes of students.
Following are some basic characteristics of student’s centered curriculum

1.This type of curriculum gives importance to learner and considers child as the center of
interest which is the most natural approach.
2.The interest of the child is the most important factor in the process of teaching and learning.
This factor is highly emphasized in this type-of curriculum.
3.In this curriculum the teacher's role is not that of a task-master but that of a guide. In this
curriculum, the child is treated as, plant, the teacher as gardener and the school as a
garden. Thus, and child grows and develops in a natural atmosphere.
4.Students centered curriculum gives several options (special activities, exploratory courses
and other experiences) to the students. The options are based on knowledge of learner
characteristics.
5.Students are actively involved in planning and evaluation of the options in general and for
themselves in particular.
6.Learner centered curriculum points out that “the more experience in life a child has the
more eager he will to learn.”

Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation process is the teacher.
With their knowledge, experiences and competencies, teachers are central to any curriculum
development effort. Better teachers support better learning because they are most knowledgeable
about the practice of teaching and are responsible for introducing the curriculum in the classroom.
If another party has already developed the curriculum, the teachers have to make an effort to know
and understand it. So, teachers should be involved in curriculum development. For example,
teacher’s opinions and ideas should be incorporated into the curriculum for development. On the
other hand, the curriculum development team has to consider the teacher as part of the environment
that affects curriculum (Carl, 2009). Hence, teacher involvement is important for successful and
meaningful curriculum development. Teachers being the implementers are part of the last stage of
the curriculum development process.

Approaches to curriculum development: subject-centred; environmentalist (incorporating

local concerns); behaviorist; competency–based (including minimum levels of learning);
learner centred and constructivist.

Subject-Centered Curriculum
This model focuses on the content of the curriculum. The subject-centered design corresponds
mostly of the textbook, written for the specific subject. Henry Morrison and William Harris are
the few curricularists who were firm believers of this design. In this instance, schools divide the
school hours to different subjects such as reading, grammar, literature, mathematics, science,
history and geography.
Examples of subject- centered curriculum are included below:
 Subject Design:
‘What subjects are you teaching? What subjects are you taking?’ These sample questions to which
the teacher and the learner can easily give an answer. It is so because they are familiar with the
subject design curriculum. Subject design curriculum is the oldest and so far the most familiar
design for teachers, parents and other laymen.
 Discipline Design:
This curriculum model is related to the subject design. However, while subject design centers only
on the cluster of content, discipline design focuses on academic disciplines. Discipline refers to
specific knowledge learned through a method which the scholars use to study a specific content
field. Students in history should learn how biologists learn, and so with students in mathematics
should learn how mathematician learn. In the same manner, teachers should teach how the scholars
in the discipline will convey the particular knowledge.
 Correlation Design:
This comes from core, correlated curriculum design that links separate subject designs in order to
reduce fragmentation. Subjects are related to one another but each subject maintains its identity.
For example, English literature and social studies correlate well in the elementary level. In the two
subjects, while history is being studied, different literary pieces during the historical period are
being studied.
 Broad Field Design / Interdisciplinary:
Broad field or interdisciplinary design is a variation of the subject-centered design. This design
was made to prevent the compartmentalization of subjects and integrate the contents that are
related to each other. Thus subjects such as geography, economics, political science, anthropology,
sociology and history are fused into one subject called social studies. Languages are will include
grammar, literature, linguistics, spelling and composition.

Learner-Centered Curriculum
Among the progressive educational psychologists, the learner is the center of the educative
process. This emphasis is very strong in the elementary level, however more concern has been
placed on the secondary and even the tertiary levels. Although in high school, the subject or content
has become the focus and in the college level, the discipline is the center, both levels still recognize
the importance of the learner in the curriculum.
Here are some examples of the learner-centered designs.
 Child-Centered Design:
This design is often attributed to the influence of John Dewy, Rouseau, Pestallozi and Froebel.
The curriculum design is anchored on the needs and interests of the child. The learner is not who
engages with his/her environment. One learns by doing. Learners actively create; construct
meanings and understanding as viewed by the constructivists. In the child-centered design, learners
interact with the teachers and the environment, thus there is a collaborative effort on both sides to
plan lessons, select content and do activities together. Learning is a product of the child’s
interaction with the environment.
 Experience-Centered Design:
This design is similar to the child centered design. Although, the child remains to be the focus,
experience-centered design believes that the interests and needs of learners cannot be pre-planned.
Instead, experiences of the learners become the starting point of the curriculum, thus the school
environment is left open and free. Learners are made to choose from various activities that the
teacher provides.
 Humanistic Designs:
The key lead personalities in this curriculum design were Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
Maslow’s Theory of self-actualization explains that a person who achieves this level is accepting
of self, others and nature; is simple, spontaneous and natural; is open to different experience;
possesses empathy and sympathy towards the less fortunate, among many others. The person can
achieve this state of self-actualization later in life but has to start the process while still in school.

