ALEXANDER MENDELSON

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

MACMILLAN SERIE~ IN

APPLIED MECHANICS PLASTICITY:

F R E D LANDIS, EDITOR

Theoryand
The Analysis 01 Stress and Delormation
by George W. Housner and Thad Vree1and, Jr.
Analytical Methods in Vibrations by Leonard Meirovitch
Continuum Mechanics by Walter Jaunzemis
Application
Plasticity: Theory and Application by Alexander Mendelson
Statics 01 Delormable Bodies by Nils O. Myklestad

MACMILLAN COMPANY, NEW YORK

COLLIER-MACMILLAN LIMITED, LONDON

 PREFACE

With the advent of the jet age followed closely by the space age, the theory
of plasticity has been brought forcibly into the forefront of engineering appli-
cation and design. Modern aircraft, missiles, and space vehicles must be
designed on the basis of minimum weight, whieh invariably means designing
into the plastic range to obtain maximum lo ad to weight ratios. Moreover,
the facts of economie life have made the saving of material and more efficient
design a necessity for even the more earthbound industriaI applications.
This book is the result of the author's teaching for several years of a
graduate course in plasticity for engineers at Case Institute of Technology.
It was soon realized that although a number of excellent books on plasticity
were available, none of them adequately met the requirements of the course.
The available books were either too theoretieal and mathematieal for the
average engineer and designer, or their main emphasis was placed on problems
of large plastic deformations such as are encountered in metal-forming
processes. Very little has been published in textbook form on the most
oimportant class of elastoplastic problems, in whieh the plastic strains are
of the same order of magnitude as the elastic strains, which are of such prime
Cor'~f'lrn to today's engineer. Furthermore, where such problems are treated,
usual assumptions of perfect plasticity are used, no attempt being made
take into account the strain-hardening properties of real materials.
A set of mimeographed notes was prepared whieh included the basie theory
placed primary emphasis on the solution of elastoplastic problems for

vii
viU Prerace Prerace
ix
materials with strain hardening. In particular, it was emphasized that with and co-workers at the Lewis Research Center of the National Aeronautics
the present availability of high-speed computing facilities, many of the and Space Administration whose helpful discussions and combined efforts
simplifying assumptions hitherto commonplace in plasticity calculations were over the years are in no small measure responsible for much that is in this
no longer necessary. The present book is based on these notes. book. In particular, thanks are due to S. S. Manson, M. H. Hirschberg, and
Following a brief introduction, Chapter 2 discusses some of the basic E. Roberts. A special debt of gratitude is owed to Professor R. H. Scanlan
experiments concerning the elastoplastic behavior of metals. Chapters 3 and 4 for his continuous encouragement and interest. But above all I offer humble
describe the basic properties of the stress and strain tensors. Tensor notation thanks to Him who " ... favours man with knowledge and enables him to
is introduced and is frequent1y used together with the longhand notation, achieve understanding." 31"::l'?wm
but a knowledge of tensor properties is not needed. Chapter 5 describes
briefly the elastic stress-strain relations. Chapter 6 discusses the various A. M.
Cleveland
yield criteri a and their experimental verification. In Chapter 7 the plasticity
flow rules, or stress-strain relations, are derived and discussed, inc1uding a
new set of equations which relate plastic strain increments to total strains
rather than stresses.
A series of practical problems for both ideally plastic and strain-hardening
materials is presented in Chapters 8 through 11. Chapter 8 deals with prob-
lems of spheres and cylinders. Chapter 9 is devoted entire1y to the powerful .
method of successive elastic solutions, by means of which a large c1ass of
otherwise intractable pro blems can be solved. First introduced by I1yushin
some twenty years ago, this method has not yet gained wide acceptance in
this country and, to the author's knowledge, is not even mentioned in any
other current book in the English language.
Chapter lO discusses plate problems, both for the pIane stress and pIane
strain cases. Chapter Il gives the generaI solution to the elastoplastic torsion
problem. The theory ofthe slip-line field as appÌied to the pIane strain problem
of plastic-rigid materials is then presented in Chapter 12, and limit analysis
of framed structures in Chapter 13. Chapter 14 discusses problems of creep
at elevated temperatures and shows how the previously discussed plasticity
methods can be applied to creep problems. It is realized that to treat these
last three subjects adequately would require a book for each of them. It is
hoped, however, that sufficient information is furnished herein to provi de
the reader with a worthwhile introduction to, and basic understanding of,
these subjects.
In the author's experience the material inc1uded can be covered adequately
in a one-semester graduate course. Chapters 3 through 5 may be omitted by
those familiar with basic elasticity theory. Sections 6.3, 6.5, 7.6, 7.8, 12.6,
12.8, and 13.6 may also be omitted on a first reading or if time is short. It is
hoped that this book will be found useful as a graduate text and as an aid to
engineers and designers faced with the problem of designing into the plastic
range.
The author would like to acknowledge his appreciation to his colleagues
 CONTENTS

Cbapter 1. Introduction l

Cbapter 2. Basic Experiments 4

2-1 TENSILE TEsT 4
2-2 TRuE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE 7
2-3 COMPRESSION TEST AND THE BAUSCHINGER EFFECT.
ANISOTROPY 13
2-4 EFFECTS OF STRAIN RATE AND TEMPERATURE 15
2-5 INFLuENcE OF HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE. INCOMPRESSIBlLITY 16
2-6 IDEALIZATION OF THE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE.
DYNAMIC AND KINEMATIC MODELS 16
2-7 EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS FOR STRESS-STRAIN CURVES 20

,,~llIitJl'L"'C 3. Tbe Stress Tensor 24

3-1 TENsoR NOTATION 25
3-2 STRESS AT A POINT 27
3-3 PRINCIPAL STRESSES. STRESS INVARIANTS 30
3:"4 MAXIMUM AND OCTAHEDRAL SHEAR STRESSES 34
3-5 MOHR'S DIAGRAM 37
3-6 STRESS DEVIATOR TENsoR 39
3-7 PURE SHEAR 41

xi
 Contents Contents xiii
xii
44 8-3 HOLLOW SPHERE. SPREAD OF PLASTIC ZONE.
Chapter 4. The Strain Tensor PRESSURE LOADING ONLY 141
44
4-1 STRAIN AT A POINT 8-4 HOLLOW SPHERE. RESIDUAL STRESSES. PRESSURE LOADING 145
48
4-2 PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF STRAIN COMPONENTS 8-5 HOLLOW SPHERE. THERMAL LOADING ONLY 148
51
4-3 FINITE DEFORMATIONS 8-6 HOLLOW SPHERE OF STRAIN-HARDENING MATERIAL 150
53
4-4 PRINCIPAL STRAINS. STRAIN INVARIANTS 8-7 PLASTIC FLOW IN THICK-WALLED TUBES 156
55
4-5 MAXIMUM AND OCTAHEDRAL SHEAR STRAINS
58
4-6 STRAIN DEVIATOR TENSOR
59
4-7 COMPATIBILITY OF STRAINS Chapter 9. The Method of Successive Elastic Solutions 164
9-1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD 164
9-2 THIN FLAT PLATE 172
Chapter 5. Elastic Stress-Strain Relations 64 9-3 THIN CrRCULAR SHELL 183
5-1 EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY 64 9-4 LONG SOLID CYLINDER 193
5-2 ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY FUNCTIONS 67 9-5 ROTATING DISK WITH TEMPERATURE GRADIENT 197
5-3 SOLUTION OF ELASTIC PROBLEMS 68 9-6 CIRCULAR HOLE IN UNIFORMLY STRESSED INFINITE PLATE 208

70 Chapter lO. The PIane EIastopIastic ProbIem 213

Chapter 6. Criteria for YieIding
70 10-1 GENERAL RELATIONS 213
6-1 EXAMPLES OF MULTIAXIAL STRESS
10-2 ELASTOPLASTIC THERMAL PROBLEM FOR A FINITE PLATE 218
6-2 EXAMPLES OF YIELD CRITERIA
71
79 10-3 ELASTOPLASTIC PROBLEM OF THE INFINITE PLATE WITH A
6-3 YIELD SURFACE. HAIGH-WESTERGAARD STRESS SPACE
CRACK 223
6-4 LODE'S STRESS PARAMETER. EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF
10-4 STRAIN-INVARIANCE PRINCIPLE 230
YIELD CRITERIA
88
6.-5 SUBSEQUENT YIELD SURFACES. LOADING AND UNLOADING 92
Chapter 11. The Torsion ProbIem 234
11-1 TORSION OF PRISMATIC BAR. GENERAL RELATIONS 234
Chapter 7. Plastic Stress-Strain Relations 98 11-2 ELASTICITY SOLUTIONS 240
7-1 DISTINCTION BETWEEN ELASTIC AND PLASTIC 11-3 MEMBRANE ANALOGY 245
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS 98 11-4 ELASTOPLASTIC TORSION. PERFECT PLASTICITY 246
7-2 PRANDTL-REUSS EQUATIONS 100 11-5 ELASTOPLASTIC TORSION WITH STRAIN HARDENING 248
7-3 PLASTIC WORK. Two MEASURES OF WORK HARDENING 104 11-6 BAR WITH RECTANGULAR CROSS SECTION 250
7-4 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS BASED ON TRESCA CRITERION 108 11-7 BAR WITH CIRCULAR CROSS SECTION 253
7-5 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF PRANDTL-REUSS EQUATIONS 109
7-6 GENERAL DERIVATION OF PLASTIC STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS 110
12. The Slip-Line FieId 260
7-7 INCREMENTAL AND DEFORMATION THEORIES 119
7-8 CONVEXITY OF YIELD SURFACE. SINGULAR POINTS 121 12-1 PLANE STRAIN PROBLEM OF A RIGID PERFECTLY PLASTIC

7-9 PLASTIC STRAIN-ToTAL STRAIN PLASTICITY RELATIONS MATERIAL 260

7-10 COMPLETE STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS. SUMMARY 12-2 VELO CITY EQUATIONS 266
12-3 GEOMETRY OF THE SLIP-LINE FIELD 268
12-4 SOME SIMPLE EXAMPLES 272
Chapter 8. EIastopIastic ProbIems of Spheres and Cylinders
12-5 NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS OF BOUNDARY-VALUE PROBLEMS 276
12-6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION OF SLIP-LINE FIELDS 279
8-1 GENERAL RELATIONS
12-7 COMPLETE SOLUTIONS. UPPER AND LOWER BOUNDS 284
8-2 THICK HOLLOW SPHERE WITH INTERNAL PRESSURE AND
12-8 SLIP LINES AS CHARACTERISTICS 285
THERMAL LOADING
 Contents
xiv
Chapter 13. Limit Analysis
13-1 DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
300
300
301
CHAPTER 1
13-2 SIMPLE TRUSS
305
13-3 PURE BENDING OF BEAMS
13-4 BEAMS AND FRAMES WITH CONCENTRATED LOADS 307
13-5 THEOREMS OF LIMIT ANALYSIS
312
13-6 METHOD OF SUPERPOSITION OF MECHANISMS 318
323
13-7 LIMIT DESIGN

327
Chapter 14. Creep
327
14-1 BASIC CONCEPTS
331
14-2 MULTIDIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS
333
14-3 UNIAXIAL CREEP IN INFINITE STRIP
335
14-4 CREEP IN ROTATING DISKS
INTRODUCTION
347
Index

The history of plasticity as a science began in 1864 when Tresca [1] pub-
lished his resuIts on punching and extrusion experiments and formulated his
famous yield criterion. A few years later, using Tresca's resuIts, Saint-Venant
[2] and Lévy [3] laid some of the foundations of the modern theory of plasti-
city. For the next 75 years progress was slow and spotty, aIthough important
contributions were made by von Mises [4], Hencky [5], PrandtI [6], and others.
It is only since approximately 1945 that a unified theory began to emerge.
Since that time, concentrated efforts by many researchers have produced a
voluminous literature which is growing at a rapid rate. Brief but excellent
historical sketches are furnished by Hill [7] and Westergaard [8].
The theories of plasticity fall into two categories: physical theories and
mathematical theories. The physical theories seek to explain why metals flow
plastically. Looking at materials from a microscopic viewpoint, an attempt
made to determine what happens to the atoms, crystals, and grains of a
when plastic flow occurs. The mathematical theories, on the other
are phenomenological in nature and attempt to formalize and put into
form the resuIts of macroscopic experiments, without probing very
into their physical basis. The eventual hope, of course, is for a merger
two approaches into one unified theory of plasticity which will both
the material behavior and provide the engineer and scientist with the
tools for practical application. The present treatise is concerned
the second of these categories, i.e., the mathematical theories of plasticity

l
2 Introduction [Ch. l
and their application, as distinct from the physicai theories. t'he latter beiong
to the realm of the metai physicist or solid-state physicist.
We start by defining roughly and intuitively what is meant by a metai
flowing plastically. If one takes a thin strip of a metal such as aluminum and
cIamps one end and applies a bending force to the other end, the end of the
strip will deflect. Upon removal of this force, if this force is not too Iarge, the
end of the strip will spring back to its originaI position, and there will be no
apparent permanent deformation. If a sufficientIy Iarge Ioad is applied to the
end, the end will not spring back all the way upon the removal of the Ioad
but will remain permanent1y deformed, and we say that plastic flow has
occurred. Our objective in this case will not be to determine why the perma-
nent deformation took pIace but to describe what has happened in terms of
stresses, strains, and Ioads. Solutions of this particular problem can be found,
for exampIe, in references [9] and [lO].
In short, piasticity is the behavior of solid bodies in which they deform
permanent1y under the action of externai Ioads, whereas eiasticity is the
behavior of solid bo dies in which they return to their originaI shape when the
externai forces are removed. Actually, however, the e1astic body is an ideali-
zation, because all bo dies exhibit more or less piastic behavior even at the
smallest Ioads. For the so-called e1astic body, however, this permanent
deformation is so small as to be practically not measurable, if the Ioads are
sufficientIy small. Piasticity theory thus concerns itself with situations in
which the Ioads are sufficient1y Iarge so that measurabie amounts of perma-
nent deformation occur. It should·further be noted that piastic deformation
is independent of the time under Ioad. Time-dependent deformations are
discussed briefly in Section 2.4 and in Chapter 14.
The theory of piasticity can convenient1y be divided into two ranges. At
one end are metal-forming processes such as forging, extrusion, drawing,
rolling, etc., which involve very Iarge piastic strains and deformations. For
these types of problems the eiastic strains can usually be negIected and the
materiai can be assumed to be perfectly plastico At the other end of the scale
are a host of problems involving small piastic strains on the order of the
eiastic strains. These types of problems are of prime importance to the
structural and machine designer. With the great premium current1y piaced
on the saving of weight in aircraft, missile, and space applications, the de-
signer can no Ionger use Iarge factors of safety and "beef up" his design. He
must design for maximum Ioad to weight ratio, and this inevitabIy means
designing into the piastic range. Even in more prosaic industriaI applications
the competitive market is forcing the application of more efficient design.
In this book emphasis will be piaced primari1y on the second type ofprob-
Iem, i.e., the elastoplastic problems, where the piastic strains are of the same
Ch. 1] Introduction
3
~rder o~ magnitude as the eiastic strains. Problems of Iarge piastic deforma-
tlOns wI1I be treated only briefly, as will problems of creep and Iimit design.
In Chapter 2 some simpie experiments to determine severai basic facts
about the e1astoplastic behavior of metais will be discussed.
References
1. H. Tresca, Sur l'ecoulement des corps solids soumis à de fortes pression
Compt. Rend., 59, 1864, p. 754. '
2. ~. de Saint-Venant, Memoire sur l'établissement des équations différen-
helles des .mouvements intérieurs opérés dans les corps solides ductiles au
delà des lImites où l'élasticité pourrait les ramener à leur premier état
Compt. Rend., 70, 1870, pp. 473-480. '
3. M. Lévy, Memoire sur les équations générales des mouvements intérieurs
des corps solides ductiles au delà des limites où l'élasticité pourrait les
ramener à leur premier état, Compt. Rend., 70, 1870, pp. 1323-1325.
4. R. von Mises, Mechanik der festen Koerper im plastisch deformablen
Zustant, Goettinger Nachr., Math.-Phys. Kl., 1913, pp. 582-592.
5. H. He.ncky, Zur Theorie plastischer Deformationen und der hierdurch im
Ma:enal hervorgerufenen Nebenspannungen, Proceedings of the 1st Inter-
natlOnal.C:0ngress on Applied Mechanics, Delft, Technische Boekhandel en
Druckenj, J. Waltman, Jr., 1925, pp. 312-317.
6. L. Prandt1, ~pannungsverteilung in plastischen Koerpern, Proceedings of the
1st In.ternatlOnal Congress on Applied Mechanics, Delft, 1924, pp. 43-54.
7. R. HI11, The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford University Press
London, 1950. '
8. H. M. Weste~gaard, Theory of Elasticity and Plasticity, Harvard University
Press, Cambndge, 1952.
9. B..~. Sha~er and R. N. House, The Elastic-Plastic Stress Distribution
Wlthlll a Wlde Curved Bar Subjected to Pure Bending. J. Appl. Mech., 22,
No.3, 1955, pp. 305-310.
lO. B. W. Shaffer and R. N. House, Displacements in a Wide Curved Bar
J. Appl. Mech., 24, No.3, 1957, pp. 447-452. '
 Sec. 2-1] TensUe Test 5
p

CHAPTER 2

BASIC P
FIGURE 2.1.1 Tensile specimen.
EXPERIMENTS
and conventional strain by

In this chapter the results of some basic experiments on the behavior of
metals is presented. The stress-stra in curve in tension, one of the basic
ingredients necessary in applying plasticity theory, is described in som~ detail.
The effects of reverse loading, strain rate, temperature, and hydrostatlc pres-
sure are briefly discussed. Idealizations of the stress-strain curve and various
models of material behavior are described.
B=--
l - lo
(2.1.2)
lo
Initially the relation between stress and strain is essentially linear. This linear
part of the curve extends up to the point A, which is called the proportional
limito It is in this range that the linear theory of elasticity, using Hook's law
is valido Upon further increase of the load, the strain no longer increase~
linear1y with stress, but the material still remains elastic; i.e., upon removal
of the lo ad the specimen returns to its originallength. This condition will

2-1 TENSILE TEST

The simplest and most common experiment, as well as the most importa~t,
is the standard tensile test. A cylindrical test specimen such as shown m
Figure 2.1.1 is inserted into the tensile machine, the load is i.ncreased, and th.e
readings of the load, the extension of the gage length inscnbed on the specl-
men, and/or the decrease in diameter are recorded. A typicalload extension
diagram is shown in Figure 2.1.2.
The nominaI stress, defined as the lo ad divided by the originaI cross-
sectional area, is plotted against the conventional or engineering strain, defined
as the increase in length per unit originallength. NominaI stress is represented B

by
p (2.1.1)
a =-
n Ao FIGURE 2.1.2 Conventional stress-strain curve.

4
 Basic Experiznents [Ch. Z Sec. Z-Z] True Stress-Strain Curve 7
6
stresses or to irregu!arities in. the specimen as well as to the rate of loadin .
prevail until some point B, called the elastie limit, or yield potnt, is reached.
In most materials there is very little difference between the proportionallimit Furthe~more, :ery httle plashc flow takes pIace at the upper yield point T;e
lower yleld pomt should therefore always be used for d . .
A and the e1astic limit B. For our purpose, we shall consider them to be the plastic flow calculations. eSlgn purposes and for
same. Furthermore, the values of these points depend on the sensitivity of the
measuring instruments. For some materials the yield point is so poor1y defined
that it is arbitrarily taken to be at some fixed value of permanent strain, such
as 0.2 per cento The stress at this point is usually called the offset yield strength, 2-2 TRUE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
or the proof strength. Beyond the elastic limit, permanent deformation, called
W,e ha~e dis.cussed the plot of the nominaI stress versus the conventional
plastie deformation, takes pIace. The strain at the e1astic limit is of the order
stram.
. It . IS eVldent, however, that this nominaI st ress IS
. not t h e tme stress
of magnitude of 0.001, or 0.1 per cento As the lo ad is increased beyond the
actmg m the specimen, since the cross-sectionai area of th . .
elastic limit, the strain increases at a greater rate. However, the specimen will de creasi 'th 1 d A e speClmen IS
not deform further unless the load is increased. This condition is called work f . ng Wl oa. t .stresses up to and near the yield, this distinction is
hardening, or strain hardening. The stress required for further plastic flow is
? no lmportance. At hlgher stress es and strains this difference becomes
calledfiow stress. Finally a point is reached, C, where the load is a maximum.
lmportant.
l ame d f rom t h e nommal
The true stress can readily be obt' . stress
as foi oWS. If small
. changes in volume are neglected l' e
' . ., the ma ertal IS
t ' .
Beyond this point, called the point of maximum load, or point of instability, the
specimen "necks down" rapidly and fractures at D. Beyond C a complicated assume d to b e mcompressible, then
triaxial state of stress exists. The point C therefore represents the limit of the
Aolo = AI
useful part of the tensile test as far as plasticity theory is concerned. The stress
at the maximum load point Cis called the tensile strength, or ultimate stress.
where Ao and lo are the originaI cross-sectionai area and gage Iength and
If at any point between the elastic limit Band the maximum load point C A and I are the current values. If P is the load , then the true st ress a IS
.
the load is removed, unloading will take pIace along aline parallel to the
elastic line, as shown in the figure by B' C'. Part of the strain is thus recovered P PI
a=-=-
and part remains permanently. The total strain can therefore be considered A Aolo
as being made up of two parts, se, the elastic component, and sP, the plastic
component: The nominaI stress an is an = P/Ao and t he conventional t . .
(2.1.3) s = (l/Io) _ 1. Therefore , s ram IS
(2.2.1)
Upon reloading, the unloading line, B'C', is retraced with very minor
deviations. Actually a very thin hysteresis loop is formed, which is usually I~ a s?mewh~t
similar fashion, one recognizes that the conventionai or
neglected. Plastic flow does not start again until the point B' is reached. With ~ngmeermg stram cannot be completely correct, since it is based on initial
further loading, the stress-strain curve is continued along B'C as if no ength, where~s the Iength is continuously changing. A different definition
unloading had occurred. Point B' can thus be considered as a neW yield point ~as.therefore mtroduced by Ludwik [1] based on the changing Iength Thus
for the strain-hardened material. e mcrement of strain for a given length is defined as .
A few materials, such as annealed mild steel, exhibit a sharp drop in yield
after the upper yield point B is reached, as shown by the dashed Une. The de = di (2.2.2)
specimen will then extend at approximate1y constant lo ad to a strain of about l
lO times the initial yie1d before the lo ad will start increasing again as the
material begins to work harden. The flat portion of the curve, called the the total strain in going from some initiallength lo to the length l is
lower yield, actually represents an average of a series of unstable jumps
between the upper and lower yields caused by the propagation of Luder bands
_ t di l
s = J/o 7 = In ~ (2.2.3)
across the specimen. The upper yield point is very sensitive to small bendin~
 Basic ExperiInents [Ch.2 Sec. 2-2] True Stress-Strain Curve 9
8
dA dI
e is called the natural, logarithmic, or true strain and it represents. a sort of or /[= -7
average strain in going from the length lo to the length I. Its re1atlOn to the
conventional strain is readily found, since l/Io = 1 + e: da = fj! = de
Hence
a I
e = In (1 + e) (2.2.4)
da
or de = a
For small strains the two are practically identical, and for most problems
considered the conventional strain will be used. The natural stra~n, howev~r, da a
(2.2.7)
has several advantages. Natural strains are additive, but conventlOnal strams de = 1+e
are noto Second, if a ductile material is tested in compression and in tension,
the true-stress versus true-strain curves are almost identical, whereas they are On a plot of a versus e, the value of a at which the lo ad is a maximum
quite different if conventional strain is used. Finally, the incompressibility occurs where the slope is equal to the stress; Le., one must draw a tangent to
condition to be used later becomes simply that point of the curve for which the subtangent is equal to 1, as shown in
Figure 2.2.1. Discussions of the stress-strain curve and the strain distributions
(2.2.5)

whereas in terms of conventional strains it is

(2.2.6)

which reduces to

__ __ __
~ ~ ~~ __ __ ________ e
~ ~

I I
only in the case of small strains. I~ ~I
I I
If a plot is now made of true stress versus true strain for the tensil.e test
True stress-strain curve.
previously described, the curve will be essentially the same up to a~d s~lghtly
FIGURE 2.2.1

above the yield point. Beyond this point the two types of plots wl11 dlverge.
The true stress will always increase until the rupture point and does not have in the neck of a tensile specimen after necking has started can be found in
a maximum at the point where the lo ad starts dropping. The true stress at references [2] and [3].
the point of maximum lo ad can be found as follows. Since Alternatively, the true stress-strain curve can be obtained by measuring the
'at,amemal strain rather than the longitudinal strain, provided the tensile speci-
p = aA has a circular section. Thus, if eD is the strain in the diametral direction,

at the point of maximum lo ad

D - Do
eD = (2.2.8)
Do
dP = a dA + A da = O

da Do is the initial diameter and D is the diameter at the true stress, a. The
or a diametral strain is

Also Aolo = AI (2.2.9)

AdI + IdA = O
 Sec. 2-2] True Stress-Strain Curve 11
10 Basic Experiments [Ch. 2
1,000,--------------------------.
and from equation (2.2.5) the 10ngitudina1 true strain is

e = -2eD = 21n.r;; (2.2.10)

SAE 3140 240,000 psi
'"
I

The true strain at any 10ad can therefore be determined by measuring the ~
)(
·iii
change in diameter of the specimen. a.
b" Hard-drawn copper
From equation (2.2.10) it is seen that the true strain can a1so be written (/)
100
(/)

~
Ao +-
e = 1n- (2.2.11) (/)

A al
::l
~
o Necking
The quantity on the right of equation (2.2.11) is called the true reduction in )( Fracture
area. Equation (2.2.11) states that the true strain is equal to the true reduction
in area. 10L-~-----L-------~-----~
Figure 2.2.2 (from reference [4]) shows the true stress-strain curves for a 0.01 0.1 1.0
Notural stra in e
FIGURE 2.2.3 True stress-strain curves on log-log coordinates.

320 variety of materials. The ends of the curves represent the points of fracture
and the circ1e on each curve represents the maximum 10ad point or instability
point for that curve. To show the complete curves to fracture, the abscissa is
280
such that the elastic parts of the curves are too small to be seen. These curves
are also shown replotted on 10g-log coordinates in Figure 2.2.3. Note that
240 most of the curves appear as straight lines on this 10g-10g plot. This indicates
'"ro that they can be represented by an equation of the form
)(

·iii
a. 200 (J = Aen (2.2.12)
b

where A and n are material constants with n the slope of the curve when
plotted on log-log coordinates. A is called the strength coefficient and n is
called the strain-hardening exponent.
Il: folIows from equation (2.2.7) that for a material which behaves according
equation (2.2.12), the true strain at the point ofmaximum load is given by

e=n (2.2.13)

simple relation (2.2.13) has been found useful in fracture studies. It also
a simple method for determining the instability point on the true
curve.
o 0.20 0.40 0.80 .l:tqluation (2.2.12) will, of course, not fit alI materials, nor will it be valid
Natural Strain - E
small strains or very 1arge strains. However, Marin [5] has studied 31
FIGURE 2.2.2 True stress-strain curves for several materials.
 Basic Experiments [Ch. 2 Sec. 2-3] Compression Test and the Bauschinger Effect 13
12 . ,
'l d "ound that the average deviation between the theoretl-
different matena s an l l 2 r 2-3 COMPRESSION TEST AND THE
_ ' b equation (2.2.13) and the actual va ues was pe
cal values of e as glVen y BAUSCHINGER EFFECT. ANISOTROPY
ce:. single quantity which represents the ability of a material to defor~ If instead of a tensile test one runs a compression test and plots nominaI
· l1y is the ductility of the material. The most commoI1 measur~ o stress against conventional strain, a different curve will be obtained than for
plast lca 'l t' the per cent stram at
ductilit is the per cent elongation in the tensl e tes ,1.e.,. . .. the tensile test. However, if the true stress is plotted against the true strain,
Y Th l'f l l'S the gage length at fracture and lo IS the mltlal gage practically identical curves are usually obtained. The yield points in tension
fracture. us, r
length, then the per cent elongation is and compression will, for example, generally be the same. If, however, a
metal is first deformed by uniform tension and the load is removed and the
lr - lo O (2.2.14) specimen is reloaded in compression, the yield point obtained in compression
er = ~ x lO
will be considerably less than the initial yield in tension. This has been ex-
plained as being the result of the residual stresses left in the material due to
Together with the per cent e10ngation as given by equation (2.2.1.4), o~~ the tensile deformations [6]. A perhaps better explanation is based on the
t~e in~~al g~g~~:~~~~~ :!~~: ~!:t~~a~:tc:1:~:;~~~~y
must also specify anisotropy of the dislocation field produced by loading [7]. This effect is

~::~~so~:~~::g:n~n:eck~~; ~tarts, m~st of th\:eforma~i:~ a~c~~~~~~ ~~

un
smallest cross section, with on1y a relatlVely sma amt th The longer the
formation occurring throughout the rest of the g~ge e.~tbe' The ductility is
a e length used, the smaller the per cent elongatlOn.wl . There are several simplified models used to describe the Bauschinger effect.
;h:refore reported as the per cent e10ngation for a glVen g.age length. .
A better measure "or
l
ductility , however , is the true stram at fracture .
(2.2.15)
called the Bauschinger effect, and is present whenever there is a reversal ofthe
stress field. The Bauschinger effect is very important in cyclic plasticity
studies. Unfortunately, however, it enormously complicates the problem and
is therefore usually ignored.
These are illustrated in Figure 2.3.1 (from reference [8]). At one extreme it is
assumed that the elastic unloading range will be double the initial yield stress.
If the initial yield stress in tension is ao, then the specimen will yield in com-
pression after being stressed in tension to a = al when

. t' (2 2 15) can be written in terms of the reduction in area

AlternatlVely, equa lOn .,
at fracture. From equation (2.2.11) it follows that This is shown as path ABCDE in Figure 2.3.1. According to this theory, then,
total elastic range of the material remains constant, the initial compressive
Ao being reduced by the same amount as the tensile yield is raised.
er = In Ar
At the other extreme there is isotropic hardening. This theory assumes
the mechanism that produces hardening acts equally in tension and
where Ao is the initia1 area and Ar is the area at fracture. As menti~~ed ~;e~ cornP1~eSSi1011. Thus compressive yielding will occur when

vi~~::r~1 :~'!~;~: ~ :'~~::~~i;:7~:rt;u:'~:~~ :~~;r~:::,::~:~~Ymuoh

~nder load and will behave in a brittle fashion. un~xt~~~d~:~g:u~~~~t~
1
~it by the path ABCFG. This is the simplest ofthe theories to apply and
cause such a materia1 to fracture, whereas a matena V:
d form under similar loads without fracturing. A cychc load above the the one most frequently used.
w~ll cause a low-ductility material to fail in relatively few cycles, whe:eas lSetwl!en these theories there is a theory which assumes that the tensile and
high-ductility materia1 will fail after a much larger number of Cyc:l~s (a yields are independent of each other. The compressive yie1d
for very low cycle fatigue). In meta1-forming processes such as ro mg, is independent of the amount of tensile hardening and remains at
ing, forging, etc., a sufficient amount of ductility is needed to prevent
a = -ao
during the forming processo
 Basic Experiments {Ch. 2
Sec. 2-4] Effects or Strain Rate and Temperature 15
14
2-4 EFFECTS OF STR1UN RATE AND
TEMPERATURE

Tests
. on the effect of the rate of st rammg
. . and of te
ertres of mild steel were carried out b M .. mperature on the prop-
ofincreasing the stra in rate l'S lYl a~Jome [9], among others. The effect
genera y to mcrease th t '1 .
in Figure 2.4.1. For materials with 1 . Id e enSI e yleld, as shown
a ower yle , such as mild steel, the stress-

_ - - - 10 3 sec-1
~_--- 10- 2 sec- 1
LA~ ____________4-~-+~~-€
~_- _ _-10-6 sec- 1

FIGURE 2.4.1 Effect of strain ratl.

G
FIGURE 2.3.1 Theories for Bauschinger effect. strain curve may approach that f Perti
materia1s the reverse will be tr o da h ect.ly plastic material. For other
ue, an t e stram harde' '11 .
as shown by AB CHI. Actually experiments indicate that the compressive . rate [16]. These effect'
strain s are lmportant m . some metmngl tiWl mcrease
.
with
yield stress usually lies between points H and D of Figure 2.3.1, such as at J. WhlCh are performed at very high t . a - ormmg processes
. s ram rates These typ f
It should be noted that in this figure the curves after yielding are shown as a not be dlscussed in this text. . es o processes will
set of parallellines for simplicity. Actually areai stress-strain curve will show Temperature has a very important effect on me .
temperatures metals which d' tal propertles. At very 10w
continuous curvature and varying slope after yielding when the lo ad is 'l are very uctrle can bec b .
l lustrated in Figure 2 4 2 (fr ti ome very nttle. This is
.. om re erence [lO]) Th t
reversed. ductility changes so rapid1y i Il d h '.. e emperature at which the
As an allied effect to the Bauschinger effect, any initial isotropy which is s ca e t e transltlOn te
temperature and strain-rate ftì t mperature. Such strong
present is usually destroyed upon 10ading into the plastic range; i.e., if e ec s occur more 11'
originally the tensile yield point was the same in all directions, it will no .body-centered-cubic structures. genera y In metals with
10nger be so. Both the compressive and tensile yield values are changed in all
directions by plastic yielding in one direction. Thus plastic deformation is 100
anisotropie. For example, cold-rolled sheet has markedly different properties ~
in the thickness direction than in the pIane of the sheet, and usually somewhat
g 80
(;
different yield points in the rolling than in the transverse direction. .s 60
c
We see that the material may have initial anisotropy due to the manufac- 2u 40
turing process, and it may also develop anisotropy due to plastic yielding. .g 20
For small plastic strains the second effect is probably not too important. As ~ -200
I~~~..l.-
-150 -100 -50
for the first effect, the material being used can be tested for anisotropy. If a
large amount of anisotropy is found, a much more complicated Hnli~o1rr01DlC
FIGURE 2.4.2 Effect of temperature.
theory of plasticity may have to be used.
16 Basic Experiments [Ch. 2
Sec. 2-6] Idealization 01 the Stress-Strain Curve
At the other end of the time and temperature scales is the phenomenon of 17
creep. Creep is a continuous deformation with time under constant lo ad and
occurs primarily at high temperatures, although some metals, e.g., lead, will

~P
creep at room temperature. Although it is questionable whether plasticity
theories can be applied to the creep phenomenon, it is the usual practice to
do so and, in Chapter 14, we shaU describe how this is done. A typical set of
creep curves is shown in Figure 2.4.3.
(a)

Time
FIGURE 2.4.3 Creep curves.

p
2-5 INrLUENCE or HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE.
INCOMPRESSIBILITY
(c)
Bridgman, in a series of classical experiments [11, 12] in which he carried
out tensile tests under conditions of hydrostatic pressures up to 25,000 atm,
showed that hydrostatic pressure has negligible effect on the yield point until
extremely high pressures are reached. Furthermore, the shape of the stress-
strain curve remains unaltered in the smaU-strain range. The major effect of
hydrostatic pressure is to increase the ductility of the material and to permit
much larger deformations prior to fracture.
It has also been shown that the density, and consequent1y the volume, does
not change even for very large plastic deformations. Thus, in the plastic range,
a material can be considered as incompressible. These two experimental facts,
i.e., the lack of influence of hydrostatic pressure and incompressibility, are
very important in the development of plastic flow theories. p

2-6 IDEALIZATION or THE STRESS-STRAIN

(e)
CURVE. DYNAMIC AND KINEMATIC MODEL
2.6.1 Idealized stress-strain curves' (
perfect1y plastic' (c) rigid l' .' a) perfectly elastic, brittle'
Because of the complex nature of the stress-strain curve, it has () . .' , lllear stralll hardenin . (d) l ' '
e e1asttc, hnear strain hardening. g, e astIC, perfectly
customary to idealize this curve in various ways [l3]. Figure 2.6.1
 Basic Experiments [Ch. 2
Sec. 2-6} Idealization ol the Stl'ess-Stl'ain Curve
18 . d namic models which can be used
idealized curves as well as cor~esP~;~~lgbe~hown subsequently that with the this type to represent combined stresses acting in several directions would be
19
to describe the material.behavlO~: these idealizations are in many cases extremely difficult. For this reason Prager [141 introduced ingenious kinematic
use of modern computmg mac mery,
models in which both the stresses and strains are represented by displacements.
not necessary. .. 26 1 are designated as dyn amie .models.d They
1 of Figure 2.6.2 i11ustrates this type of model for the case of the rigid linear-
The models shown m FIgure .: . by displacements. To devlse mo es h"'dening plastie mat.,ial [81. The modeJ is taken to be a slotted bar, as
replace stresses by forces and strams _
shown. The bar is free to move aIong its length on the frictionless table T.
(j=op But for the bar to move, tb, pin P must 'ngage tbe end of the b",. InitialJy
l-
O e = /ii OR pin p is at the center R of the slot and this point is marked as point O on the
table. The distanee from p to either end ofthe slot is taken equal to tbe yie1d
stress (lo of the rigid linear-hardening materia1.
~____~__~=========P=l.~~R====~______L-________ T
(o)
T The distance OP of the pin p from the fixed point O is taken equaI to the
stress. Then the distance OR from the center ofthe slot R to the fixed point O
~
is propor';onal to the strain, i .e., , ORjm, Wh.,e lan -, m is tbe slope of
T~----~--:===========11~R==::P·===-----~L---------T
(b)
the plastic Slress--strain curve. Thus plastie flow will take pIace when the pin
1S engaged at one end or the other ofthe slot. Figures 2.6.2 and 2.6.3 illustrate
the different positions of the kinematic modeI and the corresponding stress-
T~____~__~==::::::::ll:R::::::::~_P_.__-L_________ T
(c)
strain diagram. Note that for this particular model it has been assumed that
the elastic unloading range EG i8 equaI to twice the initiaI yield, so that the
yield point in compression G 1S Iess than the initial yield C.
(d) IR pII
T T
(e) IR p8
T T O
E

I
(f) IR
T T
(g) IR B

T T A F

(h) IR
T T

T~--------JL~=========r===IR==------------~-----T
(il
H

O
FIGURE 2.6.2 K inematic model.
FIGURE 2.6.3 Stress-strain curve for model of Figure 2.6.2.
 Ch. 2] Problems 21
Basic Experiments [Ch.2

20 two stress variables, al and 0'2' a:e Problerns

In a two_dimensional state of .stress, Th fore if the position of the plll
specified instead of the single va:lab~s:be f::: to ~ove in two directions. In 1. Show that natural strains are additive whereas conventional strains are not.
is to indicate the stat~ of stress, lt m o_dimensionaI frame rather than ~ slot. 2. Assume that a material behaves elastically up to the point of instability.
Show that the natura l strain at this point is unity.
this case the rigid reglO~ must be ~:~il in Chapter 6, after the discuSS IOll of 3. Derive equation (2.2.13).
This will be discus sed III greater 4. Let the stress-strain curve of a material be given by a = Aen, where e is the
yield surfaces. conventional strain. Show that at the point of instability
n
FOR STRESS-STR1UN e=--
1- n
2-7 EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS
5. In a standard tensile test using a t-in.-diameter specimen with a l-in. gage
CURVES . f ivenmaterial length, the following data were obtained. At a load of 10,000 lb, the conven-
t the stress-stralll curve o a g tional strain was 0.10, and at a lo ad of 12,000 lb, the conventional strain was
It is sometimes useful to rep:e~en b fitting the experimental data. E~ua-
0.60. Find the true stresses and strains for these two conditions. Determine
by an equation obtained empl:lcallYhi~h will frequently fit most of a glVen the strength coefficient A, the strain-hardening exponent n, the change in
tion (2.2.12) is such an equatlOn w. l mentioned, will not usually fit at gage length at the maximum load, and the maximum lo ad assuming equation
. b t as was prevlOUS Y . One of the (2.2.12) to hold.
stress-stralll curve, u, . d of the stress-stralll curve.
the low-strain and high-stralll en s d by Ludwik (1). It has the form 6. A tensile lo ad is applied to a thin-walled hollow circular cyÙnder. Determine
.' l quations was propose the change in wall thickness and in mean radius at the point of maximum
first such emplflca e (2.7.1) load, if the stress-strain curve is given by a = Aen, where e is the conven-
0"= 0'0 + men tional strain and a is the true stress.
7. Derive the incompressibility conditions (2.2.5) and (2.2.6).
due to Ramberg and Osgood [151, is 8. The following data were obtained in a tensile test on a 0.505-in.-diameter
A frequently used form, specimen:
(2.7.2)
e = i + k(ir Diameter, in. Load,lb Diameter, in. Load,lb

Some other forms that have been proposed are 0.487 6,750 0.419 11,000
(2.7.3) 0.481 9,250 0.402 10,800
a = a + (b - a)(l - e-ne) 0.472 10,400 0.375 10,200
0.463 10,900 0.361 9,700
0'= c(a + e)n 0.450 11,100 0.354 9,500
0.438 11,200 0.326 8,950
Fracture
0'= 0'0 tanh~)
. h ield strain, 0'0 the yield stress, (a) Plot the true stress-strain curve.
fturalloganthms, eo t e y (b) Determine the strength coefficient A and the strain-hardening exponent n.
where e is the base o na ,. band c constants. (c) Determine the maximum lo ad from the stress-strain curve and compare
E the elastic modulus, and m, n, ,,~, , t f the stress-strain curve as it with that obtained using equation (2.2.13).
'bl t fit the plastlc par o
It is also pOSSl e o . l f arbitrary degree, i.e., Consider a material whose stress-strain curve is given by a = 30,000 +
. d b polynomIa o 1.5 X 106 e, a > 30,000 psi. If a tensile specimen of this material is stretched
ately as deslre Ya
e :::; eo to a strain of 0.004 in./in., at what stress will it yield in compression when
Ee e
m the load is reversed, for each of the assumptions in Figure 2.3.1 ?
a =
+ a1 e + a2 e + .. , + am
2
{ ao For the dynamic models of Figure 2.6.1, show the relations between the
. h d . g all the constants and the parameters of the stress-strain curve. Denote the
For linear stram ar enm constants by k (k 1 and k 2 for the last model), the weight of the block
wh ere eo l'S the yield strain.
beginning with a2 are zero.
 Basic Experiments [Ch. 2 Ch. 2] General References

22 15. W. Ramberg and W . R . O sgoo d Des . f

T 23
by W, the friction coefficient by f.t, and the force by P. For example, for the hree Parameters, NACA Techni;al M cnp 10n of Stress-Strain Curves by
first model, the equation of the stress-strain curve is a = Ee and the corres- 16. T. A. Trozera, O . D . Sher b y and J ote
E DNo. 902, July 1943 .
ponding model equation is P = kx. Thus
Te~perature on the Plastic Deforma~"10n or~, Effect of Strain Rate and
Cali[. (Berkeley) Tech. Repl S
Dec. 1955.
2
., ero 2, lssue 44, Contract N7-0NR-2~~'
of HIgh Purity Aluminum Un'
,

GeneraI References

11. For the kinematic model of Figure 2.6.2, show that e = OR/m. Drucker, D . C ., St ress-Stram
. Relations in h .
12. Describe a kinematic model similar to that shown in Figure 2.6.2 for iso- Theory and Experiment ONR R t e Plashc Range-A Survey f
Goodier, J. N. and P J H 'd ept. NR-D41-D32, 1950. o
tropic . 1958.' . . o ge, Jr., Elasticity and Plasticity ' W'I
I ey, N ew York
13. Sketchhardening.
typical stress-strain curves that would be obtained using Ludwik's
expression for the following cases: R., The Mathematical Th eory of Plasticity, Oxford U·
HIll, 1950. mv. P ress London '
(a) n = 1.
°
(b) ~ n < 1.
(c) ao = 0, n = 0, t, 1.
Johnson, W., and
London, Plas . . for Mechanical Engineers' Van 'N os t rand,,
1962P.. B. Mellor ,t/city

References
1. P. Ludwik, Elemente der technologischen Mechanik, Springer, Berlin, 1909.
2. J. D. Lubahn and R. P. Felgar, Plasticity and Creep of Metals, Wiley, New

3. York,1961.
G. E. Dieter, Jr., Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961.
4. H. Schwartzbart and W. F. Brown, Jr., Notch-Bar Tensile Properties of
Various Materials and their Relation to the Unnotch Flow Curve and
Notch Sharpness, Trans. ASM, 46, 998, 1954.
5. J. Marin, Mechanical Behavior of Engineering Materials, Prentice-Hall,
Englew ood Cliffs, N.J., 1962.
6. R. Hill, The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford Univo Press, London,

7. 1950.
D. Mclean, Mechanical Properties of Metals, Wiley, New York, 1962.
8. J. N. Goodier and P. G. Hodge, Jr., Elasticity and Plasticity, Wiley, New
York,1958.
9. M. J. Manjoine, Influence of Rate of Strain and Temperature on
Stresses of Mild Steel, J. Appl. Mech., 11, A-21l, 1944.
lO. A. W. MagnusSOn and W. M. Baldwin, Low Temperature Brittleness,
Mech. Phys. Solids, 5,172,1957.
11. P. W. Bridgman, The Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure on the Fracture
Brittle Substances, J. Appl. Phys., 18, 246, 1947.
12. P. W. Bridgman, Studies in Large Plastic Flow and Fracture with
Emphasis on the Effects of Hydrostatic Pressure, McGraw-Hill, New

13. 1952.
W. Johnson and P. B. Mellor, Plasticity for Mechanical Engineers,
Nostrand, Princeton, N.J., 1962.
14. W. Prager, The Theory of Plasticity-A Survey of Recent
Proc. lnst. Mech. Engrs., London, 169, 41, 1955.
 Sec. 3-1] Tensor Notation 25

CHAPTBR 3 3-1 TENSOR NOTATION

A tensor is a system of numbers or functions which transform according

to a certain law, when the independent variables undergo a linear trans-
formation. We shall not concern ourselves here with the transformation laws
for tensors but will merely record a few elementary properties, inc1uding the
tensor notation. We shall accept the fact that stress and strain are tensors.
A subscript notation is used which is really very simple. The coordinate
axes are designated by the letter x, with a latin subscript. Thus XI does not
meanjust one quantity, but three quantities, Xl> X2, and Xs, where Xl' X2' and
Xs are used instead of X, y, and z (or r, B, z, etc.). Any other subscript, such
asj, k, l, m, etc., can be used equally well. For two-dimensional problems the
subscript is understood to have a range of only two rather than three.
A double subscript indicates a system of nine components if the range of
THE STRESS each of the subscripts is three, or a system of four components if the range is
TENSOR two. For example, the stress tensor is designated by a" and stands for nine
components:

a ll a12 alS] [ax

. familiar with the basic concepts of the theory alj == a2l a22 a2S = 'T yX (3.1.1)
[
It is assumed that the reader lS. . f tress and strain. However, to avoid aSl aS2 ass 'T zx
.' . l d'ng the defimtlOns o s f h
of elastlClty, mc u 1 d to refresh the memory o t ose
having the student re
fer to other texts an b . il
k l'n elasticity we shall ne Y Similar1y, the nine components of the strain tensor are designated by e".
tly done any wor ' . Two subscripted quantities are said to be equal if their corresponding com-
readers who have not recen f these basic concepts, with partlcular
. m
reVlew . th e next three chapters some o d strain tensors WhlC. h are par- ponents are equal. Thus if A" = Bli> then All = B ll , A 12 = B 12 , etc.
. h erties of the stress an d If two subscripted quantities are added, their corresponding components
emphasls on t ose prop t f plasticity theory. The rea er
. t t in the developmen o 6 are added. Thus
ticularly Impor an .' h may skip directly to Chapter .
thoroughly familiar with elastlclty t eory d lthough we shall not con-
. nd-order tensors, an a
Stress and stram are seco . t' s such it is important that
.h and thelr proper les a , .
cern ourselves Wlt tensors
'1'
. t t tI' on known as tensor notatlOn.
'th the subscnp no a
All + Bll = Cll
the student be faml lar Wl . 'ting out long formulas or expres- A 12 + B 12 = C12
. . t nly a time saver m wn f f
This notatlOn lS no o f l' derivations and in the proo o
. . l o extremely use u m A 2l + B 2l = C2l etc.
sions, but lt lS a s . t f the past and present literature on
n:
theorems. Furthermore, a aJor pa~ ok owledge of this notation is ess.en1tìaf system is called a system of first order, a double subscript
subject utilizes tensor notatlOn, aln . a npecific problems the usual lUlll'.l"'U~ one of second order, etc. It is evident from the definitions of equality
. th literature In so vmg s .h
in followmg e . d We shall therefore start Wlt a addition above, that these can apply only to systems of equal order.
notation must, however, always be use . now come to the only "tricky" part of tensor notation-the summation
description of tensor notation. ",vI>n."... " . Whenever a subscript is repeated, this indicates summation over

of the subscript. Thus

24
 Sec. 3-2] Stress at a Point
The Stress Tensor [Ch. 3 27

26 The simp1est second-order symmetric tensor is the Kronecker delta or

Such a subscript is called a dummy subscript and it must be a letter not a substitution tensor, defined by
number; i.e., all does not mean summation.
A more complicated example is given by the increment of work per unit Off =O i "# j

volume:
oli = l i =j (3.1.3)
(3.1.2)
= [~ ~]
The advantage here becomes apparent, since we have written down one term
instead of nine. Also the work increment stands out as the scalar product of It is called the substitution tensor because
ents
the strain increment and the stress. Furthermore, 7"jf dSjf repres the work OffA f = Af (3.1.4)
increment without being tied to any particular system ofaxes. It would thus
include 7"11 dS + 7"22 dS + 7"33 ds 33 , where these are the principal stresses offA"c = Ai/C
22
ll

andA strains. Finally, the convention l'S used to d . 1 erentiation by a

system having any number of subscripts is said to be symmetric in two of comma. Thus eSIgnate partia1 d'fii
these subscripts if the components of the system are unaltered when the two
subscripts are interchanged. Thus a second-order system is called symmetric if
(3.1.5)

The stress and strain tensors are usually symmetric.