Behavior Approach to Curriculum

The Behavioral Approach is based on a blueprint, where goals and objectives are specified.
Contents and activities are arranged to match with specified learning objectives. The learning
outcomes are evaluated in terms of goals and objectives that are set at the beginning.

This approach is grounded in scientific principles. Everything the students do must be observable
as this is the evidence that the student has achieved the goals and objectives, which are also based
on observable behaviors. All activities lead to students being able to do whatever the goals and
objective specify.

The Behavioral Approach, is the oldest, and still the major approach. This approach relies on
technical and scientific principles. It includes paradigms, model, and step-by-step strategies. Goals
and objectives are specified. All the content and activities are sequenced based on objective, and
learning outcomes are evaluated based on goals and objectives.

Anchored on the behaviorist principles, behavioral approach to curriculum is usually based on a

blueprint. In the blueprint, goals and objectives are specified, contents and activities are also
arranged to match with the learning objectives. The learning outcomes are evaluated in terms of
goals and objectives set at the beginning. Behavioral approach which was started with the idea of
Frederick Taylor is aimed to achieved efficiency. In the factory for example, the worker will be
paid according to his output produced with in a specific period of time. In education, behavioral
approach begins with educational plans that start with the setting of goals or objectives. These are
considered as important ingredients in curriculum implementation as evaluating the learning
outcomes as a change of behavior. The change in behavior indicates the measure of the
accomplishments.

Competency Based Approach to Curriculum

A curriculum that emphasizes the complex outcomes of a learning process (i.e. knowledge, skills
and attitudes to be applied by learners) rather than mainly focusing on what learners are expected
to learn about in terms of traditionally-defined subject content. In principle such a curriculum is
learner-centred and adaptive to the changing needs of students, teachers and society. It implies that
learning activities and environments are chosen so that learners can acquire and apply the
knowledge, skills and attitudes to situations they encounter in everyday life. Competency-based
curricula are usually designed around a set of key competences/competencies that can be cross-
curricular and/or subject-bound.

Competency-based learning refers to systems of instruction, assessment, grading, and academic

reporting that are based on students demonstrating that they have learned the knowledge and skills
they are expected to learn as they progress through their education. In public schools, competency-
based systems use state learning standards to determine academic expectations and define
“competency” or “proficiency” in a given course, subject area, or grade level (although other sets
of standards may also be used, including standards developed by districts and schools or by
subject-area organizations). The general goal of competency-based learning is to ensure that
students are acquiring the knowledge and skills that are deemed to be essential to success in school,
higher education, careers, and adult life. If students fail to meet expected learning standards, they
typically receive additional instruction, practice time, and academic support to help them achieve
competency or meet the expected standards.

In practice, competency-based learning can take a wide variety of forms from state to state or
school to school—there is no single model or universally used approach. While schools often
create their own competency-based systems, they may also use systems, models, or strategies
created by state education agencies or outside educational organizations. Competency-based
learning is more widely used at the elementary level, although more middle schools and high
schools are adopting the approach. As with any educational strategy, some competency-based
systems may be better designed or more effective than others.

Constructivist approach to Curriculum

They use activities where learners actively construct new ideas or concepts by building on their
past knowledge and experiences. There is an emphasis on students taking responsibility for their
own learning through active participation, with teachers acting as a 'guide on the side' rather than
as the expert. Problem-based or inquiry-based pedagogies are considered to be constructivist
approaches, emphasizing students using critical skills to analyse problems and test and evaluate
methods to overcome them.
Constructivist approaches that emphasize collaborative construction of knowledge (‘collaborative
constructivism’) apply well to an online learning context. A constructivist approach encourages
students to interact and share their own contexts and knowledge. It also supports learners to
develop communities working across a distributed network.

Using networks in this way supports ‘social constructivism’, which depends on social interactions
between learners and teachers. Coventry University’s open media classes1 are a good example of
this kind of approach for undergraduate students.