A system is said to be skew-symmetric or antisymmetric if the interchange
of the indices changes the signs of the components. Thus for a second-order 3-2 STRESS AT A POINT
skew-symmetric system Consider
forces P 1 P 2a' "body as show' .
n In FIgure 3.2.1 subjected t o a system of externa1
• Pa. Now consider l
dIViding it into parts I and II h a p ane AB passing through the bod
, as s own. If we consider part I , it l'S seen t hatY
This shows immediately that
All = -A ll = O
A 22= -A 22 = O
A33 = - A 33 = O

Therefore a skew-symmetric tensor of second order is characterized by

three quantities:

Pl = A 32 = -A 23
P2 = Al3 = - A 3l

P3 = A l2 = -A 2l
~
It can readily be shown that every second-order tensor Ajf may be or FIGURE 3.2.1 Loaded body.
posed into the sum of a symmetric tensor ejf and a skew-symmetric tens
28 The Stress Tensor [Ch. 3
Sec. 3-2} Stress at a Point
it is in equilibrium under the action of forees P 1 , P 2 , P 3 , P 4 , and the force P 12 29
that part II exerts on part I, P 12 being the resultant of the eontinuous distri-
bution of forces on the pIane AB that part II exerts on part I. If a small area
AA is taken in this pIane with a force AP acting on it, then the uni! stress
acting at this point is defined as

. AP
p = 11m AA (3.2.1)
t.A->O i l

The important thing to note here is that the unit stress, p, must be referred to
a particular pIane. For any other pIane passing through the same point, it is
obvious from consideration of Figure 3.2.1 that the force distribution on this
pIane, and hence the unit stress, will be different.
The unit stress, p, of course, need not be perpendicular to the pIane AB.
In practice, therefore, the stress, p, is decomposed into two components, one
normal to the piane of reference, called the normal stress, and one parallel
to this pIane, called the shearing stress. The normai stress is taken as positive
when it is tensile in nature and negative when it is compressive.
To compIetely specify the stress at a point it is necessary to specify the
stresses at that point on three mutually perpendicular pianes passing through
the point. The stress on any arbitrary pIane through the point can then be FIGURE 3.2.2
Convention for stresses.
determined in terms of the stress es on the three perpendicular planes, as will
short1y be shown. Let the three mutually perpendicular planes be the planes It is customary in engineering praetice to d
perpendicular to the x, y, and z coordinate axes. Then the stresses acting on norm~l, stress and write Clx instead of Cl elete the second subseript on the
these pianes at their point of intersection are as designated in Figure 3.2.2. quanhtles are designated' 1 xx, etc. In tensor notation th '
slmp y by Cl b e nme
The stresses as shown are alI positive. The subscripts denote the direetion of If one considers an infinite' l ti or, y some authors, 7"li'
the stress. The first subscript designates the normai to the pIane under con- , , Slma rectangula 11 '
pO,mt m a body, then it readily ii Il r p~ra eleplped surrounding a
sideration, and the second subscript designates the direetion of the stress. st~Ì1c equilibrium of forees and ~ ows, as lS s~own in standard texts,
Thus 7" xy denotes a shearing stress acting on the face of the element that is pomt satisfy the following eqUation~~ents reqUIres that the stresses at
perpendieuIar to the x axis, the stress aeting in the direction of the y axis.
As mentioned previously, the normai stress is taken positive when it nt'r,r1llt'po
tension and negative when it produees eompression. The positive G1reetlOtls
of the components of shearing stress on any side of the cubie element
taken as the positive direetions of the coordinate axes, if a tensile stress on
same side would have the positive direction of the corresponding axis.
It is seen from the figure that the complete specifieation of the stress at (3.2.2)
point is given by the nine quantities ~ + 87"yZ 8Cl
8x 8y + Biz = - Fz
Fj are the components of th
e body forces per uni t volume. Also

(3.2.3)
 Sec. 3-3] PromClpal
. Stresses. Stress Invariants 31
The Stress Tensor {Ch. 3

30 z OD..L ABC

In tensor notation these become simply N .J = 00

OA
m = 00
(3.2.4) OC
n 00
08

The second line of(3.2.4) expresses the fact that the stress tensor is symmetric.
There are therefore in generaI only six independent components of stress at a
point rather than nine. (Note: There are some peculiar conditions for which
the stress tenso will not be symmetric, as in the case when body moments c
r y
act (1).)

3-3 PRINCIP.AL STRESSES. STRESS INV.ARI.ANTS

If we are given the six components of stress at a point with respect to some x
coordinate system (x, y, z), we can determine the stresses acting on any pIane
through this point. This can be done by consideration ofthe static equilibrium
of an infinitesimal tetrahedron formed by this pIane and the coordinate
planes, as shown in Figure 3.3.1. In this figure we have shown the stresses
acting on the three coordinate planes. These stresses are assumed to be known.
We wish to find the stresses acting on the pIane ABC whose normal ON has
direction cosines l, m, and n. Let the area of the infinitesimal triangle ABC be
designated by AA. Then the areas ofthe faces AOB, COB, and AOC are equal c y
to m AA, l AA, and n AA, respectively. Now let the stress vector acting on
the face ABC be designated by Sand its x, y, and z components by Sx, Sy,
and Sz as shown in Figure 3.3.1(b). Then for equilibrium of forces in the

x direction,
x
(b)

or FIGURE 3.3.1 F orces on infinitesimal tetrahedr ono

from (3.3.1) resuIts in

Similarly,
Sy = lr XY + mu y + n'1"Zy Sn = 12ux + m 2 uy + n2 uz + 2(lm'1"xy + mn'1"yZ + nlr zx ) (3.3.3)
Sz = lr xz + m'1"yZ + nuz
to obtain the resuItant shear stress Ss a Ct'lllg on thIS
. pIane,
To obtain the normal stress Sn acting on this pIane we project the
S; = S2 - S2n
Sx, Sy, and Sz onto the normal ON, to get
= S;, + S~ + S2z - S2n (3.3.4)
 Sec. 3-3] Principal Stresses. Stress Invariants 33
The Stress Tensor [Ch. 3
Expanding the determinant glves
. . equation for S:
a CUblC
32
Equations (3.3.1) give the x, y, and z components of the stress acting on this
pIane, and equations (3.3.3) and (3.3.4) give the normal and shear stresses. S3 - 11 S 2 - 12 S - 13 = O (3.3.9)
Equations (3.3.1) can also be considered as the boundary conditions that where
have to be satisfied by the stress components 0!J at any point on the boundary Il = 0x + + Oz
0y
of the body. Thus if the element of area ABC is considered to be an element
12 = xy + '1'YZ
'1'2 2 + '1'zx
2 - (OXOy + o y o z + o zo x ) (3.3.10)
of the boundary whose normal has the direction cosines l, m, and n, and
Sx, Sy, and Sz are the components of the applied boundary forces at the 13 = o x o yo z + 2'1'Xy'1'YZ TZX - (o x '1'2YZ + OyT 2ZX + Oz'1';y)
point O, then equations (3.3.1) are precisely the boundary conditions that
must be satisfied by the stress tensor. In tensor notation, if we replace l, m, It can be proved. [2] that th e cub'IC equatlOn . (3 3 9) h h
consequent1y there are (at le t) h " .. as t ree real roots and
and n by Il, 12 , and 13 , we can write (3.3.1) as db as t ree prmclpal stre h'
(3.3.5) nate y 01, 02, and 03' Substituting a f h sses, w lch will be desig-
(3.3.6) enables one to solve for th nyo t es~ solutions back into equations
'f . e correspondmg di t'
n, l m addition the identity f2 + m 2 + n2 = 1 . rec lOn cosines l, m, and
Suppose the pIane element ABC of Figure 3.3.1 is so oriented that the
01, 02, and 03 are distinct the th . lS used. If the three roots
resultant stress S on this pIane element is normai to the pIane; Le., S = Sn b . ' ree correspondmg p' . 1 .
e umque and orthogonal. If t f h nnClpa dlrections will
and Ss = O. The pIane is then called a principal pIane at the point, its normal . wo o tese roots are 1 ..
e umque but the other two d' t' equa, one dlrectlOn will
direction is called a principal direction, and the stress S = Sn is called a b lrec lOns can be any t d'
o t e first. If aH three roots are equa, 1 t h ere are no uwo. lrections,
principal stress. At every point in a body there are at Ieast three principal t h . , orthogonal
an any three directions can b h mque pnnclpal directions
directions. These principai stresses and principai directions can readily be d . stress.
stattc e c osen . This correspon d s to a state of hydro-
found as follows. Assume the element ABC to lie in a principai pIane at
point O so that S = Sn' Then S has the same direction cosines l, m, and n Suppose instead of the axes x y and .
were chosen at the point O Th' , h z, a dlfferent set ofaxes, x' y' and z'
as the normal. The components of S in the x, y, and z directions are then . en t e equat' f d ",
stresses, (3.3.9) would be th lOn or etermining the principal
. ' esame, except that I l d
Sx = IS 1U terms of the stresses o' 0" • 1, 2, an 13 would be defined
axes, Le., x, y, Oz, etc., wlth respect to the new coordinate
Sy = mS
Sz = nS
Il = o'x + o' + Oz'
y

and equations (3.3.1) give immediateIy l 2 -- + '1'YZ

'2 + ...
'1"2
XY etc.
l(ox - + m'1'yx + n'1'zx = O
S)
lr XY + m(Oy - S) + nrZy = O the principal str.esses are physical quantities .
on the coordmate axes ch and obvlOusly do not
lr xz + m'1'yz + n(oz - S) = O . ( osen. Hence the numb I 2
'l''''V'H.''''' m 3.3.9) must be the same no ers 1, 1 , and 13
3 morder that they give the same' matter what coordinate axes are
or in tensor notation (repiacing l, m, and n by Il, 12 , and 1 ) values for 01 , o 2, and 03' Th us

Il -- o x + 0y + o z = o'x + U 'y + U z'

For equation (3.3.6) to have a nontriviai solution for l, m, and n, the
minant of the coeftìcients must vanish, resulting in for 12 and
. invariants
thtrd of 13'
theIl' t12 , and l 3 are t h erefore caHed the first second
' ~pec lve y. We will show later
s ress tensor re t' 1 "
OX - S first and second invariants
'1'zx \ are partlcular1y important in plasticity
0y - S '1'Zy = O
\OiJ - 8jj S\ = '1'Xy
'1'xz '1'yz Oz - S
\
 Sec. 3-4] Max'unum and Octahedral Shear Stresses
The stress Tenso r {Ch.3
. to l and m ,equatmg
respect and . these d ' . 35
34 equat10ns are obtained for l and m: envatlves to zero, the following
If we choose the principal directions as the directions of the coordinate
axes, then the stress invariants take on the simple form
1[(<11
[(
- (13)f2 + (<12 - (13)m 2 - l(
2 <11 - (13)] = O
2 (3.4.3)
Il = <11 + <12 + <13
m <11 - (13)f2 + (<12 - <1 3 )m - l2(<12 - (13)] = O
(3.3.11)
1 = -(<11<12 + <12<13 + <13(11) One is. obviousIy l -- m = O and -
2
. dsolution
tame by takmg l = O but t n - ± 1. Another solution is ob-
_ . /_ no m. Then from th
m _ ±v 1/2. Aiso taking m _ O . e second equation
There are in generaI, no -sol t' glVes from t he fìrst equation, l = + V1/2 '
It is to be noted that the invariants Il, 12 , and 13 appearing in (3.3.11) are . 1
t"
u 10ns lor l and b h -'
three independent quantities which specify the state of stress just as well as specla case <11 = (12' m ot nonzero except in the
2 3
<11' <12' and <13' That is, given <11, <12' and <13' we can calculate Il' 1 , and 1 , and
(3.4.2) first m and then l the ~ 11'
If the above calculations are carried o . .
given Il' 1 , and 1 , we can calculate <110 <12' and <13' one set of these numbers ut by ehmmating from equati
3
, o owmg table is obtained: on
2
uniquely determining the other set. Furthermore, any three independent
combinations of these invariants will obviously also be invariants and can o o ±1 o + V1/2 + V1j2
specify the state of stress just as <11' <12' and <13 do.
m o ±1 o ± V1j2 o
n +1 O O ± V1j2 ± V1j2 O
3-4 MAXIMUM AND OCTAHEDRAL SHEAR
The first three columns obviousl' ..
STRESSES planes which are principal pIane; !~~ :!e d~rect1On cosines of the coordinate
Let us take the coordinate axes in the principal directions. Then the shear ~lanes a~e zero; Le., they are a ~inim er~~re the shearing stresses on these
stress es referred to these axes are zero and the normal and shear stresses on bon cosmes of 450 angles. These lan um. e three last columns give direc-
some oblique plane, with direction cosines with respect to these axes of l, m, the coordinate axes On th Pl es, therefore, bisect the angles bet
D" . ese p anes the sh . g ween

~f ~he int~
and n, are, from equations (3.3.3) and (3.3.4), eSlgnatmg these stresses b T and . .eann stresses are maximum
equation (3.4.2), the values hsUb.sbtutmg these direction cosines
2 2 s eanng stresses are o btained as
S" = [Z<11 + m <12 + n <13
S; = Si + S~ + S~ - S; T1 = ±!(<12 - (13)

T2 = ±!(<11 - (13) (3.4.4)

But, from (3.3.1), with the shear stress es zero, T3 = ±-!-(<11 - (12)

the m aXlmum
. shearing stress acts on .
the largest and smallest pri . I the pIane blsecting the arlgle
Therefore, .me)ret1f'P between these principai st nClpa stresses and is equal to half the
we resses.
we get,compute the normai stresses o n these planes and designate them by
from (3.4.1),
nu ffi
We already know that on the principal planes the shear stress is a mlnll : -'
zero. Let us noW fìnd the planes for which it is a maximum; Le., we seek N1 = -!-(<12 + (13)
values of l, m, and n, such that S8 as given by equation (3.4.2) is a ,"";},, •."UU
In addition to equation (3.4.2), there is a restriction on the directionU
N2 = -!-(<11 + (13) (3.4.5)
P
[Z + m2 + n = 1; Le., only two of them can be independent. 0U :;t.HU I
2 N3 = -!-h + (12)
into (3.4.2) n2 = 1 _ m2 - [Z, differentiating the resultant equation
 The Stress Tensor [Ch.3 Sec. 3-5] Mohr's D'lagram 37
36 e and in terms of general nonpnncipal
. stress es it becomes
so that the normal stress on each of these planes is equal to the averag of the
principal stresses on the two planes whose angle it bisects. 'T2 _ 2[(a x
oct -"9 + ay + a)2
z + 3('T Xy
2 + 2
'T yZ + 2)
'T zx - (a a + Z x
If the pIane ABC of Figure 3.3.1 is so oriented that aA = aB = ac, then = t[(a _ a )2+ ()2 x y aya + aza )]
x y ay - az + (a z _ ax)2 + 6(T~y + T~z + T~x)]
the normal aN will make equal angles with all the axes, and
(3.4.11)
1 (3.4.6)
l=m=n= ±V3 which
D dgives the octahedral shear stress In
. t f
re erre to an arbitrary set ofaxes. erms o the stress components
The normal stress acting on this pIane is
(3.4.7)

3-5 MOHR'S DIAGRAM

That is, the normal stress on this piane is equai to the mean stress, and the
The. result of the previous section can b .
shear stress is o: a dl~gram proposed by Mohr [3]. This e obtaIne~ graphicaIly by the use
dlSCUSSIng a pair of parameters caIled L d a;pro~ch IS particularly useful in
s; = !{ar + a~ + a5) - !(al + a2 + a3)2
encountered in plasticity theory. A f Il d~ e s ;anables which are frequent1y
(3.4.8)
= !(al - a2? + (a2 - a3)2 + (a3 - al?1 postponed untillater. Mohr's dia ra: IsCUSSlOn?f Lo.de's variables will be
Let us take the principal directio!s for Ct:: be obt~Ined In the foIlowing way.
or, making use of (3.4.7), normal and shear stresses acting on b' coordInate axes and consider the
Instead of Sn and S we will ~ an ~r ltrary piane oblique to these ax
h s lor convemenc es.
s ear stresses on this pIane Th' e use a and. T for the normal and
(3.4.1) and (3.4.2) become . en In terms of the principal stress es equations
It is apparent that a tetrahedron similar to this one can be constructed in
each of the four quadrants above the xy piane and in each of the four quad-
rants below the xy piane. On the oblique face of each ofthese eight tetrahedra (3.5.1)
the condition 12 = m2 = n2 = t will apply. The difference between the
tetrahedra will be in the signs attached to l, m, and n. The eight tetrahedra
With the identity [2 + 2
together will form an octahedron, and on each of the eight planes forming 1
, m , and n2. Solving these+results
2 2m n2 = 1i~ we have th ree equations to solve for
the faces of this octahedron the normai stress and the shear stress will be as
given by equations (3.4.7) and (3.4.8). These planes are called the octahedral
2
planes, and the shear stresses acting on them are called the octahedral shear [2 = T + (a - a2)(a - a3)
(al a2)(al - a3)
stresses. We shall designate this stress by 'Toct· Thus
2
m2 = T + (a - a3)(a - al)
Toct = t(al - a2)2 + (a2 - a3)2 + (a3 - al)2]112 (a2 - a3)(a2 - al)
(3.5.2)
l12
= V}
l (al - a m)2 + (a2 - a m)2 + (a3 - a m)21 n2 = T
2
+ (a - al)(a - a2)
(a3 - al)(a3 - a2)

In terms of the stress invariants the octahedrai shear stress can be written loss of general'lty we can order the axes so that

Toct =
V2
3 (12l + 312)112
 Sec. 3-6] Stress Deviator Tensor 39
The stress Tenso r [Ch.3
38 . equa1 to or 1ess than (al - a3)/2, as shown by the interi or of circle Cz in
( _ ) > O from the first of equatlOns
Then since [Z 2': O and (al - az) al a3 - , Figure 3.5.1. Finally, the third of equations (3.5.3) gives

(3.5.2), (3.5.3)

or (3.5.6)
. n (3 .5' 3) can aiso be written
EquatlO

'1"z + (a -
az + a3
2
)Z >- (~)Z
2
(3.5.4) which represents the region exterior to the circle C3 with center at (al + az)/2
and crossing the a axis at al and az.
It follows therefore from (3.5.4), (3.5.5), and (3.5.6) that the admissib1e
. .' . .
uatlOn (3 .5' 4) , this equation repres ents .a va1ues of'1" and a 1ie in the shaded region shown in Figure 3.5.1 bounded by
If the equaltty slgn lS used m eq C in Figure 3.5.1. The center lS
the circles Cl' C z, and C3 • The maximum shearing stress, as is clear from the
circle in the '1" - a pIane, as shown by l
figure, is represented by the Iargest ordinate, AB, which is the radius of the
circle Cz and is therefore equa1 to (al - a3)/2. To determine the orientation
T
of the pIane that has this shearing stress, we make use of equation (3.5.2).
The va1ue of u corresponding to the maximum shearing stress is equa1 to
B (al + a3)/2 (the center of the circle Cz). Substituting these values of'1" and a
into equations (3.5.2), we get

We have thus obtained the same va1ues for the maximum shearing stress as
CT
in the previous section.

3-6 STRESS DEVIATOR TENSOR

FIGURE 3.5.1 Mohr's diagram. It is convenient in p1asticity theory to split the stress tensor into two parts,
one called the spherical stress tensor and the other the stress deviator tensor.
. t - a and a = a3' .The spherica1 stress tensor is the tensor whose elements are a m Oli. where U m
)/ 2 and it crosses the a aX1S a a - z.. d
obviously at O, (az + a3 , . (3 54) lies outside th1S c1rcle an is the mean stress, i.e.,
. d fi d by equatlOn .,
Therefore the reglO n e n e . . t circles with radii equai to or
includes it as a boundary, smce 1t represen s
greater than (az - a3)/2. . f (3 5 2) since az - a3 > O and (3.6.1)
'd' the second equatlOn o ..,
Now conSl ermg b 1 ss than or equal to zero:
az - al
< O, the numerator must e e

'1"z + (a - a3)(a - al) ::; O

(3.6.2)

or
'1"z + (a _ al ~ a3y ::; (al; a
3
y (3.6.2) it is apparent that a m is the same for all possib1e orientations
axes; hence the name sphericai stress. A1so, since a m is the same in all
. t fami1y of circles with centers
at (al + a3)/2 and
WhlCh represen s a
 Sec. 3-7] Pure Shear 41
The StresS Tenso r [Ch. 3

40
where
directions, it can be considered to act as a hydrostatic stress. Now, it wasib1e
shown in Section 2.5 that even very large hydrostatic pressure has a neglig J2 = !(Ir + 312) (3.6.6)
effect on yielding and plastic fiow. Therefore, in plastic fiow considerations
J3 = -l'f(2Ir + 91112 + 2713 )
one can consider, if desired, the stress system obtained by subtracting the
spheric state of stress from the actual state, rath" than working with the fi One
t" advantage of usin g t he stress deviator t .
actual al
state of stress. We therefore define a stress tensor called the stress h
rs lllvanant of this tenso' l
r " a ways zero Th'
ensor lS now apparent Th
. e
t e sum of the diagonal elements . . . lS can also be seen by taking
deviator tensor SI} as follows: The invariants J and J III equatlOn (3.6.3) or (3.6.4).
2 3 can, of course b . .
components al}. For example, , e wntten III terms of the stress

(3.6.7)

(3.6.3)
=

(3.6.9)
It is apparent that subtracting a constant normal stress in all directions will
not change the principal directions. The principal directions are therefore
the same for the deviator tensor as for the originaI stress tensor. In terms of
r
the principal stress es the deviator tenso is J 2 -- 3 2
z'Toct
Th' . (3.6. IO)

u~ed1S relatlOnship
to lend credence on p~:S7calt :
between J d h
octahedral shear stress is sometimes
w111 be discussed later. g ounds to some plasticity theories, as

o
o PURE SHEAR

important state of stress is the one d .

. If at a point in a body a set of d~Slgnated as pure shear, or simple
o o = a _ O co or lllate axes can b f d
y _ .a = : then the point is said t o ' e oun such that
z
state III a cyhndrical bar in to' . be III a state of pure shear. The
r i s the stress state rSlOn lS an example of pure shear. Another
To obtain the invariants of the stress deviator tenso , replace S
S' + Vl in equation (3.3.9). This results in
(3. (3.7.1)
 Ch. 3] General References 43
The Stress Tensor [Ch. 3
42 14. Given the following stress tensor at a point:
It can readi1y be shown (4) that a necessary and sufficient condition for a
10,000 1,000 - 8,000)
state of pure shear to exist is 1,000 - 6,000 6,000
(
(3.7.2) - 8,000 6,000 20,000
Determine the stress invariants h
:~esses, the maximum shear str~s~ ea~~~~ d~viator tensor, the principal
In conc1usion it should be emphasized that all the equations developed e normal and shear stresses actin~ ~ pane. upon which it acts and
on a pane wlth direction cosines
and presented in this chapter are independent of the material properties and
are therefore equally valid for bodies which behave elastically or plastically. l=~ m- 1 1
V3 - V2 n = V-
15. A circular cylinder 2 in. in diameteris sub' 6
a bending moment of 35,000 in -lb an ~ecte~ t.o a tensile force of 30,000 lb
~ ~wIstmg
t~ns
Problems Determine the stress invariants' the a moment of 50,000 in -lb'
1. Write out the expression for the work incremt:nt stress, and the stress deviator prmclpal stresses, the maximum shea;

dW = TU deu 16. Show that if a uniform tension a

square and a uniform compressio~
~:._?Pil~ed
.
to. the two opposite sides of a
2. Given the tensor TI/eTici' state of pure shear is obtained. 1 applied to the other two sides, a
(a) What is the order of this tensor?
(b) lf i, j, and k range from 1 to 3, how many components does this tensor

have? References
(c) Write out the components.
3. The generai Hooke's Iaw is given by L I.
NewS. Sokolnikoff Mathemat'
York, 1956: p. 42. Ica l Theory oj Elasticity, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill
2. Ibid., p. 17. '
(a) Write out the equations this represents. 3. O. Mohr, Abhandlungen aus dem G b'
Wilhelm Ernst und Sohn B l' 1 e let del' technischen Mechanik 2nd d
(b) What is the order of this tensor? 4 C E P , er m, 914 p 192 ' e .,
4. Prove that every second-order tensor au may in a unique way be decomposed . . . p.earson,
1959, 57. Theoretical ElastzClty,
.. Harvard
,. . University Press, Cambn'd ge,
into the sum of a symmetric tensor eu and a skew-symmetric tensor Pu·
5. Verify relations (3.4.4).
6. Verify equations (3.4.6), (3.4.7), (3.4.8), (3.4.10), and (3.4.11).
7. Discuss the Mohr diagram for the case a2 = a3 and determine the orienta- GeneraI References
tion of surface elements experiencing extreme shearing stresses. Consider
Sokolnikoff, I . S., 1Y1athematical
eory oj Elasticity, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill ,
'I Th
also the case where al = a2 = a3' New York, 1956.
8. Derive equations (3.6.7), (3.6.8), and (3.6.9). , S., and J. N. Goodier, Theory Elastzclty,
..
9. Let ax = a = a = O, Txy = Ty" = Tzx = a. Calculate the octahedral shear 01'
'J McGraw-Hill, New
z
stress, J , Jy , and J , the principal stresses, the greatest shearing stress, and York, 1951.
1 2 3
the direction cosines for the greatest principal stress.
10. Show that subtracting a hydrostatic stress from a given stress state will not
change the principal directions.
11. Show that the second and third invariants of the stress deviator tensor can
also be written
J2 = -!(S~ + S~ + S~)
J3 = t(Sr + S~ + S~)
12. Determine the invariants of the stress tensor and the octahedral stresses
the case of uniaxial state of stress.
13. es =
The case of piane stress is partially characterized by a z = Txz = Tyz
Determine the invariants of the stress tensor, the principal stress ,
maximum shear stresses, and the octahedral stresses for this case.
 ...
Sec. 4-1] Strain at a Point 45

CHAPTER 4

TRE STRA,lN x
FIGURE 4.1.1 Deformed body.
TENSOR
The components of displacement of the pomt
. P o are

Uo = x~ - Xo

When the relative position of any two points in a continuous body is Vo = y~ - Yo (4.1.1)
changed the body is said to be deformed or strained. If the distance between Wo = z~ - Zo
every pair of points in a body remains constant during motions of the body,
the body is called rigido The displacements of a rigid body consist of trans- The eomponents of displaeement of the pomt
. P are
lations and rotations; translations and rotations are therefore ealled rigid body
displacements. The analysis of strain eonsists of the study of the deformations u = x' - x
of bodies whieh is essentially a geometrie problem and is unrelated to the v = y' - y (4.1.2)
material properties. The specifieation of strain at a point is therefore the w = z' - z
same for elastie and for plastically deforming bodies.
We assume that the displaeements are si l
the eoordinates x y and z (A t Il n~ e-valued eontinuous funetions
"
that alI their derivatives thr h h
. e ua y as wlll b
. e apparent later, we have to
4-1 STRA.IN A. T A. POINT therefore expand the d' 1 oug t e t.hlrd are also continuous.) We
: lSp aeements at P m a Taylor series about P o as
We start the analysis of the strain at a point in a body by eonsidering
body referred to an orthogonal set ofaxes as shown in Figure 4.1.1. vVl1"l'"''
two arbitrary neighboring points P o and P in the unstrained body. u = Uo ou Ax + ou A
+ ox OU
straining, the points move to P~ and P', respeetively. The eoordinates of oy y + oz Az
are xo, Yo, and Zo and of P, x, y, and Z. The eoordinates of P~and p' o
x~, y~, and z~ and x', y', and z', respeetively. The veetor A deforms into
8v
v = Vo + -ox Ax + ~ A + 8v (4.1.3)
8y Y oz Az
veetor A'. The eomponents of A are A x , A y , and Az and the eomponents of

are w = Wo + ~w Ax + ow A + ow A
x 8y Y oz z
A~ = Ax + SAx
44
 Sec. 4-1] Strain at a Point 47
The Strain Tenso r [Ch. 4
is called the relative displacement tensor. In generaI, as can be seen, it is not
46 neglected, since P is taken in the neighborhood
symmetric.
where higher-order terms are
of P ' Making use of (4.1.1) and (4.1.2), Nothing has been said so far as to whether the displacements of P o and P
o represent rigid body motions or not, or what part of them does. Since rigid
8u 8u A + 8u Az body motions play no part in the analysis of strain, it is best to eliminate
(x' - x) - (x~ - xo) = 8x Ax + 8y y 8z
them from consideration at the start. This can be done as folIows. A rigid
8v 8v A + 8v Az (4.1.4) body motion, as mentioned earlier, is characterized by the fact that the length
(y' _ y) - (y~ - Yo) = 8x Ax + 8y y 8z of aline joining any two points remains unchanged. Consider the vector A
shown in Figure 4.1.1 and assume the vector A' to be obtained from .IL by
8w 8w 8w A
= 8x A x + -A +- z rigid body displacements. Then
(Z' - z) - (z~ - zo) 8y y 8z

- d A' can be written A2 = A ' 2 = (A x + 8Ax)2 + (A y + 8Ay)2 + (Az + 8Az)2

Now the change in the components of the vectors A an = A; + A~ + A; + 2(A x 8A x + A y 8A y + Az 8A.)

) _ (x' - x) - (x~ - xo) = A2 + 2(A x 8A x + A y 8Ay + Az 8Az)

XI - o - (x - Xo -
x')
(y~ - Yo) (4.1.5)
I -
8A x = Ax - Ax - _ ) = (y' _ y) -
(
I I

A' - A = (y - Yo) - (y Yo I where we have neglected higher-order terms in 8A i since we are considering
SA y = Y Y ) _ (z' - z) - (zo - zo)
SA = A~ - Az = (Z' - z~) - (z - Zo - only infinitesimal transformations. Therefore,
z

Substituting into (4.1.4) gives

or (4.1.8)

(4.1.6) But, from (4.1.6),

(4.1.9)
or

or, in tensor notation, simp1y

8A I = ul"A,
. is called an affine transformation, ~nd if it
The transformatlOn (4.1.6) d h' derivatives are small, then 1t be(;Oniles equation (4.1.9) must be true for alI values ofA x, Ay, and Az, a necessary
d that the UI an t e1r sufficient conditiOll that the transformation (4.1.6) represent a rigid body
further assume ,r. Con (1) The tensor
an injìnitesimal affine trans) orma l • is

8u 8u 8u 8u = 8v = 8w = O
8Ul 8Ul 8Ul 8y 8z 8x 8y 8z
8x
8Xl 8X2 8xs (4.1.10)
8v 8v 8v 8u 8v 8u 8w 8v 8w
8U2 8U2 8U2 8y 8z 8y = -8x 8z - 8x 8z -8y
8x
UI,' = 8Xl 8X2 8xs
8us 8us 8w 8w 8w
8us
8X2 8xs 8x 8y 8z
8Xl
 Sec. 4-2] PhySlca
. l Interpretation of Strain Components
The Strain Tensor {Ch. 4
Thus Bx represents the extension h .
~ vector originally parallel to th or c. ange m length per unit length of
48 49
That is, for rigid body motion the tensor UI,} of equation (4.1.7) is skew- mterpretations e x aXIs. By and Bz obviously have Slml
. '1ar
. .
symmetric.
Now every second-order tensor can be decomposed into a symmetric To mterpret the meaning of the t .
Figure 4.2..
1 Consider two vectorss A
ram
andcomponent
13'11l1tlally
.. BI!parallel
= BZy, to
use is made of
tenso and a skew-symmetric tensor in one and only one way (see Problem 4, the y and z
r 3). It follows therefore that if we decompose the tenso r UI.! into
Chapter
symmetric and skew-symmetric parts, the skew-symmetric part will represent z
ent
rigid body motions, whereas the symmetric part will repres pure deforma-
tion. Therefore, let (4.1.11)
UI.! = 1(U,.f + Uf.,) + 1(U'.f - Uf.,)

or U'.f = Bli + wli

where .l.(BU + BW)
Bu .l.(BU + BV) 2 Bz Bx
2 By Bx
Bx
Bv l(BV BW) (4.1.12)
.l.(BU BV) "2-+-
Bz By
Bli = 2 By + Bx By
x
Bw
.l.(BU + BW) .l.(BV + BW) Bz
FIGURE 4.2.1 Shear deformation .
2 Bz By
2 Bz Bx
and z directions, then A ~ l'A'an
axes, respectively. Hence if i ' dk
represent the unit vectors in the
.l.(BU _~) .l.(BU _ BW)
2 Bz Bx ve t d - l y and B = kB Af x, y,
O 2 By Bx c ors are eformed into A' and 13' . h z· ter deformation, these
Wlt components
.l.(BV _ BW)
1(BV _ BU) O 2 Bz By A' = i SA x + l'(A y + SA y ) + k SA
WIi = Bx By
_
B' = l. SBx + j SBy + k(Bz + SBz) z (4.2.2)
.l.(BW _ BV) O
1(BW _ BU) 2 By Bz
Bx Bz Denote the angle between A' and 13' by
product e. Then from the definition ofthe
Bli is called the strain tensor and W!j is called the rotation tensor. For
deformation therefore, equations (4.1.6) become cos e =;:;; A'
A .SB
13' =+ SA
B x SBx + (A y + SAy) SB y + (B z + OBJ SA
y y z SA z z
SA, = BliAf
we have neglected the d (4.2.3)
t b
o e small. Therefore, pro ucts of the vect or mcrements,
.. assuming
4-2 PHYSICA.L INTERPRETA. TI0N or STRA.IN
COMPONENTS _ A'· 13'
- A'B'
The physical meaning of the components of the strain tensor (4.1.12)
e1
readily be determined as follows. Assume the vector A to be parall14 to
x axis so that A = Az = O and Ax = A. Then equation (4.1. )
y

immediately
SA x SA
B11 = Bx = -Ax = A
-
 Sec. 4-3] Finite Deformations 51
The Strain Tensor [Ch. 4
z
50 d 8B and we can noW
We have thus neglected all in~rements except 8A
z
an y
I 1
draw the figure as shown in Figure 4.2.2. R
:r.----..:;.----. 0

z 8By
RI
_---"1
- - ---11 I
-- 0,1
0
1

Il o y
plll
k8Az FIGURE 4.2.3 Shear deformation.
L::::::::::::~-~~y
o
FIGURE 4.2.2 Shear deformation.
4.-3 FINITE DEFORMATIONS

In the previous discussion we assumed that the displacements and their

N ow, from equation (4.1.14),
derivatives were small; i.e., we considered only infinitesimal strains. If the
8A z = BZyAy (4.2.5) strains become too large, it is obvious that the previous formulation can no
8B y = ByzBz longer be correct. In this case the strains are no longer linearly related to the
derivatives ofthe displacement. Furthermore, the equilibrium equations must
. t h e ng
is the decrease m . ht angle between be satisfied in the deformed body and must therefore be written in terms of
(
Aiso cos 8 = COS 7r /2 - ex) Wh ere ex
, the deformed coordinates if these are considerably different from the unde-
.ii and B. Or formed ones.
cos 8 = sin ex ~ ex There are two methods of describing the deformation of a continuous body,
when the deformations are large, the Lagrangian and the Eulerian. The Lag-
for small angles. From (4.2.4) and (4.2.5), rangian method uses the initial coordinates of each particle to describe the
deformation. The Eulerian method uses the coordinates ofthe particles in the
a = ByZ + BZy = 2ByZ deformed state to describe the deformation. We shall derive the elements of
the Eulerian strain tensor using tensor notation for brevity. The power of this
ase in the right angle between two vectors notation for derivation purposes, as was mentioned earlier, will be evident.
Hence ByZ repres ents half the decre '1' y and z axes. AIso, from Figure
that were initially directed along the pOSi lVe Let the coordinates of two neighboring particles before deformation be
4.2.2 and equation (4.2.5),
al and al + dal' After deformation has taken pIace, let the coordinates of
these particles be Xt and Xi + dXt. The initial distance between the particles is
8A z
L POP' ~ tan POP' = lI; = BZy
(4.3.1)
8B y the final distance between them is given by
L ROR ' ~ tan ROR' = JJ; = Byz

(4.3.2)
I I are e ual. If we noW rotate the

Thus angles POP and ROR q h . ' we obtain a figure such the Eulerian description we wish to describe everything in terms of the
l about t e ongm ,
R'OP'Q' through an ang e ByZ l'd' or shear ofthe elements coordinates Xt. We therefore write
. 4 2 3 This represents aSi mg
that of Figure . . . of the sliding being proportional to the.
to the xy pIane, the amount H i s called a shear stram. at = at(x!, X2, X3)
(4.3.3)
of the element from the xy pIane. ence ByZ dat = al,} dx} = ai,,, dx"
derivations can be made for BXY and Bxz'
 Sec. 4-4] Principal strains. Strain Invariants 53
The Strain Tensor [Ch.4
52 which reduces to El ~ Ex onIy if Ex « 1. Similarly, the decrease in the right
angle between two elements finally directed aiong the y and zaxes is no
Therefore, Ionger 2EyZ but is given by

We can also write

Therefore, (4.3.4) which again reduces to ex = 2EyZ onIy if Ey, Ez , and ex are small.
In spite of the foregoing, however, it is possibie sometimes to treat prob-
Iems involving Iarge strains using the equations for infinitesimai strains.
Now the displacements are given by This is possibie ifwe do the probIem incrementally a small step at a time and
UI = XI - al
after each step change the coordinates to correspond to the deformed body
[4]. We are then solving, in essence, a successive series of small strain prob-
al = XI - UI
lems. We will elaborate on this concept more fully in the treatment of creep
or probIems.