Steps in Curriculum Planning

Planning of Curriculum possessing the following steps:

Curriculum Development Processing

According to Kern it is possible to use a six-step approach to curriculum development for Medical
Education:

Problem identification and general needs assessment

The most important step is the first one, the general needs assessment (GNA). The goal of step 1
is to focus the curriculum, by defining the deficits in knowledge, attitude, or skills that currently
exist in practitioners and the ideal approach to teaching and learning these objectives. When
completed, the GNA makes a strong argument for the need for the curriculum and identifies
potential educational research questions.

Research for this step can extend over many fields of endeavor: public health and epidemiology,
health care systems, utilization and resources, emerging knowledge of disease, patient support
groups, and educational theory and practice.

A well-researched step 1 impacts steps beyond the learner objectives by identifying educational
methodologies, faculty development resources, potential funding resources, and opportunities for
dissemination of the curriculum.

Identification and critical analysis of the health care problem that will be addressed by the
curriculum requires substantial research to analyze what is currently being done by practitioners
and educators, i.e., the current approach, and ideally what should be done by practitioners and
educators to address the health care problem, i.e., the ideal approach. The general needs assessment
is usually stated as the knowledge, attitude, and performance deficits that the curriculum will
address.

Needs assessment of targeted learners

The general needs assessment is applied to targeted learners. What kind of doctor do we want to
educate it depends mostly on social needs but it can reflect job opportunities, financial rewards
and attitudes acquired during process of studding. Sometimes it is very difficult to make balance
between these several needs. Needs can be obtained on different ways. It can be done through
study of errors in practice. It is very difficult to design curriculum which will fully meet the needs
of society and students.

Goals and objectives

Institution should define overall goals and aims for the curriculum. Specific measurable
knowledge, skill/ performance, attitude, and process objectives should be stated for the curriculum.
Learning goals and outputs for every course and subject should be compatible with mission of
institution. It means that achieving of learning goals of different subjects and courses will lead to
reaching mission of institution at the end of student studding process. Planning of new curriculum
and reform of old one asks for defining of philosophy which is ` behind ` the curriculum and all
its elements. Learning goal and outputs should also determinate the educational philosophy and
institutional culture. So, mission of institution, educational philosophy and institutional culture are
key elements of educational settings necessary for curriculum implementation.

An aim indicates the direction or orientation of a course in terms of its content. An aim is written
in terms of level, teaching intentions and management of learning. The aims of the course
encapsulate the purpose of the course and what the institution trying to do in providing the course.
Aims are therefore more about teaching and the management of learning.

Learning Outcome is an expression of what a student will demonstrate on the successful

completion of a course. Learning outcomes are related to the level of the learning; indicate the
intended gain in knowledge and skills that a typical student will achieve and should be capable of
being assessed. Learning outcomes are more about the learning that is actually to be achieved by
the learner. Outcomes ten formulated as competences. The outcomes are coherent with the
educational vision. These objectives make it also clear to the student what may be expected of the
course.

The aims and learning outcomes of a course should determine the choice of teaching processes
through which the module is presented. The teaching processes should be matched to the processes
required of the student in attaining the intended learning outcomes of the course. Since a course
will normally have several intended outcomes, different components of the course will be suited
to different teaching and learning processes, and such a course should be presented through a
variety of appropriate methods.

(Educational) objectives are the end qualifications that are aimed to be reached by the student at
the end of the study program. Curriculum is in continuous process of tuning objectives to the
expectations of external actors (stakeholders) and internal actors (clients)

Tuning of curriculum and objectives clarifies which course subjects or which groups of subjects
contribute to the different objectives.

 It is an instrument to make sound decisions for the learning environment.

 It is an instrument for evaluating subjects reliably.
  Students can derive from the objectives what they may expect from a study program; the
list of objectives guides their studies.

Educational strategies

It is necessary to make a plan how to maximize the impact of the curriculum, which content should
be included, how content should be organized and with which educational methods, how elements
of curriculum should communicate, what kind of educational environment and climate should be
developed. Content which is included must provide to student critical thinking. It must be selected
and organized on the way to initiate critical approach to facts and development skill of information
retrieval.
Document with the objectives, should be prepared in advance. Some possible educational
strategies:

Student centered/ teacher centered

Student centered strategy ask for active role of student in process of definition of curriculum,
decision about learning methodology and decision what and when they will study. Second strategy
is based on teacher decisions what, when and how will certain subject be studied.