Hence
4-4 PRINCIPAL STRAINS. STRAIN INVARIANTS
ds 2 _ ds~ = [Sjle - (Sii - UI,j)(SIIe - ul,le)1 dXj dXIe
'" (I;>Djle _ Ule ,j - Uj ' le + UI,jul,le)1 dXj dXIe In the study of the stress at a point we found that there exist at least three
= [Djle -
mutually orthogonal pianes which have no shear stress acting on them, Le.,
= (UIe,j + Uj,le - UI,jUI,Ie) dXj dXIe the principai planes. We now ask ourselves, do there exist in a similar fashion
(4.3.5)
= 2Ejle dXj dXIe planes with no shoor strain? By this we mean pianes whose normals will not
change orientation when the body is strained. Thus a vector A, which was
The tensor originally normal to such a pIane, will either shorten or lengthen but will not
(4.3.6) change direction. The answer to this question is yes. Such pianes, as in the
Ejle = !(UIe,j + Uj,le - UI,1UI,Ie)
case of stress, are called principal planes, the normal directions to these pianes
. ical terms in engineering notation are the principal directions, and the corresponding strains are called principal
is called the Eulerian stram tensor. Some typ
strains. To find these directions and the corresponding strains we proceed as
are follows.
EX = ~~ !((~~r + (:~r + (:f1
- (4.3.7)
Consider a vector A normai to the pIane ABC as shown in Figure 4.4.1.
Upon straining it is assumed that A changes length by an amount SA but its
OU " )
uV _ 1. (OU
__ ou + -OV -OV + -OW OW)
<> direction remains the same; Le., SA is in the same direction as A. Since A
EXY = ! ( oy + OX 2 OX oy OX oy OX uy
and SA are parallel, the components of A and of SA are proportional; Le.,
h t their products can be neglected,
We see that ifthe derivatives are small, so t a . l obtained for the infinÌ- (4.4.1)
P ressions as prevlOuS y
these reduce to the same ex . l' t pretations given in Section 4.2 for
tesimal strains. The simple physlca 111 elr. bI in this case Thus if El is the
. h ver no longer app lca e . . Now by definition the strain 8 in the direction of A is
small stra111S are, owe , l t finally parallel to the X axlS,
change in length per unit length of an e emen
SA (4.4.2)
it can be shown [21 that 8=7
 Sec. 4-5] Maximum. and Octahedral ShearStrains 55
The Strain Tensor [Ch. 4
54 The three homogeneous equations (4.4.5) will have a nonvanishing solution
z if, and only if, the determinant of the coefficients vanish. Thus

ByZ = O (4.4.6)

~---y
Equation (4.4.6) is of exactly the same form as (3.3.8) with stresses replaced
by strains. All the remarks and derivations made there, therefore, apply here
just as well. Thus (4.4.6) will have three real roots B1> B2' and B3, corresponding
to the three principal strains. The invariants appearing in the cubie equation

(4.4.7)
X
FIGURE 4.4.1 Principal strain vector. are
I~ = Bx + By + Bz
Hence from (4.4.1),
I~ = B;y + B~z + B;x - (BXBy + ByBZ + BzBx) (4.4.8)
(4.4.3)
I~ = BXByBZ + 2BxyBYZBZX - (BxB~z + ByB;X + BZB~y)

Writing out equation (4.1.14) we have or in terms of the principal strains

8A = BxAx + BXyAy + BxzA z
x
(4.4.4) I{ = BI + B2 + B3
8A y = BXyAX + ByA y + ByzAz
If = -(BIB2 + B2 B3 + B3 Bl) (4.4.9)
8A = BxzAx + ByzAy + BzAz
z I~ = BIB2B3

Substituting (4.4.3) into (4.4.4) gives We note that if equations (4.4.5) are divided by A, then, since Ax/A = I,
(BX - B)A x + + BxzA z =
BxyAy O Ay/A = m, and Az/A = n, A x , A y , and Az can be replaced in these equations
(4.4.5) by I, m, and n, respectively. By substituting into these equations the principal
BXyAx + (By - B)A y + ByzAz = O
strains as obtained by solving the cubie (4.4.7), the principal directions can
Bxz A x + Byz A Y + ( Z
B - B)A = O
Z be obtained, just as was done for the stress tensor.
. . th power of the tensor notation, equations (4.4.3) can
To Illustrate agalll e
be written MAXIMUM AND OCTAHEDRAL SHEAR
STRAINS
and substituting into (4.1.14) gives immediately Just as in the case of stress, there exists a direction at every point in a
strained body for whieh the shear strain is a maximum. To find this direction
BAI = BliAj
we can proceed as follows. Let the coordinate axes be taken in the directions
the principal shear strains and consider a vector A, as shown in Figure
or
4.5.1, having direction cosines I, m, and n with respect to these axes, whieh
which is the same as (4.4.5).
 Sec. 4-5] Maxirnum and Octahedral Shear Strains 57
The Strain Tensor [Ch. 4
56 Equation (4.5.4) gives the linear strain for a vector having direction cosines
3 l, m, and n with respect to the principal strain directions, in terms of the
principal strains. To determine the shear (J = RP/A, we have
Q

2 (J2 = (PQ)2 = (8Al)2 (8A2)2 (8A3)2

e + A2 A + A + A

,lé==-_-----2 or (4.5.5)

or (4.5.6)

Comparing equations (4.5.6) with (3.4.2), it is seen that they are of identical
forms, with Ss replaced by (J and the principal stresses by the principal
strains. The maximum shear strains and the corresponding directions can
FIGURE 4.5.1 Maximum shear vectors. therefore be obtained in the exact same way as for the stresses. Thus desig-
nating the maximum shear strains by 'l'1> 'l'2, and 'l'3, we can write directly, by
- CI.' 11 strain so that the analogy to (3.4.4),
. 1 2 d 3 Let the vector A SUller asma .
are deslgnated by , ,an ' . . com osed of two parts: a linear stram
point P moves to Q. The stram IS th~s P h r of amount (J = RP/A, for 'l'l = ±!(e2 - e3)
_ RQ/A and a rotatlOn or s ea 'l'2 = ±!(el - e3) (4.5.7)
of amount e - , h
small (J. To calculate the linear strain, e, we ave 'l'3 = ±!(el - e2)

(A + RQ)2 + 8A l )2 + (A 2 + 8A 2)2 + (A3 + 8A3)2

= (Al (4.5.1) and the same table of direction cosines is applicable as given on page 35.
A 2 + 2A(RQ) ;;:; Ai + A~ + A~ + 2(A 1 8A l + A 2 8A 2 + A3 8A )
3 Thus the maximum shearing strain acts on a pIane bisecting the angle between
the maximum and minimum principai strain directions and is equai to half
mall quantities have been neglected. Therefore, the difference of these strains.
where squares of S If we consider the octahedral pianes for which l = m = n = ± 1/V3, we
RQ Al 8A l A 2 8A2 + A3 8A 3 (4.5.2) see from (4.5.6) that the shear strain on these planes, which we designate
A = e = A2 + A2 A
2
'l'oct, is given by

. t' (4114) which is given in expanded form in (4.4.4),

'l';ot = t(ei ++ e~) - i(el + e2 + e3)2
e~
From the baslc equa lOn ., , = M(el - e2)2 + (e2 - e3)2 + (e3 - el)2] (4.5.8)
we have
8A l = elAl in exact analogy to the octahedral shear stress. In terms of the invariants of
(4.5.3)
8A 2 = e2 A 2 the strain tensor in analogy to (3.4.10) we have
8A 3 = e3 A 3
'l';ct = %[I? + 3I~] (4.5.9)
_ m and A3/A = n and sub-
Making use of the relations Al/A .= l, A 2/A - , and in terms of nonprincipal strains this becomes
stituting (4.5.3) into (4.5.2) results m
 The Strain Tensor [Ch. 4 Sec. 4-7] Compatibility of Strain
l . 59
58
neg ectIng products of the strains . The change In
then . vo lurne per unit volume is
It is also apparent by the same analogy (comparing equations (4.5.4) and
(4.5.5) with (3.5.1)) that a Mohr's diagram can be constructed for the strains
in an identical fashion to the stresses.

The spherical strain tensor is thus ro o .

deviator strain tensor then represe! p rtlOna~ to t~e volume change. The
By analogy with the stress deviat~rat~:re .dl~tortlOna~ strain.
4-6 STR1UN DEVIATOR TENSOR
As in the case of the stress tensor, the strain tensor can be separated into invariants of the strain deviator tensor are SOl dlscussed In Section 3.6, the
two parts, a spherical part ql} and deviator part eli' The spherical part is
given by J{ = O

(4.6.1)
J~ = i(I? + 3I~) (4.6.4)
J~ = i?- (2I? + 9I{I~ + 27I~)
or
where e = !(81 + e2 + e3) is the mean strain. The deviator strain then
m
becomes

eyz ez -
::: em
] where
2e x - ez - ey 8 XY e xz Also it follows that
3
(4.6.6)
2e y - ez - ex e yZ (4.6.2)
= e XY 3
2e z - ex - ey
e xz e yz 3 4-7 COMPATIBILITY or STRAIN

The strain tensor eli defines six strain .

or, in terms of the principal strains, placements; Le., components In terms of three dis-

o o OU OV ow
ex = - ey =- ez = -
ox oy oz
O (4.7.1)
o o (OU OV) _ l(OV OW)
e XY =
1
'2 oy + ox e yZ - '2 OZ + oy e xz = t ( .!!. + OW)
OZ OX

o o
It is obvious that if the displacement .
of x, y, and z, then one can use . s are speclfied as continuous functions
If we consider a rectangular parallelepiped with sides equal to a, b, and c, ponents uniquely. Let us n eq~datlOns (~.7.1) to compute the strain com-
d' ow consl er the Inverse pr bI .
so that its initial volume is abe, then after straining its volume will be Isplacements U v and w in b d . o em, 1.e., to calculate
several problems a:e ~ncounteread ~nYt~lv~n thelstrai~ c.omponents el}' Here
or . e rst p ace, It IS apparent that the
 Problems
The Strain Tensor [Ch.4
60 Equations (4.7.2) are necessary and suffic' .. 61
solution will not be unique, for the strains represent pure deformation, components give single-valued d' l lent condlt1Ons that the strain
F' lSp acements for a ' l
whereas the displacements include rigid body motion which have no efIect or a mult1ply connected regl'on h Slmp y connected region.
, owever these d' .
on the strains. The problem can, however, be made unique by specifying the generalIy not sufficient. , c o n lt10ns are necessary but
rigid body motion, i.e., specifying the displacement and rotation at some Just as for the stress equations of Ch .
here that alI the relations present d ~Ptehr.3, lt should also be emphasized
point in the body. pat 1'b'}'
1 lty relations (472) . d
e m t lS chapt . l .
However, a more difficult problem is encountered in calculating the dis- .. ,are m ependent of th er, mc . udmg the com-
placements from the strains. Equations (4.7.1) are six equations for the three therefore hold for both elasticall . e mat~nal properties and
y and plastlCally behavmg materi a1s.
unknowns u, v, and w. It is evident, therefore, that these equations will not
have a solution for any arbitrarily chosen strains, but that some restrictions
must be placed on the strains in order that equations (4.7.1) have a solution. Note on Shear Notation
This can also be seen from the following physical considerations. Assume
the body is divided into infinitesimal cubes. Let all these cubes be separated The shear strains defined herein differ from .
from each other and let each of the cubes be subjected to some arbitrary many authors by a factor of 1/2 T h ' the shear strams defined by
shear strains by . us Tlmoshenko, for example, defines the
strains. It is obvious that if we noW try to put all the cubes together, we will,
in generaI, no longer be able to fit all the cubes together the way they were ou ov
before, to produce a continuous body. Between some of the cube boundaries YXY
oy +-
= -
OX
there will be gaps; others will overlap. This shows that there must be some
ou ow
relationships between the strains at the different points of a body in order Yxz = -
OZ
+-
OX
that the body remain continuous after straining, i.e., that the displacements
be continuous functions of the coordinates. These relationships are called ov ow
the compatibility relations, or, sometimes, the continuity relations. YyZ = OZ + oy
The compatibility equations are found in all standard texts on elasticity.
The factor
. 1/2 used h erem
. lS
. necessary for the te ..
They are derived, for example, in a particularly e1egant fashion in reference
rexempltfied by equation (4 1 12) C
.. . are must b
lterature to determine which d fi . .
nsor defimt10n of strain as
"
e exerclsed m reading the
[3]. In engineering notation these equations are
e mt10n of shear strain is used.

Problerns

1. Obtain the equat'lOns representing rigid body displ acements; l.e.,

. show that

u = a + WyZ - wzy
v = b + wzx - W"'z
W = C + w",y - wyx

where a, b, and c are constants and

-o ( -oeXY
oz - oe yZ oe zx )
oz +OX- +oy - =
f}2e z
OX-
oy

These equations were first derived by Saint-Venant.

 References 63
The Strain Tensor [Ch. 4
62
2. Let the rectangle of Figure 4.2.3 be a square. Show that the shear strain is GeneraI References
equai to the extension of the diagonai of this square.
3. The dispiacement vector at a point in a body is given by Novozhilov, V. V., Theory oJ Elasticit P
SokolnikofI, I. S., Mathematical Th ~,./r~am?~ Press, London, 1961.
. 1956. eO/yo E astlclty, McGraw-HiII, New York,
il = C[i(lOx + 3y) + j(3x + 2y) + k(6z)]
Tlmoshenko, S., and J. N. Goodi er, Theory oJ Elasticity, McGraw-HiII, New
York, 1951.
where C is a constant. Show that there is no rotation and compute the
principai strains.
4. Given the strain tensor

B'I =
r-
l-0.~04
0 005
.
-0.004
0.001
o.L)
O

Determine:
(a) The principai strains.
(b) The direction cosines of the principai directions.
(c) The Iargest shearing strain.
(d) The octahedrai shear strain.
5. If a rectanguiar parallelepiped with initiai dimensions of 1 in. in the x direc-
tion, 2 in. in the y direction, and 3 in. in the z direction is strained to the
condition of Problem 4, determine the finai dimensions.
6. Derive the Lagrangian strain tensor.
7. Show that in pIane polar coordinates the infinitesimai strains are given by

1 Bv u
= r Be + r
Bu
Br = Br BO

Bv 1 Bu v
BrO = Br + r Be - r
where u and v are the dispiacements in the radiaI and tangentiai directions,
respectiveIy.
8. Assuming axiai symmetry, derive the compatibility equation in pIane polar
coordinates.
9 Verify equations (4.5.9) and (4.5.10).
10. Verify equations (4.6.4) and (4.6.5).

References
1. L S. SokolnikofI, Mathematical Theory oJ Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1956, p. 21.
2. Ibid., p. 31.
3. Ibid., p. 25.
4. W. Prager and P. G. Hodge, Theory oJ PerJectly Plastic Solids, Wiley, Nevi
York, 1951, p. 118.
 Sec. 5-1] Equations or Elasticity

thermal expansion, T the temperature a b o v e ' 65

perature, G the shear modulus related to E some arbltrary reference tem-
CHAPTER 5 and f-t by the well-known relation

G= E (5.1.2)
2(1 + f-t)
and
El = Ux + U y + Uz = Il (5.1.3)

Equation (5.1.1) can be solved for the st resses to glVe

.

(5.1.4)
where
ELASTIC
(5.1.5)
STRESS-STRAIN À = f-tE
(1 + f-t)(l - 2f-t)
RELATIONS
In engineering notation equations (5 ..
1 1) become

1
In the previous chapters the states of stress and of strain at a point in a
Bx = E [u x - f-t(u y + u z)] + exT
body have been defìned and some of their properties discussed. Equations
1
(3.2.2) give the conditions of equilibrium that must be satisfìed by the stresses By = E [uy - f-t(u x + u z)] + exT
at every point of a body, whereas equations (4.7.2) represent the compatibility
conditions that must be satisfìed by the strains. The boundary conditions in 1
Bz = E [u z - f-t(u x + uy)] + exT
terms of surface forces are given by equations (3.3.1). There remains to dis-
(5.1.6)
cuss the relations between the stresses and the strains at every point of the
body. We shall discuss briefiy these re1ations for an elastic body, as a pre1-
ude to the generaI elastoplastic stress-strain re1ations to be subsequently
B_ 1 l+f-t
discussed. yz - 2G 'T'YZ = ~ 'T'YZ

B_ 1 l+f-t
zx - 2G,'T'zx = ~ 'T'zx
5-1 EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY
Hooke fìrst proposed a linear re1ation between stress and strain for a lo ad It readi1y follows from (5.1.6) that
applied in one direction. The generalization of Hooke's law to three dimen-
sions is given in Problem 3, Chapter 3. For an isotropic material this becomes,
e = 1 -E-
- 2f-t
El + 3exT (5.1.7)
using the tensor subscript notation and inc1uding thermal strains,

(5.1.8)
where E is the elastic modulus, f-t poisson's ratio, ex the coefficient of

64
 Sec. 5-2] El as t·lC Strain Energy Functions
Elastic stress-strain Relations [Ch. 5
66 where a is the coefficient Of l'mear thermal . 67
we O course have expanSlOn. From Hooke's law
where Bm and a are the mean strain and mean stress, respectively. Finally, f
m
combining (5.1.8) and (5.1.1) results in
(5.1.9)

where eli and Sii are the strain deviator and stress deviator tensors, respec-
rs
tively. Thus the deviators of the stress and strain tenso are related to each
other, in the elastic case, by the simple equation (5.1.9), whereas the spherical
stress components are related to the spherical strain components by equation
and now maki ng use of assumption 3 th
fìrst three of equations (5 1 6) h ' e total strains are as given by the
(5.1.8). the 1ast three of equations..(5 1,w
6) ereas
N t Ho ok' es law and assumption 4 give
It also follows that
(5.1.10)
to the extent that a may be a f'
t'. o e that assumption 2 may be modifìed
une lOn of temperature.
J 1 = J1 = O

J~ = 4b2 J2
5-2 ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY FUNCTIONS
1 (5.1.11)
2 _ ~ ~2
oct - 4G2 . oct If a body is deformed by the action of
work on the body If the bod . . external forces, then the latter do
g.oes ~nto kmetic energy, then this work i
" . .' Y lS m equilibriu h
m so t .at none of this work
It should be noted that nothing in the foregoing discussion requires that tlOn m the body. The elastic str . s stored as stram energy of deforma
am energy can be wntten . as follows [1]: -
B, G, /k, or a be constant throughout the body. They may, for example, be
functions of temperature, so that if the bodyis not at a uniform temperature,
these constants may have different values at different points in the body.
u = 1-ajJBjJ (5.2.1)

It is probably worthwhile to brietly discuss the origin of the aT terms

If we substitute into (52
.. 1) equatlOn
. (5.1.4), there results
appearing in equations (5.1.1). We start by defìning the free thermal expansion
of a material as that part of the expansion which is unintluenced by stress
but is due to temperature rise alone. We also make the following four U = GBIJBtJ + 2~ 82 _ 2G 2+ 3À aT8 (5.2.2)

assumptions:
b v~nants of the strain and strain
1. The material is isotropic and, therefore, the free thermal expansion is Ma~ing use of the defìnitions of the in .
devIator tensors, equation (522)
ulations as .. can e wntten after some algebra1' c malllp-
.
the same in all directions.
2. The free thermal expansion is directly proportional to the ternulerature.
3. The principle of superposition of strains holds. U _ 2G + 3À /2
4. The thermal expansion does not intluence the shear strains.
- 6 (Il - 3aTI~) + 2GJ~ (5.2.3)

Let us noW denote the strains due to temperature rise by primes and
change, wh~reas J~ is an invariant of the ;h1~h lS pro~ortional to the
NowI'1 represents the spherical state of strain . .
strains due to stress es by double primes. Then assumptions 1 and 2
a pure d1stortional strain E . eVlator stram tensor which
us to write as the sum of two energy ter~s q;~~~n (5.2.3) ~an therefore be con-
. rst term lS the energy involved
B~ = B~ = B~ = aT
 Elastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 5 References
68
in changing the volume; the second term is the energy of distortion, which is and the piastic problem occurs in the stress-" 69
occurs, the linear generalized H k' 1 straIn reIatlOns. If plastic flow
00 e s aw no Ion h Id
designated by Ud and can be written between stress and strain become nonlInear
" ger o sand the reiations
In a .
Ud = 2GJ~ = 3GY~ot Wh at happens to the reIatl'ons between stres dvery complIcated
. manner .
occurs will be the subiect of Ch t s an straIn when plastic flow
J ap ers 6 and 7.
or, from (5.1.10),
1 J 3 2 (5.2.4) Problerns
Ud = 2G 2 = 4G T oot
1. Show how equation (5 1 4) can be ob .
2. D~rive equation (5.1.9)'. . tamed from equation (5.1.1).
3. GlVen the following stress tensor at a point:
5-3 SOLUTION or ELA.STIC PROBLEMS
10,000 1,000 -8,000
To solve an elastic problem we have to find the stresses and the strains 1,000 - 6,000 6,000
which will satisfy the previously derived equations. Thus the stresses must - 8,000 6,000 20,000
satisfy the equilibrium equations, (3.2.2) and (3.2.3), as well as the boundary
conditions (3.3.5). The strains must satisfy the compatibility equations (4.7.2). th
°
Assume the materiai behaves elasticall
and Poisson's ratio of 3 D t
.
. Y wlth an elastic modulus of 30 x 10
.. e ermme the st . d .
e mean strain assuming the tem . ram eVIator tensor. Calculate
6

Finally, the stresses must be related to the strains through the stress-strain et =.7.5 X 10- 6 in.fin.rF.
0
perature nse at the point is 300 P and that
relations (5.1.1) or their equivalent. The problem of finding a set of stresses
4. Venfy equations (5.1.10) and (5.1.11).
and strains satisfying the above relations is known as thefirst boundary-value 5. Prove
t . that the. axes of prmclpai
. . stress coincid .h
problem of elasticity. Alternatively, it is possible to reduce the above set of s ram for an lsotropic materiai ob . ,e Wlt the axes of principai
equations to three equations, called the Navier equations, involving only the 6. Prove that for the materiai of pey~g Hooke s Iaw.
similar to Mohr's strain di ro em 5, Mohr's stress diagram will be
displacement u! [2]. 7 D . agram.
• enve equation (5.2.3).

References
where V 2 is the Laplacian operator, À and Gare Lamé's constants previously
defined, F! are the body forces per unit volume, and eis the invariant, defined 1. I. S. Sokolnikoff M th
York, 1956, p. 84: a ematical Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill
in (5.1.5) and which can also be written 2. Ibid., p. 73. ' New

GeneraI References
Hoffman, O ., and G . Sach s, Introduction to the Th
This last formulation is most convenient if the displacements are specified McGraw-Hill, New York 1953 eory of Plasticity far Engineers
on the boundary rather than the forces. The problem is then known as the Sokolnikoff I S M h .' . '
1956. ' . ., at ematlcal Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York,
second boundary-value problem of elasticity.
From the previous derivations it is apparent that both the equilibrium
equations and compatibility relations are independent of the properties of.
the material under consideration. The equilibrium equations express the
static equilibrium of an element of the body and the compatibility relations
express the continuity of the body. These equations will therefore hold
whether the body behaves elastically or whether plastic flow occurs. The same
holds for the boundary conditions. The difference between the elastic problem
 Sec. 6-2] Examples or Yield Criteria 7l

different principal directions. The question here is: For what combinations
CHAPTER 6 of loads will the cylinder begin to yield plastically?
Another simple example is the pIane stress problem of a thin rotating disk
with or without temperature gradients. At every point of the disk (except
possibly at the rim) there exists a state of biaxial stress. The question again
arises: For which states ofbiaxial stress will the disk deform plastically? The
criteria for deciding which combination of multiaxial stresses will cause
yielding are called yield criteria. The first step of any plastic flow analysis is
to decide on a yield criterion. The next step is to decide how to describe the
behavior of the material after yielding has started. In this chapter we shall
discuss the choice of a yie1d criterion.

6-2 EXAMPLES 01' YIELD CRITERIA

CRITERIA FOR
Numerous criteri a have been proposed for the yielding of solids, going as
YIELDING far back as Coulomb in 1773. Many of these were originally suggested as
criteria for faiIure of brittle materials and were later adopted as yield criteria
for ductiIe materials. Some ofthe more common ones will be briefly discussed.
Although some of these theories are no longer in use, they are inc1uded here
6-1 EXAMPLES 01' MULTIAXIAL STRESS . both for their historic interest and to give the reader a feeling for the type of
. for a material in simpie tenslO n was approach used in promulgating yield criteria.
In Chapter 2 the stress-stram curve. . Id point at which the material
. h that there eXlsts a yle .
discussed and lt was s own. 11 In this case the stress is uniaxial and t~ls
will begin to deform pIast1~a y. h t 'f there are several stresses actmg Maximum Stress Theory, or Rankine Theory
a
point can readi1y be dete~mm.ed. Buwtw t 1 mbination of these stresses will
. d'a' t dlrectlOns? h a co . This theory assumes that yielding occurs when one of the principal stresses
at a point m lueren . 1 th t for a hydrostatic stress, 1.e.,
. . ? W know for examp e, a 1 becomes equal to the yield stress in simple tension ao, or the yield stress in
cause Yleldmg. e.: ieldin does not occur even for very arge
equal stresses in all dlrectlOns, Y . g 1 . test which can be performed compression ao,c' Thus if al is the maximum principal stress and a2 is the mini-
th r example mvo vmg a . .
values of stress. A s ano e . h' lled cylinder which lS bemg mum principal stress, yie1ding will occur in tension when al = ao and it will
'ffi 1t conslder a t m-wa .
without too much d 1 cu y: . . t d by a twisting moment T, and lS occur in compression when a2 = ao,c' For a material with the same yield in
. 11 b a load P lS bemg tWlS e tension and compression, this criterion becomes
pu11ed axla y Y , . 6 1 1) by a pressure p. .
pressurized interna11y (see FIgure '.' Il P d the torque T, it is posslble
. h re p the aXlal pu , an 1 .
By varymg t e pressu , h' h will also of course resu t m
to get various combinations of stresses, w lC or (6.2.1)

A simple plot illustrating this criterion for the case of biaxial stress with
a3 = O is shown in Figure 6.2.1. The coordinates are the remaining principal
p
stresses al and a2' Yielding occurs when the state of stress is on the boundary
of the rectangle, for then one of the stresses is at the yield point in tension or
compression. For example, consider a thin-walled cylinder subjected to an
Combined stresses in thin-walled cylinder.
FIGURE 6.1.1

70
 Criteria for Yielding [Ch. 6 Sec. 6-2] Examples of Yield Criteria 73
72 CF2
CF2

CFo

2
....1,/" CFo
CF o,C 1//
CF1

CFo,c

FIGURE 6.2.2 Maximum strain theory.

FIGURE 6.2.1 Maximum stress theory.

increasing internaI pressure p. Let al be the circumferential stress and a2 the

axial stress. Then al = 2a2' As the pressure is increased from zero, the Maximum Sbear Tbeory, or Tresca Criterio n
stresses follow the dashed line of Figure 6.2.1, as shown, al always being
.This theory (sometimes called the Coulo
equal to twice a2' At point 1 the cylinder is still elastic, neither stress having w111 occur when the maximu h mb theory) assumes that yielding
m s ear stress reaches th 1
reached the value of ao. At point 2, al is equal to ao and yielding begins even s ear stress occurring und . l' e va ue of the maximum
h. er Slmp e tenslOn Th .
though a2 is only !ao. This maximum stress criterion, however, shows very glVen by equation (3 4 4) d' . e maX1mum shear stress is
. .. an 1S equal to h lf th d'
maX1mum and minimum . . 1 a e 1fference between the
poor agreement with experiment and is rarely used. .
Slllce a2 = a3 =
. .
° pnnC1pa stresses Fo . 1
the m . .
,aX1mum shear stress at . Id' 1
r S1mp e tension, therefore
'
cntenon then asserts that yieldi '11 y1e 1S z-ao· The Tresca
. d' . . ng Wl occur when a f
Maximum Strain Theory, or Saint-Venant Theory SlX con 1tlOns lS reached: ny one o the following

This theory assumes yielding will occur when the maximum value of the
principal strain equals the value of the yield strain in simple tension (or
compression), BO = ao/E. Thus if B1 is assumed to be the largest strain in a2 - a3 = ± ao (6.2.4)

absolute value, yielding will occur when a3 - al = ± ao

(6.2.2)
For the biaxial case with a-O
3 - ,we h ave

or, for the biaxial case with a3 = 0,

la11;:;:: la21
al - a2 = ao if al > 0, a2 < °
EB1 = al - fLa2 = ±ao
for
la21;:;:: la11
al - a2 = -ao if al < 0, a2 > °
EB2 = a2 - fLa1 = ±ao
for
a2 = ao if a2 > al > °
A plot in the al a2 pIane showing the boundary at which yielding begins is if al > a2 > ° (6.2.5)

shown in Figure 6.2.2. This theory also does not agree well with most experi- if al < a2 < °
ments. It has, however, been used in the design of guns, since some experi-
mental results on thick-walled cylinders are in agreement with this theory
if a2 < al < °
 Sec. 6-2] Examples of Yield Criteria 75
Criteria for Yielding [Ch. 6
74 and the total strain energy U is given by
A plot in the ala2 pIane for this yield criterion is shown in Figure 6.2.3. It is
to be noted that one limitation of this theory is the requirement that the yield U= 1- (alCl + a2 C2 + ascs)
_l [a21 + a22 + as2
= 2E - 2/1,(ala2 + a2 a S + aSai)]
0'0

The yield criterion becomes

(6.2.6)

. .
a 21 + a2 2 - 2fl-ala2 = ag
(6.2.7)

Th1S lS the equation of an ellipse in th .

(6.2.6) that yie1ding can oc d e ~la2 pIane. It lS apparent from
FIGURE 6.2.3 Maximum shear stress theory. _ . cur un er sufficIenti h' h h .
al _ a2 = as, Wh1Ch as has been h . Y 19 ydrostat1c pressure
l ' s own lS contrar t .
stresses in tension and compression be equal. The Tresca criterio n is in fair a so apparent from equation (5 2 4) h' .. Y o expenment. This is
. l . .. ,w ere 1t lS show th t l
agreement with experiment and is used to a considerable extent by designers. lOna stram energy can cont 'b .. n a on y the distor-
t n ute to y1eldmg Th' th
It suffers, however, from one major difficulty-it is necessary to know in een superseded by the theory d 'b d . lS eory has therefore
b escn e next.
advance which are the maximum and minimum principal stresses. For the
case of pure shear (see Section 3.7),
as =O Distortion Energy Tbeory, or tbe von Mises Yield Criterion

. The
Id" distortion energy theory (also assocIated
. with H k
the Tresca criterion predicts yielding to occur when y1e mg begms when the disto t' enc y) assumes that
.l . r lOn energy equal th d'
y1e d m simple tension Th f . s e lstortion energy at
. us rom equatlOn (5.2.4),

Ua = 2G J2 = ~T2
l
or 4G oct

That is, the yield stress in pure shear is t the yield stress in simple tension. At th~ yield point in simple tension, from (3.6.8),

Maximum Strain Energy Tbeory, or Beltrami's Energy Tbeory

the yield condition becomes
This theory assumes that yielding will occur when the total strain
per unit volume equals the total strain energy per unit volume at yielding + (a2 a S)2 + (as _ al )2] =
t[(al - a2)2 - ag (6.2.8)
uniaxial tension or compression. The total strain energy at yield in
tensile test is for the biaxial case,
(6.2.9)
 Criteria for Yielding [Ch. 6 Sec. 6-2] Exarnples of Yield Criteria 77
76
Von Mises originally proposed his criterion because of mathematical
convenience. Hencky later showed that it was equivalent to assuming that
yielding will take pIace when the distortion or shear strain energy reaches a
criticaI value, as shown above. Also, since the octahedral shear stress is
equal to

which for simple tension at yield becomes

v'2
Toct,O = T ao
then equation (6.2.8) can be written
FIGURE 6.2.4 Distortion energy theory.
Toot = Toot,o

' called the von Mises ellipse, in the a l a2 pIane, as That is, yielding will occur when the octahedral shear stress reaches the
This plots as an eIllpse, h octahedral shear stress at yield in simple tension.
shown in Figure 6.2.4. For the case of pure s ear Alternatively, the crÌterion (6.2.8) can be Iooked upon as stating that
al = -a2 = k a 3 -- O yielding will occur when the second invariant J 2 of the stress deviator tensor
reaches a criticaI value, Le., the value of J 2 at yield in simple tension. The
J2
- 1((
o al
_ a )2 + (a2 - a3)2 + (a3 - al)2)
- 2 assumption that the yieId criterion should depend on the invariants of the
=a~=k2 stress deviator tensor is generally accepted, as will be discussed in the next
section.
and the von Mises criterion would predict yielding to occur when

Mobr's Theory of Yielding

aO Mohr extended the maximum shear stress theory by assuming that the
or k = v'3 criticaI shear stress is not necessarily equal to the maximum shear stress but
depends also on the normal stress acting on the shearing pIane. In generaI,
. is 1/v'3 times the yield stress in sim~le the greater the normal stress, the lower is the criticaI shear stress. Mohr's
That is the yield stress In pur~ sh~ar d' t pure shear yield stress WhICh
, M' ntenon pre lC s a '11 theory therefore takes into account the effect of mean stress, which has
tension. Thus the von lses c d' t d by the Tresca criterion. It Wl
is about 15 per cent higher t~a~ pre lC e . m difference between the two experimentally been shown to be important in some cases, particularly with
subsequently be shown that th1s lS the maXlmu regard to fracture. Mohr's theory can also take into account differences in the
yield points in tension and compression, as exemplified by the internal friction
criteria. . 11 fits (but not always) the experimental theory.
The von Mises yield criteno n ~sua Yd it is usually easier to apply than
data better than the other theones, an . eeded regarding the relative
. . b no knowle d ge lS n .' .
Tresca cntenon ecause F these reasons, thlS cnteno n
. . l stresses. or f ,:,:U""lllill' Friction Theory
magnitudes of the pnnclp~ h the relative magnitudes o
t tlme If owever, .k
widely used at the presen ., l in the case of the th1C This is a special case of Mohr's theory, in which the criticaI shear stress is
known as, for examp e, l
principal stress:s are , h Tresca criterio n is easier to app y. to be a linear function of the normal stress acting on the pIane of
tube discussed m Chapter 8, t e
 Criteria for Yielding [Ch. 6 Sec.6-3] Yield Surface. Haigh-Westergaard Stress Space 79

78 d't' s for the biaxial case where atl and at2 are the tensile yields in the al and a2 directions, ael is the
. h This results in the following con 1 lOn
max1mum s ear. compressive yield in the al direction, and 'To is the shear yield strength.
[la]: If al > a2 > a3' a-O
2 - ,
(6.2.10)

.
. the yield stress in compresslO n .
If a
l
> a3 > a2' a2 = ° then
,
6-3 YIELD SURFACE. HAIGH-WESTERGAARD
STRESS SPACE
where aO,e 1S
In Section 6.2 we discussed several yield criteria and also plotted several
(6.2.11) two-dimensional plots for biaxial stress cases, showing the curves at which
If al > a 3' both negative, then yielding takes pIace. In the most generaI case, the yie1d criterion will depend
a3 = -ao,e on the complete state of stress at the point under consideration and will
therefore be a function of the nine components of stress at the point. Since
A plot in the ala3 pIane is shown in Figure 6.2.5. the stress tensor is symmetric, we can reduce this function to a function ofthe
six independent components of the stress tensor. This yie1d criterion for a
virgin material is then essentially the extension of the single yield point of the
uniaxial tensile test to the six-component stress tensor. For a materialloaded
to the initial yield, it can be expressed by the relationship

(6.3.1)
-O"o,C

where K is a known function, or if desired,

(6.3.2)

Equation (6.3.1) represents a hypersurface in the six-dimensional stress

space and any point on this surface represents a point at which yie1ding can
begin. For example, for the simple tensile test at the yield point ao, the point
ax = ao, a y = a z = T XY = T xz = 'TYZ = 0, must lie on this surface, and the
point a x = a y = a z = T xz = 'TyZ = 0, T XY = 'To, which represents a thin-
FIGURE 6.2, 5 InternaI friction theory. walled tube loaded in torsion to the torsional yield 'l'o, must also lie on this
surface.
ust the available list.
. . r
t d by no means exha k The function appearing in (6.3.1) is called the yieldfunction and the surface
The various yield cntena 1S e l' t d theories which attempt to ta e
ther more comp 1ca e db described by (6.3.1) or (6.3.2) in the stress space is called the yield surface.
Besides, there are o , l yield criterion propose y . Without specifying yet any particular form for this surface, the equation
into account anisotropy. For ~xhamd~ e, ant yields in tension and compresslOn
. mat erials W1t 1uere describing it can be simplified somewhat by making use of some of the
[2] for anisotrop1C
previously discussed assumptions regarding the yielding of metals. If, as
has the form (for biaxial stress)
isotropy is assumed so that rotating the axes does not affect the yielding,
atl 2- (ael a tl/ a t2) + a t2)1
ar + e- f, aelatl
'TO(ael ala 2 can choose the principal axes for the coordinates, and then (6.3.1) can be
'To -

+ a~ + (ael +
aelatl
(~ -
a ) a2 =
- atl)al t2 (6.3.3)
 Sec.6-3] Yield SurCace. Haigh-Westergaard Stress Space 81
Criteria Cor Yielding [Ch. 6
80 . . or compres- We can Iearn a great deai about the yieid surface defìned by equation
drostatlc tenslOn
. . ' lways assume d that hy . t (6.3.3) from simpie geometric considerations. We introduce the (al' a2, aa)
Furthermore, smce 1t lS a. Id' we can assume
that only the stress devla ors
• TI do es not influence y1e mg, . coordinate system, which represents a stress space called the Haigh- Wester-
::ter into the yield function and wnte gaard stress space [3]. Every point in this space having coordinates al> a2, and
(6.3.4) aa is a possibie stress state. Consider aline ON as shown in Figure 6.3.1
f1(Sl> S2' Sa) = K

. nd S can be written in terms of the invariants

Alternatively, smce Sl' S2' a a
J1> J2 , and J a, where

(6.3.5)

we can write (6.3.6)

f(J 2 ,Ja) =K
ptions the yield criterion has been
Subject therefore to the above two assum . 'riants of the stress deviator
. f the two nonzero mva
reduced to a functlOn o . tric in the principal stresses, FIGURE 6.3.1 Haigh-Westergaard stress space.
tensor. We note in passing that!(J2 , J~) lS sy~mme aterial all of the principal
d' m an lsotrop1C . . passing through the origin, and having equal angies with the coordinate axes.
which is to be expecte smce . . Id' Thus whatever yield functlOn lS
l the same role m yJe mg. Then for every point on this line the stress state is one for which
stresses must p ay . . the rincipal stresses.
chosen it must be symmetnc m . dP ' t ' the Tresca maximum shear
, .d ly used y1el cn ena, 62 (6.3.10)
The two most Wl e . .' discussed in Section ., are
h Mises y1eld cntenon, . l t
criterion and t e von M' riterion is by far the Slmp es one Thus every point on this line corresponds to a hydrostatic or sphericai stress
s ecifìc cases of (6.3.6). The von. lses c
p . ted with equatlOn (6.3.6), state, the deviatoric stresses Sl = (2a1 - a2 - aa)/3, etc., being equai to zero.
that can be assOC1a Furthermorè, if we consider any pIane perpendicular to ON, the equation
(6.3.7) of this pIane will be

(6.3.11)
where l<; is the yield in pure shear: . the form
The Tresca criterion can be wntten m where p is the distance aiong the normai from the origin to the pIane. Hence
the sphericai component of the stress tensor increases linear1y with the
4J~ _ 27J5 - 361<;2J~ + 961<;4J2 - 641<;6 = O distance of the pIane from the origino On the pIane passing through the
. . . ' ts generaI form origin, the sphericai stress is zero, the equation being al + a2 + aa = O. This
l it of the Tresca cnteno n m 1 . pIane is called the 1T pIane.
and we see the great comp e~ ~ Onl in the case, as previously d1SCUSS ed,
Now consider any arbitrary stress state such as at point P with stress
compared to the von Mises c.n~enon. . y'pal stresses are known a priori can
h maximum and mm1mum pnnc1 ;;comr)On.enlts al, a2' and aa' The stress vector OP can be decomposed into two
:!e~r:s:a criterion be reduced to the simple form cOlnpIDn(mt:s, the component A parallei to ON and the component B per-
1"v<.',u'_u,,;u to ON, the Iatter paraIlei to the 1T pIane. The component A can
(6.
 Criteria for Yielding [Ch. 6 Sec. 6-3] Yield Surface. Haigh.Westergaard Stress Space 83
82
readily be determined by projecting the components of OP-al' a2' and a3-

on to ON. Thus
111
A = V3 al + V3 a2 + V3 a3
(6.3.12)
or
A = v3 a m
To determine 13 we have

= at + a~ + a~ - 3a~
= (al - a m)2 + (a2 - a m)2 + (a3 - a m)2

= St + S~ + S~ (6.3.13)
FIGURE 6.3.2 TT pIane.
= 212
The components of 13 are therefore the stress deviators Sb S2' and S3' We equal angles with each other 120 0 h
have thus decomposed the arbitrary stress state at P into a spherical part A considerations that the yield l ' as s own. It can be shown from symmetry
ocus must have the s h o
and a deviatoric part 13, the latter parallel to the TT pIane. Furthermore, if we twelve 30 0 sectors dividing th I . ame s ape m each of the
e TT pane as shown m th fi o
take a different stress state p' lying on aline through p parallel to ON, then f:hrom the following considerati Th' e gure. ThlS follows
. onso e yleld surfac t b
obviously the projection of the vector Op' onto the TT pIane will be the same t e pnncipai stresses since it cert i I d e mus e symmetric in
as the projection of the vector OP onto this pIane. The two states of stress, interchange the values of a da n y oes not matter, for example, if we
at P and at P', will therefore have the same deviatoric components and will bisecting the angle between 2 ant a3' olt .follows, therefore, that the lines
any wo pnnclpal o h
differ only in their spherical parts. In fact, all points on the line through p of symmetry. The lines _ o axes m t e piane must be lines
al, al, a2, -a 2 ' and a
parallel to ON will correspond to the same deviatoric states of stress. symmetry and we now have o o' 3, - a3 are therefore lines of
. SIX symmetnc sectors F rth .
Since it is assumed that yielding is determined by the deviatoric state of equal ylelding in tension and o . u ermore, lf we assume
. compreSSlOn then if w f:
stress only, it follows that if one of the points on the line through p parallel the yleld locus to the point Q' h 11' e go rom a point Q on
o ' w ere a the stresses h o
to ON lies on the yield surface, they must alllie on the yield surface, since S ou agam be on the yO Id l ave reversed slgns we
hh Id le ocus. Therefore if a t '
they all have the same deviatoric stress components. Hence the yield surface ave symmetry about aline perpend o I ' 1 go es o - al, we must
must be composed of lines parallel to ON; Le., it must be a cylinder we h ICU ar to the a axis' if
must ave symmetry about a line o l , a 2 go es to - a2,
generators parallel to ONo The only assumption needed to arrive at goes to _ a3, we must have symmetr perpendlcuI~r to the a2 axis; and if a3
conclusion is the dependence of the yield surface on the deviatoric axis. We have thus divided th . Id IY abo~t the Ime perpendicular to the a3
e yle ocus mto 12 s .
, and we need only consid th ymmetnc sectors, each of
components only. T er e stress states Iyin o
The intersection of this yield cylinder with any pIane perpendicular to o determine the location on the TT lan g l~ o~e of these sectors.
will produce a curve called the yield locus. Since this curve will be the on the yield cylinder p e of the proJeetlOn of the point P
for all planes perpendicular to the cylinder, we need consider only the "'1>1.,.. ... - ' we proceed as follows L t d 8
of the point P in the TT piane 8 b O ' e r an be the polar
locus on one such pIane. For this purpose we choose tbe TT pIane, on which, axis, and Iet a and b be th h o ' emg measured from the horizon-
was pointed out previously, the spherical stress state is zero. Figure in Figure 6 3 3 P h e onzontal and verticai eompbnents of r as
. .. as components a a
l~ /~and a3, andOm the TT pIane
. '
shows the TT piane as the piane of the paper and the projections upon will project as V2/3 a V2/3
pIane of the coordinate axes ab a2, and a3' Since this piane makes seen m . Figure 6 3 4 h'1,h h a2, and v 2/3 a 3, res peet lvely. This can
. . ,w le s ows the pIa ne eontammg o o the veetor al the
angles with the coordinate axes, their projections upon this piane must
 Criteria for Yielding [Ch.6 Sec.6-3] Yield Surface. Haigh-Westergaard Stress Space 85
84
Let us now consider the yield locus for the von Mises yie1d criterion
[equation (6.3.7)]:

From (6.3.15) we have

(6.3.16)

60°1
1 The yield locus is therefore a circ1e of radius r = V2/3 ao, as shown in
I Figure 6.3.5. The yield surface in the Haigh-Westergaard stress space will
1
I

FIGURE 6••3 3 ProJ' ection of point P on 7T pIane.

d the projection of al on t h e 7T plane . It is .ohvious
t;;;M
normal to the pIane, ON, an.. f the 7T pIane is equal to v 2/3 al'
from the figure that the pro)ectlOn o al on
From Figure 6.3.3:
_ . t;;;M2/3 a cos 30° - V2/3 al cos 30° = (a2 - (ll)/vrz
a - v .t./:> 2 • t;;;M . 300
b = V2/3 a3 - V2f3 a2 sin 30° - v 2/3 al Slll
(6.3.14)
= 1/V6 (2a3 - a2 - al)
FIGURE 6.3.5 von Mises circ1e and Tresca hexagon.

then be a circular cylinder whose axis is the line ON equally inclined to the
stress axes.
The yield locus for the Tresca maximum shear criterion is a regular hexagon
(6.3.15)
inscribed in the von Mises circ1e, as shown in Figure 6.3.5. This can be proved
as follows.
Consider the sector between the a2 and -al axes in Figure 6.3.5. For any
stress state in this sector,

The Tresca yield condition for this sector is then a2 - al = ao. This will be
represented by aline parallel to the a3 axis, since it is independent of a3, the
distance of this line from the a3 axis being equal to 1/V2 (a2 - al) =
1/'',12 ao [by equation (6.3.14)]. In a similar manner, a straight line is obtained
for each sector, thus forming the hexagon shown in the figure. The corners of
hexagon will touch the von Mises circ1e, as can be seen again from the
sector, since the radius to the corner is equal to

1T piane
r = (l/V2)ao = VI a
cos 30° o
6•3•4 Pro;ection of al on 7T pIane. 3
FIGURE J
 Criteria for Yielding [Ch. 6 Sec.6-3] Yield Surface. Haigh-Westergaard Stress Space 87

86 . Id It can now readily be shown that if the yield locus is assumed to be convex
· c1'rcle In the stress space the Tresca y1e
. . h d' ofthe von Ml s e s · . l' d and one circumscribes the von Mises circle by a regular hexagon, then alI
Wh1Ch lS t era lUS " ' b d' the von M1ses cy m er, as
surface is a regular hexagonal cylmder mscn e m possible yield lo ci must lie between the two regular hexagons inscribed in,
shown in Figure 6.3.6. and circumscribing, the von Mises circle. By the locus being convex, we mean
simply that any straight line in the 7T pIane may pierce the locus in at most
two points. It will be proved later that the yield surface must indeed be
convex; for the present we shall merely assume it. Let the point A on the as
axis in Figure 6.3.7 lie on the yield locus. By the symmetry conditions pre-
viously discussed, the points Band C must also lie on the yield locus. The

<TI

FIGURE 6.3.6 Tresca and von Mises cylinders.