Problem solving/ information gathering

Problem solving strategy is based on student acquiring of knowledge through process of clinical
problem solving. Information gathering is a strategy based on student presentation of gathered
information.

Curriculum Evaluation
Curriculum Evaluation is the process of obtaining information for judging the worth of an
educational program, product, procedure educational objectives or the potential utility of
alternative approaches designed to attain specified objectives (Glass and Worthem, 1997).
Curriculum evaluation focuses on determine whether the curriculum as recorded in the master plan
has been carried out in the classroom in evaluation a curriculum, the following key question are
usually asked in curriculum evaluation basically:

 Are the objectives being addressed?

 Are the contents presented in the recommended sequence?
 Are students being involved in the suggested instructional experience?
 Are students reacting to the contents?

According to Gatawa (1990: 50), the term curriculum evaluation has three major meanings:
 The process of describing and judging an educational programme or subject
 The process of comparing a student’s performance with behaviorally stated objectives
 The process of defining, obtaining and using relevant information for decision-making
purposes
Objectives Curriculum Evaluation
Evaluation of curriculum is an integral and essential part the whole process of curriculum
development. It is a continuous activity and not a ‘tail-end experience’.
Evaluation and planning are complementary process which occurs almost simultaneously and
continuously. Planning is made on the basis of evaluation and vice-versa. However as a separate
state evaluation has its own entity. The importance of curriculum evaluation is to determine the
value of the curriculum itself is the appropriate for the particular group of students with whom it
is being used. The objectives of curriculum evaluation are then stated as:
 To determine the outcomes of programme
 To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a programme
 To ascertain the need for revision of the course content
 To help in future development of the curriculum material for continuous improvement
 To improve methods of teaching and instructional techniques

Purposes of Evaluation
The purpose of an evaluation is to determine the value of something. Most evaluation experts
contend that the main reason of evaluating a curriculum is to provide information for making
decisions about either individuals or the curriculum.
a. Diagnostic: means that those who must make diagnostic decisions require information about
strengths and weaknesses and determination of areas that need special instructional attention.
b. Instructional Feedback: means that the decision concern adjustments students might need to
make in their approaches to studying a subject based on their knowledge of the progress they are
making.
c. Placement: means that the information about the level of proficiency of the students in particular
skills in order to place them in group that are relatively homogeneous.
d. Promotion: means that the decision about promotion is based on information about the
proficiency and maturity of students in order to decide whether or not to promote to the next grade
level
e. Credentialing: means that it has to do with certification, licensure and otherwise attesting to
the competence of a programme graduate. This decision requires attaining a predetermined passing
level on a test designed by the credentialing body, typically the state or professional organization.
f. Selection: means that it is made by college admission offices, typically use existing data about
student achievement (Grades), but this may also depend on standardized test.

Curriculum revision
Curriculum is a runway for attaining goals of education. It is considered as a blueprint of an
educational programme. Curriculum revision means making the curriculum different in some way,
to give it a new point or direction. This often means modification to its philosophy by way of its
aims and objectives, reviewing the content included, revising its methods and re-thinking its
evaluation procedures. On the other hand, the basis for any major curriculum change is
significantly to improve the existing curriculum. The Process of Curriculum change helps in the
assessment of future needs of the existing curriculum along with a determination of what needs to
be changed and the selection of possible solutions to problems and the means by which the
necessary changes can be achieved.
Curriculum developers should bring desirable changes is the people who will ultimately bring
changes in curriculum. It implies that society should be involved in curriculum development to
ensure its commitment to changes.
Several school teachers complain that curriculum is imposed from the top and school teachers who
are grass root level workers are not taken in to confidence for curriculum development; Alice Miel
(1946) writes in the book “changing the curriculum”.

NEED FOR CURRICULUM CHANGE

Social needs and aspirations are changing. As the level of students of a group of people increases,
as the economic conditions develop, the needs and aspirations also change. Growth and
development are the distinguishing characteristics of human life, individual as well as collective.
Individual has to grow physically economically, culturally and spiritually. Society has also to
become more and more refined. We have to plan for this growth and development upward.
Simultaneously, the technology is fast developing. It is an age of technology that we living.
Educational technology has brought in changes in the concepts in the aids, in the strategies that we
use for instructional purposes. The hardware made available to the teacher and the software that
he can prepare or get from other sources, have helped him to plan more and more effective and
efficient instructional designs and carry them through in the classroom. Curriculum content should
be based on current information and not the past information that has been proved to be false or
not useful of usable.