. . 6 3 5 that the maximum difference between
It is noW eV1dent from F1 g.ure. . . t e-oD and is equal to
the von Mises and Tresca Cf1tena occurs a -

V~ ao - (ljV2)ao = ~ - 1 = 0.156
(ljV2)ao V3
as previously mentioned. h ar stress states. This follows
The line at e = 00 corresponds to pure s e
from (6.3.15), for e = o: FIGURE 6.3.7 Bounds on yield loci.

curve CAB is a convex piecewise smooth curve passing through CAB and
and the mean stress is
a = i(al + az + as) = -!-(al + az) having the proper symmetries. Any other curve through these points passing
m
inside CAB will obviously not be convex. CAB is therefore a lower bound
he stress components al' az,
. bt t the mean stress fro m t for the yield loci.
Therefore, 1f we su rac ) 1( _ ) O which corresponds to a
t t 1( a - az al" Now draw a horizontalline symmetric about the as axis intersecting the
and as, we get a stress s a e ~ a~~h: ~ ~lane itself, since al + az + as = O,
state of pure shear (see p. 4 ). F other pIane parallel to the adjacent axes of symmetry at C' and B'. Then it folIows that no piecewise
O nd a = - az· or any .. f smooth curve passing through C'AB' can lie outside C'AB', since then it
it follows that as = a l . d' ated with the addltlOn o a
we have a case of pure shear, as 1ll 1C , would not be convex. Thus C'AB' represents an upper bound to the yield
l
7T pane, ( )
. f t of amount -!- al + a2 • locus. The rest of the upper and lower bounds can be constructed from
sphencal state o s re~s d to a uniaxial stress, since
The Hne at e = 30 correspon s symmetry and are shown as the two regular hexagons in Figure 6.3.7. Thus
ìt has been shown that all conceivable yield loci satisfying the conditions of
2a3 - az - al = 1 isotropy, equal yield in tension and compression, independence of hydro-
az - al
stress, and convexity must lie between two regular hexagons as shown;
as = az convex curves are, of course, admissible. The usual Tresca yield locus is
M 00 rep'res,enlted by the inner hexagon, and the von Mises circle circumscribes the
. f et a stress state al - az, , .
If we subtract a hydrostatlc stress o az. we g
 Sec. 6-4] Lode's Stress Paramet ero Verification
• of Yield C't .
Criteria for Yielding [Ch. 6 Th . rl erla 89
88
us If
f l d' (] varies from 0° to 30° '11
' f-t Wl vary from O to l AlI
inner hexagon and is circumscribed by the outer one. If the von Mises yield O oa mg from pure shear to sim l ' - . . combinations
surface is taken as a reference, then the maximum deviation of any admissible range Oto -1. p e tenslOn are therefore mcluded in the
yield surface is about 15.5 per cent. By means of (6 .42)
. , th e von MIses
. criterion can be written

al - a3 2
6-4 LODE'S STRESS P.AR.AMETER. ao (3 + f-t2)1/2 (6.4.4)
EXPERIMENT.AL VERIFIC.ATION OF
The
b h difference between the Tresca an d von MIses . crit . . h
YIELD CRITERI.A y ow much the right si de of (644) d'ftì ena IS t en determined
The first investigation of a yield criterion was performed by Tresca in 1864, (6.4.4) agrees with (641) Th' :. I ers from 1. For f-t = -l, equation
. . . ... IS IS the case of sim I t .
in which he measured the loads required to extrude metals through dies of cntena agree as expected T h ' P e enSlOn, and the two
. . e maxlmum differ . h
various shapes. On the basis of these experiments he arrived at the maximum o vlOusly occurs when Il. = O h' h . ence In t e range O to -l
. bh . ;;; r , W IC IS the case of p h
shear stress criterion, previously discussed. It is evident that according to the IS t en 2jv 3, which agrees again with th . ure s ear. The difference
Tresca criterion the intermediate stress has no effect on yielding. The von Lode ran a series of tests . e prevlOUS resuIts.
Mises criterion, on the other hand, gives equal weight to all three principal S 30°). A f-t of l correspond~ot:e~:f t~el range of ~ from l to -l (- 30° S O
stresses. The simplest and most common type test specimen used to check in Figure 6.4.1. It is seen that th ~xla ~ompresslOn. The resuIts are shown
e ata avor the von Mises criterion even
these criteria is the thin-walled tube shown in Figure 6.1.1. The first such
experiments were run by Lode [5], who tested tubes of steel, copper, and 1.30
I
nickel under various combinations oflongitudinal tension and internaI hydro- • Steel
static pressure. Lode devised a very sensitive method of differentiating 1.2 5f-- ° Copper
+ Nickel
between the Tresca and von Mises criteria by determining the effect of the o
1.2O
intermediate principal stress on yielding. According to the Tresca criterion, 0"1 0"3 2

if al ~ a2 ~ a3 the yield criterio n is given by b'l o .J.--uQ =.)3+ J1- .f\

~Ib 1.1 5

1.10
~7
Il
o~

J~
:f:\ oo
00
~

•
••
l< o

To account for the influence of the intermediate stress in the von Mises V i o
~
criterion, Lode introduced the parameter f-t, called Lode' s stress parameter
1.05

1.00 VI ~ 0"1-0"3
ì a:o=1?\ "q +
(not to be confused with poisson's ratio, f-t): 1.0 -0.8 -0.6 0.4 -0.2 O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
J1-
f-t= FIGURE 6.4.1 Lode's test results.
a2 - !(al + a3) appreciable deviation occurS. These d . . .
= !(al - a3) . to lack of isotropy of the material S eVlatlOns were parttally attri-
FIgure 6.4.2 in the a l . . ome of the results are also plotted
f-t is thus the ratio of the difference between the intermediate stress and 1 a 2 pane, smce a is zero ~ th
of the von Mises circular cyl' d 3 • h or ese tests. The inter-
average of the largest and smallest stresses to half the difference m
ellipse, and the intersection of th T er Wlt. the ala2 piane is obviously
the largest and smallest stresses, and is therefore a measure of the effect of e resca cylInder is a h (
as shown in Figures 6.2.3 and 6 2 4 ' exagon no longer
intermediate stress. Comparing (6.4.2) to (6.3.15) for the case al ~ a2 ~ plot between the hexagon and th 11:" FIgure 6.4.2 shows that the
we see that elIipse. e e Ipse, aIthough generally closer to
f-t = -V3 tan (]
 Criteria for Yielding [Ch. 6 Sec. 6-4] Lode's Stress Parame tero Verlfìcation
. of Yield C't . 91
90 The M' 1'1 erla
von Ises criterion, on the other hand , b ecomes
1.01'-----------NJ
(6.4.6)

Both (6.~.5) and (6.4.6) piot as elIipses in the XY

6.4.3. It IS seen in the figure that th d UXT pIa?e, as shown in Figure
abIy better than the Tresca c't .e ata fit the von Mlses criterion consider-
n enon, aIthough .
t he von Mises criterion do s t' appreclable deviations from
ome lmes occur . Fi gure 6.4.4. shows a replot of

1.0 o r--,--,-__, -__~__~1.0

o
0'/0'0

FIGURE 6.4.2 Lode's test resultS.

In 1931 Tay10r and Quinney [6] published their classica1 experiments,
which were intended to settle this questiono They used copper and steel
tubings which were very near1y isotropic and tested them very carefully in
combined tension and torsion. They concluded that the deviations from the
von Mises criterion were real and could not be explained on the basis of lack
of experimental accuracy or isotropy. Their results are shown in Figure 6.4.3.
0.6 .--~L-- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- _ _ _ _ __
-1.0 - - - - - -_ _-..J

0.5r----- FIGURE 6.4.4 Results of Taylor and Qumney.

.

0.4 some of these resuIts in the I and Figure 6 4 5 h

?bt'ame d by Ros and Eichinger [7]pane,
UlU2
Other
.
. ... s ows slmilar resuIts
m the literature. . tests of slmtlar nature can be found

0.2
• Copper
X Aluminum
0.1
o Mild steel
o
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
O'x/O'o

FIGURE 6.4.3 Results of Taylor and Quinney.

The theoretical curves are obtained as follows. Using the coordinate

of Figure 6.1.1, for tension and torsion loads only, the stresses are (lx

T ' all the others being zero. The Tresca criterio n then becomes
XY

J
U~
2 4" + T 2XY = (lo
-1.010<.---_ _ _ _ _ _1

or FIGURE 6.4.5 Results of Ros and Eichinger.

 Criteria for Yielding [Ch. 6 Sec. 6-5] sequent Yield Surfaces. Loading and Unloading
Sub'
93
92
Attempts have been made to improve the correiation ofthe data by inc1ud~ hardening properties. We can now dist' .
hardening material: mgUlsh three cases for a strain-
ing the effect of the third invariant 13 into the yieid criterio n [8]. It seems,
however, that from an engineering viewpoint the accuracy of the von Mises
(1) F =K 8F
criterio n for yieiding is ampIy sufficient, considering the generaI scatter and dF=-da >0
8alf li
Iack of uniformity in the properties of nominally the same materiai obtained
from different batches from the manufacturer. Therefore, the search for more This constitutes loading.
accurate theories, particular1y since they are bound to be more complex,
seems to be a rather thankless task. In what follows, therefore, we shall (2) F = K
(6.5.2)
generally use the von Mises yieid criterion and occasionally the Tresca
This is called neutralloading.
criterion.
(3) F = K dF = 8F da < O
8ali ti

6-5 SUBSEQUENT YIELD SURF ACES. LOADING This constitutes unloading,

AND UNLOADING Geometrically the conditions (652) d'
the stress state is on the yieid "'" d' are rea 11y visualized. F = K means
surlace, F > Om tb
So far we have discussed the initial yield surface at which a material will out" from the yieid surface and pi t' fl . eans e stress state is "moving
as lC ow lS occurri dF
fust start yielding. For a perfectIy piastic material, this yield surface remains stress state is "moving in" fro th .e1 ng. < O means the
fixed, as is seen in the uniaxial tensile test, where the stress after yielding re- taking pIace. dF = O corresPo:ds te Ytlh d surface and unioading is therefore
. Id o e case of the str t .
mains constant at the yie1d stress [Figure 2.6.1(d)]. However, for a material the yIe surface and is caIIed neu traIload'mg For t . ess h s ate movmg on
that strain hardens the yield surface must change for continued straining no piastic flow occurs. If F < K th . ~ s ram- ardening materiai
. ' e stress state lS an ei t'
beyond the initiai yield. We know that for the uniaxiai case, if a material is iiect1y p1astlc materiais piastic fl ow occurs ""lor as lC one. For per-
strained beyond the yield point to some point such as B' in Figure 2.1.2, the
load removed so that the stress state moves to C', and then the lo ad is in~ F=K dF= O (6.5.3)
creased again, yielding will not take pIace until the point B' is reached again.
Thus the yieid point has been raised in the work-hardened material. In The case dF > O does not exist.
same way the yie1d surface in the case of multiaxial stress must "move or The above discussion is illustrated in Figul'e 6.5.1. Pomt
.
P represents the
in some way, at least at the point where yie1ding initially took pIace.
In equation (6.3.1) we defined a yield function by the relation

such that whenever the function F became equal to the constant K, yieiding
would begin. K then represented an initial yie1d surface in the stress space.
We can now generalize this type of relation to subsequent yie1d surfaces.
Mter yie1ding has occurred, K takes on a new value (or values), der)endìng·,
on the strain-hardening properties of the material. If the material is UIUU~\"'U·
and then loaded again, additional yie1ding will not occur until the new
of K is reached. The function F can then be looked upon as a loading !ù..""fi,r>n
or loading surface, which represents the lo ad being applied, and the tUllctllOn
K is a yield function, or strain-hardening function, and will depend on
complete previous stress and strain history of the material and its FIGURE 6.5.1 Stress increment vector for loading.
 Criteria for Yielding [Ch. 6 Sec. 6-5] Sub sequent Yield Surfaces. Loading and Unloading 95
94
existing state of stress Iying on the yieid surface. If the stress state changes to 30
Q, so that the vector da points "outward" from the cylinder, then Ioading is
taking pIace. If Q lies on the surface, we have neutraIIoading, and if Q is
inside the surface, we have unioading. As Ioading continues, the point 20
representing the new existing state of stress will again lie on the surface,
which will move and/or change its shape correspondingly. A similar picture
10
can be drawn in the 7T pIane.
Assume the materiai obeys the von Mises criterion, so that the initiai yieid
Iocus is a circle of radius vi ao in the 7T pIane. Suppose that straining takes
pIace to some point a~ > ao and the materiai is then unioaded. If we noW
assume that the materiai remains isotropic, just as it was originally, then the
new yieid Iocus is a circle of radius vi a~, which is Iarger than, but concentric -10

with, the originaI yieid circle. We have thus assumed that the materiai strain
hardens isotropically, as shown for the uniaxiai case by the curve ABCFG of - 20 1===::::::=:::::::
Figure 2.3.1. For isotropic hardening, therefore, the yieid cyIinder will expand
-25~~~~-L-L~~~L-J
with stress and strain history but will retain the same shape as initially. For
a Tresca material, the subsequent yieid Ioci will be a series of concentric FIGURE 6.5.3 Initiai and subsequent yield l OCI..
reguiar hexagons. Ihis is shown in Figure 6.5.2.
. 2 the kinematic mode!' d'Iscusse d for the one d'
introduced .
ec lOn .6 and illustrated for th t .. - ImenslOnal case in
S dt 1 h a case m Figures 2 6 2 d 2 6
mo e t e totai eiastic range is m .nt' ame d .. an .. 3. In this
yieid surface without deformo .talTh co~stant by transiating the initiai
. mg I. e modells repre t d b ..
avmg the shape of the yieid !'. sen e y a ngld frame
hF' surlace, as shown for th T
Igure 6.5.4. The state of stress b ef ' . e resca criterio n in
position of a pin free to move 'th. orhe yleid occurs IS represented by the
Wl m t e frame As th .
o t e rame, yielding occurs Th f . . e pm contacts the side
f h. f . e rame IS assumed to b .
FIGURE 6.5.2 Subsequent yield loci. ro atlOn and to be perfectly h e constramed against
t smoot ,so that only fo
can be transmitted to it As th . rces normai to the frame
The assumption of isotropic hardening is the simpiest one, mathematically, transiate in a direction' norma~ Pt mthPushes against the frame it causes it to
. o e surface at the . t f
to use. However, it does not take into account a Bauschinger effect. The corners, If the motion of th . pom o contact At
th d' e pm engages both side th f .
Bauschinger effect would tend to reduce the size of the focus on one side as e Irection of the motion f t h ' s, e rame transiates in
that on the other si de is increased. The yieid surface would thus change shape described by the modei l' e ~'d e pm. Depending on the materiai being
, .. , ngl perfectly pl t' ..
as the yieiding progresses. Experiments to verify this effect are described in elastic perfectly plastic the t t f as IC, ngld strain hardening or
. , s a e o stress and the st t f ' '
reference (9). Severai tests were carried out with aluminum alloy tubes m the model in different W F a e o stram are repre-
ays. or example for a ri 'd t .
various ratios or torsion and tension to obtain an initiai yieid surface. ,>U<LLI:Ilal. the displacement of th
e cent er of the fram , gllt' S ram-hardening
unioading and loading again in a specified manner, subsequent yieid to the total strain, and the state of e re. a !Ve to the origin is
were obtained. The results plotted in the Ta pIane are shown in Figure 6.5 of the pin relative to the .. ( stress IS represented by the
Fi 65 ongm compare to Figur 2 6 2)
Without going into a detailed discussion of this data, it is evident that gure . .4 (from reference [4]) h h e .. .
initiai von Mises yieid ellipse does not just grow symmetrically but that means of this mode t for a st s owhs t e translating of the Tresca hexagon
ress pat OP. This t fh ..
hardening because ofthe type f d l ype o ardemng IS called
definite Bauschinger effect exists. o mo e used to represent it. It takes
To account for the Bauschinger effect, Prager (reference (14) of Chapter
 References 97
Criteria for Yielding [Ch. 6
96 6. Derive the equation for the Tresca yie1d criterion in the sector between the
- al and a3 axes as was done in the text for the sector between the a2 and
-al axes.
7. Derive equation (6.4.4).
8. Show that Lode's stress parameter /h = 1 corresponds to uniaxial compres-
sion, /h = -1 to uniaxial tension, and /h = O to pure shear.
9. Derive equations (6.4.5) and (6.4.6).

References

1. J. Marin, Mechanical Behavior of Engineering Materials, Prentice-Hall,

Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1962, p. 117.
la. Ibid., p. 122.
2. J. Marin, Theories of Strength for Combined Stresses and Nonisotropic
Materials, J. Aeronautical Sci., 24, No.4, 1956, pp. 265-269.
Kinematic model for Tresca criterion. 3. H. M. Westergaard, On the Resistance of Ductile Materials to Combined
FIGURE 6 .5. 4
Stresses, J. Franklin Inst., 189, 1920, pp. 627-640.
. effect but because it maintains the total elast.ic 4. P. M. Naghdi, Stress-Strain Relations in Plasticity and Thermoplasticity,
into account a Bauschmger , hat for the Bauschinger effect, Inst. Eng. Res., Univo Calif. (Berkeley), Ser. 131, Isslle 9, March 1960, p. 18.
. b bly overcorrects somew 5. W. Lode, Versuche ueber den Einfluss der mittleren Hauptspannung auf das
range constant, 1t pro a h therefore been made to improve
. d' S t' 2 3 Attempts ave Fliessen der Metalle Eisen Kupfer und Nickel, Z. Physik., 36, 1926, pp.
as dISCusse m ec lOn . . 1 Th' t of mode1 however, is much
. . h d ing mode . lS y p e , . 913-939.
on the kmemat1c ar en t' 11 and therefore the isotropic hardenmg 6. G. L Taylor and H. Quinney, The Piastic Distortion of MetaIs, Phil. Trans.
more difficult to handle mathema 1c; y, 11 plastic strains it probably gives Roy. Soc., London, A230, 1931, pp. 323-362.
d or sma
assumption is still genera11y use. 7. M. Ros and A. Eichinger, Versuche Zur KIaerung del' Frage der Bruchgefahr
answers that are sufficiently accurate. III, Metalle, Eidgenoss. Material pruf. IInd Versllchsanstalt Indllstriell Ballwerk
IInd Gewerbe, Diskllssionsbericht No. 34, ZlIrich, 1929, pp. 3-59.
8. F. D. Stockton and D. C. Drucker, Fitting Mathematicai Theories of Piasti-
Problems city to Experimental Results, J. Collo Sci. (Rheology Issue), 5, 1950, pp.
Compare the values of the pure shear yield strengths ~a~~ ~~;~: Si:l~~~~:~ 239-250.
1. of yielding listed (exclude Mohr's theory). Assume /h - . .0 9. P. M. Naghdi, F. Essenberg and W. Koff, An Experimentai Study of Initiai
and Subsequent Yieid Surfaces in Piastie:,), J. Appl. Mech., 25, 1958, pp.
For this case, r = al = - ~2' h tensile yield strength of 90,000 psi 201-209.
. l h ft lO in in dmmeter as a . t'
2. A C1rcu ar s a · f 120000 psi Determine the tWlS mg
and a compressive yield strengt~ o . ' :
moment Mt required to produce yleldmg based on. GeneraI References
(a) The maximum stress theory.
(b) The maximum shear theory. HiIl, R., The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford Univo Press, London,
(c) The distortion .en~rgy theory. 1950.
(d) The internaI fnctlOn theory. Hoffman, O., and G. Sachs, Introduction to the Theory of Plasticity for Engineers,
3. Derive equatio~ (6.2.1.0). if the von Mises and Tresca criteria are McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953.
4. It was shown m Sechon 6.3 thtt . xial tension then they will disagree Marin, J., The Mechanical Behavior of Engineering Materials, Prentice-Hall,
assumed to agree for the case o uma . ield 'circle will circumscribe Englewood CIiffs, N.J., 1962.
M
the case of pure shear and t?e. v?n s~:::; that the von Mises and
Tresca hexag on . Show that lf lt lS ~s then they will disagree for the
s
criteri a agree for the case ofTPure h ea~gon will circumscribe the von
of uniaxial tension and the resca ex
ellipse. l f f the Tresca yield criteria as given by
5. Derive the genera orm o
(6.3.8).
 Sec. 7-1] Distinction Between Elastic and Plastic Stress-Strain Relations 99

Txy

CHAPTER 7
subsequent yield

c O'x

FIGURE 7.1.1 Effeet or loading path on plastie strains.

PLASTIC
point C, where CDE defines the subsequent yield curve. The plastic strains
STRESS-STRAIN will then be
RELATIONS e~ = ep
e~ = ef = -1-ep
e~y = e~z = efx = O

WEEN ELASTIC AND Let the specimen now be unloaoed to the point Band let us apply a shear
7-1 DISTINCcTsIT°,!IE::~TRAIN RELATIONS stress inereasing from B to D on the new yield locus. The piastic strains will
PLASTI oR -
still be as given above. Any other path couId have been used in arriving at
. tions between stress and strain in the D from C such as OCFD, as long as we do not move outside the yieid Iocus.
In the previous sectlOns the rela h t states at which plastic flow Now suppose that the specimen were first stressed in shear to the point E on
d · ed and also t e s ress .
elastic range were ISCUSS . . dient necessary in constructmg the new yieid Iocus and then, by any other path inside EDC, such as EGD,
'11 b . There lS one more mgre . fl
or yielding Wl egm. nd strain when plashc ow were stressed to the point D. The piastic strains wouId be
. . th relations between stress a
a plastIClty theory- e. e sub'ect of this chapter. .
J
is occurring. These relatlOns are th l t d to the stresses by Hooke's law m e~y = rp
Whereas the strains are linearly re a e b nonlinear in the plastic range, e~ = e~ = ef = e~z = e~z =
the elastic range, the relation will genera y.e
n rve A more complicated
O

th uniaxial stress-stram cu . h
as is evident from e . t strain relations arises from t e which is obviousIy compieteIy unrelated to the previous strain state. Thus
l stic and plastIc s ress- . d even though the same stress state at D exists for both Ioading paths, and
distinction between e a . h t ins are uniquely determme
fact that whereas in the elast1c range t e s ra we can compute the strains .!herefore the eiastic strain states are the same, the piastic strain states are
. f given set of stresses different.
by the stresses, 1.e., or a . d as to how this stress state
. H k' law wlthout any regar . l Because of the above illustrated dependence of the piastic strains on the
directly usmg 00 e s . h t ins are in generaI not umque Y
was attained, in the plastlc range t ed s ra whole history of loading or Ioading path, it becomes necessary, in generaI, to compute the differentiais
h t es but depen on the 'd . or increments of piastic strain throughout the loading history and then
determined by t e s ress . d'l be illustrated by conSI enng
ched ThlS can rea l Y d obtain the totai strains by integration or summation. However, there is at
how the stress state was rea . . . the experiments of Taylor an
a thin-walled tube in tension and torslOn as m Ieast one important class of Ioading paths for which the piastic strains are
Quinney. . be as shown in Figure 7.1.1. Let the independent of the Ioading path and depend only on the finai state of stress.
Consider the initial yleld curve to. b d the initial yield to some Tllese are the so-called radiai or proportional loading paths, in which all the
. n be strained in uniaxial tenslOn eyon
speclme
98
 4

Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7 Sec. 7-2] Prandtl-Reuss Equations 101

100
stresses increase in the same ratio. These will be more ful1y discussed subse- If the principai directions are considered, equations (7.2.2) can be written
quendy. dei - de~ de 3P
- d'\ (7.2.3)
SI - S2 = S3 = 1\

7-2 PRANDTL-REUSS EQUATIONS or de~ = S3 dÀ

The first approach to plastic stress-strain relations was suggested by dei - d4 = de~ - de P3 _ de P3 - delp
or ~'--_~
Saint-Venant in 1870 [1], who proposed that the principal axes of strain SI - S2 S2 - S3 - S3 - SI = dÀ (7.2.4)
increment coincided with the principal stress axes. The generaI three-dimen-
The numerators of the first three terms of (7 2 4) th d'
sional equations relating the increments of total strain to the stress deviations
were given by Lévy in 1871 [2] and independently by von Mises in 1913 [3].
thre~ M~hr's circles for the plastic strain incr~~en;::ndeth~a::t:rs. Oftthe
are t e dlameters ?f Mohr's stress circles, as shown in Fi ure 7 mma: ors
These are known as the Lévy-Mises equations. These equations are
~7.2.4) therefore lmply that the Mohr's circles of g .2.1. ~~~~t.v~s
Jncre ent are similar. Also from the 1 t' co stress an~ p~astIc stram
l11. __( " ," re a IOns lor the pnnclpai shear
(7.2.1) eq~at.lOns 7.2 ..4) can be considered as stating that the ratios of the th s,
pnnclpai pIastlc shear strain increments to the p' . 1 h ree
constant at any instant. nnClpa s ear stresses are
or
Equations (7.2.2) can be written in terms of the actuai stresses as
where Slj is the stress deviator tensor and dÀ is a nonnegative constant which
may vary throughout the loading history. In these equations the total strain de~ = idÀ [u x - t(uy + uz)]
increments are assumed to be equal to the plastic strain increments, the
de~ = idÀ [uy - t(u z + ux)]
eiastic strains being ignored. Thus these equations can only be applied to
problems of large plastic fiow and cannot be used in the elastoplastic range. de~ = idÀ [u z - t(u x + uv)]
de~y = dÀ T xy (7.2.5)
The generalization of equations (7.2.1) to include both elastic and plastic
components of strain is due to Prandd [4] and Reuss [5] and are known as de~z = dÀ T yz
the Prandtl-Reuss equations. de~x = dÀ T zx
Reuss assumed that the plastic strain increment is at any instant of loading
Therefore, if dÀ were known we would h h .
proportional to the instantaneous stress deviation; i.e., tions. To determine dÀ .' d ~ve t .e deslred stress-strain reI a-
of equations (7.2.2), use IS ma e ofthe yIeld cnterion as follows. By means
(7.2.2)

or defJ = Slj dÀ

Equations (7.2.1) can then be considered as a special case of (7.2.2) where (7.2.6)
the elastic strain components are neglected.
The br~cketed quantity on the right si de of equation (7 2 6) . b
proportlOnal to the square of the octahedral shear stress ~. 1~ seen to e
Equations (7.2.2) state that the increments of plastic strain d!:)pend on the
current values of the deviatoric stress state, not on the stress increment and the left side of equation (72 6) . . [ quatlOn (3.4.11)],
required to reach this state. They also imply that the principal axes of stre~~_,
and of plastic strain increme'1t tensors coincide. The equations themselves
ment of octahedra1 plastic she~r 'str~~:~o~::~O:;l[::et!:::t~::e(~~5~~~;]ncre-
merely give a relationship between the ratios of plastic strain increments in
the different directions. To determine the actual magnitudes of the increments o -= .l[(d
(dy P)2 9 exp - deyP)2 + (de~ - de~)2 + (de~ - de~)2

a yie1d criterion is required, as will short1y be shown. + 6(de~y)2 + 6(de~z)2 + 6(de~x)2] (7.2.7)
102
Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7 ì \
Sec. 7-2] Prandtl-Reuss Equations

For a uniaxial tensile test in the x direction the equivalent stress and equiva-
lent plastic strain increment reduce to
103

(7.2.11)

The convenience of the above definitions now becomes apparento The equiva-
lent or effective stress, a e, and the equivalent or effective plastic strain incre-
ment, dep, will henceforth be used in this text rather than the octahedral
shear stress and octahedral plastic shear strain increment.
The constant dÀ can therefore be written

(7.2.12)

7.2.1 Mohr's circ1es for stress and plastic strain increments.

FIGURE and the stress-strain relations (7.2.5) be come

The constant dÀ now becomes

dÀ = dyE
Toct

(7.2.8)

wher~ J is the. sectotnddienfiv::i::~qo~i~~~e~;~: :;;!~::: :t:~:~r~nd an equivalent

2
It convemen o
1S
(7.2.l3)

or effective plastic strain increment as

2 2 2 )]1/2
1 ( )2+( y _a)2+(a -ax)2+6(TXy+Tyz+Tzx
ae == V2 [ ax - ay a z z

3 or 3 de p S
deljp = -
= vl Toct
- ti
2 ae
(7.2.9)
If one compares equation (7.2.9) for the equivalent stress ae with equation
(6.2.8), which gives the von Mises yield criterion, it is seen that just as yielding
and be~ins

(7.2.14)
where ao is the yield stress in simple tension. The equivalent stress is thus the
same as the von Mises yield function, and since equations (7.2.l3) make use
= V2 dyE
 Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7 Sec.7-3] Plastic Work. Two Measures of Work Hard emng
. 105
104
be used for both the stress deviator d h . "
of this function, the originaI Prandd-Reuss assumptions imply the von Mises vided the latter are multiplied by a s an t t e pla~tlc stralll lllcrements pro- j

yield criterion. This will also be shown subsequently from other considera- stress. For this constant we choose c~~s ~:t tOt glve :he~ the dimensions of
tions. plastic strain increment vector can th~n b: sp;:::ed e:~attohr vector anI d the
It also follows from (7.2.14) that for a perfecdyp1astic materia1 the Prandtl-:- e same p ot, as
R~u~s e'luatiQns may be written

:d (7.2.15)
23 de 8
p p
• eli = ~ li

For a material that work hardens, however, a e may be greater than ao, and R~O
it is now necessary to find the relation between the equivalent stress a e and p
the equivalent plastic strain increment, de p • Before this is done, we introduce o
the concepts of plastic work and the measures of work hardening.

52
2 Gde2P
7-3 PLASTIC WORI{. TWO MEASURES OF
FIGURE 7.3.1 Stress and plastio strain increment vectors in 7T pI ane.
WORX HARDENING
An important concept that is frequendy used in plasticity theory is the shown
roductinofFigure
th t 7.3.1. F rom (7..
3 3) t he plashc
. work increment is the scaler
concept of plastic work. The work done per unit volume on an element during P e wo vectors, or
straining is
dWP = (jp.RQ _ (OP)(RQ)
dW = ali deli 2G - 2G cos ( 8 - rjJ)
= ali (deri + defJ) But
= dwe + dW P (7.3.1)
OP =.v'8f + 8~ + Sa2 = Via
3 e

But dwe == al} deri is recoverable elastic energy, whereas the plastic deforma- and
tion is an irreversible process from which the energy cannot be recovered. RQ = 2GV(defJ2 + (den 2 + (de~)2 = 2v'i G de p
The remainder of the work done is called the plastic work per unit volume,
Hence the plastic work increment can be written
(7.3.2)
dWP = ae de p cos (8 - rjJ) (7.3.4)
which in turn can be written
(7.3.3) If RQ is parallel to OP, this reduces to
l
dWP = ae de p (7.3.5)
or, in terms ofthe principal stresses,
~~ ~:~:::~la7r2' eqMuakti.on (7.3.5) will b~ valid for the Prandt1-Reuss re1ations
72 13) .. a lllg use .of equatlOn (7 ..
3 5) , the p randd-Reuss relations
Now let us consider again a plot in the 7T pIane where the axes are taken to ( .. can now also be wntten
be the principal stress deviators 8 1 , 8 2 , and 8a (for a point lying in the
7T pIane, since al + a2 + aa = 0, 8 1 = al' 8 2 = a2' 8 a = aa). Since for plastic (7.3.6)
strain increments del + de~ + de~ = 0, the same plot in the 7T pIane can
 Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7 Sec. 7-3] Plastic Work. Two Measures of Work Har d enmg
. 107
106
Again the functional relationship can be determined b .
We next consider the question of how the amount of work hardening or before, the equivalent stress is used for the yield f unct'lOn,y tehxpenment. If, as
strain hardening that has taken pIace in a given material due to plastic flow en
is measured. For this purpose two work-hardening hypotheses, known as the
(7.3.12)
two measures of work hardening, have been proposed.
The fust hypothesis assumes that the amount of hardening depends only and the plastic strain increments can be computed from (7.2.13).
otÌ-the total plastic work, and is jndependent of the strain path [6]. This is F or the case of the von Mises criterio n assuming isotropic hardening th
called the equivalence of plastic work. The implication is that the resistance two hypotheses are obviously equivalent. Since ' ese
to further yie1ding depends only on the amount of work which has been done
on the material. This amount of work is measured by the yield criterion.
Thus, as in (6.5.1), the yield criterion is written
WP = J ali deff = J
ae de p

equation (7.3.9) can be written

(7.3.7)

where K keeps changing as the material work hardens, and, assuming

isotropic hardening, F( ali) remains the same. By the above hypothesis, K is (7.3.13)
a function of the plastic work done per unit volume and we can write which isneed the nosame as (7:3. 12)
(738) . I n genera,
1 however, equations (7.3.11) and
j .. . . t be eqUlvalent, because of anisotropy and the Bausch'
F( ali) = f( W P ) (7.3.8)
effect. A detailed discussion of the conditions under wh' h th lllger
! . I t' . . lC e two are
eqUlva
ti enti lS glVen
d In reference [7]. Equations (7 3 8) and (7 3 Il)
. . .. are some-
where
mes ~e erre to as the work-hardening and strain-hardening hY'Poth
respecttvely [8]. eses,
The form~lation (7.3.11) is simpler to use. For the case of the Prandd-
R euss equatlOns and the VOIl M'lses yle . Id cntenon
. . equation (7 3 12) . d
If the equivalent stress ae is taken as the yield function, we can write almost ex 1 . l ' . . ,.. lS use
. c uSl~e y III conJu~ctlOn with equations (7.2.13). In actual a lica-
tton,
th the
.. lexpenmental. relatlOnship given by equation (7 ..
3 12)'lS t a kenPPfrom
(7.3.9)
e umaXla tenstIe stress-strain curve, as shown in Figure 7.32Th " e a bSCIssa
.

The functional relationship between the yield function and the plastic work
can be obtained experimentally and then the plastic strain increments can
be calculated using equation (7.3.6).
The second hypothesis uses the equivalent plastic strain previously defined
/
as a measure of work hardening; i.e., --

(7.3.10)

where de p is given by equations (7.2.10). The yield function is then assumed

to be a function of the equivalent plastic strain. Thus

FìGURE 7.3.2 R eIaf LOn between equivalent stress and equivalent plastic strain.
 Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7 Sec. 7-5] Experimental Verification of Prandtl-Reuss Equations 109
108
d ordinate of the uniaxial stress-strain curve. are replaced ~y ep = de p
Equations (7.2.13) and (7.4.3) are known as theflow ru/es associated with
f the von Mises and Tresca criteri a, respectively. In Section 7.6 we will show
an tl'vely In terms of the slope of thlS curve, equatlOns (7.2.13)
an d a e, respec . that these are special cases of a more generaI fiow rule. In that section the
can be written results of the previous sections will be essentially rederived based on a more
p 3 dae S (7.3.14) unified approach.
deli = "2 Hla e li

Hl = dae
where de p
7-5 EXPERIMENTA.L VERIFICA.TION OF
PRA.NDTL-REUSS EQUA.TIONS
7-4 STRESS-STR1UN RELA.TIONS BA.SED ON The first experimental investigation to determine the validity of the plastic
TRESCA. CRITERION stress-strain relations was made by Lode (reference [51 of Chapter 6). As
. 72 't shown that the Prandtl-Reuss relations are associated explained in Chapter 6, Lode tested tubes of steel, copper, and nickel under
In SectlOn . 1 was 1 . lly used
'th the von Mises yield criterion. The stress-strain re atlOns gen~ra d' combined tension and internaI pressure. In addition to the stress parameter
Wl . . t However as dIscusse m p, defined by (6.4.2), Lode introduced the plastic strain parameter v defined by
with the Tresca criterion are slmpler m na ure. , h' h .
· 6 2 to use the Tresca yield criterion it is necessary to kno:" W lC lS
Sect lOn . , . . 1 t Assummg that al 2de~ - deà - def de~ - -!(deà + def)
. d hich is the minimum prmclpa S ress. (7.5.1)
~~~:ea~l:~:u: pr:cipal stress and a3 is the min~m~m principal stress, an
v = de3p - delp = - delP)
"2l(de3p

equivalent stress can be defined for the Tresca cntenon by From equations (7.2.3),
(7.4.1)
2de~ - deà - def
For the uniaxial tensile test in the 1 dire.ction, aT becomes equal to al' The deà - def
Prandt1-Reuss equations can now be wntten
or v=p, (7.5.2)
(7.4.2)
If the Prandd-Reuss relations are valid, then equation (7.5.2) should be
satisfied over the whole range of experiments. The results of Lode's tests are
with de defined as previously. However, it can easily be. s~own (see probl~m shown schematically in Figure 7.5.1. Although the relation appears to be
p t' (742) are inconsistent with the defimtlOn (7.4.1). In splte
5) that equa lOns ., . d to ood advantage approximately satisfied, there is a definite deviation which cannot be ac-
of this inconsistency, equations.(7 .~.2) .ar~ sometll~e:h::ethe ;iddle stress has counted for by experimental scatter. This deviation was confirmed by Taylor
[91. Since in using the Tresca cntenon lt lS assume h' plastic and Quinney (reference [6] of Chapter 6), whose results on tension-torsion
ieldin it is reasonable to assume also that t ere lS no
~:;~:c:h~~ Xirectio~. A consistent set of relations can therefore be obtained
tests are shown roughly in Figure 7.5.2. Although some of these deviations
can be attributed to lack of isotropy, it appears that the Prandt1-Reuss
byassuming relations are not quite correct. Prager [lO] has shown that the data can be
v'3 made to fit quite well by including la in the yield function. However, the
del = Tdep relations are too cumbersome for generaI use.
From a practical viewpoint the Prandt1-Reuss relations appear to be
de~ = O
sufficiently accurate, just as the von Mises yield criterion is sufficiendy
accurate, and the small deviations of the experimental data are not large
enough to make additional complexity worthwhile. These relations will
therefore henceforth be used most frequently, the Tresca criterion and its
with
 Sec. 7-6] Generai Derivation or Plastic Stress-Strain Relations 111
Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7
110
maximum shear and maximum slide velo city are co-directional," as Saint-
Venant expressed it (see reference [11]). It was also shown that these re1ations
imply the von Mises yield function.~!hi~~ection the generaI equations for
d~!t:rmining the plastic stress-strain re1ations for any yield criterio n will be
deriv~dbased 011 fLunified approach due to Drucker [12, 13].
We start with a more precise definition of work hardening which is due to
v O L _____~(L------I Drucker, and it will subsequent1y be shown that together with two additional
assumptions it is sufficient to obtain the most generaI form of the stress-
strain re1ations.
Suppose we have a given state of stress and then some external agency
applies an additional set of stresses and then slowly removes them. Work
hardening implies that for aH such added sets of stresses the material will
remain in equilibrium, and
-1 o 1. Positive work is done by the external agency during the application of
JL
the set of stresses.
FiGURE 7.5.1 Results of Lode's tests.
, . 2. The net work performed by it over the cyc1e of application and removal
kl is zero or positive.
o
I~------------~~ It should be emphasized that the work referred to is not the total work
done by aH the forces acting; it is only the work done by the added set of
forces on the displacements which result. In other words, work hardening
means that useful net energy over and above the elastic energy cannot be
extracted from the material and the system of forces acting on it.
v This definition can be put into mathematicallanguage as follows: Suppose
that to a state of stress ali and strain eli some external agency applies small
surface forces so that the stress at each point is changed by an amount dali
and the strain by an amount deli' Part of delf is elastic and part may be plastic;
i.e., deli = defi + del;. Now suppose these added forces are removed, thus
releasing the elastic strain increments, defi' It then foHows from implication 1
that for work hardening
FiGURE 7.5.2 Resu1ts of Taylor and Quinney's tests.

associated fiow rule being used occasionally. It.is ~o be note~ that :h~:::=~ and, from implication 2,
coincidence of the principal stress axes and pnnclpal plastlc stram.l
axes are bome out very well by the experiments of Taylor and Qumney.
dali( defi + del;) > O}
7-6 GENER.AL DERIV.A TION OF PL.ASTIC
or
dal} del; ::::: ° (7.6.1)

STRESS-STR.AIN REL.ATIONS Equations (7.6.1) represent the mathematical definition of work hardening.
The second of equations (7.6.1) is sometimes referred to as the uniqueness
In Section 7.5 the Saint-Venant-Lévy-Mises and the prand~l-R~~S~ ;,e:~: condition.
tions were described as originating basically from an assumptlOn a
 Sec. 7-6] General Derivation or Plastic Stress-Strain Relations 113
Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7
112
Since the increment da"l produces plastic flow , from (7 "6 3) we h ave
To obtain the generaI stress-strain re1ations, we use the above definition
plus two basic assumptions. These are:
8j (da"l
8j da "I -- -8
8a 'd + "a"l) > O (7.6.4)
1. A loading function exists. At each stage of the plastic deformation there "I a"l
exists a functionj(au) so that further piastic deformation takes pIace onIy for
j( ajJ) > K. Bothj and K may depend on the existing state of stress and on the But the increment da~1 produces no plastic flow. Therefore,
strain history.
2. The relation between infinitesimals of stress and plastic strain is linear;
(7.6.5)
i.e.,
(7.6.2)
AIso, da%1 has been taken proportional to the gradient of j; therefore,
Although equation (7.6.2) seems very reasonable, it shouId be noted that
there appears to be no theoretical justification for it. It is pureIy an assump-
(7.6.6)
tion. Although the Cljlcl may be functions of stress, strain, and history of
loading, (7.6.2) implies that they are independent of the da/cl'
From assumption 1 it follows that for piastic deformation to take pIace where a is a scaler > O and from (7.6.4), (7.6.5), and (7.6.6) it follows that

8j da"l = 8j da" = .8f a 8j O

(7.6.3) 8a"l 8a"I "I 8a"l 8a"l >
or
Hence
and from the linearity assumption 2 it follows that the superposition principie
may be applied to the stress and strain increments. Thus if da;i and da7i are (7.6.7)
two increments producing piastic strain increments, dei; and deii', then an
increment dali = daii + da7i will produce an increment,· dei; + deii'. E~ation (?6.7) proves that the proposed decomposition is possible
Now assume that for a given state of stress a"l' an increment of stress da"l by ;~~~nncnegd(7;6.2) adnd (7.6.7) [realizing that da"l in (7.6.2) can be r~placed
producing plastic flow is imposed. This increment da"l can be decomposed "I a"l pro uces no plasi' fl ]
into two parts da~1 and da%1 such that da~1 produces no plastic flow and da~1 defJ must be proportional to a, or IC ow we see that every component of
is proportional to the gradient of j(alj)' Geometrically this means that the .;)

vector da"l is decomposed into a component tangent to j and a component (7.6.8)

perpendicuiar to j, as shown in Figure 7.6.1.
or, combining with (7.6.7) gives

(7.6.9)

w~re gli depends in generaI on stress, strain, and history of loading

ow the second of conditions (7.6.1) can be written .

(7.6.10)
FIGURE 7.6.1 Decomposition of stress increment vector.
3

114
Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7
T Sec. 7-6] Generai Derivation of Plastic Stress-Strain Relations

where \d'A = G dJ,\ and we recognize the Prandtl-Reuss equations. For the
115

But da;i produces no plastic flow, so that the increment dali = Cda;! -: da;i
Tresca :Yield condition, assuming it is known which is the maximum principal
for any value of C, positive or negative, will produ~e the sa~e plashc mcre-
stress al and minimum principal stress a3, we have
ment defJ. We can therefore write the strain-hardemng condltlOn as

f = -!-(al - a3)
(Cda;i + da7i)defJ :2: O (7.6.11)
of = O of
.1 I d p must vanish; otherwise C cou1d be chosen (a 1arge negative
oa2 oa3
, BU t
ua/i eli '
number) so as to violate (7.6.11). Therefore, Then

del = !d'A
de~ = O
deà = -!d'A

But which are the same as equations (7.4.3). We note that the form of the flow
rule or plastic stress-strain relations associated with the Tresca criterion is
Hence entire1y different than that for the von Mises; thus each yield condition has
an associated flow rule, as was pointed out in Section 7.4. This is sometimes
Comparing with (7.6.5) it is seen that ignored and, for example, the Tresca criterion has been used with the
von Mises flow rule. There is, however, no theoretical justification for that
of (7.6.12) type of assumption.
gli = G c;--
vali It is worth noting one ot,her importan,t fact from the previous derivation.
'{',l' ,

,I Since dari defJ = O and " dari is tangent to the yield surface, it follows that
where G is a scalar which may depend on stress, strain, and history. Substi- 11 defJ is normal to the yield surface, for the above equation merely represents a
h,., .
tuting (7.6.12) into (7.6.9) gives dot product oftwo vectors. This can also be seen from (7.6.14), since defJ is
equa1 to the gradient of ftimes a scalar. It also follows from the above that li
(7.6.13) the Prandt1-Reuss equations imply the use of the von Mises criterion. .i
To summarize: Starting with the definition of work hardening and postu- ,
lating the existence of a loading function and linearity between increments
(7.6.14) of stress and increments of strain, we can arrive at the generaI flow rule
or
(7.6.14) for a strain-hardening material. It can also be shown that the plastic
strain increment vector must always be normal to the yield surface. The
which is the generaI stress-strain relation consistent with the originaI assump- scalar G, which depends in generaI on the stress, strain, and history, must be
tions. . . Id f t' let determined from experiment, and its derivation will be discussed short1y.
Let us take some specific examples. For the von Mlses yle unc lOn,

f = J2 = -![(al - a2)2 + (a2 - a3)2 + (a3 - al)2] Perfectly Plastic Material

of = ~{al - -!-(a2 + a3)] For this case the work done by an external agency which slowly applies
oal
and removes a set of stresses is zero over the cycIe, or
Therefore,
dali de" = O (7.6.15)
 Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7 Sec. 7-6] Generai Derivation of Plastic Stress-Strain Relations 117
116
It should be remarked that this equation is not the same as the second of
(7.6.1) with the equality sign. In (7.6.1) the equality sign is used only when
or ae = (~r,n = {6~ [(al - a2)2 + (a2 - a3)2 + (a3 - a1 )2]f,n

defJ = O.
For ideaI plasticity it is also assumed thatf(atJ) exists and is a function of and for the uniaxial tensile test a e -- al' TherelOre,
!'

stress only, and that plastic flow takes pIace without limit when f(alj) = K
and the material behaves elastically when f(al') < K. For plastic flow, n=2 c = 1/3
therefore,
8f (7.6.16) which agree~ .with the previous definition in equation (7.2.9).
df= -dal} =O
8atJ The defimtlOn of effective plastic strain, ep , is not quite as simple Th

Comparing (7.6.15) and (7.6.16) it is seen that

~::~:;~~:splgent.erallYkused. O.ne defines the effective strain in~reme::t;=
as lC wor per umt volume; i.e.,

defJ = dÀ 8f (7.6.17)
8al} (7.6.19)

where dÀ is a scalar. and since

Determination or tbe Function G. Effective Stress and Effective Strain (7.6.20)

For (7.6.14) to be of any practical use, it must be related somehow to the

experimental uniaxial stress-strain curve. What we are looking for is some For example, if f = J 2 , it can readily be shown that
function of the stresses, which might be called the effective stress, and some
function ofthe strains or strain history, which might be called effective strain, (7.6.21)
so that results obtained by different loading programs can all be correlated
by means of a single curve of effective stress versus effective strain. This curve and, if f = al - a3 with a1 > a2 > a3 as 10r
!' the Tresca criterion, then
should preferably be the uniaxial tensile curve.
The definition of effective stress can be arrived at rather simply; since it (7.6.22)
should reduce to the stress in the uniaxial tension test, it is a quantity
which will determine whether plastic flow takes pIace or not, and it must be a Equation (7.6.21) expanded becomes
positively increasing function of the stress es during plastic flow. Now the
loading function f(atJ) also, by definition, determines whether additional de p = vi [(de~)2 + (de~)2 + (def)2 + 2(de~y)2 + 2(de~z)2 + 2(de~J2]1'2
plastic flow takes pIace. It is also a positively increasing function as long as (7.6.23)
plastic flow takes pIace and, if unloading takes pIace, plastic flow is not
and, in terms of principal strain increments ,
resumed until the highest previous value ofjis exceeded. The loading function
f(alf) must therefore be some constant times the effective stress to some
power; i.e.,
de p = Vi [(def)2 + (de~)2 + (de~)2]1/2
(7.6.18) 2 .
= V3 [(de l)2 + (de~)2 + del de~]1'2
For example, if we assume again
A the incompressibility condition de 1 + de 2 + de3p -- O h as been used
where P P

find :e~ond. ~ethod for a.rriving at (7.6.21) is sort of intuitive. One seeks t~
then efìmtlOn of effectlve plastic strain increment which when integrated
 Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7 Sec. 7-7] Incrementai and Deformation Theories 119
118
. f t' f only The simplest combination of plastic strain increments or (7.6.29)
a unc lOn o ae
lS . ". ." .
which is positive increasing and has the correct d1menslOn lS

de p = C VdefJ defJ where a~ = daelde p is the slope of the uniaxial stress-plastic strain curve at
the current value of a e . As an example, for 1= J 2 , equation (7.6.29) gives
To make this definition agree for simple tension we must have

de~ = de p = C V(de~)2 + ì(de~? + ì(deD 2 = C yt de~

(7.6.30)
Therefore,
C= v't
de p = VidefJ defJ \ Equations (7.6.30) constitute the flow rule (or plastic stress-strain relations)
and, for I = J2 , I CJssociated with the von Mises yield criterion. They are the well-known
(7.6.24) Prandt1-Reuss relations we obtained previously. If we replace the plastic
strain increments in the above equations by total strain increments, the
so that the integrated effective strain is a function of effective stress only; i.e., Lévy-Mises relations are obtained which are valid only if the plastic strains
are so large that the elastic strains can be neglected.
ep = f =f
de p H(ae) da e
(7.6.25) As a final note, a generaI flow law such as (7.6.14) can also be obtained on
the basis of a hypothesis that there exists a plastic potential (similar to the
It should be noted here that the definiti~n ~7.6.21) for de p has been derived strain energy density function) which is a scalar function of stress, g(atj), from
- J nly Drucker has shown that 1t lS reasonably correct for almost which the plastic strain increments can be obtained by partial differentiation
f or I - 2 o . . d' f ot with respect to the stresses. Thus
~(J J) The second intuitive approach for definmg ep lS, o course, n
any J. 2, 3'
based on any specific loading function. .
ow in a position to determine the functlOn G. It should first be (7.6.31)
We are n
r d that for the previous formulation to agree W1t. h t he umax. ial tensile
.
rea 1ze d Id ust be the slope of that curve (in the plastic range). Substl-
curve, a e ep m where df3 is a nonnegative constant. The plastic potential g(ali) was first
tuting the basic equation
introduced by Melan [14]. By comparison with (7.6.14), it would appear that
defJ = G 881 di the plastic potential should play the same role as the yield function, and
alJ
indeed Bland [15] has proved that they must be the same function, so that g in
into (7.6.21) gives (7.6.31) can be replaced by I; (7.6.31) and (7.6.14) are then the same.
(7.6.26)

(7.6.27) 7-7 INCREMENTAL AND DEFORMATION

or THEORIES

Equations such as (7.6.30) are called incrementai stress-strain relations

and the generaI plastic stress-strain relation becomes
because they relate the increments of plastic strain to the stress. To obtain
yt(8118atj) de p the total plastic strain components, one must integrate these equations over
(7.6.28)
defJ = v(811 8amn)(8118amn) the whole history ofloading. Hencky [16] proposed total stress-stra in relations
 Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7
120
whereby the total strain components are related to the current stress. Thus,
instead of (7.6.30), one would have
(7.7.1)
The plastic strains then are functions of the current state of stress and are
independent of the history of loading. Such theories are called t~!al or
cfeformation theories in contrast to the incrementai or flow theories previously
d~~cribed. This type of assumption great1y simplifies the problem; however,
as was previously shown, the piastic strains cannot in generaI be independent
of the loading path and deformation theories cannot generalIy be correct.
There has often been a tendency therefore to ignore alI deformation theory
as of little value.
It can easiIy be shown, however, that for the case of proportional or radiaI
loading, Le., if all the stresses are increasing in ratio, the incrementaI theory
reduces to the deformation theory. For if atj = Ka?h where a?i is an arbitrary
reference state of stress (nonzero) and K is a monotonically increasing func-
tion of time, then Sti = KS?l and a e = Ka~ and (7.6.30) becomes
Sec. 7-8] Convexity of Yield Surface. Singular Points 121
ProbIems of plastic flow in thermally stressed disks and cylinders have been
handied in this way and good results obtained using deformation theory .
.On the other hand, it will subsequent1y be shown that with the present
';ldespread availability of high-speed computors, many simplifying assump-
tlOns heretofore made, inc1uding the use of deformation theories under
doubtful conditions, are often unnecessary.
7-8 CONVEXITY OF YIELD SURFACE.
SINGULAR POINTS
In Section 6.3 the statement was made that the yield surface was convex.
A proof, as given in reference [13], will now be presented. Consider some state
of stress a~ inside the loading surface, as shown in Figure 7.8.1. Let some
l,
er' jl
I

I
3de p SO
~,~
p
deiJ = -2
a oe tl
....... - *.
eri!
which can be immediateIy integrated to give

(7.7.2)

FIGURE 7.8.1 Stress path produced by external agency.

so the plastic strain is a function only of the current state of stress and is
independent of the loading path.
externai agency add stresses along some arbitrary path inside the surface
Furthermore, it has been proposed by Budiansky [17] that there are ranges
until a state of stress ai} is reached which is on the yield surface. Only eiastic
of loading paths other than proportionalioading for which the basic postu-
changes have taken pIace so far. Now suppose the external agency to add a
lates of piasticity theory are satisfied by deformation theories. Budiansky's
very smalI outward pointing stress increment dati which produces smalI
theory postulates the occurrence of corners or singuiar points on the succes-
sive yield surfaces and, although the existence of such singular points has as plastic strain increments defJ, as welI as eiastic increments. The external
yet not been established experimentalIy, one cannot rule out the possibility agency then releases the dati and the state of stress is returned to a* aiong an
I . ti
of loading paths other than proportionalloading for which total plasticity e astlc path. The work done by the external agency over the cyc1e is
theories may give satisfactory answers.
From a practical viewpoint, there are a great many engineering problems (7.8.1)
where the loading path is not far from proportionalloading, provided one is
careful when unloading occurs to separate the problem into separate parts, the If the piastic strain coordinates are superimposed on the stress coordinates
loading parts, and the unloading parts. as in Figure 7.8.2, oW may be interpreted as the scalar product of the vecto;
 Sec. 7-9] Plastic Strain-Total Strain Plasticity Relations 123
Plastic Stress-Strain Relations (Ch. 7
122
convex. On the other hand, if the surface is not convex, there exist some
poln:ts ali and ajj such that the vector alJ - ajj forms an obtuse angle with
the vector dali> as shown in Figure 7.8.4. This completes the convexity proof.

FIGURE 7.8.2 Stress and plastic strain increment vectors.

* and the vector defJ plus the scalar product of dalJ and defJ· Now,
ali - ali .. . ' (7 6 l)
from the strain-hardening defimtlOn equatlOn ., ,
dali defJ ;:::: O
IdaljlldefJl cos () ;:::: O (7.8.2)
or FIGURE 7.8.4 Surface not convex, obtuse angles possible.

or
Equation (7.6.14) iinplies that the yield surface has a unique gradient. It
That is the vectors dali and delj ma ke an acute angle with each other. In a
p
may happen, however, that the yieid surface has vertices or corners where the
similar'fashion, since the magnitude of ali - ajj can always be made larger gradient is not defined. For exampIe, the Tresca hexagon has no unique
than the magnitude of dali' it folIows that normai at the corners, where two of the stress es are equa!. Such points are
called singular points or singular yield conditions. Such points can be treated
(ali - ajj)defJ ;:::: O
by introducing an auxiliary parameter as described in reference [18].
or laii - ajjlldefJl CoS '" ;:::: O

Hence
7-9 PLASTIC STRAIN-TOTAL STRAIN
(7.8.3) PLASTICITY RE LA TIONS

Thus t h e vect or ali - ali* makes an acute angle with the. vector defJ l for all
choices of ajj. Therefore, alI points .ajj must lie on one SI de of ~ P ane pe~-
endicular to defJ, and, since defJ is normal to the yield sur~ace, thlS pIane :V111
~e tangent to the yield surface. This must be true for alI pomts alj ~n the Yl~ld
surface so that no vector alj - alj* can pass outside the surface mtersectmg b simpie method for separating the totai strains into their eiastic and piastic
the surface twice, as shown in Figure 7.8.3. The surface must therefore ~
The PrandtI-Reuss equations relate the piastic strain increments to the
stresses. We shall now derive a similar set of equations involving onIy strains.
These equations enabie one to compute the piastic strain increments from
the totai strains without recourse to the stresses. In effe et , they provide a
components. The advantage of this formulation will become evident Iater
when certain iterative methods for solving piasticity probIems are discussed.
Assume some loading path to a given state of stress and totai piastic strains
efJ· Let the Ioad be increased by a small amount, producing additionai piastic
strains LlefJ. The totai strains can now be written

(7.9.1)

where efj is the elastic component of the totai strain, efJ is the accumulated
piastic strain up to (but not including) the current increment of Ioad, and
FIGURE 7.8, 3 Convex surface, only acute angles possible.
 Plastic Stress-Strain Relations {Ch. 7 Sec. 7-9] Plastic Strain-Total Strain Plasticity Relations 125
124 p •
.' lastic strain due to the increment of load. eij 1S or, in expanded form,
~efJ 1S the mcrement of: P' t be computed. Define modified total strains
presumed to be known, ei} 1S o
as follows: A P
ue x
~ep (2 ex'
= 3- - ey, - e z')
eet
(7.9.2)
A P
uey = ~ep
3- (2 ey' - e z, - ,)
ex
eet
Then
(7.9.3) ~ep (2 ez' , -
A P
ue z = 3- - ex ey')
eet

Subtracting the mean strain from the diagonal components of both sides of (7.9.10)
equation (7.9.3) results in
(7.9.4)

.' d ' is the modified strain

here ee is the elastic stram dev1ator tensor an eij .
W. ti F H ke's law and the Prandtl-Reuss relatlOns,
devlator tensor. rom 00

eeli -
-
1 S =
2G li
~
2G~À
~elPi

with eet given by (7.9.7) or alternatively by

Hence

, - (1 + 2G
elJ -
~)~ePI' ~À 1
(7.9.5)

(7.9.11)
(7.9.6)
and the primed quantities are the modified total strains as given by equation
(7.9.2).
We noW define an equivalent modified total strain by Equations (7.9.10) are equivalent to the Prandt1-Reuss equations, The
stresses do not appear in these equations and the increments of plastic strain
can be computed from the total strains. Note that since they have been
derived by use of the Prandt1-Reuss equations, they implicit1y make use
so that, from (7.9.6), ofthe von Mises yield function. It should also be emphasized that the equiva-
lent total strain defined by (7.9.7) is a purely mathematically defined quantity
without any direct physical meaning, even in the uniaxial case. However, it
can be related to the uniaxial stress-strain curve as follows: From equation
(7.2.12),
and, from (7.9.5),
(7.9 (7.9.12)
 Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7 Sec. 7-10] Complete Stress-Strain Relations. Summary 127
126

Substituting this value for L\.:\ into equation (7.9.8) gives where higher-order terms in L\Bp have been neglected. Substituting into
(7.9.14) and solving for L\Bp gives

(7.9.16)
or
For linear strain hardening, equations (7.9.15) and (7.9.16) are obviouslyj
2(1 + IL) (7.9.13) exact. Equation (7.9.16) shows how Bet is related to L\Bp through the geometryl
= L\B p + 3E ae
ofthe uniaxial stress-strain curve. We shall use this relationship subsequent1y
together with equations (7.9.10) and (7.9.11) to solve specific problems. For
Referring to the uniaxial stress-strain curve as shown in Figure 7.9.1, let
want of a better name we will refer to equations (7.9.10) as the plastic strain-
total strain equations.
If one desires to use the total or deformation theory of plasticity, it can be
shown [19] that it is only necessary to remove the primes and increment
symbols from equations (7.9.9) through (7.9.11); Le.,

where

(7.9.17)
FIGURE 7.9.1 Relation between Beh a e, and D.Bp •

L\a e be the increment in stress to which corresponds a plastic stra.in increment

7-10 COMPLETE STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS.
A d let e be the stress at the end of the incremento Then Bet lS the sum of
llBpan a . 1 . l' d b SUMMARY
the plastic stra in increment plus the total elasti~ stram mu hp le y
2/3(1 + IL)' Solving equation (7.9.13) for L\Bp results m In the previous sections the relations between the increments of plastic
strain and the stress es at any instant were discussed in some detail. The
(7.9.14) fundamental problem in applying plasticity theory is to determine the total
plastic strain as a function of the history of loading or history of stress.
e n now readi1y be eliminated from equations (7.9.13) or (7.9.14). as Suppose a body is loaded along some specified load path to some finalload
a ca .. 1 d b a le. condition. To calculate the plastic strains at this finalload condition it is
~ Il Let the stress precedmg the mcrement of oa e e,l-l,.' '
lO OWS. . b t glVes
A eo Then expanding a
a e == ae,! -1 + UU e in a Taylor senes a ou a e ,i-1
theoretically necessary, in generaI, to integrate the infinitesimal plastic strain
approximately increments over the actualloading path. Although this can be done in rela-
tively simple cases, it is usually more expeditious to assume the lo ad applied
a = a ._ + (dadB e)
e e,I
1
p i-l
L\B p + ... (7.9.15)
in small finite increments and calculate the finite increments of plastic strain
~"""""------~f~,~----------------------------
128
Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7
lI Sec. 7-10] Complete Stress-Strain Relations. Summary 129

for each of the load increments. An these increments of plastic strain are then Tresca yield criteria, the following relations previously derived will be used
added to give the total plastic strain. The integration is thus replaced by a For the von Mises criterio n : .
summation.
Let the totalloading path be divided into N increments of load. Assume
that the plastic strains have been computed for the first i - l increments of ae = v'3:l; = J2 Toct

lo ad and we now wish to compute them for the ith increment of load. The
total strains at the end of the ith increment can be written with thermal = V!SljS!/
strains included, as

(7.10.1) (7.10.3)

llep = VtllefJ llefJ

where 0 = al! = a x + a y + a z. The first two terms on the right side of
equation (7.10.1) represent the elastic part of the total strain, the third term = V:t[(lle~)2 + (lle~)2 + (lle~)2 + 2(lle~y)2 + 2(lle~z)2 + 2(lle:x)2]1/2
is the thermal strain, the fourth term is the plastic strain accumulated in the
first i - 1 increments of load, and the fifth term is the plastic strain due to the
= ~3 [(lle~)2 + (lle~)2 + (lle~y)2 + (lle~z)2 + (lle:x)2 + lle~ lle~]1/2
ith increment of load. In expanded form these equations are
v2
= 3 [(Il exp - llef)2 + (lle~ - lleD2 + (Ile: - lleD2

+ 6(lle~y)2 + 6(lle~z)2 + 6(lle:x)2]1/2 (7.10.4)

or
(7.10.2)
l-l

TXY + L: lle~y,1c + lle~y,!

1 + f.L
eXY = -e 1c=1
l-l

Tyz + L: lle~z,1c + lle~z,!

1 + f.L (7.10.5)
eyZ = -e 1c=1
l-l

ezx =
1
-e + f.L Tzx L: lle~z,1c + lle:x,!
+ 1c=1

In the above equations the sums are known and the problem is to calculate
the plastic strain increments for the current or ith increment of load, and the
corresponding stresses. To do this it is necessary to use one or another of the
plastic stress-strain relations discussed in previous sections. A yield criterion
must be chosen and the associated flow rule as given by equation (7.6.14). .1tnd Ile; is .reiated to a e through the uniaxiai tensile stress-strain curve as
In particuIar, since we shall concern ourselves only with the von Mises and shown In Flgures 7.3.2 or 7.9.1.
2

P1astic Stress-Strain Re1ations [Ch. 7 Sec. 7-10] Complete Stress-Strain Re1ations. Summary 131
130

A1ternatively we define where ue.t-l is the va1ue of the equiva1ent stress at the end of the (i - l)st
increment of lo ad and (due/dep)t_l is the slope of the uniaxiai tensile curve
l-l repiotted as true stress versus true plastic strain. Equation (7.10.9) is exact
eli = eli - L LlefJ.k =
k=l
eli - 0l1em for)inellJ:_strain hardening. The above reiations'are shown graphical1y in
Figure 7.9.1.
l-l

eli = eli - L LlefJ.k

k=l
If the deformation or totai theory of plasticity is used, aH the above
relations are valid if the Ll's are removed from all the previous equations
em = j-eli = j(e x + ey + ez) and the primes are removed from equations (7.10.6) through (7.10.7).
Equation (7.10.8) becomes
: eet = -viieljeli

= ~2 [(e~ _ e~)2 + (e~ - e~)2 + (e~ - e~)2 (7.10.10)

+ 6(e~y)2 + 6(e~z)2 + 6(e~x)2]lf2 (7.10.6)

and by the use of (7.10.10), the uniaxial stress-strain curve can be repiotted
Then as a curve of ep versus eet as shown in Figure 7.10.1. This curve can then be
used instead of the originaI stress-strain curve.

24 ~1O-3
or ....
~ 20
c /
'o'-
+-
VI 16
+- /
C
Q)
(3 12 /
> /
'3
cr
Q)
(7.10.7) (3
8
+- .L
~
4

V
O 4 8 12 16 20 24x10- 3
Equivolent plostic stroin, ep

FIGURE 7.10.1 Equivalent total strain-equivalent plastic strain curve.

For the Tresca criterion,assume al > a2 > as. Then

and Ae e
Ll. p, eh
and u e are related to each other by

(7.10.8)
(7.10.11)

or, alternatively,
Furthermore, for smaH increments

(7.10.9)
and the relation between aT and Llep is taken from the uniaxiai tensile curve.
2
References
Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7 133
132
lO. Show that the Prandtl-Reuss relations imply that the principal axes of
he stress-strain relations discussed in this chapter are just one of fo~r stress and of plastic strain illcrement coincide.
T of relations that must generally be satisfied in solving an elastopl~s~lC 11. Derive equations (7.2.12) and (7.2.13) using tensor notation only.
~er~blem.The other three sets of relations are the same as for any elastIclty 12. Determine the equivalent stress aT for the Tresca criterion by means of
equation (7.6.18). Assume al > a2 > a3. Aiso determine the effective plastic
problem. These are
strain increment by the two methods described by equation (7.6.20) and
1 The equations of equilibrium of stresses. . what follows.
2:The strain-displacement or compatibility relatlOns.
13. Prove that

3. The boundary conditions.

To obtain a complete solution we must find a set of stresses and s~rai~s
where SIj is the stress deviator tensor.
which satisfy these four sets of relations. In the next. several chapters lt wlll
14. Show that equations (7.9.7) and (7.9.11) are equivalent.
be shown how these relations are adapted to speclfic problems an~ h~;
solutions to these problems can be obtained. In all that foll?ws, as. m e
. . ,lS assume d that the material is homogeneous, lsotroplc, and References
precedmg, lt
strain hardens isotropically.
1. B. Saint-Venant, Mémoire sur l'établissement des équations differentielles
des mouvements intérieurs opérés dans les corps solides ductiles au dela des
limites où l'élasticité pourrait les ramener à leur premier état, Compt. Rend.,
Problems 70, 1870, pp. 473-480.
2. M. Lévy, Mémoire sur les équations géneralés des mouvements intérieurs
1. Show that the equivalent stress a e defi ne d by equation (7.2.9) can also be des corps solides ductile au dela limites où l'élasticité pourrait les ramener
written à leur premier état, Compt. Rend., 70, 1870, pp. 1323-1325.
a e = VJS/jSjj = VJ(Si + S~ + S5 3. R. von Mises, Mechanik del' festen Koerper in Plastisch deformablem
Zustand, Goettinger Nachr. Math. Phys., Kl., 1913, pp. 582-592.
2. Show that the equivalent plastic strain increment de p defined by equation 4. L. Prandtl, Spannungsverteilung in plastischen Koerpern, Proceedings 01 the
(7.2.10) can also be written 1st International Congress on Applied Mechanics, Dellt, Technische Boek-
handel en Druckerij, J. Waltman, Jr., 1925, pp. 43-54.
de p = V j.delJ delJ = V j.[(del? + (de~)2 + (de~)2] 5. E. Reuss, Beruecksichtigung der elastischen Formaenderungen in der
f (7 3 5) is valid for the Prandtl-Reuss relations. Plastizitaetstheorie, Z. Angew. Math. Mech., lO, 1930, pp. 266-274.
3. Show t h at equa lOn ., f (7 3 2)
Show that equation (7.3.3) follows directly from equ~ lon .. , . 'th the 6. R. Hill, The Mathematical Theory 01 Plasticity, Oxford Univo Press, London,
4. . rel af lOns (7 .,
4 2) are mconslstent Wl 1950, p. 25.
5. Show that the stress-stram
7. D. R. Bland, The Two Measures of Work-Hardening, 9th International
defi~ition (7.~.1).
(7621) and (7622) making use of equations (7.6.20). Congress 01 Applied Mechanics, Univo de Bruxelles, 1957, pp. 45-50.
6. Denve equatlOns .. . . . l f strain increment 8. H. Ford, Advanced Mechanics 01 Materials, Wiley, New York, 1963, p. 416.
7. Show that the following expressions for the effectIve p as lC
are equivalent: 9. A. M. Wahl, Effect of Transient Period in Evaluating Rotating Disk Tests
Under Creep Conditions, J. Basic Eng., 85, 1963, pp. 66-70.
de p = vi [(de~)2 + (de~)2 + (de~)2 + 2(de~y)2 + 2(de~z)2 + 2(de~x)2]1/2 lO. W. Prager, Strain Hardening Under Combined Stress, J. Appl. Phys., 16,
1945, pp. 837-840.
= ~3 [(de~)2 + (den 2 + de~ de~ + (de~y)2 + (de~z)2 + (de~J2]1/2 11. I. Todhunter and K. Pearson, A History 01 the Theory 01 Elasticity and
Strength 01 Materia/s, VoI. II, Part 1, Cambridge Univo Press, 1893, p. 166.
= V2 [(de~ _ de~)2 + (de~ - den 2 + (de~ - deD 2 12. D. C. Drucker, Some Implications of Work Hardening and IdeaI Plasticity,
Quart. Appl. Math., 7, 1950, pp. 411-418.
3 + 6(de~y)2 + 6(de~z)2 + 6(de~J2]1/2 13. D. C. Drucker, A More Fundamental Approach to Plastic Stress-Strain
Relations, 1st U.S. Congress 01 Applied Mechanics, ASME, New York,
From the fact that the plastic strain increment :ector. is ~or~~l ~s:h~r:~~ 1952, pp. 487-491.
8. surf ace, prove that the Prandtl-Reuss equatlOns lmp y 14. E. Melan, Zur Plastizitaet des raeumlichen Kontinuums, Ingr.-Arch., 9,
von Mises yield criterion. 1938, pp. 116-126.
9. Derive equation (7.6.30) from equation (7.6.28).
134 Plastic Stress-Strain Relations [Ch. 7

15. D. R. Bland, The Assoeiated Flow Rule of Plasticity, J. Mech. Phys. Solids,

16.
6, 1957, pp. ZI-~~r Theorie Plastiseher Deformationen und der hierdureh
H. Z. Hene y,
im Material hervorgerufenen Naehspannungen,.
Z Angew Math Mech.,
. .
CHAPTER 8
4, 1924, pp. 323-334. t of Deformation Theories of Plasticity,
17. B. Budiansky, A Reassessmen
J A I Mech 26 1959, pp. 259-264. . .
. pp Koiter "Str~ss-Strain Relations, Uniqueness, and VanatlOnal Theo-
18. ~~~'for Ela~tie-Plastie Materials with a Singular YieId Surfaee, Quart.

Appl. Mdat1h., 11, ~~\P~:~~~5~~aetieal Solution of Plastie Deformation ELASTOPLASTIC

19. A. Men esonan . . , h R R281959
Problems in Elastie-Plastie Range, NASA Tec. ept. - , .
PROBLEMS OF
GeneraI References SPHERES AND
k D C Stress-Strain Relations in the Plastie Range, a Survey of Theory CYLINDERS
Druea:~' Ex~eri~ent, Office ofNaval Research, Contract N7 onr-358, NR-041-o32,
Hi1l,D~~. ~~;OMathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford Univo Press, London,
8-1 GENERAL RELATIONS
1950·W ., an d p .B. Mellor , Plasticity for Mechanical Engineers, Van Nostrand,
Johnson,
Prineeton N.J., 1962. l t"t Offiee Spheres and cylinders are widely used as pressure vessels, in the chemical
N hd' P M' Stress-Strain Relations in Plastieity and Thermop as ICI y, industry, for example, as well as many other places. The loads involve high
ag of\~";vaI'Researeh, Contraet Nonr-222 (69), Tech. Rept. No.9, 1960. pressures and sometimes high temperatures and high temperature gradients.
The elastic stress and strain distributions are relatively simple to obtain,
particularly since the loading is usually reasonably symmetric. The solutions
in the elastoplastic range, however, become complicated, and so simplifying
assumptions of various types are made. These usually involve assuming the
material to be incompressible in both the elastic and plastic ranges, and
assuming it to be perfectly plastic in the plastic range. With these assumptions
closed-form solutions can be obtained. We shall first present some of these
classical solutions. Subsequently it will be shown how these problems can be
solved without the usual simplifying assumptions.
For later use we record here the equilibrium, compatibility, strain-
displacement, and stress-strain relations in spherical coordinates and polar
coordinates assuming spherical and axial symmetry, respectively.

SphericaI Coordinates

The stresses are designated by a r and ao = a</> and the strains by 8 and
r
80 = 8</>. The equilibrium equations reduce to

(8.1.1)

135
 Sec. 8-1] GeneraI Relations 137
Elastoplastic Problems of Spheres and Cylinders [Ch. 8
136
where sgn stands for "the sign of." We note that if the plastic strains vary
where Fr is the body force per unit volume. The strains are related to the monotonically with the applied load, equation (8.1.9) can be integrated to
displacements by give
du
Br = dr Be = r = Bq,
U
(8.1.2) (8.1.10)
Note also that the Tresca yie1d criterio n in this case coincides with the
von Mises criterion.
where u is the radiaI displacement. Combining both of equations (8.1.2) gives
the compatibility equation
dee Be - Br _ O (8.1.3) PoIar Coordinafes
-
dr + -r- -
We assume axial symmetry and either pIane strain or pIane stress. The
Because of symmetry the shear stresses and shear strains are zero as well as equilibrium equations then become
the tangential displacements.
The stress-strain relations are (8.1.11)

where Fr is the body force per unit volume, The strain-dispIacement reIations
(8.1.4) and corresponding compatibility equation are

Be = -1 [(1 -
E
",)ae - ",a r] + T + ee
<X
p

(8.1.12)

wh ere epr and eeP are the total plastic strains. From the incompressibility
condition it follows that
(8.1.5) which are the same as equations (8.1.2) and (8.1.3). The stress-strain reIations
are given by
For the von Mises yield criterio n, the equivalent stress becomes

(8.1.6)

so that the yield criterion is (8.1.13)

(8.1.7)

and the equivalent plastic strain increment is

For the case of pIane stress, a z = O, and for the case of pIane strain Bz = O
(8.1.8) or ez = constant for generalized pIane strain. In both cases the shear stresses
and strains are zero.
The von Mises and Tresca criteria do not coincide in this case as they do
The Prandt1-Reuss relations thereupon reduce to
for the case of spherical symmetry. The yield criteria and corresponding
plasticity relations wilI be described subsequent1y as they are used. SeveraI
(8.1.9) examples wiIl now be discussed beginning with the case of a thick hollow
sphere.
138 Elastoplastic Problems of Spheres and Cylinders [Ch. 8
Sec. 8-2] Hollow Sphere with Internai Pressure and Thermal Loading 139
The strains can be computed from (8.1.4) and the displacement from
8-2 THICK HOLLOW SPHERE WITH INTERNAL (8.1.2).
PRESSURE AND THERMAL LOADING
We note that in the case of pressure loads only, the stress distribution is
Consider a sphere with inner radius a and outer radius b, subjected to an independent of Poisson's ratio [see equations (8.2.5) and (8.2.4)]. The as-
internaI pressure p and a radiaI temperature distribution T(r). It is obvious sumption that is often made that the material is incompressible in the elastic
that complete symmetry about the center will exist so that the ra~ial and any range (fL = t), as weII as the plastic range, therefore leads to no error in the
two tangenti al directions will be principal direct~ons. E.quatlOns .(8.1:1) elastic stress distribution. In the case oftemperature loads, however, assuming
through (8.1.10) apply. We start by finding the elastlc solutlOn. Sub~tltutmg fL = t instead of 0.3, for example, results in approximately a 30 per cent
the stress-strain relations (8.1.4) (with the plastic strains set to zero) mto the error in the elastic thermal stresses. The strains are not independent of
compatibility equation (8.1.3) and making use of the equilibrium equation Poisson's ratio even for the case of pressure loading. In what follows, the
(8.1.1), the following solution for the stresses can readi1y be obtained: effect of Poisson's ratio is always taken into account.
The conditions for the onset of yielding in the sphere can now be investi-
- "31 sr aT r2 dr + -32 ( 1 -
3
a =--2E a
3"
)
Cl C 2
+ -r3 gated. In terms of the dimensionless stresses defined in (8.2.4), the yield
r l-fLr a r criterion (8.1.7) is written
(8.2.1)

From equations (8.2.5) the yield condition becomes

where Cl and C2 are integration constants. Note that E and a have been
assumed constant in obtaining the above solution. The constants Cl and C2
can be obtained using the boundary conditions
arCa) = -p As a specific example, assume a temperature distribution resulting from an
(8.2.2)
arCb) = O outward flow of heat due to an inner surface temperature of T o and outer
resulting in surface temperature of zero. This steady-state temperature distribution will
C2 = _pa 3 be given by
3E
Cl = - - b3
1 Sb aT r 2
dr + -23 b3pa_ a3
3 (8.2.3)
T = Toa 1) (~-
l-fL -a3 a b- a r
For convenience the following dimensionless quantities are now introduced: or T = {3~(~
- 1
-1) p (8.2.7)
b r p==. p
{3==.- p=='-
a a ao where EaTo
(8.2.4) To = '-(1;----fL""""');-a-o
EaT Sr =- a r Se =
- ae
T=='(1 - -
fL)ao ao ao Evaluating the integrals and substituting into the yield condition (8.2.6)
results in
where ao is the yield stress in uniaxial tension. Equation (8.2.1) can now be
written in the dimensionless form as

(8.2.5) Consider first the case of pressure only. Then the yield condition becomes

(8.2.9)
140 Elastoplastic Problems or Spheres and Cylinders [Ch. 8 Sec. 8-3) Hollow Sphere. Spread or Plastic Zone. Pressure Loading Only 141

Yielding wiIl first occur at the smallest value of p, i.e., p = 1, and the di~en­ so that assuming E = 31 X 10 6 , ao = 31,000 psi, IL = 0.3, and IX = 7.5 X
sionless pressure necessary to first cause yielding, the criticai pressure, wlll be lO - 6 per °F, the temperature difference between the inner and outer surfaces
for yielding to start is 130°F. For both pressure and temperature acting,
2(P - l) equation (8.2.8) gives, for {3 = 2,
P or1t = 3{33 (8.2.10)

112P + (7p2 - 12)7'01 = 7p3

A plot of the ratio of this criticaI pressure as a function of .the ratio of the
outer to the inner radii {3 is shown in Figure 8.2.1. For a .glVen value o~ {3,
For a value of 7'0 = 0.4, which corresponds to only a 37°F temperature
yielding wiIl start at the inner surface at a pressu:e as glVe.n by equatlOn
difference T o, yielding will first occur at p = 1 for a value of
(8.2.10) or Figure 8.2.1. As P is increased, the plashc zone w1l1 spread from

P or1t = 0.75
Perit
0.8
2/3 ~_ _ _ _
0.6 --========== compared to 0.583 for pressure alone. The effect of the temperature gradient
in this case has been to retard the onset of yielding.
0.4 A complete discussion of the effects of temperature and pressure on
yielding is given in reference [1].
So far, only the start of yieiding has been considered. The spread of the
1.5 2.0 piastic zone through the sphere is investigated next. The pressure problem
f3
and the temperature problem will be discussed separately in Sections 8.3, 8.4,
FIGURE 8.2.1 Variation of criticaI pressure with {3, pressure loading only. and 8.5 under the assumption that the material is perfectly plastico The generaI
solution for strain-hardening materials un del' combined pressure and thermal
the inner surface toward the outer surface. Note that as {3 ~pproaches i.nfi~ity gradient is presented in Section 8.6.
Porlt approaches 3' so that if the pressure is equal to t the yleld stress, yleldmg
2.

is sure to take pIace, no matter what the dimensions of the sph~re.

Considering the case of temperature only, equation (8.2.8) glVes
8-3 HOLLOW SPHERE. SPREAD or PLASTIC
(8.2.11) ZONE. PRESSURE LOADING ONLY

When only internaI pressure is acting, yieiding will begin at the inner
For this case yielding will also first star t at the inner surface. Howeve~, if surface at a pressure given by equation (8.2.10); Le.,
both pressure and temperature are present, yielding may start at any radms,
depending on the relative values of P, 7'0, and {3.
- 2. Then for the case of internaI pressure alone,
A s an example l et {3 - (8.3.1)
equation (8.2.10) gives
7 As the pressure increases, the plastic zone will spread outward toward
Por1t = 12 = 0.583 the outer surface. Let the radius to the end ofthe plastic zone be re' Since the
material is assumed perfectly plastic, at every point in the plastic region the
For temperature alone, equation (8.2.11) gives equivalent stress is equal to the yield stress and since for this case ao > a"

7'O,orlt = 1.4 (8.3.2)

 Elastoplastic Problems or Spheres and Cylinders [Ch. 8 Sec. 8-3] Hol1ow Sphere. Spread or Plastic Zone. Pressure Loading Only 143
142
in the plastic region. Substituting into the equilibrium equation (8.1.1) gives p
1.6
dSr 2
dp =P
or Sr = 2ln p +C
Butat
p= 1 Sr = -p
Therefore,
0.4
C =-P

and Sr = 2ln p - P }
p < Pc (8.3.3) o~----~~----~----
1.0
__2.2
~__
So = (2 In P + 1) - P - Pc

Equations (8.3.3) give the stresses in the plastic region. Note that no stress- FIGURE 8.3.1 Plastic zone radius versus applied pressure, f3 = 2.
strain re1ation was needed to obtain these stresses. The problem is therefore
From (8.3.3) and (8.3.6) the stresses will be
called statically determinate.
At the plastic zone boundary, i.e., at P = Pc, the radiaI stress is Sr = 2 In P - 2 In f3

Sr.e = 2ln Pc - P (8.3.4)

= 21n.e
f3
(8.3.7)
We can now consider the elastic part of the sphere as a new sphere with r
inner radius re and outer radius b, with an internaI pressure given by equation = 2ln b
(8.3.4). Since at this new inner radius the sphere is just at the yield point,
equation (8.3.1) must apply with f3 replaced by f3e = b/re, and -Pcrit replaced So = 1 + 21n!.
b
by Sr.e. Hence
2 f3e 3 - 1 As a check, note that So - Sr = 1 for all r.
2lnpe - P = -3~
So far th~ st.ress~s i~ the plastic part of the sphere have been computed.

or p = 2In Pc + i (1 - ~~) The str~ss d~stnbutlOn m the elastic part ofthe sphere can be readily obtained
by ~onsldenng the elastic portion of the sphere to be a new sphere with inner
radlU~ ~e, outer radius b, and with the pressure at the inner radius equal to
= 2ln ~ + ~ (1 _ r~) 3
(8.3.5) the cntical
. ( pressure for a sphere with these dimensions. The elastic solu t'lOn,
a 3 b
equatlOns 8.~.5) (without temperature terms), can be used for this fictitious
Equation (8.3.5) gives the pressure required to cause the plastic zone to reach sphere replacmg a by re and f3 by f3e' Thus
a radius re or, alternative1y, for a given internaI pressure p, equation (8.3.5)
could be solved for the plastic zone radius re' A pIo t of the pressure versus
the plastic zone radius is given in Figure 8.3.1 for f3 = 2.
When re becomes equal to b, the sphere is completely plastico This will or
occur at a pressure [from (8.3.5)] (8.3.8)
p = 2ln f3 (8.3.6)
 4

Elastoplastic Problems or Spheres and Cylinders [Ch.8 Sec.8-4] Hollow Sphere. Residual Stresses. Pressure Loading 145
144

Equations (8.3.3) and (8.3.8) give the complete stress distribution in the acting at the inner radius re. From (8.3.11) the displacement at r> r is
sphere for given ratio of applied internaI pressure to yield strength, with the obtained by replacing f3 by f3e and P by rlre, resulting in - c
plastic zone boundary Pc given by equation (8.3.5).
To calculate the strains and displacements in the sphere, the stress-strain U= -3 1+ p, f33]
2[(1 - 2p,)p + __ - (8.3.13)
3f3e 2 p2
relations and strain-displacement relations are used. For convenience we
define, as was done for stresses in equations (8.2.4), "dimensionless" strains When the plastic zone reaches the outer radius b , P = f3 ' c
f3 -- l ,an d
and displacements as folIows:
(8.3.14)

(8.3.9) The error in assuming p, = 1- is about 30 per cent , for p, = O..

To compute the strains before yielding begins, equations (8.2.5) (with tem-
perature terms deleted) are substituted into the stress-strain relations (8.1.4),
resulting in
(8.3.10)
3
In alI the previous computations it was assumed that the dimensions of the
s~here do not change as the pressure increases. This is, of course, not true,
smce t.he sphere grows with increase in internaI pressure, the inner radius
becommg a + ua and the outer radius b + Ub' A rigorous analysis would
the:efore have to take into account the change of dimensions of the shell.
ThlS can become particularly important for large strains.

8-4 HOLLOW SPHERE. RESIDUAL STRESSES.

and from the strain-displacement relation (8.1.2), PRESSURE LOADING

If ~he pressure is removed from the sphere discussed in Section 8.3 after
(8.3.11) plastIc flow has occurred over part of the sphere, residual stresses will result.
To find the residual stresses it is necessary to superpose on the stress system
due to the internaI pressure p and temperature T a completely elastic stress
When yielding starts P is equal P crit given by equation (8.2.10), and the system due to a pressure -p and temperature -T. This will be correct as
displacement at the inner surface, P = 1, is long as yieiding in reverse does not occur; i.e., the residual stresses are not
lar~e ~nough to pro.duce yielding. To see this, consider two stress systems
satIsfymg the folIowmg two sets of equations:
, , ,
cf,a r 2 ar - ae
-d
r + r =0
Note that if incompressibility had been assumed in the elastic region, p, = ·h
the first term on the right of equation (8.3.12) disappears. For a Poisson's
ratio of 0.3 and f3 of 2, the error in the displacement of the inner surface at
the beginning of yieid would be about 7 per cento At the outer surface the
error is 38 per cento (8.4.1 )
As yielding progresses to some radius re, we can consider as before a
sphere with inner radius re, outer radius b, and criticaI pressure

a;(a) = -p
2 f3~ - 1
P cr1t ="3-r a;(b) = O
p

146

and
Elastoplastic Problems of Spheres and Cylinders [Ch. 8
r Sec. 8-4] Hollow Sphere. Residual Stresses. Pressure Loading

Adding to the stresses given by (8.3.3) and by (8.3.8) gives for the residual
stresses
147

dar
1/
+2 "
a r - ao = O
Il

dr r

Br" a r - 2,."ao") - ~T
1 ("
=E ~
(8.4.2)
or s; = ~3 [3 In p - ~
P orit
(1 - ~)] p }
(8.4.5)

a;(a) = p
2 3
s~ = "3 b+ 3 In P - P
p
crit
1
(1 + 2 3)]
p
p :$ Pc

a;(b) = O
. d tem corresponds to the system of stresses in the sphere with
~:; ~:=:re s;sand internaI pressure P. The double-prime~
system corre- (8.4.6)
p .
onds to the stress es In a s phere with temperature - T and .InternaI pressuref
s~P. If the two systems are added together, th~re is obt.aIne~ a system o
stresses a r - a r + a "n etc ., satisfying the followmg equatlOns.
- I The superscript r is used in the above equations to indicate residual stresses.
When P = l (at the inner surface), S; = O, as expected, and
dar + 2 ar - ao =O
dr r
S~ = 1-~ (8.4.7)
P or1t
dBo Br - 80
dr = - r -
an~ since p ~ P or1t, a residual compressive stress resuIts. Upon reapplication
Br = ~ (a r - 2,."ao) + Br (8.4.3) of a pressure Iess than or equai to the originaI maximum, onIy eiastic strains
will occur. The shell has thus been strengthened by the initial pressurization.
1 [(1 If the material work hardens, an even greater strengthening can be achieved.
BO =E - ,.,,)ao - ,."ar] + BOP In the above derivation it has been assumed that no piastic flow takes pIace
during the unioading; i.e., there is no yieiding in compression due to the
area) =O
residual stresses. If such yieiding occurs, then not only is our assumption
arCb) = O that the unioading is eiastic vioiated, but the situation may be dangerous
Thus the resultant system corresponds to the unloaded sphere with.per~anent with regard to the safety of the sphere. The maximum value of applied
plastic strains due to the fint system. If plastic flow occurs durmg t e u~­ pressure P such that if the sphere is unioaded there will be no reversed plastic
l d' the elastic double-primed system can no longer be added to t e fiow is called the shakedown pressure, Ps' This pressure can be found as
O~~g:::i system, but it is necessary to solve another plastic flow problem for follows. For reversed yieIding the yieId criterion can be written
the new plastic strains.
For the case of pressure loading only, the elastic stresses due to a pressure S; - S~ = l (8.4.8)
equal to -p are, from (8.2.5),
The maximum residuai stress will occur at P = l, where S; = O. From
(8.4.7) it therefore follows that
So" -- (8.4.4)
P s = 2Por1t (8.4.9)
148 Elastoplastic Problems of Spheres and Cylinders [Ch. 8 Sec. 8-5] Hollow Sphere. Thermal Loading Only 149
Ps Yielding will first occur at r = a, (p = 1), and the criticaI temperature
1.6 difference at which yielding will first start is given by
4/31:-----:=:::::::=====
1.2
0.8 T = 2(f33 - l) _ 2(f32 + f3 + l)
O.orit f3(2f32 - f3 - l) - f3(2f3 + l) (8.5.2)

A plot of TO.crit versus f3 is shown in Figure 8.5.1.

1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
If TO exceeds TO.crit, the plastic zone will spread outward to some radius r .
f3
With~n th~s zo~e, i.e:, for r ::::: re, the yield criterion IS8 - Srl = l will appl;.
FIGURE 8.4.1 Variation or shakedown pressure with thickness ratio for hollow
But SInce In thlS reglOn the tangential stress will be a large compressive stress
sphere with internaI pressure.
and the radiaI stress will be a small compressive stress, the yield criterion
can be written
As long as the applied pressure is less than twice the criticaI pressure, the
S8 - Sr = -1 (8.5.3)
residual stresses will be elastico Making use of equation (8.3.1) the shakedown
pressure can be written direct1y as a function of the thickness ratio f3: The equilibrium equation now becomes

2
(8.4.10) p
or Sr = -21n p + C
Figure 8.4.1 shows the shakedown pressure as a function of f3.
and since Sr(1) = 0, C = O. Hence

Sr = -21np }
p::::: Pc (8.5.4)
8-5 HOLLOW SPHERE. THERMAL LOADING ONLY S8 = -1-21n p

For the case of a temperature gradient as given by equation (8.2.7), Note that the stresses in the plastic region are independent ofthe temperature.
yielding will occur as given by equation (8.2.11). Then The radius of the plastic zone, re, of course, depends on the temperature.

(8.5.1)

2.0

1.6
+-
'ti. 1.2
~ ~----------------~----
0,8

0.4

2345678
f3
FIGURE 8.5.1 TO.orlt as a function of f3. FIGURE 8.5.2 Two plastic zones due to temperature gradient.
 150 Elastoplastic Problems of Spheres and Cylinders [Ch. 8
Sec. 8-6] Hollow Sphere of Strain-Hardening Material
151
As the temperature is further increased, a second plastic zone unconnect~d
to the first may start at a new radius, depending on the value of f3 as shown m (8.6.3)
Figure 8.5.2. This is due to the fact that since there are no exter~al forces
acting on the sphere, the resultant force acting on any cr.oss sectlOn .must
vanish. Thus the tangenti al stress vari es from compreSSlOn at the mner (8.6.4)
surface to tension at the outer surface. The inner surface will begin flowing where
plastically in compression, but if the temperature gradient is high eno~gh, the
outer surface will start flowing plastically in tension, thus produclllg two (8.6.5)
plastic zones, one in tension and one in compression. A detailed discussion
is given in reference [l]. The boundary conditions used in deriving the above equations were

8-6 1I0LLOW SPIIERE or STRAIN-HARDENING
MATERIAL
We now consider the generaI case of a hollow sphere of strain-hardening
material with both pressure and thermal loads. Equations (8.1.1) through
(8.1.9) apply and in addition the assumption is made that the plastic str~i~s
are varying monotonically, so that equation (8.1.10) may be used. If thIS IS
not the case, equation (8.1.9) is used instead, and the calculation performed
in steps or increments as described subsequently for more generaI types of
problems. In addition, we use the dimensionless quantities defined ~y
equations (8.2.4) and (8.3.9). The equilibrium compatibility and stress-stralll
relations are now written
Sr(1) = -p
Sr(f3) = O (8.6.6)
For the elastic case equations (8.6.2) reduce to (8.2.5). For the case of a
perfectly plastic material, the solution was given in the previous sections. We
shall consider here only the case of a strain-hardening materiaI.
To obtain a complete solution to the problem, it is necessary to determine
the plastic strain distribution €f through the sphere. This wiII, of course,
depend on the stress-strain curve of the materiaI. The plastic strain distri-
bution can be obtained in the following manner. The equivalent stress is
related to the equivalent plastic strain through the stress-strain curve of the
materiaI. Thus
or, for this case,

dEe O
-
dp
+Ee--p-Er -_ where f is a known function representing the stress-strain curve. It therefore
(8.6.1) follows that
Er = Sr - 2/hSe + (1 - /h)r + €f
Ee = (l - /h)Se - /hSr + (l - /h)r + €~ ISI2 l
(8.6.7)
Substituting the last two of equations (8.6.1) into the second, combining ISI :s-; l
with the first, and integrating results in the following equations:
Also, from equation (8.6.3),

(8.6.8)
(8.6.2)
A complete solution can now be obtained by an iterative or successive
approximation method. One chooses a distribution of €f (say zero). S is com-
puted using equation (8.6.3), merely to determine hs sign at the different
152 Elastoplastic Problems oi Spheres and Cylinders [Ch.8 Sec. 8-6] Hollow Sphere oi Strain-Hardening Material 153

radiaI positions. A first approximation to S is then obtained from equation

(8.6.7), and a first approximation to the plastic strain distribution can be
calculated from (8.6.8). A better value of S can then be computed from
(8.6.7) and the next approximation for E~ obtained from (8.6.8). If the process
converges, we will thus obtain the proper values of E~ and S such that (8.6.7)
and (8.6.8) are satisfied simultaneously. The individuaI stresses Sr and So can
then readily be computed. Thus a complete solution is obtained in both the
elastic and plastic regions. There is no need to treat the two regions separately
as was done for the perfect1y plastic material in previous sections. It should
be noted, however, that equations (8.6.7) and (8.6.8) apply only for ISI > 1;
for ISI:::; 1, E~ is set equal to zero. The integrands Efj p appearing in the
previous equations are therefore generally zero over part of the integration
range. A similar technique is described in reference [9]. 1.8 2.0
As a specific example, consider a sphere made of a material whose stress- P

strain curve is given by the following equation: FIGURE 8.6.2 Variation of plastic stral'n wl'th t'a d'lUS fol' various pressures:
13 = 2, To = O.
ae = 30,000 + l36,000e~/2 ae ;::: 30,000
was used to perform the integrations. The cases shown are for illustrative
Equation (8.6.7) now becomes ~urposes only. Any combi~ation ~f geometry, loading, and material proper-
tI es can be used .and a rapI? solutlOn obtained. The time required to obtain
S = I~I (1 + 0.1434Iefll/2) a complete. solutlOn for a glven loading condition, using a high-speed digitaI
computer, lS on the order of a few seconds.
This .type of successive approximation method will be discussed at greater
Results of calculations performed by the iterative procedure described are lengt~ m. Chapter 9, wher~ several nu~erical examples will be given. Right
shown in Figures 8.6.1 and 8.6.2 for 13 = 2 and temperature distribution now 1t wl11 be shown that lf the matenal strain hardens linearly the solution
given by equation (8.2.7). In performing the calculations, the thickness of can for some cases be obtained in closed formo
the sphere was divided into 40 equally spaced intervals and Simpson's rule For linear strain hardening it follows from Figure 8.6.3 that
1- m
Ep = ---,y;- CI SI - 1) (8.6.9)
2.0

where t~e strain-h.ardening parameter m is defined as the ratio of the slope of

the stram-hardenmg part of the stress-stra in curve to the elastic modulus
Pc Then, from (8.1.10), .
1.5

(8.6.10)
1.0 L~:::::1~:::"--L--~----7~-~:----;':
0.5 C?nsider the case of pressure loading only. ao will always be positive and
P
> O. Therefore, S/I SI = +1 and
ar wl11 always be negative, so that ao - a r
FIGURE 8.6.1 Variation of plastic zone radius with applied pressure for different
temperature gradients: p 1- m
13 = 2, T = ToCf3/p - 1)/(13 - 1), ae = 30,000 + 136,000 ep l/2 • Er = f i l (l - S) (8.6.11)
154 Elastoplastic Problems of Spheres and Cylinders [Ch. 8 Sec. 8-6] Hollow Sphere of Strain-Hardening Material 155
"e which is the same result previously obtained for the perfectly plastic material.
Obviously the onset ofyield depends onIy on the yie1d stress. As P is increased,
the plastic zone spreads to Pc and -Sr.c can be considered to be the criticaI
pressure acting on a sphere with inner radius Pc and outer radius (3c = (3/ Pc'
Thus

(8.6.18)

Hence

2 3_ (33. [( 1 - m) 1 - m I - m (3~ - 1]
'3 Pc
- (33 - 1 1 + 2(1 - p,)m P - (1 _ p,)m In Pc - 3(1 - p,)m ~
(8.6.19)
or
~ e
FIGURE 8.6.3 Stress-strain curve for linear strain hardening. P = 4(1 - p,)m[((33 - 1)/(33] p~ + 2(1 - m) In Pc + t(1 - m)((3~ - 1)/(3~
2m(1 - p,) + (l - m)
If the plastic zone extends to p = Pc, then, from (8.6.11), making use of the (8.6.20)
first of equations (8.6.1), it follows that
which relates the pressure P to the plastic zone radius Pc' Note that if m = O,
l - m 1- m
- - I n P - - 2 - (Sr + P) P ~ Pc
P"P m m 2 (3~ - 1
...!..dp = (8.6.12) P = 2lnpc + '3~
Il P {1 - ml
m n Pc
_ 1 - m (S
2m r.c
+ P) P;::: Pc
which is the value previously obtained for the perfectly plastic material
where S r.c is the value of Sr at P = Pc' Substituting into (8.6.3) and (8.6.4) [equation (8.3.5)].
resu1ts in As an example, for (3 = 2, m = 0.1, and p, = 0.3, the pressure required

Cl = (3/~ 1 [p - (/ ~ p,~m (In Pc - !Sr.c - !P)] (8.6.13)

l - m
S = 2(1 _ p,)m (1 - S)
and, since S = 1 when P = Pc, we have
for yielding of the complete sphere, Pc = (3, is 1.83, compared to l.39 for a
perfectly plastic material. It thus takes a 32 per cent higher pressure for the
strain-hardening sphere to yield completely as compared to the perfectly
3 plastic sphere.
+ 2p3 Cl (8.6.14)
To obtain the stresses we substitute into equations (8.6.2). Thus

(8.6.15)
Sr = -P (l - :3) Cl + l ~ p, [l ~ m In Pc - l ;."mm (Sr.c + P)] }
+
p;::: Pc
Substituting into (8.6.13) gives So = -P + (l + _1 ) Cl + _1_ [1 - m lnp _ 1 - m(S + P)]
2p3 p, 1 -m 2m c r.c

1- m ] (8.6.21)
t p~ = (33 (33_ [
1 P - 2(1 _ p,)m (2 In Pc - Sr.c - P) (8.6.16)
Sr = -P + 2(1 - m) In P + 4(1 - p,)m(p~/p3)(p3 - 1) }
At the onset of yield when Pc = 1, we have Sr.c = -P and therefore l-m + 2(1 - p,)m 1 - m + 2(1 - p,)m
P < Pc
So = -P + 2(1 - m) In P + .2. (l - p,)m(p~/p3)(2p3 + 1) -
(8.6.17) 1 - m + 2(1 - p,)m 3 1 - m + 2(1 - p,)m
(8.6.22)
 156 Elastoplastic Problems ol Spheres and Cylinders [Ch. 8
Sec.8-7] Plastic Flow in Thick-Walled Tubes
157
Note that if m = O these reduce to the previously obtained values for the
Equations (8.1.11), (8.1.12), and (8.1.13) are now written
perfect1y plastic material. Thus to obtain the complete stress distribution,
Pc (or P) is obtained from (8.6.20), Sr.c from (8.6.18), and then the stresses
from (8.6.21) and (8.6.22). dSr So - Sr
dp = - p -
(8.7.2)

8-7 PLASTIC FLOW IN THICK-WALLED TUBES

A considerable amount of work has been done on the problem of plastic Er = Sr - {L(So + Sz) + (1 - {L) T + Er

flow in a thick-walled tube under internaI pressure with and without tempera- EO = So - {L(Sr + Sz) + (1 - {L) T + E: (8.7.3)
ture gradients. Solutions have been obtained, for example, in references [1] Ez = Sz - {L(Sr + So) + (1 - {L) T + E:
through [8]. These solutions differ in the yield criteria used and in the plastic
stress-strain relations. Some solutions use the von Mises yield criterio n and If the Tresca criterion and its associated flow rule are used, then, assuming
the associated flow rule [3]. Others use the Tresca criterio n and its flow rule So > Sz > S"
[7]. Reference [4] uses the Hencky total strain relations. In other papers
complete incompressibility is assumed in both the elastic and piastic regions.
Of the references cited, only [8] takes into account strain hardening of the (8.7.4)
material. and S = So - Sr = 1 at yielding
There are three cases that can be treated: (1) pIane strain, e z = O; (2)
generalized pIane strain, e z = constant =I O; and (3) tube with open ends, For boundary conditions it is assumed that
P = O. We shall present a generaI solution for a strain-hardening material,
inc1uding radiaI temperature gradients, which can take into account any of
S,(a) = -P
these cases.
S,(b) = O
(8.7.5)
The Tresca criterion and its associated flow rule will be used, since in this
case it offers some simplifications. For this purpose it will be assumed that
ao > az > ar' It is shown by Koiter [7] that this is true for a large range of and the conditions at the end of the tube are determined by case l, 2, or 3
conditions. above. For pIane strain Ez = O. For generalized pIane strain, Ez is a constant
We introduce the same dimensionless quantities as in the problem of the which can be determined from the end loads on the tube. Thus let the axial
sphere; Le., force acting on the tube be F. Define

EaT EaTo r b Then it readily follows from the condition

= (1 - {L)ao y = (1 + {L)ao p=- (3=-
T a a

F* = J: Szp dp

S = So - Sr
and the third of equations (8.7.3) that
where a and bare the internaI and externai radii, ao is the yield stress, and eo
is the yield strain.
(8.7.6)
 Sec.8-7] Plastic Flow in Thick·Walled Tubes 159
158 Elastoplastic Problems or Spheres and Cylinders [Ch.8
Let the stress-strain curve be given by a reIation of the form
If the axiaI force is due to internaI pressure onIy, then F* = P/2 and
(8.7.14)
€
z
= _1_
f32-1
[(1 - 2p,)P + 2(1 - f1-) JP1 Tp dp] (8.7.7)
To reIate €r to €p, the two methods indicated in Section 7.6 may be used. If
For a tube with open ends, P = O and the definition

€z
2(1 - f1-)
= [32 _ 1 1 Tp dp
JIi (8.7.8) is used, then from (8.7.4),

In any case €z is a knownconstant. From the Iast of equations (8.7.3), (8.7.15)

(8.7.9)
On the other hand, if the definition (7.6.20) is used, then it follows that
Substituting this reIation into the first two of equations (8.7.3), making use (8.7.16)
ofthe equilibrium and compatibility equations (8.7.2), and integrating resu1ts
after some aIgebraic manipuIations in the following soIution: The two definitions differ by the familiar constant 2/V3 and either one can
be used. Since the definition based on the pIastic work increment appears
P - -1
8 = -- JP Tp dp + -1--
1 JP€r dp + (1 -
2 -
1) Cl
2" to be more consistent with the Tresca criterion, we shall use it, and assume
r p2 p2 1 - f1- 1 P P
(8.7.10) for the case under consideration that (8.7.14) may be written

86 = P - T+! JP1 Tp dp + -- 1
1 f1- 2 (€r + fP1 €r dp) + (1 + p\)Cl 181 ;: : 1
p2 p2 P
(8.7.17)
181 : .:; 1
2P 2JP Tp dp + -1--
8 =- - T+2
1 p 2
€r + 2 Cl (8.7.11)
p2 P 1 - f1- 2 P To use the successive approximation method, it is preferabIe, as was done the
for case of the sphere, to rewrite equations (8.7.11) and (8.7.17) as follows:
Cl = f32 1_ 1 (J13 f32
P + 1 Tp dp - 1 _ f1-2
fii P
1
€r dp ) (8.7.12)
(8.7.18)
YieIding will begin at p = 1 when 8 = 1, so that the criticaI pressure will be
8 = f(l€fI) sgn 8
€r = O
181;:::: l} (8.7.19)
181::.:; 1
and, from (8.7.12),
An initiaI distribution of €r (such as zero) is assumed. The signs of 8 through.
out the cross section of the tube are then determined from (8.7.11), and the
actuaI vaIues of 8 are calcuIated from (8.7.19). A better approximation can
Therefore,
now be obtained for the €r using equation (8.7.18). The process is repeated
unti! convergence is obtained.
f32-1( 1
Pcr1t = ~ +T- f32 2_ 1 J131 Tp d)
P (8.7.13)
For the cases ofthe sphere and the tube heretofore discussed, the successive
approximation method has been found to converge fairly rapidIy using the
For P -< Pcrlt, we have the eIastic soIution, which agrees with the classicaI
techniques described. However, this may not aIways be true. A generaI dis.
eIastic soIution. For P ;:::: P cr1t a pIastic zone wiII spread out to some radius
cussion of the convergence of the successive approximation method is given
Pc' The soIution for generaI strain hardening can be obtained by an iterative in Chapter 9.
or successive approximation method, as indicated for the sphere.
160 Elastoplastic Problems of Spheres and Cylinders [Ch.8 Sec.8-7] Plastic Flow in Thick-Walled Tubes 161
For the case of linear strain hardening, a solution can be obtained in Equation (8.7.26) gives the relationship between the piastic zone radius Pc
closed form for the above problem. As for the sphere problem, equation and the applied pressure P, for a given temperature distribution T. For a
(8.6.11) is used: perfect1y piastic materiai this reduces to
1- m
ef = - -(1
m
- S) P = In Pc - Sr.c
(8.7.20)
l-m f3~ - 1 [
f
P€p
2
2f3~ f3~ _ l
(Pc ]
...!.. dp = - - (In Pc - Sr.c - P) = In Pc + 1 + T(Pc) - JPc TP dp (8.7.27)
1 P m
Therefore,
To obtain the stresses we now substitute into equations (8.7.10). Thus,
l [f/J1 Tp dp + P f32(1 - m) ] since
Cl = f32 _ 1 - m(l _ /h2) (In Pc - Sr.c - P) (8.7.21)
l - m
f
p €p
...!.. dp = - - (In P - Sr - P) p:O; Pc
Also, from (8.7.11), 1 P m

S = - T
2fP Tp dp + "22 (P +
+"2
P 1 P
Cl) +
m
l-m
(1 _ 2) (l - S)
/h
P S; Pc f p€f
p
1 dp
l - m
= ---,:n- (In Pc - Sr.c - P) p;::: Pc

(8.7.22)
then, from (8.7.10),
When P = Pc, S = 1. Therefore, from (8.7.22),

Cl = -p~ [ 1 + T(Pc) - "2

2 fPC Tp dp ] _ P (8.7.23)
2 Pc 1

Substituting into the expression for Cl' (8.7.21), we get

1[1 + T(Pc) - :~ fa Tp dp]

P :o; Pc

= f3/~ l [p + ;2 J: Tp dp - m(~ =- :2) (In Pc - Sr.c - P)] (8.7.24)

As a check, at the onset ofyield, Pc = l, Sr.c = -P, and (8.7.24) reduces to

and (8.7.28)
(8.7.13) for the criticaI pressure.
At P = Pc we can consider a new tube with inner radius Pc and outer
Sr
lfP Tp dp + (1 l-m2) (In Pc
= -"2
'
- Sr.c - P)
radius f3c with Sr.c equal to -Perito Thus P1 -/h m

Sr.c = -
f3~ - l [
2f3~ l + T(Pc) - f3~ _ 1
2 J/Jc Tp dp]
Pc (8.7.25)
p;::: Pc
Solving (8.7.24) for P gives

P = f32 - 1 (1 - /h2)m [p~ (l + T(Pc) - 22 fPC Tp dp) - f3+--r f/J Tp dp]

f32 1 - /h2m 2 Pc 1 - 1

l-m
+ l 2
-/hm
(In Pc - Sr.c) (8.7.26) To obtain the complete stress distribution, we compute P or Pc from (8.7.26),
Cl from (8.7.23), Sr.c from (8.7.25), and the stress es from (8.7.28).
 Elastoplastic Problems of Spheres and Cylinders [Ch. 8 GeneraI References 163
162
15. Plot the plastic zone as a function of the applied pressure for a sphere with
linear strain hardening. Assume f3 = 2, m = 0.1, and jJ, = 0.3. Compare
ProbIerns the resu1ts with those for a perfectly plastic materia!.
1. Show that for the sphere with radiaI symmetry, the von Mises yield criterion 16. Repeat Problem 15 for a tube.
17. Perform complete numerical analysis of the problem of the sphere,
becomes
a :o; r:O; b, T(a) = T o, and T(b) = O. Assume E = 30 X 10 6 , jJ, = 0.3,
et = 10- 5 , a e = 30,000 + 136,000 (e p + 10- 4 ) for a e > 30,000, and E, et,
and jJ, are independent of temperature.
and the Prandtl-Reuss equations reduce to

de; = - 2de~ = de p sgn (a r - ae) References

2. Explain why one would expect the Tresca and von Mises yield criteri a to
coincide for the case of a sphere with radiaI symmetry.
3. Derive equations (8.2.1) and (8.2.3).
4. Obtain the equations for all the strains and displacements in the ·sphere
before yielding begins for pressure loading only, for thermalloading only,
and for the case when both thermal and pressure loading exist.
5. Show that the steady-state temperature distribution in a sphere of inner
radius a and outer radius b is equal to
T = Toa (~-
b - a r
1)
if the inner and outer surfaces are kept at temperatures of T o and zero,
res pectively. . 7.
6. Using equations (8.3.3) and (8.3.8), show that the stresses are contmuous
across the elastoplastic boundary.
7. Compute the displacements and strains in a sphere with pressure loading
only, for r :o; re. Assume a perfectly plastic material and that the. dimensi~ns
remai n fixed. Determine the errar in the displacements of the mner radlUs
for the fully plastic case if jJ, is assumed to equal 0.5 instead of 0.3.
8. Show that for a hollow sphere with a temperature distribution given by
equation (8.2.7), the tangenti al stress is compressive and the radiaI stress
is near zero in the regio n adjacent to the inner circumference, so that the
yield criterion in this regio n can be written
1. W. Johnson and P. B. Mellor, Plasticity for Mechanical Engineers, Van
Nostrand, Princeton, N.J., 1962.
2. R. Hill, The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford Univo Press, London,
1950.
3. P. G. Hodge and G. N. White, A Quantitative Comparison of Flow and
Deformation Theories of Plasticity, J. Appl. Mech., 17, 1950, pp. 180-184.
4. D. N. de G. Allen and D. G. Sopwith, The Stresses and Strains in a Partially
Plastic Thick Tube Under InternaI Pressure and End-Load, Proc. Roy. Soc.
(London), A205, 1951, pp. 69-83.
5. M. C. Steele, Partially Plastic Thick-Walled Cylinder Theory, J. Appl. Mech.,
6.
19, 1952, pp. 133-140.
R. Hill, E. H. Lee, and S. J. Tupper, The Theory of Combined Plastic and
Elastic Deformation with Particular Reference to a Thick Tube Under
InternaI Pressure, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A19l, 1947, pp. 278-303.
W. T. Koiter, On Partially Plastic Thick-Walled Tubes, Biezeno Anniversary
Volume in Applied Mechanics, N. V. De Technische Uitgeverij H. Stam,
Haarlem, 1953, pp. 232-251.
8. D. R. Bland, Elastoplastic Thick-Walled Tubes of Work-Hardening Material
Subject to InternaI and External Pressures and to Temperature Gradients,
J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 4, pp. 209-229.
9. I. S. Tuba, Elastic-Plastic Analysis for Hollow Spherical Media Under
Uniform RadiaI Loading, J. Franklin Inst., 280, 1965, pp. 343-355.
GeneraI References

Hill, R., The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford Univo Press, London,
Se - Sr = -1 1950.
Hotfman, O., and G. Sachs, Introduction to tlle Theory of Plasticity for Engineers,
9. Starting with equations (8.6.1), derive equations (8.6.2) and (8.6.4) using McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953.
boundary conditions (8.6.6). Johnson, W., and P. M. Mellor, Plasticity for Mechanical Engineers, Van Nost-
lO. Derive equation (8.6.9). rand, Princeton, N.J., 1962.
11. Derive equations (8.6.12).
12. Derive equation (8.7.6).
13. Derive equations (8.7.10) through (8.7.12).
14. Show that the definition (7.6.20) for the equivalent plastic strain increment
Ieads to equation (8.7.16) for the case of a tube with the Tresca criterion
and associated f10w rule, if ae > az > aro
p

Sec. 9-1] GeneraI Description of the Method 165

The solution is known to be y = eX. To find the solution by Picard's method,

CHAPTER 9 we proceed as follows. Integrate (9.1.1) to give

(9.1.2)

Assume as a first approximation for y,

il) = 1

Substitute this value for y on the right side of (9.1.2) and calculate a second
THE METHOD approximation for y:

OF SUCCESSIVE y(2) = 1 + f: il) dx = 1 +x

ELASTIC
Substitute the second approximation for y and calculate the third approxi-
SOLUTIONS mation:
x 2
i 3
) = 1+
i o
i 2) dx = 1 + x + ~
2
Continue in this way to get
9-1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD
x3
In Chapter 8 it was indicated how the sphere and tube problems can be
solved for arbitrary strain hardening by a successive-approximation method.
i 4
) = l +
io
x
i 3
) dx = 1 + x + -
X2

2!
+ -
3!
xn
i in)
This method is nothing more than the extension of Picard's method (see x X2
in + 1) = l + dx = l + x + - + ... + -
reference [l]) of successive approximations to nonlinear equations. The O 2! n!
method was apparent1y first used in plastic flow problems by Ilyushin [2]
in his treatment of a thin shell. Ilyushin refers to it as the method oJ successive As n gets larger and larger, it is seen that the infinite series for eX is approached.
elastic solutions, since each iteration involves essentially the solution of an The exact solution can thus. be approached as closely as desired by taking
elastic problem. more and more approximations.
Before the advent of modern high-speed computing machinery, this This technique can be direct1y extended to the generaI elastoplastic problem
method could be used only for relatively simple problems. However, with in the following manner. For convenience the pertinent equations given in
current widespread availability and use of digitaI computers it now becomes previous chapters will be repeated here. The equilibrium and compatibility
possible to solve simply and quickly many problems whose elastic solution equations are independent of the plasticity relations and are given by equa-
can be obtained by numerical methods. tions (3.2.2) and (4.7.2); i.e.,
Before proceeding to describe this method for the generaI elastoplastic
problem, we shall first give an illustration of the method of successive
approximations for a simple differential equation [3]. Consider the equation
(9.1.3)
dy (9.1.1)
- -y = O y(O) = 1
dx

164
--
166 The Method of Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9
Sec. 9-1] GeneraI Description of the Method 167
and
the ~ssociated fiow rule. For definiteness we shall consider the Prandt1-Reuss
relatlOns, but any other set of relations can be used equally wel1. Thus

(9.1.4)

(9.1.6)

~ (_ oSzx + OSXy + oSyz) = 02Sy

oy oy oz ox oz ox

~ (_ OSXy + OSYZ + 8szx) = 02sz

OZ 8z OX 8y OX oy
where
The stress-strain relations depend on the plasticity theory used and we can
write

(9.1.7)

Alternati:,el y, the plastic strain increments can be related to the modified

total strams as described in Section 7.9; i.e.,
(9.1.5)

SXy = 2~ TXY + S~y + tls~y A P _

uSx -
tls ( '
-3
p
Set
, ,
2sx - S - S )
y z

1 A P _ tls ( '
p , ,
SYZ = 2G TyZ +
p
SYZ +
A I-
uS yZ US y - -3s 2s y - s z - s x )
et

_ 1 p A P
Szx - 2G Tzx + Szx + USzx
(9.1.8)

where s~, s~, etc., are the total accumulated plastic strains up to,but not
including, the current increment of loading, tls~, tls~, tls~, etc., are the
plastic strain increments due to the current increment of loading. The plastic
strain increments are related to the stresses through the yield criterion and
 Sec. 9-1] Generai Description or the Method 169
168 The Method or Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9

where I
etc.
(9.1.9)
- p
6~j,n r- 6ep r- <re ~
p
6elj,n+l I----

Differential
Equatians <rij I-

Finally, the equivalent plastic strain increment Ile p is related to the equivalent
stress a e or the equivalent total strain eet through the stress-stra in curve. In
addition, of course, the boundary conditions must always be satisfied. For
complete generality, the full three-dimensionai equations have been written
out above. In practice onIy one- and two-dimensionai problems can usually
be solved, which is equally true for elasticity problems.
The method of successive approximations now proceeds as follows. The
loading path is divided into a number of increments. For the first increment
of load, a distribution is assumed for the piastic strain increments Ile~, Ile~,
etc. The totai plastic strains e~, etc., are zero. The set of equations (9.1.3),
(9.1.4), and (9.1.5) are now solved as for any elasticity problem and a first
approximation obtained for the stresses and total strains. At the same time,
using the assumed values of the plastic strain increments, an equivalent
plastic strain increment Ile p is computed by the first of equations (9.1.7).
From the stress-strain curve the corresponding value of a e can be determined.
A new approximation can now be obtained for the individuaI plastic strain
increments using the Prandt1-Reuss relations (9.1.6).
Using these new plastic strain increments, equations (9.1.3) through (9.1.5)
are solved again as a new elastic problem. A second and presumabIy better
approximation is obtained for the stresses and totai strains. At the same time,
using these last values of the plastic strain increments a new approximation
is computed for the equivalent plastic strain increment Ile p by the first of
equations (9.1.7). Using this value of Ile p , a new value is obtained for a e
from the stress-str.ain curve. New approximations are now obtained for the
plastic strain increments lleL etc., using the Prandt1-Reuss relations (9.1.6).
The process is continued unti! convergence is obtained; i.e., the differences
between two successive sets of strain increments are less than some prescribed
values. The calculation scheme is illustrated by the fiow diagram of Figure
9.1.1.
In this manner the solution is obtained for the first increment of loading.
For the next increment of load, an exact1y similar calcuiation is made except
that e~, e~, etc., are no longer zero but are equal to the known values of
FIGURE 9.1.1 Block diagram for computing plastic strain increments by
successive approximations.
and strain history can thus be obtained for any loading and unloading path.
If a deformation type of theory of plasticity is used, only one loading step
is required for the calculation.
The question of course which immediately arises is: What about conver-
gence? Will this method always converge and, if not, under what conditions
will it converge? A rigorous discussion of the convergence problem for the
complicated set of nonlinear equations representing the elastoplastic problem
is beyond the scope of this book. Our discussion will therefore be based on
experience, together with some qualitative observations.
From the previous description of the method and Figure 9.1.1, it is seen
that the equivalent plastic strain increment Ile p is computed from the individ-
uaI plastic strains by means of the first of equations (9.1.7), and the equiva-
lent stress ae is then determined from Ile p and the stress-strain curve. This is
illustrated by path OABC of Figure 9.1.2. On the other hand, it would seem
more direct to compute a e from the second of equations (9.1.7) and then to
determine Ile p from a e and the stress-strain curve as shown by the fiow
diagram of Figure 9.1.3 and path OCBA of Figure 9.1.2. However, experience
B
o e

Ile~, lle P , etc., obtained for the first increment ofloading. The complete stress FIGURE 9.1.2 Determination of a e from ~ep.
---
Sec. 9-1] Genera! Description of the Method 171
The Method of Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9
170

-1L_6_B_/J_'n---lHL_D_,E_'---JHL_"'_i/_'_HL__
FIGURE
"'e_--,HL-_ _--,H
6 BP
_

9.1.3 Block diagram for nonconvergent scheme.

bel}, n+l
has shown that this latter scheme will generally not converge, whereas the
former method will converge provided the loading increment is made sufficiently
small. The reason for this can be seen qualitatively from Figure 9.1.2. Since
the stress-strain curve is very flat in the plastic region, it follows that a small
error in D..e p will produce a smaller error in ae, but a small error in a e will
produce a much larger error in D..e p , and so the second method described will
not converge. The reason for the suggested order of the computations for
the sphere and tube of Chapter 8 [equations (8.6.8) and (8.7.18)] now becomes
apparento
It was mentioned above that the first method described will generally
converge if the increment is made small enough. The question of what
increment size is sufficient1y small for a given problem can usually be deter-
mmed only by trial and error; Le., one picks an increment size and if the
process diverges the increment size is reduced. As a rough rule of thumb it
has been found that if D..e p is less than about 0.3 per cent, convergence will
usually take pIace, whereas if it is greater than 0.3 per cent, the process may
diverge. The reason for this divergence can again be seen in a qualitative
way from the Prandt1-Reuss relations. Thus consider the equations (9.1.6),
r pointed out above, the second method diverges because of the flatness of the
stress-strain curve.
B?th these d.ifficulties can, however, be avoided by using the plastic
stram-total stram equations described in Section 7.9 and given by equations
(9.1.8) and (9.1.9). In using these equations the total strains are obtained
from the solution of equations (9.1.3) through (9:1.5) with assumed or
previ?usly calculated approximate values of D..e~, D..e~, D..e%, etc. The modified
or shl.fted total strains e~, e~, e~, etc., are then computed from the first of
equatlOns (9.1.9~ and the equivalent total strain from the last of equations
(9.1.9). The eqUlvalent plastic strain increment is then determined from e
and the stress-strain curve using the relation (7.9.16); i.e., et
(9.1.10)
wher~ ae,l-l is the v~lue o: a e at the end ofthe previous increment ofloading,
and, lf we are deabng wlth the first increment, ae,l-l is equal to the yield
stress. The .new values of the plastic stra in increments are then computed
fr0m. equatlOns (9:1.8), and the process is continued until convergence is
obtamed. A flow dlagram of the calculation scheme is shown in Figure 9.1.4.

etc.
-1 6 e F.
I/,n
H H H H H
FIGURE
D,E,
"'"
1/
è
Ù let 613
P
H{"r
9.1.4 Block diagram for rapidly convergent scheme.

In using this equation the value of D..e p is computed from the previous values
of D..e~, D..e~, etc., using the first of equations (9.1.7). The value of ae is then
obtained from the stress-'train curve, using this computed value of D..e p , as
shown by path OABC of Figure 9.1.2. The stresses appearing in this equation
are obtained from the solution of equations (9,1.3) through (9,1.5), using the
previous values of the plastic strain increments, as indicated by Figure 9.1.1.
If we compute a e by the second of equations (9.1.7) using these stresses, the
value of a e will not in generaI agree with the value of a e obtained from the
stress-strain curve, until convergence is obtained. There is thus an incon-
sistency in the Prandtl-Reuss equations (9.1.6), this inconsistency diminishing
as convergence is approached. If the increments of strain are too large, this
initial inconsistency will produce divergence.
In the second method described above and shown in Figure 9.1.3, this
type of inconsistency is avoided, since a e is computed from the calculated
stresses and D..e p is then obtained from the stress-strain curve. However, as
In t~is case,. the values of e~, e~, e~, etc., appearing in equations (9.1.8) are
conslstent wlth the value of eet appearing in these equations. AIso, examination
of ~9.1.1 O) shows that since the ~enominator of the right side is approximately
umty, a plot of D..ep versus eet wlll have a slope of approximately unity so that
a .small error in eet will produce the same order-of-magnitude error' in D..ep ,
wlthout any magnification.
As a result, it has been found from experience that this last method is
convergent for even large size increments and converges more rapidly than
the first method described when that method converges. The plastic strain-
total. strain method is therefore generally recommended for use wherever
posslble.
We ~hall. now present a series of examples of the use of the successive
approxlmatlOn method. These examples are taken from references [4] and [5]
a~d a~so unpublished resu1ts. In all the examples ofthis chapter the von Mises
cntenon and the Prandtl-Reuss equations will be used.
172 The Method of Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9 Sec. 9-2] Thin Flat Plate 173

Equation (9.2.5) expresses the usual assumption of simple beam theory-that

9-2 THIN FLAT PLATE
As a first example, consider the uniaxial case of a thin infinite plate of
width 2c with a temperature distribution T(y) across the width, as shown in
Figure 9.2.1. For a thin infinite strip, as shown, the only nonzero stress is
pIane sections remain pIane.
To determine the constants a and b, the boundary conditions are used.
If it is assumed that at the ends of the strip, an axial force P and a bending
moment M are applied, then it follows that for equilibrium

Y r Sd'r) = -p ==p*

p+i ®l l
y=c
-1 aoch

M y=-c
:t'X
{t p
r -1
S'r) d'I] = M == M*
-2-
aoc h
(9.2.6)

FIGURE 9.2.1 Thin infinite strip with temperature distribution across the width.
where h is the thickness of the plate. Combining equations (9.2.5), (9.2.3),
and (9.2.6) enables one to obtain the constants a and b: .
assumed to be ax(Y) and the stress-strain relation can be written

_ I T p (9.2.1)
8 x - E ax + ex + 8 x (9.2.7)

Introduce the dimensionless quantities

E
r =-
exT
80
Ex = 8~
P
-
80
H=-
Eo
(9.2.2)
where
where ao is the yield stress at some reference temperatures To, 80 = ao/Eo
the yield strain at the reference temperature, and Eo the modulus of elasticity
at the reference temperature. Note that the modulus and yield stress may be
functions oftemperature. Equation (9.2.1) may now be written
(9.2.8)
S (9.2.3)
Ex = H + r + Ep

where E~ = Ep for the uniaxial case under consideration, with Ep taken

positive for tension and negative for compression.
The assumed stress distribution, i.e., ax = axCy) , all other stresses being
zero, satisfies the equilibrium equations identically. AIso, alI the compatibility Substitution of (9.2.7) into (9.2.5) now gives
equations are identically satisfied, except one, i.e.,

(9.2.4)
EX = (Al - A 2'1]) [fl H(r + Ep)d'l] + p*]

which gives - (A 2 - Aa'l]) [fl H(r + Ep)'r) d'r) + M*] (9.2.9)

(9.2.5)

II I
 174 The Method of Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9
Sec. 9-2] Thin Flat Plate
175
or, far the mechanical strain, defined by E == Ex - T,
these equations are linear Fredholm equations of the second kind and the
solution can often be obtained in closed formo
E= (Al - A2'1)) (fl HT d'I) + p*) 60 X10 3

- (A2 - As'l)) (fl HT'I) d'I) + M*)

+ (Al - A 2'1)) f l HE p d'I) - (A 2 - As'l)) f l HEp'l) d'I) 1; ep

;;)-r--
-T (9.2.10)
1
If E if a constant, independent of temperature, then H = l, Al =
As = t, and
·h A 2 = O, I
Il
o 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020
Stroin e
FIGURE 9.2.2 Typical stress-strain curve.
(9.2.11)
NonIinear Strain Hardening
It is also to be noted that if the temperature distribution is symmetric (an
The solution for the case of nonlinear strain hardening can readily be
even function of y), then J~ l T'I) d'I) = O. Furthermore, ifthere are no external
obtained by successive approximations as follows:
forces and moments and the temperature distribution is symmetric, equation
1. Assume to be zero everywhere.
Ep
(9.2.11) reduces to the simple form
2. Calculate E from equations (9.2.10), (9.2.11), or (9.2.12). This gives the
elastic solution.
(9.2.12) 3. For each value of E read Ep from the stress-strain curve. A plot of Ep
versus E, which can be obtained from the stress-strain curve, would be
In equations (9.2.10) through (9.2.12) the plastic strain ratio Ep will, in convenient for this purpose. If the material properties are temperature-
generaI, be a nonlinear function of the total mechanical strain ratio E. They dependent, a different curve is used at every station.
will be related to each other through the stress-strain curve of the material, 4. Using equation (9.2.10), (9.2.11), or (9.2.12) calculate better approxi-
as shown in Figure 9.2.2. The mechanical strain e is the ab scissa, the mations to E. The integrals appearing in these equations are evaluated
equivalent stress a e is the ordinate, and the plastic part of the strain is ep ' If the numerically.
stress-strain curve of the material is temperature dependent in the range of 5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until convergence is obtained. It will be found
temperatures being considered, a different stress-strain curve, similar to that the foregoing process converges fairly rapidly, a half a dozen iterations
Figure 9.2.2, must be used far each point of the plate. This does not appreci- generally being sufficient for practical purposes.
abIy complicate the anaIysis.
To illustrate the procedure, consider the following example: Let the
Equations (9.2.10) through (9.2.12) therefore represent integraI equations temperature be given by
far the solution of the elastoplastic strains during the Ioading of a thermally
T = 600 (y2 - t)
stressed plate made of a work-hardening material with temperature-dependent
E = 28 X 106
properties. Far the generaI case of nonIinear strain hardening, these equations
are nonlinear and can be solved by the successive-approximation method
C = 1

described in Section 9.1, as will be shown. If the strain hardening is linear,

a = X 10- 6
9.5
ao = 28,000
 Sec. 9-2] Thin Flat Plate 177
and let P and M be zero. Then

7" = 5.7(TJ2 - t) (9.2.13)

"J::,\oIO"'d",-4t-C"l1.{)('.lOO_ Assume a stress-strain curve independent of temperature, as shown in
...... ~~~~odd~NM-.:t
X I I I I I Figure 9.2.2. We can then use equation (9.2.12), which becomes

N
Por-!
"
6.q-'V("f')'f-I Noot----oo
(9.2.14)
~O\ -doooooodd-:C"i
~ X I I I I
By using Figure 9.2.2 and the procedure outlined above, Table 9.2.1 was
constructed. Eleven equal1y spaced stations were used and the integraI was
"I
O\ol(")~-t-Nl()NOO_ evaluated by the trapezoidal rule. If greater accuracy is desired, a greater
-~"":,,,,:-:odd-:~M-.:t
X I I I I I numberof stations and a more accurate integration formula can be used.
However, the accuracy of Table 9.2.1 is sufficient for engineering purposes,
N "
as can be seen in Figures 9.2.3 and 9.2.4, where the results ofTable 9.2.1 as
l'l.~ 6oq-..q-M..-! C'4oot-t-
well as the results obtained by using 51 stations and Simpson's rule are
Colo.. ...... oddoooodd....:t'i
~ X I I I I

4.0 x10- 3
- - elastie
"6\OIOV-t-N~NOOO - - - first approximation
--:,...:....:,...:ddd.....:~f1"i~
3.0 - seeond and third
X I I I I I
opproximations

N
p.~
"
::'tnvvN ....... r---.\Ot---
...... d ci d, d o o o ci ci .....: N
2.0
- ::::--
i==-::: t-.....
f.-~
Col ' "
~ X I I I I 1.0 f0-
,,~

~~
"6t-\OlOMOOMV_0'\0'IO O
...... .....:.....:.....:.....:ddci.....:.....:N~ ~~
I I I I I ~ c
I~~
X
o
0\ t; -1.0
~\
~
p"C'!
"
6t'--\OlOtf) l/)\f)1O
j
4-1
~.
~O\ -ddddoooOO""':N o -2.0
~ X I I I ~ ~~
~
-3.0
\~
\~
-4.0

00000000000 -5.0
Cl O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
_NMvlO\Ot-OOC\O .E Distanee from plate eenter line
"

oddddddodd""': ~
FIGURE 9.2.3 Strain distribution in infinite strip.

176
 Sec. 9-2] Thin Flat Plate
178
The Method or Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9 179

3
where
100 x10
-elostie K(YJ, g) = O
I--- - - - first opproximotion
_ _ seeond ond third K(YJ, g) = 1
60
~ t'-+-. opproximotions
..., If lEI < 1 everywhere, no plastic flow will occur and the first term on the
I-- ~ right of (9.2.16) gives the e1astic solution. The maximum value of lEI will
20 .~
'vi ~
': O obviously occur at YJ = 1 and yielding will therefore begin at the edge,
~
~ YJ = 1, when E = -1, Le., in compression. The value of TO for yielding to
b" -20
III " ~ I-- l= begin is then
~
ti
-60
I\. TO,crlt =t
\
If TO < t, no yielding will occur. As the loading parameter TO is increased
~
-10 O beyond t, a compressive plastic zone will spread inward from the edge. The
center of the plate, YJ = O, will meanwhile be in a state of tension, the tensile
-140 10 stress increasing as TO increases. Eventually at some value of TO designated
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Distonce from plote center Une by TO,e a tensile piastic zone will begin spreading from the center toward the
compressive zone spreading from the edge.
FIGURE 9.2.4 Stress distribution in infinite strip.
Let YJl be the value of YJ at the edge of the tensile plastic zone extending
lotted Table 9.2.1 was constructed in approximate1y 1- h~ur using a desk from the center, and let YJ2 be the value of YJ at the edge of the compressive
~alcula~or. Ep at each station was computed from the equatlOn of the str~ss- zone spreading from the edge; Le., for O < YJ < YJl there is a tensile plastic
. curve Wl'th Ep, of course , being set equal to zero at those statlOns
stram zone with E ;::: 1, and for YJ2 ::::; YJ ::::; 1 there is a compressive plastic zone with
where lEI ::::; 1. E::::; -1. As long as TO ::::; TO,e, YJl = O, and equation (9.2.16) becomes

E = -TO(YJ 2 - t) + (1 - m) rl

Jn2
(E + l)dg
Linear Strain Hardening

For linear strain hardening the solution can often be obtai~ed. in ~Iosed
-TO(7]2 - t) + (1 - m)(l - 7]2) + (1 - m) rJn2l Edg
f We shall consider only the simple type of temperature. dlstnbutlOn of (9.2.17)
the prevlOus exa mple . A more generaI formulation is given m reference
orm.. r [5]. Let us now apply the method of successive approximations to equation
T hus 1et T = TO (YJ 2 - l) T
o
will be called the loading parameter. For mear
. 1
3' (9.2.17). Thus let
strain hardening it can readily be shown that (assuming constant matena
properties) E(l) =- TO(7]2 - t) + (1 - m)(1 - 7]2)
Ep = (1 - m)(E + 1) (9.2.15)
E(2) = - TO(7]2 - t) + (1 - m)(1 - YJ2) + (1 - m) rl E(l) dg
Jn2
where m, the strain-hardening parameter, is the ratio of ~he ta~~ent mo~uI~s .- TO(7]2 - t) + (1 - m)(l - YJ2) + (1 - m)
to the elastic modulus. The minus sign is used when E lS posItIve (t~nslOn ,
and the plus sign when E is negative (compression). Furthermore, sl~ce. \El x [;0 (7]~ - 7]2) + (1 - m)(l - YJ2)2]
must be greater than 1 for plastic flow to occur, Ep = O if lEI ::::; 1. Substltutmg
E(3) = -TO(7]2 - t) + (1 - m)(l - YJ2) + (1 - m)2(1 - YJ2)2
into (9.2.12) gives
+ (1 - m)3(1 - YJ2? + (1 - m) ;0 (7]~ - 7]2)
(9.2.16)
x [1 + (1 - m)(l - 7]2)]
180 The Method of Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9
Sec. 9-2] Thin Flat Plate 181
+ (1 - m)(l - 7]2) + (1 - m)2(1
e(4) = -TO(7]2 - j-) - 7]2)2
+ (1 - m)3(1 - 7]2)3 + (1 - m)4(1 - 7]2)4 7] = 7].2' E( must equal -1. Therefore, substituting 7] = 7]2, e = -1, into
equatlOn 9.2.18) a relationship is obtained between TO, 7]2, and m:
+ (1 - m) ~o (7]~ - 7]2)[1 + (1 - m)(1 - 7]2)
t(1 - m)7]~ + m(7]~ - j-) = 1. (9.2.21)
+ (1 - m)2(1 - 7]2)2] TO

or Thus. for given values of m and TO, 7]2 can be determined or, more simply,
n
e(n+1) = -TO(7]2 - j-) + (1 - m)(l - 7]2) 2 (1 -
1=0
m)l(l - 7]2)1 for g.lVen val~es of m and 7]2, TO can be calculated direct1y. For a perfect1y
plashc materIal, m' = O, and
n-l
+ (1 - m) ~O (7]~ - 7]2) I~ (1 - m)l(1 - 7]2)1 7]2 -_ ( - 3 )1/3 (9.2.22)
2To

and Once 7]2 ~s kno:vn , the complete strain distribution is obtained from (9.2.18),
lim e(n+1) = e = -TO(7]2 _ j-) + (1 _ m) 1 - 7]2 + (To/3)(7]~ - 7]2) the plas.hc strams and the stresses from (9.2.15) and (9.2.3).
n->oo 1 - (1 - m)(l - 7]2)
If TO lS greater than TO,e, a tensile plastic zone will spread from the center
(9.2.18)
to d7]1' To determine
. the values of 7]1 and 7]2 in this case,one7first sets
] -- 7]1
~n E = 1 m. (9.2.20) .and then 7] = 7]2 and e = -l in (9.2.20). This results
For TO > TO,e, a tensile plastic zone will extend from 7] = O to 7] = 7]1' m the followmg two slmultaneous equations for determining 7]1 and 7]2:
Equation (9.2.16) now becomes
1 = - TO(7]r + j-) + C
(9.2.23)
-1 = -TO(7]~ + j-) + C
where

or e = -TO(7]2 - j-) + (1 - m)(l - 7]2 - 7]1) + (1 - m) (5:1 + {: e dg) C = (l - m) 1 - 7]1 - 7]2 + j-TO(7]~ - 7]2 - 7]~
1 (1 - m)(l + 7]1 - 7]2)
+ 7]1)
(9.2.19)
If the second equation is subtracted from the first, there results
and a similar successive approximation as above leads to 2 = TO(7]~ - 7]r) (9.2.24)
The value of TO,e at which the center begins to fiow plastically can now be
e=
found. For this condition, 7]1 = O and (9.2.24) gives

The above derivations of equations (9.2.18) and (9.2.20) are actually not
7]2= ~ TO,e
(9.2.25)

necessary, since the integraI equations (9.2.19) and (9.2.17) are Fredholm
Substituting this value for 7]2 together with 7]1 = O into either of equations
equations of the second kind with degenerate kerne1s and the· solutions can
(9.2.23) results in
therefore be obtained direct1y by standard methods (see, for example,
reference [6]). However, the successive approximation method was used in
obtaining the solution to show how this method leads to the exact solution Tg,e + 6 l ~2m TO,e + 9 C~2mf TO,e - 32 C: mf = O (9.2.26)
for this more complicated case.
Equations (9.2.18) and (9.2.20) give the complete solution to the problem Only.one of the roots of (9.2.26) will be physically meaningful. For a perfect1y
plashc material, m = O, and
if 7]1, 7]2' and To,e were known. These can be determined as follows. If
TO :s; TO,e, there is one region of plastic fiow extending from 7]2 to 1. At 32
TO,e = "9 = 3.555 (9.2.27)
_.
Sec. 9-3] Thin Circular Shell 183
182 The Method of Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9

Figure 9.2.5 shows the variation of TO,e with m. The value of TO,e is rather ~3 THIN CIRCULAR SHELL
insensitive to the strain-hardening parameter m.
The next problem we shall consider is that of a thin circular shell with an

f3'L=::::
axial temperature gradient. We shall use the deformation theory of plasticity
for this problem and assume a one-step thermalload, although this is not
essential.
The equilibrium equations for the shell are given in reference [7]. These are
~ 3.4
o.
tJ>
c Nx = O
:g 3.2 L-_--'--_---'_ _- ' - _ - ' _ - - - - ' 2
Rd M
.3 o 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 (9.3.1)
Stroin-hordening porameter, m [2 dx2 x + Ne = O

FIGURE 9.2.5 Variation of TO,e with m.

hl2

If TO is greater than TO,e, two regions of plastic flow will exist. The corre-
where Nx =
Jhl2
-h12
Ux dz

sponding values of 7Jl and 7J2 are found by solving simultaneously (9.2.24) and
one of (9.2.23). Thus eliminating 7Jl from the first of (9.2.23) by means of
Ne =
Jhl2
-h12
Ue dz (9.3.2)

(9.2.24) results in the following quintic for 7J2:

Mx =
J -h12
uxzdz

7J~ + (4(1 :
3
m) + 2 1';;TO
m
) 7J~ + 3~ (m + :J 7J~ where R is the mean radius of the shell and l is the characteristic length,
equalto
m + 3/TO 4(1 - m)] 2 (m + 3/TO)2 + 32(1- m)2/Tg - O
[2(1 - m) + mT02 7J2 + 12m(1 - m) - (9.3.3)
(9.2.28)
h is the thickness, X is the dimensionless axial coordinate, the actual coordi-
A plot of 7Jl and 7J2 showing the growth of the plastic regions is shown in nate divided by l, and z is the radiaI coordinate measured from the middle
Figure 9.2.6. surface, positive inward.
The stress-strain re1ations are
1.0
U x = - E12 [ex - aT - e~ + fL(ee - aT - e~)]
-fL
0.8 (9.3.4)

0.6
"7 and U z is assumed to be zero for a thin sheII.
0.4 The strain-displacement relations are

0.2

OL-____ ~ __ ~LL_L_L~JJ ______L -_ _L_J_~~~~ (9.3.5)

1 2 4 6 8 10 20
Loading porameter TO

FIGURE 9.2.6 Growth of plastic region with 10ading parameter To·

~--------------------------------------------------------

184 The Method of Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9

Sec. 9-3] Thin Circular Shell 185
where u is the axial displacement of a point on the middle surface of the s.helI
and w is the radiaI displacement, positive inward. Substituting (9.3.5) mto where 1212 fh'2
P = -h3 (e~ + p,enz dz
(9.3.4) gives -h/2
(9.3.12)

_ _E__ [~_ d w Z
2
aT _ e~ + p, (- ~ - e~ - aT)]
4R
Q = -h J h 2
/
e~ dz
_ -h/2
O'x - 1 _ p,2 ldx Pdx 2 R
(9.3.6)
2 Equation (9.3.11) is recognizable as the equation for the deflections of a
0'0
E
= 1 _ p,2
[
-Rw - aT - eo
p
+ ( du d w
p, l dx - P dX2 Z
_ T _
a
p)]
ex beam on an elastic foundation, the right side representing the load. If P and
Q are zero, the problem is elastico If P and Q are not zero, the problem is an
From the first of (9.3.1), using (9.3.2), elastoplastic problem which can be solved by successive approximations.
We note first that the elastic solution can be obtained in closed formo The
homogeneous solution can be written
du = p, ~ + (1 + p,)aT + -h1 f"/2 (e~ + p,e~)dz (9.3.7)
l dx R -"/2 WH = Cl cos X cosh x + C2 cos x sinh x
+ Cs sin x cosh x + C4 sin x sinh x (9.3.13)
and from (9.3.2), making use of (9.3.7),
A particular solution can be obtained by the use of the Green's function.
N. = - Eh ( - W
+ -h1 f"/2 e~ dz + aT) Without going into the details, it can be verified by differentiation that a
O R -"/2 particular solution is given by
(9.3.8)

f
3
_ _ E'h ~d2 _ ___E f"'2 (e~ + p,enzdz
Mx - 12(1 _ p,2) P dX2 1 - p,2 -h/2 Wp = -4R aT(g)G(x - I;)dl; - LX P (I;) d2G<:X2- 1;) dI;
Aiso eliminating duJdx from (9.3.5) by means of (9.3.7) gives - LX Q(I;)G(x - I;)dl; (9.3.14)

1 f"/2 1 d2 w where G(x - 1;), the Green's function, is

e = p, ~ + (1 + p,)aT + -h -h/2 (e~ + p,endz - J2 dX2 Z (9.3.9)
x R
G(x - 1;) = t[sin(x - 1;) cosh(x - 1;) - cos(x - 1;) sinh(x - 1;)] (9.3.15)
and, since O'z = 0, the third stress-strain relation gives
The complete solution is then

w= WH + Wp (9.3.16)

where the constants Cl to C4 are determined from the boundary conditions.

and using (9.3.4) resu1ts in
The method of solution will be illustrated for a single step load using the
plastic strain-total strain relations; i.e.,
p, 1 + p, aT 1 - 2p, ( p P)
Bz = - - - ( Bx
l-p,
+ BO) + -1--
-p,
- - _1 Bx
p,
+ BO (9.3.10)

Finally from the second of (9.3.1), making use of (9.3.8), there resu1ts
(9.3.17)
(9.3.11)
...---- -

Sec. 9-3] Thin Circular Shell 187

186 The Method or Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9
The functions P and Q become
To facilitate the solution, the stress-strain curve can be cross-plotted to
obtain a strain-strain curve as shown in Figure 9.3.1.
p = 21.8 J1 (B~ + O.3Bf)Z dz
-1
28 x10- 3 (9.3.19)
Q = 24J1 B~ dz
/ -1
24
.... /
0;'"

,~ 20 L From the first two boundary conditlons,

....~VI /
/
.... 16
'0
o /
+-
-::: 12 / Also
!!!
o
/
>
':;
w
rr

4
8
/
4R J: aT(g)G(x - g)dg = 0.000252x2 + 0.000252 sin x sinh x

V
and the equation for w becomes
o 4 8 12 16 20 24x10- 3
Equivolent plostic stroin Bp

FIGURE 9.3.1 Equivalent total strain versus equivalent piastie strain. w = C2 (cos x sinh x - sin x cosh x)
+ C 4 sin x sinh x (9.3.20)
The solution now proceeds as follows. Assume as a zeroth approximation - 0.000252x 2 - I 1 (x) - I 2(x)
that B~ and B~ are zero everywhere. w can then be computed from (9.3.13)
where
through (9.3.16), and the total strains Bx , Be, and Bz from (9.3.5), (9.3.9), and
(9.3.10). Bet is computed from the last of (9.3.17) and Bp determined from
Figure 9.3.1. First approximations for the plastic strains are now computed
I 1 (x) = LX Q(g)G(x - g)dg

from the first two equations of (9.3.17). P and Q are then computed from
(9.3.12) and w from (9.3.13) through (9.3.16). The process is repeated until I 2(x) = f P(g) d2G~X; g) dg (9.3.21)

convergence is obtained. For every iteration, new values of Cl' C2 , C3 , and

C4 must be determined from the boundary conditions. Once convergence Twenty-one stations were taken along the length of the shell and six stations
has been obtained, the stresses can be computed from (9.3.4). through the thickness. For the zeroth approximation, it is assumed that
As a specific example consider a thin circular shell with the following B~ and B~ and hence Il and 12 are zero. The function w(x) is calculated from
geometrie and physical properties: (9.3.20) with the constants C2 and C4 determined from the last two boundary
eonditions of equation (9.3.18). The strains Bx , BO, and Bz are then computed
L = 48 in. R = 12 in. h = 2 in. "" = 0.3 E = 28 X 106 from equations (9.3.5), (9.3.9), and (9.3.10). First approximations to B~ and
a = 9.5 X 10- 6 8~ are obtained by computing eet from the third of equations (9.3.17), reading
8 p from Figure 9.3.1 and calculating e~ and B~ from the first two of equations

Then from (9.3.3), l = 3.81 in. and O ~ x ~ 12.6. Assume a temperature
distribution given by T = 2.21x 2 (corresponding to a 350°F rise from one
end of the shell to the other end), and boundary conditions (fixed ends)
w(O) = w'(O) = w(12.6) = w'(12.6) = O
(9.3.17). With these values of e~ and B~, P and Q are computed from equations
(9.3.19), Il and 12 from (9.3.21), and w from (9.3.20) with new values com-
puted for C2 and C4 • New values are then computed for ex, ee, and ez and the
process continued until convergence is obtained.
(9.3.18)
188 The Mefhod of Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9

Wherever derivati ves of W are needed, the following relations are useful: r '
2OXf0 3

dII = IX Q(g) dG(x - g) dg

~~ ~
dx Jo dx 'iii
o
a.
e-
Approximation \
è _--O 1\
~ -20
(9.3.22) ---1
.g - - - 4 through 7
::l

'"
QJ
"O
'in
+-
::l
o
-40
'"
b -60
~
~
Approximation ti
---- O
I
'O -80
~
QJ
0\
- - 4 through 7 c
~-100
40 x10 3
h..

20
Il '\ -120
I{I
li T
-140
~I
O O 2 4 6 8 IO 12 14
'iii
c-
Dimensionless axial distance x
b" \\ (b)
QJ -20
~
(j

...
\\ I '
::l
\~ Approximation
2.Ox1Q-3- I--- - - O
'"
QJ
-40 \1
"O
'(ii ---1
+-
::l
o
- - 4 through 7 J.r{
+-
o -60
U)
"ti
I
1.0
[JI
U) ",'<
~
+- t O ~
.g
U)
-80
'O
'", ::l
« U)

QJ

-100 ] -1.0
+-
::J
o
C

-120 ~ -2.0
°e Il
ti
-140 ]« -30
.
I

-160 6 8 10 12 14 -4.0
O 2 4
Dimensionless axial distance x I
(a)
-5.0
FIGURE 9.3.2 Variations of stresses and strains in shell. O 2 4 6 8 IO 12 14
Dimensionless axial' distance x
(c)
--
Sec. 9-2] Thin Circular Shell 191
190 The Method or Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9
TABLE 9.3.1 Calculation of Plastic Strains in Thin Shells
2.0 xlO- 3 ex
Approximotion
Sta-
P
e: Il 12
h. --O prev. prev. prev. prev. IV
t:l tion
I ---1 X Z aT approx. approx. approx. approx. (9.3.20)
~ 1.0 - - 4 through 7

,
X 10- 3 X 10- 3 X 10- 3 X 10- 6 X 10- 6
ID
u 20 11.97 -1.0
o -3.008 0.550 -0.800 -24.14 -581.1 -0.01372
1: .- -0.6667 0.480 -0.770
:::l
If) O -0.3333 0.420
Q)
-0.740
'"O O 0.365 -0.725
'w
+-
:::l
o -1.0
~\ 0.3333
0.6667
0.310 -0.710
0.260 -0.700
c
o ~~ 1.0 0.215 -0.695
\~
c 21 12.60 -1.0 -3.333 -3.20 -2.500 -1113
'e -0.6667 -1.57 -2.270
-1932 O
1;; -2.0 -0.3333
o ~
-0.175 -2.075
~
Q)
Ol
~ -3.0
1\ , O
0.3333
0.6667
1.0
0.940
2.170
3.800
5.500
-2.030
-2.300
-2.750
-2.850

-4.0 10 12 14
O 2 4 6 8
Q p
Dimensionless oxiol distonce x
(d)
Sta- ex - aT ee - ixT e~ ee IV
tion (9.3.9) (9.3.5) (9.3.17) (9.3.17) (9.3.19) (9.3.21) (9.3.20)

FIGURE 9.3.2 (continued) 10- 3

X X 10- 3 10- 3
X X 10- 3 X 10- 6 X 10- 6
20 1.314 -1.865 0.600 -0.780 -0.03295 -0.003013 -22.56 -545.6 -0.01414
1.110 0.505 -0.745
0.9100 0.420 -0.705
0.7089 0.340 -0.670
and 0.5100 0.270 -0.650
0.3100 0.200 -0.640
dG = 1- sin(x - g) sinh(x - g) 0.1000 0.135 -0.650
dx 21 -4.414 -3.333 -3.350 -2.500 -0.1130 0.06130 -1043 -2195 O
-2.490 -1.625 -2.280
-0.5700 -0.175 -2.075
2
d G = 1- [sin(x - g) cosh(x - g) - cos(x - g) sinh(x - g) (9.3.23) 1.349
3.270
0.985
2.285
-2.030
-2.325
dX2
5.190 4.000 -2.750
7.110 5.800 -2.850
d 3G
-3 = cos(x - g) cosh(x - g)
dx
Plastic Strain Charts
AH the integrals in the previous equations were evaluated using the trape-
zoidal rule. The results for this problem are shown in Figure 9.3.2. An Instead of using equations (9.3.17) and the strain-strain curve of Figure
abbreviated calculation setup for one of the successive approximations at the 9.3.1, it is sometimes more convenient to use a plastic strain chart, as shown
last two stations is given in Table 9.3.1. As can be seen from the figures, the in Figure 9.3.3. The ordinate and abscissa are the total mechanical strains
differences between the seventh and the fourth approximations are very small. and the curves shown are two intersecting families representing curves or
From an engineering viewpoint the first approximation is actually sufficient. constant 8~ and constant 8~, respective1y. Thus for a given pair of values of
This is probably due to the fact that the total strains do not change much, 8 x and 80, the values of 8~ and 8~ can be read direct1y from this chart. Inter-

because of the plastic flow. This will generally be tme when the only loads polation between curves may be necessary. This procedure avoids the
are thermalloads.
192 The Method or Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9
Sec. 9-4] Long Solid Cylinder 193
I I
I b-f-l-
l ee 0-
-8-6
o o o o 8-
o
1
0
T
ID
~Q-
o
l P
J AIso, the Prandtl-Reuss relations solved for the stress es are
ID N
q
4x 10- 3 ~- -8- f-g- f-g- f-o-ood- q-8- _0_
o o ~
o
~ ID
N
o
o

-Ir--/-- 7
o ci o o o o o
0_
/ l I ~0.0~25
--
- -- / ......-"j
'j
/
/
-- ---I 0.0020

- o.O~15
I
2 a- e (2 eop
ao = -3 ep
+ eP)
x
(9.3.25)

-
I

2
L..-;
I
v v7
--
l-
ILV
I
/
l
~
/
..-
7

V '\ r- ~
\ I-- +- I-
\
J
0·r
1
°1-
-
Substituting (9.3.25) into (9.3.24) gives

e _ aT = (1 + 2(2 - p,)~) P + 2(1 - 2p,) ae P

1// 1/ / ~f.-t-J ~ \ \ -t\ 0.0005 x 3E ep ex 3E ep eo
~ f...-
p

VI
;1/ "sr "-....! _\ 0~00Ò1
O ex P e _ aT = (1 + 2(2 - p,)~) P + 2(1 - 2p,) ~ P
(9.3.26)
0.0001_ o 3E ep eo 3E ep ex
O
,r- r--.. .:\ r-.. li
/
...-- ~ l- r~.~~5- With the above equations and a given stress-strain curve, a two-parameter
I
\
rt
0
- ~
1\ "t---.:
l\-l'-- ~
- -
r-
/
~ /

-- .-f
I /1
T
-1/~
I ..... - I I
~.00110-

0.~01t-
family of curves can be plotted giving the total strains for any pair of plastic
strains e~ and e:. Thus
1. An arbitrary convenient value is chosen for e:.
- --
-2 /
!/
- -- 7
\ Lo ~ 2. A series of values are chosen for e~. For each of these values, (a) ep is
,f
~
I l- I 1 computed from the first of (9.1.7) (without the ~'s), (b) a e is then re ad from
0.0:020 -
-t- t - 7 7 LI--'r1- ~
I
the stress-strain curve, and (c) ex - aT and eo - aT are computed from
(9.3.26). This gives one curve ofthe family.
/ 1/

-4
-4 -2
- '-
I 1/
t--

2
.-10.0025 t---
1 1
e:.
3. To obtain the other curves, the process is repeated for new values of
The limiting curve of zero plastic strain is an ellipse about the origin as
shown. Any point inside this ellipse corresponds to zero plastic strain.
FIGURE 9.3.3 Plastic strain chart.

9-4 LONG SOLID CYLINDER

necessity of computing ez and eeb reading ep from the strain-strain curve
(Figure 9.3.1), and finally computing e~ and However, constructing such
a chart involves a considerable amount of labor, and a different chart must
be constructed for each stress-strain curve used. However, if many similar
computations are to be made using the same stress-strain curve, such a chart
can be very time saving, particularly if a digitaI computer is not being used.
To obtain this chart, the stress-strain relations with a z = O are written
e:. Several problems involving rotational symmetry will next be considered.
We start with the problem of a long solid circular cylinder with a radiaI
temperature distribution. The cylinder, having a radius R, is assumed in a
state of generalized pIane strain; i.e., the axial strain e z is assumed to be a
constant. The ends of the cylinder are assumed to be unloaded; hence the
solution will not be valid dose to the ends.
The equilibrium, compatibility, and stress-strain relations for this problem
can be written

(9.3.24)
dar
- ar - ao
dr + -r -- -O (9.4.1)

deo eo -
r e
-
dr
+ - -r = 0 (9.4.2)
194 The Method or Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9 Sec. 9-4] Long Solid Cylinder 195
ar = À(8 - 3aT) + 2G(er - aT - ef) The constant Cl is determined from the boundary condition ar(R) = O.
ao = À(8 - 3aT) + 2G(eo - aT - ef) (9.4.3) Substituting the first of equations (9.4.3) into this condition gives for Cl:
az = À(8 - 3aT) + 2G(e z - aT + er + en
Cl =
1 - 3p, I fn
1 _ P, R2 Jo aTr dr + 2(1
I - 2p, fn
- p,) Jo
er -r e~ dr
where

p,E E
À = (1 + p,)(1 - 2p,) G = 2(1 + p,) + 2(1
1 1
- p,) R2 Jofn (er + eoP)r dr
p
(9.4.8)

T o save wn'tl'ng , epr and eo are here defined as the total accumulated plastic
P
To summarize, the total strains are given by
strains, including those for the current increment of load; i.e.,
l-l _ 1 + p, 1 fr 1 - 2p, I fr P P
er = 2 b.er.k + b.er.1 (9.4.3a) eo - -1--
-p,r"2 o aTr dr + 2(1 -p,r)"2 (e + eo)r dr
o r
k=l
l-l 1 - 2p, r' er - e~
e~ = 2 b.e~.k + b.e~.1
k=l
+ 2(1 - p,) Jo - r - dr + Cl
(9.4.9)
where the summations are assumed to have already been computed and + p, aT + -1--
1 1 - 2p, P 1 - 2p, fr er - e~
er = -eo + -1-- e + -1-- dr + 2Cl
b. p. and b.e P are to be determined. Assuming E, p" and ez constant, and -p, -p, r -p, o r
s:~~tituting (~.4.3) into (9.4.1) and e1imina~ing er by. the us~ of (9.4.2), .a
differential equation is obtained for eo, WhlCh upon mtegratlOn results m

e = 1 + p, ~ r' aTr dr + Il - 2p, ~ r' err dr where the double integraI in (9.4.4) has been integrated by parts.
o 1-p,rJo -p,rJo
(9.4.4) Equations (9.4.9) can now be solved by successive approximations as for
1 - 2p,l
+- -- 2 fr r
1r er.- e~ dr dr + C1 + Cr22 the previous exampIes. The zeroth approximation to the total strdins is
1-p,r o o 1 obtained from equations (9.4.9) and (9.4.8) by assuming b.er and b.e~ zero.
The totaI equivalent strain is computed from equations (9.1.9) and the
For a solid cylinder C2 must vanish. Now substituting equation (9.4.4) into
equivaIent pIastic strain increment determined from the stress-strain curve
the compatibility relation (9.4.2) and solving for er gives
and equation (9.1.10). First approximations are then calculated for b.ef and
b.e~ from the first two equations of (9.1.8) (with x replaced by r and y by 8).
_ 1 + P, T 1 - 2p, eP + 1 - 2p, r' er - e~ dr + 2Cl (9.4.5)
er - - eo + 1 _ p, a + 1 - p, r 1 - p, Jo r
TABLE 9.4.1 Calculation of Plastic Strains in Long Solid Cy1inder
To determine ez use is made of the fact that ez is a constant and that for sPr s: ST So s. Set Sp sPr s:
unloaded ends prev. prev. Eq. Eq. Eq. Eq. Fig. Eq. Eq.
n r aT approx. approx. (9.4.9) (9.4.9) (9.4.9) (9.1.9) 9.3.1 (9.1.8) (9.1.8)
fon azr dr = O (9.4.6) x IO-a xlO- a xlO- a xlO- a xlO- a xlO- a x IO-a X IO-a
l O 9.50 O O 9.457 9.457 8.912 0.363 O O O
2 0.75 9.50 O O 9.462 9.452 0.363 O O O
Substituting into the third of the stress-strain relations (9.4.3) and solving 3 0.80 9.29 O O 9.085 9.439 0.310 O O O
4 0.85 8.81 O O 8.240 9.393 0.668 O O
for e" results in O
5 0.90 7.68 O O 6.236 9.299 1.926 0.91 -0.907 0.545

ez = ;2 [f aTr dr - f (er + enr dr] (9.4.7)

6 0.95
7 1.000
7.06
6.83
O
O
O
O
5.274
5.045
9.109
8.911
2.494
2.578
1.40
1.48
-1.397
-1.477
0.754
0.738
 Sec. 9-5] Rotating Disk with Temperature Gradient 197
196 The Method ol Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9

These values of t.er and t.eC are substituted into equations (9.4.8) .and (9.4.9) Approximotion
and new approximations obtained for e" ee, and e2 • The process lS "repeated 100 J10 3 --O
---- 1
as many times as necessary to obtain the desired degree of convergence. After - - 4 ond 5

1100
80 /

1;'- 1000
\
I
~ 1/
+-
::J

2 900
\1 60
ID 'iii
Cl. Cl. (l'e_
E "
~ 800 1\
\
vl
V1

~40
U)
l/
700 /y'-
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

FIGURE 9.4.1
Rodius, in.
Temperature distribution in long solid cylinder.
20 "
0.010 O
Approximotion
o
1/
J (l'r

----- 1
- - 4ond5
1:=-- =-- 1=-= :: 1-=-=1=-..:: 1=---= '-"= .:..-=J F::::::-== b1
~ "\
0.009
~ -20
O 0.2
1\ " Be 0.4 0.6
Rodius, in.
0.8 1.0

0.008
\\\ FIGURE
(b)
9.4.2 (continued)
,I
convergence, the stresses can be computed from (9.4.3). The load is then
'" 0.007 incremented and the process repeated.
c
The above calculations have been carried out for a l-in.-radius cylinder
~ with a temperature distribution as shown in Figure 9.4.1, using the strain-
0.006 strain curve of Figure 9.3.1. The computations are shown in Table 9.4.1 for
1\ one iteration and the results are plotted in Figure 9.4.2. Very little difference

0.00 5
\_\ is found for this problem between the deformation theory and the incre-
mentaI theory assuming the temperature distribution applied in several steps.
!\ Br

\\ 9-5 ROTATING DISK WITH TEMPERATURE

0.004 GRADIENT
~
The previous problem was one of pIane strain. We now consider a problem
0.003
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 of pIane stress-a rotating disk with a temperature gradient. Two methods
Rodius, in.
will be presented for solving this problem. Both use successive approxima-
(a)
tions. The first converts the problem to solving a set of integraI equations in
FIGURE 9.4.2 Strain and stress distributions in long solid cylinder.
 The Method or Successive Elastic Solutlons [Ch. 9
198
the strains similar to the cylinder problem of the previous section. The
second method converts the differentiai equations to finite-difference form
and solves the resulting finite-difference equations. The integral-equation
formulation has the advantages ofbeing conceptually simpier and ofincluding
the boundary conditions automatically. On the other hand, it is difficult by
this approach to take into account variations of materiai properties with
temperature as well as variations in disk thickness. These can readi1y be
taken into account by the finite-difference method.

Integral-Equation Formulation
We start as usuai with the equilibrium and compatibility equations. These
can be written

(9.5.1)

(9.5.2)
'"bf;)6I;~~~;x;S;~~:::~
-t;t;~~-t"lt--t"lOO'lOO
where h is the disk thickness, p the density, and w the rotationai speed. For xt"lt"lt"lt"l.,f.,f.,flf'i\l:i\l:ir.:

the pIane stress problem a z = 0, and the stress-strain reiations can be written
[see equations (9.3.4)]

E 2 [er
ar = ~l + p,eo - (er + p,e&) - (1 + p,)aT]
-p,
(9.5.3)

ao = ~I
E 2 [eo + p,er - (e~ + p,er) - (1 + p,)aT]
-p,

The terms er and e~ are here defined, as for the cyIinder, by equations (9.4.3a). '"blDlf'lO'l\O\OO'Ioo'<!'ooo
Proceeding as for the case of the cylinder in Section 9.4, equations (9.5.3) -1f'l~~~~gg8::t~~~
x~~""';""":""":""":""":""":""":NN
are substituted into (9.5.1) and er eliminated by the use of (9.5.2), to give a
differentiai equation in eo. Assuming that h, E, and p, are constant, this
differentiai equation is integrated to give

1 - p,2 pw 2 r 2 1 + p, fr 1 - p, fr er - e~
eo = - - E - 8 + - -r2 - o aTrdr + -2- o r dr
.... "10If'lOIf'lOIf'lOIf'lO
oo'-<'-<!"Ì!"ÌcrÌ"';.,f.,f1f'i

1 + p, fr ( p P) d' Cl C2 (954)
+ 2r2 o er + eo l' l + T + f2
--
.' -C'lt"l'<!'If'l\Ot--OOO'lO-

199
 Sec. 9-5] Rotating Disk with Temperature Gradient 201
The Method of Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9
200 The solution is now obtained by successive approximations exact1y as in
The disk is assumed to be solid; hence C2 must vanish. To obtain er, equation the previous example for a solid cylinder. By starting with assumed values
(9.5.4) is substituted into the compatibility equation (9.5.2), resulting in of Ile~ and Ile: equal to zero, eo, et> and ez are computed from (9.5.4), (9.5.5),
and (9.5.7), e.t from the last of equations (9.1.9), Ile p from the stress-strain
1 fl-2 pw 2r2 curve and equation (9.1.10), and Ile~ and Ile: from the first two of equations
er = -es - ---- -- + (1 + fl-)aT + erp + p
fl-eo
(9.1.8), with X replaced by r and y by e. New values of et> eo, and ez are com-
E 2
r eP - e: puted from (9.5.4), (9.5.6), and (9.5.7), and the process is repeated.
+ (1 - fl-)
f
o
r
r
dr + Cl (9.5.5)

Approximotion
e is now obtained by substituting equations (9.5.3) and Uz = O into the O
z ---- l
stress-strain relation -- 4
--- 12 with intermediate
extropolation or 40
(9.5.6) without extrapolation
0.018
to give
(9.5.7)
0.016
/ er
Finally, the constant Cl is evaluated from the known rim l~ading. If the ~im
r7l
stress due to the rim loading is urCR) , the first of equatlOns (9.5.3) glVes 0.014
li
(R being the radius of the disk)
11
urCR) = 1 !!. fl-2 [er + fl-eo - (e~ + fl-e:) - (1 + fl-)aT]r=R (9.5.8) 0.012
VI
'<l
I
and substituting equations (9.5.4) and (9.5.5) into (9.5.8) gives for Cl:
.s
~ 0.010 Il
Cl = 2(1 + fl-) [Ur~) + 3 :efl- pw 2R2 + ~2 s: aTr dr
+-
(J) il
R 1/1/ e8
_ ! i e~ -
2 Jo
R
r
e: dr + ~ i (e~ + enr dr]
2R Jo
(9.5.9)
0.008
); r/7 kf
1600
ti/ 1/
,~
fiJ v_
0.006
V .~.
~
j.- .......
~
V I i

1200
~~
~
IL.
o l/ k:-::::
i
e 800
:J / 0.004 --'
.---
ID
o-
/
E
~ 400
/ 0.002 i','
V O 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 , ,

l,I
I-- l - l-- Radius, in.
(a)
o 2 3 4 5
Radius, in. FIGURE 9.5.2 Strain and stress distributions in rotating disk.
FIGURE 9.5.1 Temperature distribution in rotating disk.
202 The Method or Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9
Sec. 9-5) Rotating Disk with Temperature Gradient
203
Approximotion
O forward application of this method requires about 40 iterations for accurate
----- 1 results. T~e reason a greater number of iterations is required here compared
-.---4
- - - --12 with intermediote h
to :he cyImder problem of Section 9.4 is that there are externalIoads acting
extropolotion or 40 t besldes the ther~aIIoads and the strains are Iarger. However, the convergence
without extropolotion
c~n be greatly mcreased by performing three or four iterations, taking the
120 x10 3 dlfferences between successive iterations for the various strains, and extra-

80
............
-
~ ~t-...
""
polating to a zero difference, as shown in Figure 9.5.3. A straight line is

40
r--
-
-- j:::.:::;- 1-:_
E""~
Ì\
---\
"~
~
'"
~,
~
l'''
5,2 xlO- 3

~\ o .er

~~
1'---'-
\, O ee

~
~, 5.0
~
O 1\
~
(Tr

\ "~ t--
r-.
4.8
\
'Vi -40 \
\
"

o- "Ì' (Te
vi"
\Il
~
+-
(J) \ '""" .~ 4.6 \. \\
-80 +- \
\
(J)
l"-

\ 4.4
\ \
-100
l\}
-140
\ 4.2
'b
\ ~
-180
O 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 4.0
l'q
O 0.04 0.08
Radius, in.
( b) Se
FIGURE 9.5.2 (continued) FIGURE 9.5.3 Variation of strain with change of strain.

As an example, the solution obtained in this manner for a lO-in.-diameter drawn as shown and the intercept at zero Oe is obtained. This furnishes a
parallel-sided disk is shown in Figure 9.5.2. The value of pw 2 was taken as new starting estimate. Three or four more successive approximations are
1,500 and a temperature was assumed as shown in Figure 9.5.1. The strain- carried out, and another, similar, extrapoiation is made. This technique i I

strain curve of Figure 9.3.1 was used. Again little difference was found
between deformation theory and incrementaI theory. The computations for
one iteration are shown in Table 9.5.1. As seen from Figure 9.5.2, a straight-
reduced the number of successive approximations for this problem from ! Il
I
~O to 12, However, it shouId be noted that if a high-speed digitaI computor
~s used, the time per iteration is on the order of 0.1 sec and the number of
lterations required is of secondary importance.
 Sec. 9-5] Rotating Disk with Temperature Gradient 205
204 The Method or Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9
In this manner equations (9.5.1) and (9.5.11) can be written

Finite-Difference Formulation Clar.l - Dlae.l = Flar.l-l + Gl a e.I-1 - Hl

(9.5.13)
If it is desired to take into account variations of E, or h along the disk,
p" C;ar.l - D;ae.l = F/a r.I-1 - G;ae.I-1 + H( - P!
then it is necessary to use the finite-difference method [8]. This formulation where
is very generaI and can take into account not only initial v~riation~ in the
disk thickness, but also the changes in thickness and radms durmg the
loading process, if the disk should grow and change shape. In addition, we
shall also consider the case of a disk with a centraI hole.
We start again with the equilibrium and compatibility equations (9.5.1) - -
Pl, - P,1-1 b
-- l
El - 1
and (9.5.2). It is convenient this time to solve the problem in terms of ~tress~s
2
rather than strains, since the boundary conditions are generalIy glven m Hl = ~ (rl - rl- 1)(Pihlrt + Pl-1hl-1rt_1)
terms of stresses. The stress-strain relations are written as

er = ~ (ar - P,ae) + exT + ef + ~ef

ee = i (ae - p,ar) + exT + e~ + ~e~ (9.5.10)

(9.5.14)
where ef and e~ represent the total plastic strains up to the current increment It is to be noted that if the disk dimensions do not change appreciably
of loading, and ~ef and ~8~ are the increments of plastic strain due to the with loading, alI these coefficients except P( depend only on the initial geom-
current increment of loading. etry, material properties, and operating conditions of the disk and are
Substituting (9.5.10) into the compatibility equation (9.5.2) gives the evaluated once and for alI. Only P; is a function of the plastic flow. Aiso
compatibility equation in terms of stresses: for a solid disk, rl- 1 can equal zero and so some of the primed coefficients
be come infinite. This can be avoided by assuming for the first radiaI station
some small nonzero number, rather than zero.
Equations (9.5.13) give the stresses at the ith station in terms ofthe stresses
at the (i - l)st station. Solving for the stresses at the ith station gives
Equations (9.5.1) and (9.5.11) are two equations for the two stresses ar and ae'
We proceed by putting them into finite-difference form as folIows. Let the ar.l = 11l.lar.I-1 + 112.1 ae.I-1 + m1.1
disk radius be divided into N intervals (not necessarily equal). There are thus (9.5.15)
ae.l = 121.1 ar.I-1 + 122.1 ae.I-1 + m2.1
N + 1 stations, the first station being at the center for a solid disk: or at the where
inner radius for a hollow disk. The last station is at the outer radms. Equa-
tions (9.5.1) and (9.5.11) are written in finite-difference form at the midpoints l _ D;Gl + DjG;
12.j - CjD; - C;D j
of theseintervals. Thus at the midpoint of the (i - l)st interval,
l C:Fì - ClF; l _ C;Gj + CjG;
21.j = CD'
l j-
C'D
j i 22.j - CjD; - C;D j (9.5.16)

(9.5.12) CjP: - HjC; - H!Cj

m2.j = Cj D'1 - C'D
j j
206 The Method or Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9
Sec. 9-5] Rotating Disk with Temperature Gradient 207
or, in matrix notation,
Therefore,

[::::J = [~:::: ~::::J [:::: ~:] + [::::]

or al = Llal_l + MI (9.5.17) For a solid disk ar.l = aO.l; therefore,

where a l' al-l> L lo and MI are the indicated matrices. Equation (9.5.17) arCR) - bl .N+l
represents a linear recurrence re1ation.between the stresses at the ith station a r •l = aO.l = (9.5.23)
all.N + 1 + a12.N + 1
and the stresses at the (i - l)st station. Obvious1y by successive application
of (9.5.17), the stresses at the ith station can be linear1y related to the stresses For a disk with a centraI hole of radius R o, with inner prescribed pressure
at the first station. Let this linear relation be written we get
ar.l = ar(R o),

(9.5.18)
(9.5.24)
where AI and BI are as yet unknown and al are the radiaI and tangential
stresses at the first station. Substituting (9.5.18) into (9.5.17) gives
Thus al is now known. The stress es at every station can then be direct1y
Alal + BI = LI(AI_lal + BI-l) + MI computed by means of (9.5.18).
or (9.5.19) To summarize then, the LI and MI matrices are computed from (9.5.16)
and (9.5.14), the At and BI matrices from (9.5.20) and (9.5.21), and then the
Now al will depend on the boundary conditions and is complete1y arbitrary, stress es are computed from (9.5.18), using either (9.5.23) or (9.5.24).
whereas (9.5.19) must be true for all values of al' It therefore follows that It is to be noted that this straightforward procedure takes into account
both sides of the equation must vanish identically. Hence with equai ease variations of E, h, p, or even fl, along the radius of the disk.
AI = AI_1LI
Furthermore, if the dimensions of the disk are changing during the plastic
(9.5.20) flow process, this can readily be taken into account. For if l' is the current
radius to a given point P, and l" was the radius to the point P before plastic
Also, for the second station, equation (9.5.18) gives flow took pIace, then approximate1y

l' = 1"(1 + e&) (9.5.25)

and equation (9.5.17) gives
a2 = L 2a l +M2 and, similar1y, if H was the underformed thickness at the point P and h is
Hence A2 = L2 and B2 = M 2 (9.5.21) actual thickness after deformation, then approximate1y
I
I
Beginning therefore with A 2 and B 2 as given by (9.5.21), all the other A's H I

and B's can be computed successively by the recurrence relations (9.5.20). h = (1 + ef)(1 + e&) (9.5.26) I: I
l!
For the Iast station [the (N + l)st], l'N+1 equals R, the disk radius, and
equation (9.5.18) becomes Thus at any stage of the plastic flow process the values of l'I and hl appearing .1

in equations (9.5.14) can be corrected by means of (9.5.25) and (9.5.26).

The finite-difference formulation presented will of course give direct1y and i i
or
quickly the elastic solution for a disk of arbitrary profile with variable I
a r ' N + l ] = [all.N+l a12.N+l] [ar.l] + [b l N l
' + ] (9.5.22) properties, if P; is set equal to zero in equations (9.5.16). For the plastic
l'
[
aO.N+l a2l.N+l a22.N+l aO.l b2•N+ l problem P; is not zero, and its values can be determined by successive
approximations, as thoroughly described in the previous examples. We shall
 Sec. 9-6] Circular Hole in Uniforrnly Stressed Infinite Plate 209
208 The Method of Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9
Integrating resuIts in
return to this formulation at a Iater time in discussing the creep of a rotating
disk. Solution by this method of the disk problem of the previous example
gave almost identical answers.
A. --
'f' Ar2 + BInr + C - Jr -:1 Jr r Jr g(r)drdrdr (9.6.6)
a l a a

!he tri~le integraI can be somewhat simplified by making use of (9.6.5) and
9-6 CIRCULAR HOLE IN UNIFORMLY STRESSED llltegrat1~~ by parts. The constants A and Bare determined from the bound-
ary condlt1ons
INFINITE PLATE
(9.6.7)
As a final example of a probIem involving rotational symmetry, consider
the case of a thin infinite plate uniformly stress ed containing a circuiar hoIe of where <
. hGeo is
. the applied uniform stress at infinity. Note that Geo Go, W here
radius a. Solutions to this probIem by iterative methods similar to that dis- t e yleid stress. Then
Go IS
cussed herein are given in references [9] and [lO]. The present solution is
taken from reference [lO]. A=~ (9.6.8)
The equilibrium and compatibility equations are given by (9.4.1) and 2
(9.4.2); i.e.,
and t.he constant C can arbitrarily be set equai to zero without affecting the
solutlOn.
(9.6.1)
deo eo - er O
-
dr + - -
r =
m=O
The stress-strain reiations for the case of pIane stress are
4
m=O.1
m=O.2

(9.6.2)
2
3 'l-u

Substituting (9.6.2) into the second of equations (9.6.1), the compatibility

equation is obtained in terms of stresses. A stress function cP is now introduced 2
defined by
I
Il
(9.6.3)

i, Ii
The equilibrium equation is identically satisfied by the stress function, and
the compatibility equation becomes I I
! i

.È-.[l d (r dcP )] = - g(r)

dr r dr dr
(9.6.4)
Il
, I
I
(9.6.5) FIGURE 9.6.1 TangentiaI strain concentration factors at hole.
I

l:
210 The Method or Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9 Sec. 9-6] Circular Hole in Uniformly Stressed Infinite Plate
211
Detailed caicuiations were carried out by Tuba [10] using the successive-
approximation technique with linear strain hardening for :,arious v~Iues of
the strain-hardening parameter m (ratio of siope of the stram-hardemng ~art
f curve to siope of the eiastic part), and for various ratios of aro to the yleid
~tress ao. His results, taken from reference [lO], are shown in Figures 9.6.1
through 9.6.3. In these figures the stress and strain concentration factors due

3.0

m=0.8
2.0 L------~~~=====--m =1.0 (elasticl
-----m=0.8
---m =0.6
m=OA O 1.0
m =0.3 m
m=0.2
FIGURE 9.6.3 Equivalent stress and strain concentration factors at hole.
m=0.1
1.0 m=O

K = 8e(a) _ 80(a)
8e 80(00) - [(l - p..)fE]a oo

K - 8e(a) _ 8e (a)
o 8. - 8.(00) - i[(l + p..)fE]a oo
FIGURE 9.6.2 Equivalent stress and strain concentration factors at hole. where 8e = V; V(8r - 80)2 + (8r - 8..)2 + (80 - 8..)2

to the hole are plotted as functions of the dimensionless parameters m and À. It is also noted in reference [10] that if the load is increased monotonical1y,
The various parameters are defined as follows: the deformation and incrementaI theories give the same results for this
problem. However, since in this case we have proportional loading at the
siope of piastic part of stress-strain curve hoIe where the stress concentration factors are determined, this is not too
m= E surprising.
In Chapter 10 the much more difficult two-dimensionai pIane elastoplastic
problem is formulated and severai examples of piate problems ate solved.
212 The Method or Successive Elastic Solutions [Ch. 9

Problerns

1. Use the successive-approximation method to solve the differential equation

CHAPTBR lO
-dy + y
dx
= O y(O) = 1

Show that in the limit the exact solution is obtained.

2. Verify equations (9.2.7) and (9.2.8).
3. Derive equation (9.2.15).
4. Show that the method of successive approximations leads to equation
(9.2.20).
5. Derive equation (9.4.4).
6. Derive equation (9.5.4).
7. Obtain the equations corresponding to (9.5.4) through (9.5.9) for a hollow TRE PLANE
disk with inner radius a and outer radius R.
8. Derive formulas (9.5.25) and (9.5.26). ELASTOPLASTIC
9. Derive equations (9.6.4), (9.6.6), and (9.6.8).
PROBLEM

References

1. E. L. Ince, Ordinary Differential Equations, Dover, New York, 1944.
2. A. A. Ilyushin, Some Problems in the Theory of Plastic Deformation,
RMB-12, translation from Prikl. Math. Mech., 7, 1943, pp. 245-272, by
Grad. Div. Appl. Math., Brown Univ., 1946.
3. S. S. Manson, Thermal Stress and Low Cycle Fatigue, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1966, p. 100.
4. A. Mendelson and S. S. Manson, Practical Solution of Plastic Deformation
Problems in the Elastic-Plastic Range, NASA Tech. Rept. R-28, 1959.
5. A. Mende1son and S. W. Spero, A GeneraI Solution for the Elastoplastic
Thermal Stresses in a Strain-Hardening Plate with Arbitrary Material
Properties, J. Appl. Mech., 29, 1962, pp. 151-158.
6. S. G. MikhIin, Integral Equations, Pergamon Press, London, 1957, p. 19.
7. C. T. Wang, Applied Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953.
8. A. Mendelson, M. H. Hirschberg, and S. S. Manson, A GeneraI Approach
to the Practical Solution of Creep Problems, Trans. ASME, 81D, 1959,
pp. 585-598.
9. E. A. Davis, Extension of Iteration Method for Determining Strain
Distributions to the Uniformly Stressed Plate with a Hole, J. Appl. Mech.,
30, 1963, pp. 210--214; discussions, ibid., 31, 1964, pp. 362-364.
lO. I. S. Tuba, Elastic-Plastic Stress and Strain Concentration Factors at a
Circular Hole in a Uniformly Stressed Infinite Plate, J. Appl. Mech., 32,
1965, pp. 710--711.
10-1 GENERAL RELATIONS
B~ pIane elastoplastic problems we mean the usual generalized pIane
stram or pIane stres~ pro~lems. Generalized pIane strain is characterized by
the .stre~ses and st:ams bemg functions of x and y only and the strain in the
z dlrectlO~, ez , bem~ equal to a constant. This is the type of problem en-
~ounte:ed m long cylmders under certain loading conditions such as discussed
m.SectlOns 8.7 and 9.4. Generalized pIane stress problems are encountered in
thm plates and, in this case, the stresses and strains are taken as the average
values through the thickness of the plate and U z is assumed to be zero. In
both types of problems the shear stresses and strains in the z d' t'
assumed to be zero. lrec lOn are
In alI t.hat folIows, it is assumed that the material is homogeneous isotropic
and str~l~ hard.ens isotropical1y. The material properties such a~ modulu~
of elastlclty, POlsson's ratio, and coefficient of linear thermal ex .
d. panSlOn are
assum.e mdependent of the temperature, and body forces are not considered.
RotatlOnal symmetry, as for the cylinder and disk problems of Chapter 9 .
n.ot assumed to e~ist. As before, the von Mises yield criterion and the as~~~
clated flow rule wll1 be used.
i:
'i
I
I
i

213
214 The Piane Elastoplastic Problem [Ch. lO Sec. IO-l] Generai Relations
215
The equilibrium, compatibility, and stress-strain relations for the pIane is the plastic strain accumulated during the first i - l increments of load
stress problem are and Il8~ is the unknown plastic strain increment occurring during the ith or
Ba x O current increment of load. The subscript i has been deleted [see equations
-
Bx
+BT-
By
-
XY _

(7.10.2)] since no confusion can arise. Similar definitions hold for Il8: and
(10.1.1) 8~y. The definitions of some of the other quantities entering into the above
Ba y O
-
By
+BTBx _
-XY - equations will be also repeated here, for convenience. Thus

8~ = 8x - 8~ etc.
(10.1.2)

(10.1.6)
8~t = T
V2[(,
8x - 8y')2 + ('8y - ')2+('
82 82 -
x
+ 8XY
8')26(')2]1/2

ae-- (a x2 + ay2 - axy

a + 3T xy
2 )1/2
(10.1.3)
-
82 - - EIL (a x + ay ) + aT - 8~ - 8: - Il8~ - Il8:
and Il8 p is related to a e through the uniaxial stress-strain curve as shown in
Figure 7.9.1 or to 8 et by the uniaxial stress-strain curve and the relation

(10.1. 7)
To these we append the Prandt1-Reuss relations,
AlI these relations have been previously described in detail.
For the case of pIane strain, alI the above relations remain unchanged
except for equations (10.1.3) and (10.1.4) and the definition of a e . Since a is
2
(10.1.4) no longer zero,

or the corresponding plastic strain-total strain relations,

(10.1.8)

(10.1.5)

where 82 is a constant. Aiso

where, as previously defined,
l-l
8~ = L Il8~.k
k=l
 216 The PIane Elastoplastic Problem [Ch. lO Sec. IO-I] Generai Reiations
217
and The equilibrium equations (10.1.1) are identically satisfied and the com-
patibility equation (10.1.11) becomes

(10.1.10) (10.1.16)

where V4 is the biharmonic operator:

We now proceed to introduce a stress function, as is common in pIane

problems of eiasticity. First by substituting equations (10.1.3) or (10.1.8)
into (10.1.2), the compatibility equation is obtained in terms of stresses. The boundary conditions to be satisfied by the stress function cp are (see, for
Making use ofthe equilibrium equation (10.1.1) to eliminate the shear stress exampIe, reference [1])
and performing some algebraic manipulations results in

V2(U X + uy) = -E'\72(cxT) - [g(x, y) + Llg(x, y)] (10.1.11)

(10.1.17)
where V2 == (02/0X 2) + (02joy2) is the Lapiacian operator in two dimensions
and
E==E for pIane stress
- E (10.1.12) where T x and T y are the x and y components, respectiveIy, of the externai
E==I_p. for pIane strain
force acting at a point ofthe boundary. The integrations are performed along
the boundary from some arbitrary point. The constants Cl and C2 are
arbitrary and can be set equai to zero without affecting the stresses. For a
(10.1.13) muItipIy connected region, however, the constants will be different for each
of the contours and they can be arbitrari1y chosen only on one contour. On
the other contours they must be determined so that the dispiacements are
singIe-valued. This great1y complicates even the elastic problem, and multiply
connected regions will not be considered here.
Alternatively, by means of equations (10.1.17), the boundary conditions
can be written in terms of cp and its normal derivative on the boundary [1],
pIane strain
(10.1.14)
cp =
J (oCPOX dsdx + -ocpoy -ddsy ) ds
8
- - = ICs) +C
3

(10.1.18)
dcp = 8cp dy _ ocp dx = h(s)
dn ox ds oy ds

Define a stress function cp by the reiations so that if 8cp(s)joy and ocp(s)joy are known from (10.1.17), ocpjdn and cp(s)
can be computed from (10.1.18). For an unioaded boundary, T x = Ty = O
- 'T Xy
and consequent1y /l(S) = /2(S) = O, so that ocp(s)joy = Cl and 8cp(s)jox = C 2,
and, since the stresses depend only on the second derivatives of cp, we can
218 The PIane Elastoplastic Problem [Ch. lO Sec. 10-2] Elastoplastic Thermal Problem for a Finite Plate
219
arbitrarily subtract C1Y + C2 x + C3 from 1> (if the region is simply con- solved ~y a :ariety of methods, including energy, collocation, eigenfunction,
nected) so tliat and fi~lte-dlfference m~thods. In aH cases the solution is actuaHy only
81>(s) = 81>(s) = O approxlmate, although In theory the exact solution can be approached as
8y 8x
(10.1.19) close1y as desired. In solving the plastic fiow problem, one or more of these
methods can also be used, together with the successive-approximation tech-
or d1>(s) = 1>(s) = O
dn nique. The simplest and most straightforward approach is to use finite
differences, as will now be described.
To solve the pIane elastoplastic problem it is therefore necessary to solve The plate is divided into a grid of n x m stations. If symmetry exists about
the inhomogeneous biharmonic equation (10.1.16) subject to the boundary the x and y axes with the origin taken at the center of the plate, only one
conditions (10.1.17) or (10.1.18) and the appropriate p1asticity relations. quadrant of the plate need be considered. At each point of the grid, equation
Note that the pIane strain and pIane stress problems differ primarily in (10.1.16) is written in finite-difference formo For example, at the station
the definition of the g function appearing in (10.1.11) and the inclusion of designated by i,jin Figure 10.2.2, equation (10.1.16) becomes
a z in the definition of a e and in the Prandt1-Reuss equations. The calculation
procedures for the two problems therefore differ in on1y minor details, as
will be shown subsequently. •
I; )+2
Solutions to several specific plate prob1ems will now be presented using
the successive-approximation technique described in Chapter 9. • • • 1+1')+1
1-1,)+1 1,)+1

10-2 ELASTOPLASTIC THERMAL PROBLEM FOR

•
1-2,)
•
1-1, )
•
l;)
'.
1+1,)
8
.)

1+2, )
A FINITE PLATE
•
i-1, )-1
•
i, )-1
•
1+1, )-1
The first problem considered is that of a thin rectangu1ar p1ate with a
temperature distribution T(x, y) and no external loads. The geometry and •
I; )-2
the coordinate system used is shown in Figure 10.2.1. Since there are no
FIGURE 10.2.2 Finite difference net for station (i,j).
y

r2b x
l
84 [1>1-2,1 + 1>1,1-2 + 1>1,1+2 + 1>1+2,1

L lo( 20 ~I
+ 2(1)1-1,1-1 + 1>1-1,1+1 + 1>1+1,1-1 + 1>1+1,1+1)
+ 201>1,1 - 8(1)1-1,1 + 1>1,1-1 + 1>1,1+1 + 1>1+1,1)]
= - E'V 2 ( aT)I,1 - gl,i - D..gl ,1 (10.2.1)
FIGURE 10.2.1 Flat plate and coordinate system. where 8 is the grid spacing.

externa1loads, the boundary conditions (10.1.19) are used; i.e., 1> and its Equations similar to (10.2.1) are written for each of the n x m stations.
normal derivative are zero on the boundaries. There . then re~ults ~ x m linear equations for the n x m unknown 1>'S,
Equation (10.1.16) with the right side zero is the classical biharmonic assummg the nght sldes are known. These equations can now be solved by
equation. The e1astic thermal stress problem with g = D..g = O has been of the numerous methods of solving large sets of simultaneous linear
~.~---------------------------------------------------------

Sec. 10-2] Eiastopiastic Thermai Problem for a Finite Piate 221

The PIane Elastoplastic Problem [Ch. lO
220
10 y VV
algebraic equations. Once these are solved, the stresses can be computed
V V V
from the relations O. 9 V

O. 8 l/ / /
Ta /1/' l/ /
I V
O. 71- f -
..... V /
4>1+ l,i + 4>1 -l,i - 24>1,1 (10.2.2) ~ -
....,V /" 17/
= ~ V i><-15 /
O'y,l1 82 0.6 :--- 20
..... Ta V
4>1-1,J+1 - 4>1-1,J-1 - 4>1+1,1+1 + 4>1+1.1-1 y 0.5
1 V V
TXy,!J = 48 2 20 2~ 1/ V
r r-- t-- t-... 1:1)Y 1/ 11
0.4 ~
~~ )~/
The strains are computed from (10.1.3) and the plastic strain increments
from either (10.1.4) or (10.1.5), together with the stress-strain curve. The
function f1g is now changed and the solution obtained again. The process is
0.3
1= I- 11
.........
i'.... '"
1\
1'\ 1/ V
LI
0.2
\ 1/
continued until convergence is obtained. It is to be noted that only the right 1\ l I /
sides of the set of n x m simultaneous equations change from iteration to \ Il/II
0.1
iteration. It should also be noted that although equation (10.2.1) has been \ I
written for equal spacing between stations, it is possible to write the finite- \ f J
O 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
difference formulas for unequal spacing. x
Once the calculation has converged for a given increment of load (in this FIGURE 10.2.3 Curves or incipient plastic flow.
case, thermalload) and f1g determined, f1g is added to g, the lo ad is incre-
10
mented, and a new calculation started to determine the value of the plastic t-'s1 .-V- v V 1/ / l'l:~ v 11
strain increments and stresses due to the new increment of load. It is to be 1--,.- 7 I-- V V . . . . V 1/ ~ ~ v I ! I I T
remembered that at any station for which O'e is less than the yield stress, the
o.9 v
I--~I-- i-'" .....- V /v l/- t/';~
!7 -- - - incipient
plastic
plastic strain increments are set equal to zero. Jt- .....-V ~ I/. ~ tlow
O. 8 4 ...... v. V~ V'
-
0.5
As an example, such a solution was obtained for a square plate with a -~
F1 v Di v.:: r/
-""
1'-1
parabolic temperature distribution given by T = TO(y2 - t), the constant To
~.

O. 7 t- I--I--V V V ~..... ~1.5 /~

being raised in increments untillarge zones of plastic fiow occurred. Linear ~< .... "2
strain hardening was assumed with the strain-hardening parameter m taken O. 6
i - I--
j....- /1.%~
f-- 1- Dimensionless /. l'l':V
to be 0.1. Some of the results are shown in Figures 10.2.3 and 10.2.4. Only plastic strain,
Ep '/ V1 V !7
y 0.5
one quadrant of the plate is shown, the other three quadrants being identical I
7
rl- 'l 1/r7
because of symmetry. In these computations 20 stations were taken in the 0.4
t-+- IVJ rJ j j j )

x direction and 20 in the y direction, resulting in a set of 400 simultaneous ì"- t---.,0.5 '",
1.5, ~/ Il V 1/17fL
"'"1- 1" "- ll/ il / / / / /
0.3
equations to solve. t- +- ;....., 'Ì',. "\
f\ 0.5-.1 VU 1/
Figure 10.2.3 shows the rate of growth of the regions of incipient fiow
The curves are the loci of alI the points of incipient plastic fiow for a . 0.2 N 1\ \ 1/fI / )
rJ. I
)
III
/
'"-"P\rs. \
21\ 1~ 2
value of loading parameter TO = ToErx/ao. Plastic fiow starts first at
0.1
~J--2.2
2.4·',.
\
I I 6 f 3:/4J5 1
centers of the four sides of the plate and moves rapidly inward. Plastic Ì' I I I II Il
does not start at the center of the plate unti! it is well developed at the f\. ~ {~\ I l 1~
Once plastic fiow has started at the center, however, the rate of growth O 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
x
this zone is greater than at the sides.
FIGURE 10.2.4 Equivalent plastic strain trajectories.
Figure 10.2.4 shows the plastic strain trajectories for the maximum
222 The Piane Elastoplastic Problem [Ch. lO
Sec. 10-3] Elastoplastic Problem or the Infinite Plate with a Crack 223
'To = 20.is the summation of the equivalent plastic strain increment
€p
Since the solution obtained was an incrementaI one using finite increments
divided by the yield strain. The curves shown are the loci of alI points of
of load, it was thought worthwhile to run an experiment to determine the
constant equivalent plastic strain. The dashed curves, labeled curves of effect ofincrement size f1To on the final solution. It was found that f1To = 2.5
incipient plastic fiow, which represent the elastoplastic boundary, correspond
,,:as appro~imately the largest increment size that produced no appreciable
to the curves labeled 'To = 20 in Figure 10.2.3. dlfference In the final stress and strain distribution at 'To = 20. Calculations
Since both Figures 10.2.3 and 10.2.4 show only one quadrant, it is apparent
were also performed using the two iterative techniques described in Section
that for the entire plate there will be five regions of plastic fiow. There is a 9.1, that is, using equations (10.1.4) to calculate the plastic strain increments
region about the center almost circular in shape and four regions identical in
and using equations (10.1.5). As expected for very large load increments the
first method (using the Prandtl-Reuss relations) diverged, whereas the se~ond
shape along the four sides of the plate. l'here is no plastic fiow at the corners
of the plate. Maximum plastic fiow occurs at the centers of the four sides,
method, using the plastic strain-total strain equations, always converged.
where the plastic straining is roughly three times as great as at the center of
For those cases where both methods converged they gave identical answers.
the plate. Furthermore, the strain gradient is considerably steeper than that
The solution to this problem can be found discussed in greater detail in
near the center. reference [2].
The accuracy of the method was checked by comparing the results of the
!he above calcul~:ions were performed for a very thin plate. For a very
elastic solution (g = O) with those obtained by other methods, and by com-
thlCk plate, a condltlOn of pIane strain would exist at planes far from the
paring the results of the plastic solution obtained at the center section of a
surfaces. To obtain a solution to this problem only minor modifications of
3 x 1 plate with the c1osed-form solution for the infinite plate discussed in
previous calculation method are necessary. Thus g and f1g must be computed
Section 9.2. The agreement was excellent, as can be seen in Figure 10.2.5.
using equations, (10.1.14) instead of (10.1.13). Also it is now necessary to
Sand € are defined in Section 9.2; i.e., compute U z • ThlS can be done as for the case of the cylinder in Section 9.4.
€ =
B - aT
--'x"----,-_
From the third of equations (10.1.8),
uolE
(10.2.3)
1.2 2
infinite strip :>-
-
Ì\
o 3x1plate ~ Substituting into the relation
0.8

0.4
\
\
"'" "- '\ L Uz dA = O (10.2.4)
'vi'"
<J>
~
+-
'\ wh~re ~ is the cross-sectional area of the plate, enables one to determine B.,'
O
.~
<J>
\
<J>
<J>
~
o WhlCh IS a constant, and hence U z • The rest of the computations then proceed
~
c '\ +-

~ -2
\ as for the case of pIane stress. The above holds for generalized pIane strain.
.~ -0.4
c
<»
oQ. \ For pIane strain, Bz = O and u. is computed directly from (10.2.3).
E
1\
E
.0
u -3
\
0-0 .8
'\ 'O
.'o! \
~ /'-..,
c
o
"5<» -4 \ 10-3 ELASTOPLASTIC PROBLEM OF TUE
-1.2

-1.6
"'" :o!

-5
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
INFINITE PLATE Wl TU A CRACK
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 O
T~e elastic solution of the infinite plate with a crack was first obtained by
Dimensionless coordinate, y
(a) (b) InglIs [3] ~nd was used by Griffith [4] in his theory ofbrittle crack propagation.
FIGURE 10.2.5 Comparison of fintte-difference elastoplastic stress-strain solutions It was pOInted out by Orowan [5] that, for ductile materials, the plastic strain
for 3 X 1 plate with c1osed-form solution for infinite strip: (a) dimensionless energy was a major factor in the energy baI ance of the system and could not
stress; (b) dimensionless strain. be ignored in any analysis of crack stability. Since no solution was available
 The PIane Elastoplastic Problem [Ch. IO Sec. 10-3] Elastoplastic Problem or the Infinite Plate with a Crack 225
224
for the plastic strain field, various assumptions were introduced to take into A rectangular
. section is chosen as shown in Figure lO .3.1. On the upper,
account the plastic zone at the tip of a crack, such as Irwin's "equivalent left, and nght boundaries of this rectangle, the elastic stress field for the
crack length" [6] and Neuber's "plastic particle" [7].
In the present section it will be shown how the previous method can be y

used to obtain at least approximately the elastoplastic strain field in the

vicinity of a crack, for a strain-hardening material. Since the solution can be
I
I
obtained only numericalIy, the presence of the mathematical singularity at I
the tip of the crack makes accurate answers very difficult to obtain. The I
solution to be presented is therefore not intended to provide accurate quanti- I
I
tative results, nor is it necessarily, or even probably, the best method of I
solving this problem. It is intended primarily to provide qualitative informa- I
tion on the effect of strain hardening and on the differences that might be
expected between pIane stress and pIane strain solutions.
Consider the case of an infinite plate with a centraI crack 2 units long, with
a uniaxial tensile lo ad at infinity perpendicular to the pIane of the crack.
-1
I
I
I I J __ x

As before, alI the stresses are made dimensionless by dividing by the yield
stress and alI the strains are divided by the yield strain. The tensile stress at
infinity is also divided by the yield stress. Since half the crack length is taken
as unity, the x and y coordinates are dimensionless in terms of the half-crack
length. We shalI attempt a solution using finite differences, as in the case of
the rectangular plate of Section 10.2.
We are faced, however, with two problems in applying the finite-difference FIGURE 10.3.1 Rectangular boundary for finite-difference grido
methods previously described. In the first pIace, it is obviously impossible to
cover an infinite region with a finite-difference grido Second, the crack tip is a infini~e plate acts. The lower boundary is a Hne of symmetry. The differential
singular point of the stress field and, as pointed out in reference [8], the error ~quatlOn to be satisfied is equation (10.1.16) without the temperature term;
in the finite-difference formulation in the vicinity of the singularity spreads 1.e.,
to other points. The best procedure in this type of problem is to subtract out '\144> = -g(x, y) - ~g(x, y) (10.3.1)
the singularity, if possible, giving a new problem with different boundary Let
conditions, but which will be welI behaved. (10.3.2)
In the present problem we attempt to minimize both the above difficulties
by subtracting out the elastic solution from the problem. The elastic solution where.4>e is the elastic solution to the problem. Then 4>e satisfies the differential
contains a singularity at the crack tip and also satisfies the boundary condi- equatlOn
tions. We are thus Ieft with a well-behaved problem with homogeneous '\144>e =O (10.3.3)
boundary conditions. Furthermore, it has been shown experimentally by
Dixon [9] that for most materials (mild steel, which has a Iower yield point, and the boundary conditions. 4>p then satisfies
is one exception), the strain field outside the plastic zone is the same as the
eiastic strain field; Le., the elastic solution prevails outside the plastic zone. '\144>p = - g(x, y) - ~g(x, y) (10.3.4)
The assumption is therefore made that the infinite plate can be replaced by
finite rectangle with an edge crack upon whose boundaries the elastic ~omogen~ous boundary conditions. If it is assumed that the elastic
field acts. Because of symmetry, only one quadrant of the plate need ~OllltlC1,n.
pr.evatls on the upper, left, and right boundaries of the rectangle
10 FIgure 10.3.1, then we areleft with the problem offinding a function
considered. We pro cee d, therefore, in the following manner.
226 The Piane Elastoplastic Problem [Ch. lO
Sec. 10-3] Elastoplastic Problem of the Infinite Plate with a Crack 227
<pp, satisfying equation (10.3.4), symmetric about the lower boundary and o small grid
equal to zero along the crack and on the other three boundaries of the quad- l::. medium grid
D large grid
rant. This function can be found using finite-difference and successive approxi-
mations just as was done for the thermal stress problem of Section 10.2.
The rectangle shown is covered by a grid and the differential equation
0.5r- '-----------l - - - elastie yield loeus

(10.3.4) is written in finite-difference form for every point of the grido The I r------------------ 1 '
solution then proceeds by successive approximations as previously described.
The second iterative method employing the plastic strain-total strain equa-
0.4 f- 'i I I
tions was used. One additional step is, however, needed. Mter the function I I I '
<pp is obtained by solving the set of simultaneous equations, the elastic stress 0.3 c-/. I I òl::. [p o o D l::. :
function, <Pe, must be added to <pp before computing the total stresses. The
rest of the iterative scheme proceeds exact1y as before. Both the pIane stress
and pIane strain solutions can be readily obtained, as describedin Section 10.2.
The elastic stress function <Pe has been obtained in many ways. Using
Y

0.2 r-I:
,I

,I
;stJJ-.. . . ,

I
t \
00;0&
J,
i I
)
oD

~tt
I.

i l'
Muskhelishvili's solution [lO], it can be written 0.1 f---
l' [ t/o~
\..1"0";' / o~H
I
[,
<Pe = ~ Re [ - zz + Z2 + 2zVZ2 - 1- 2In (z + VZ2=1)] (10.3.5)
O / Il
0.8 0.9
~à!,
1.0
/I

1.1
I

1.2
~Ln
1.3
II 1.4
x
where Re stands for the "real part of," z is the complex variable x + iy, z is
its conjugate, and P is the stress at infinity divided by the yield stress. For FIGURE 10.3.2 Effect of grid size on plastic zone.
every iteration the value of <Pe, as computed from equation (10.3.5), is added
to the <pp values at every station before the stresses are computed.
0.5
The first computation made was to determine the validity ofthe assumption
that the elastic stress field prevails outside the plastic zone. For this purpose
three different-sized rectangles were chosen to enc10se the plastic zone, as
0.4
shown in Figure 10.3.2. For each ofthese rectangles a pIane stress calculation
was made by the method described to determine the extent of the plastic zone.
Linear strain hardening was assumed with the strain-hardening parameter m m
0.3
taken equal to 0.1, and the lo ad was raised in steps in four increments from
a value of 0.2 times the yield stress to 0.5 times the yield stress. The elasto- y 0.10
plastic boundaries at a lo ad of 0.5 times the yield stress are shown in the 0.20
0.2
figure. It is seen that there is not too great a difference in the plastic zone size
1.0
for aH three rectangular boundaries used, particular1y the last two, indicating
that the effect of the plastic zone on the stress field outside the zone dies out
O.i /
rapidly, as indicated by Dixon's experiments [9]. /
Also shown in Figure 10.3.2 is the elastic yield locus, i.e., the locus of aH I
~~ I
points which are just at the yield stress as computed elasticaHy. This O '------l._--.::s..I __ _ .J1 __
commonly assumed to be the boundary of the plastic zone. It can be seen 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
from the figure that this assumption can be appreciably in error. This x
further illustrated in Figure 10.3.3, where the elastoplastic boundary is FIGURE 10.3.3 Variation of plastic zone shape with strain-hardening parameter.
228 The Piane Elastoplastic Problem [Ch. IO
Sec. 10-3] Elastoplastic Problem or the Infinite Plate with a Crack
229
0.5 0.7
P=0.6

004 0.6

0.3 0.5
y

0.2 0,4

0.1 0.3

o L--_ _ -'-_~'"':"
0.2
0.8 0.9
x
FIGURE 10.3.4 Growth of piastic zone size with Ioad; pIane stress.
0.1

as a function of the strain-hardening parameter m. Figure 10.3.4 shows the

growth of the pIastic zone with Io ad for a strain-hardening ~aramet~r, O~---'- _ __
0.8 0.9
m = 0.1. It is seen that the shape of the e1astopIastic boundanes ~emam
similar to each other as the Io ad increases, again in agreement wlth the x
experimentaI results of reference [9]. . FIGURE 10.3.5 Growth of plastic zone size with Ioad; pIane strain.
AlI the previous results were for the case of pIane str~s.s. The pIane st~am
were soIved for one particuIar case, less than 300 of the grid points were
case provides no additionaI difficulties. One uses the defimtlOn ofthe func~lOns
within the pIastic zone. It is, of course, possible to improve this situation by
g and /::"g given in equations (10.1.14) and computes U z from (10.2.3). FIgure
using a variable grid spacing, which was not done in the above ca1culations.
10.3.5 shows the growth of the pIastic zone with Ioad for th~ case of.pIane
Second, the effect of the singularity on the resu1ts of the computation is
strain for linear strain-hardening with m equaI to 0.1. Companson of Flgures
not ~t all clear. The elastic solution 1>e, which is subtracted as previously
10.3.4 and 10.3.5 shows that the areas covered by the pIastic zones for pIane
descnbed, has a square-root stress singularity. If the plasticity solution has
strain are considerabIy smalIer than those for pIane stress for the same Ioad
ratios.
th~ same order singularity, then the technique used in subtracting the singu-
Ianty would be effective. However, it is likely that the order of singularity
As mentioned at the beginning of this section, the above ~esult~ canno: ~e
changes as plastic flow progresses. This has been indicated in resu1ts obtained
Iooked upon as quantitativeIy accurate without further venficatlOn. ThlS lS
by Swedlow [11]. If this is true, then subtracting the elastic singularity may
due to severaI factors. In the first pIace, to ensure that the assumption that
not be so effective and errors due to the singularity may be propagated
the e1astic soIution prevails on the boundary of the rectangIe i~ reasona~Iy
through the solution. This requires further investigation.
correct the rectangIe size was kept at roughIy twice the pIashc zone SlZ~.
A solution using the successive-approximation technique and finite differ-
This n:eant that a majority of the grid points did not falI within the pIastlC
ences was also obtained in reference [12] for a finite plate with symmetric
zone. To keep the number of simultaneous equations to be s~Ived at a
reasonabIe vaIue, the grid spacing was necessarily very co arse wlth res~ect
e~ge cracks. Again, because of the coarseness of the grid and the stress
to the pIastic zone size. Thus, although as many as 800 simuItaneous equatlOns
~In~ularities, the resu1ts cannot be expected to be accurate, but do give an
IndICation of the shape and growth of the plastic zone.
230 The PIane Elastoplastic Problem [Ch. lO
A somewhat different technique was empIoyed in reference [11] for solving
the problem of a center-cracked symmetrically Ioaded plate. An equation
similar to (10.3.1) was derived in terms of the rate of change (or increment)
ofthe stress function. Por the case ofpIane stress, this equation is quasilinear;
J
i.e., it is linear in although nonlinear in 4>. Assuming the stresses and strains
are known at a given time, the increment in 4>, and consequently in the stresses
and strains, can be computed using the stress-strain curve. Both finite-
difference and finite-element methods [15] were used in reference [11]. The
latter method is said to give better resulis. The pIane strain problem, however,
cannot readily be solved by the method of reference [11].
Sec. 10-4] Strain-Invariance Principle
231
It should ~e noted that the totai strains, being a solution of the elast'
pr~blem, s.a~ls~y the cou:patibility relations. The stresses, however, do n~~
satIsfy eqUl~lbrIum equatlOns. If the plastic zone is relatively small compared
to the elastIc zone, then, since the elastic stresses do satisfy the eq 'l'b .
t' 'l'b . . Ul l rIum
equ~ l?nS, ~qUl l num wIll be satisfied approximately on the whole and the
stram-mvanance answers would be expected t o b e reasona bI y ' correct
H .
.owever, lf t~e plastic zone is very large, then equilibrium on the wh l'
wI11 not be satIsfied and the strain-invariance answers may be appreciablyOi e
error. n
The results of strain-invariance answers for the plate problems of S t'
9.2 and 10.2 are shown in Pigures 10.4.1 and lO .4..2 P'19ure lO ..
41 shows
ec IOnsa

10-4 STRAIN-INVARIANCE PRINCIPLE - strain-hardening errar

- - - - strain-invariance errar
A study of the previous examples, as well as other examples involving - -- erro~ due ta neglecting
straln-:-hardening and
primarily thermalloading, has Ied to an interesting observation of practical assumlng strain- invariance
importance. Por thermal stress problems without additionalloads, the total 20
strains do not change very much because ofthe plastic deformation compared
to the elastically computed strains. Hence an elastic computation gives 16
approximateIy the correct values of the total strains for these types of prob-
Iems. This has been called the strain-invariance principle [13, 14].
To compute the plastic strains using strain invariance, the plastic strain- 12
total strain relations are used. If e1> e2, and es are known from the elastic
solution (principal strains are used for brevity), then eet is computed from 8
\.
(10.4.1) (/2. 4 \. .--.-
can then be obtained from the plot of ep versus eet derived from the
\ ..........0''Y'--
ep
°11~~~-------- _____
stress-strain curve. The plastic strains are computed from
-4 ,
\

-8
\
\
\
\\
0.1..... _ - - -
//
---
\\
\ .......
....
".,

-12 \ O
The stresses are computed from the stress-strain relations ,------------
al = À(e1 + e2 + es - 3aT) + 2G(e1 - aT - eD -16~--:---L---.J_ _ L_-.l
a2 = À(e1 + e2 + es - 3aT) + 2G(e2 - aT - e~) (10.4. O 12 16 20
as = À(e1 + e2 + es - 3aT) + 2G(ss - aT - e~) Loading parameter T
a
Per cent error in plastic strain using strain invariance; infinite
This method onIy applies for a one-step Ioading problem.
232 The Piane Elastoplastic Problem [Ch. lO References
233
10
References

--- --- --
__ - 3 x 1 PIat e
neglecting strain hardening

\
1. I. S. SokoIinkoff, Mathematical Th
eory 01 Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New
o ....... _-- -- York, 1956, p. 260.
2. E. Roberts, Jr., and A. Mendelson An' .
and Strains in Finite Thin Plate NASA Ta;:SIS of PIastre Thermal Stresses

"'----- ---
o~
~~3x1 plate
3. C. E. IngIis, Stresses in a Plate' Due to the ~-2206, 1964.
.:
2 -10 Corners, Trans. Inst. Naval Arch 55 N resence of Cracks and Sharp
w
--"
neglecting stroin hardening
4. A. A. Griffith Th Ph '" o. 1, 1913, pp. 219-239.
_ . - 1x1 plate , e enomena of Rupture and FI . S .
Roy. Soc. London, A221, 1921, pp. 163-198. ow In ohds, Phil. Trans .

" .--._."""-.---
5. E. Orowan, Fundamentals 01 Brittle Beh . .
-20
. 01 Metals, M.I. T. Press, Boston M aVlo~ In Metal~, Fatigue and Fracture
_m=0.1
_- - 1 x 1 plate pp. 139-169. ' ass., an John WIley, New York, 1952,
6. Fracture Testing 01 High Strength Sheet Al, .
~S~M Committee, ASTM Bull. 243, 1960. atenals, A Report of a Special
-30L--------L--------~--------~------~ 7. L' euber, Th~ory of Notch Stresses, AEC TR-4547 1958
O 5 10 15 20 8. . Fox, Numerrcal Solution olOrdinar a d " .
Load ing parameter TO Pergamon Press, London 1962 301 Y n Partlal Differential Equations,
9 J R D' "p. .
· . . lxon, The Effect of Locai Plastic D t .
FIGURE 1004.2 Same as Figure 1004.1; 1 x 1 and 3 x 1 plates. bution Around a Crack NEL R t AT e ormatlOn on the Stress Distri-
lO N I M . ' :p . HO. 71, Dee. 1962
· " uskhehshvili, Some Basic Problem' .
pio t of the error in the maximum plastic strain assuming strain invariance, 01 Elasticity P Noordhoff G ' 1 s In the Mathematical Theory
Il ' . , ronIngen, 953.
as a function of the loading parameter 1'0, for the thin infinite strip of Section · J. L. Swedlow, M. L. Williams and W H Y .
and Strains in Cracked Plates P' d" . ang, Elasto-PIastrc Stresses
9.2. Also shown is the error in neglecting strain hardening for a strain-
Fracture, Sendai, Japan, Sep; ;;;;~ l;gS olth~ International Conlerence on
hardening parameter m = 0.1 (i.e., assuming m = O instead of m = 0.1). 12. I. S. Tuba, A Method of EIa'stic-pÌ a ~o Galclt SM 65-14, JuIy 1965.
It is seen that the error in neglecting strain hardening is on the conservative J. Stra in Anal., 1, No.2, 1966, pp. ::~~l;~ane Stress and Strain AnaIysis,
si de (gives larger plastic strains than actually exist); the error in strain 13. A. Mendelson and S. S. Manson Prac' l ' .
invariance is on thenonconservative side. It is interesting to note also, as is ProbIems in the Eiastic-Plast" R trca SoIutlOn of Plastic Deformation
shown in the figure, that if one makes both assumptions, i.e., neglects strain 14. S. S. Manson, Thermal Stressl~ /~ge, NASA T~ R-28, 1959.
York, 1966, p. 196. n ow Cycle Fatrgue, McGraw-Hill, New
hardening and assumes strain invariance, the errors tend to cancel each other.
15. M. J. Turner, R. W. Clough H C M r t"
In any case, from an engineering viewpoint a lO per cent or even a 20 per cent
error is not very large, considering our inexact knowledge of material
Deflection Analysis of Com;Iex' St'
1965, pp. 805-823.
tIn, and L. J. Tupp, Stiffness and
ruc ures, J. Aerospace, Sci., 23, No.9,
behavior. Figure 10.4.2 shows similar results for the square plate and the
3 x 1 plate of Section 10.2.

Problems

1. Derive equation (10.1.11).

2. Obtain the finite-difference equation corresponding to equation (10.2.1)
assuming the grid spacing in the y direction is twice that in the x direction.
3. Determine the expression for ez for the case of generalized pIane strain by
means of equations (10.2.3) and (10.204).
4. Show that the stress function given by equation (10.3.5) satisfies the boundary
conditions for an infinite piate with a crack 2 units long and loaded at infinity
with a tensile stress P normai to the pIane of the crack.
 Sec. Il-I] Torsion of Prismatic Bar. Generai Relations
235

CHAPTER Il y

--------- -----
.... 'f--'r------- z
II J
"
-'
x
FIGURE 11.1.1 Prisma tic bar subject to twisting couple.

For
' the. case of the bea m t WlS
. t ed as shown, lt
. lS
. assumed that the an le of
tW.lS~ o~: gl~~n cross section is directly proportionai to its distance fro! the
~~r~: theU~ 1. ~he ~nIIghie oftwist per unit Iength is a, then a section a distance
ngm Wl ave rotated an amount
THE TORSION
PROBLEM if; = az (11.1.1)

Now consid~~ a point. p originally at Iocation (x, y, z). This point will
rotate to a posltlOn P I wlth coordinates (x h y h Zl ),wh ere
In this chapter severai problems of torsion will be considered. Although
these problems are in generaI two-dimensional, they are usually simpier Y1=y+v Zl = Z +w
than pIane stress or pIane strain problems. This is due to the fact that the
governing differentiai equation is of the second order rather than the fourth . tand whbeing the displacements,
u, v, assumed.
smaii The proJectlOn
" of these
order, as is the case for the pIane problems. Furthermore, for bars of circular pom s on t e xy pIane are shown in Figure Il 1 2 If th l .
of the point P are r and 8, then we have . . . e po ar coordmates
cross section the Ioading is radiaI, so that incrementaI piasticity theories
need not be used at Ieast for this case.
x = r cos 8 y = r sin 8
Xl = r cos (8 + if;) Y1 = r sin (8 + if;) (11.1.2)
11-1 TORSION OF PRISMATIC BAR. GENERAL
RELATIONS
Consider a prismatic bar subject to a twisting couple as shown in Figure
Il.1.1. One end of the bar is assumed fixed against rotation but not against
warping, and at the other end a couple M with a moment along the z axis is
applied. The eiastic solution for a beam of arbitrary cross section was first
obtained by Saint-Venant [1], using the semiinverse method. In this methocL
x
some simplifying assumptions concerning the stresses and/or Ols:pHiCementS
are first made and a solution to the given problem obtained. If this
satisfies the necessary equations of equilibrium and compatibility and
stress-strain re1ations, as well as the boundary conditions, then the "v.'.......•
is a correct one. FIGURE 11.1.2 Projection of twisted cross section.
234
 The Torsion Problem [Ch. 11 Sec. 11-1] Torsion of Prismatic Bar. Generai Relations
236 237
and if it is assumed that IjJ is small, so that From (11.1.5) it follows that the constant in (11.1. 7) must equal a. Therefore,
the compatibility equation for this problem becomes
cos IjJ ~ 1

then (11.1.8)
U = Xl - X = - rIjJ sin e = - yIjJ
(11.1.3)
v = Yl - Y = rIjJ cos e = xIjJ It should be emphasized again that the shear strains 8 yZ and 8 xz are the
components of the strain tensor as defined by equation (4.1.12) and are there-
fore equal to one half the engineering shearing strains used by other authors.
or U = -yza
Looking now at the equilibrium equations (3.2.2), it is seen by virtue of
v = XZa (11.1.4)
(11.1.5) and the stress-strain relations that the first two are identical1y satisfied
W = w(x, y, a) and the third becomes
and

·
It is to be noted that equat 10ns 1 4) are essentially assumptions, since
(11 .. (11.1.9)
d · ti f om the assumption (11.1.1).
they stem lrec y r .' ( a) is called the warpingfunction.
The disfla~emen~~~h~t ~:~~r~~;~ ;r:~rtional to the angle of twist per which is the equilibrium equation for the problem.
For the e as IC pro f't roblem this is in generaI no longer true. We now turn to the stress-strain re1ations. These can be written
unit length a. For the plas ICI YbPt't t d into the strain-displacement relations
Equations (11.1.4) can be su SI U e
(4.1.12) to obtain the strains. Thus _ l p
8xz - 2G T xz + 8xz
8X = 8y = 8z = 8XY =O (11.1.10)

. 1(
8xz = 2: -ya + OW)
Bx (11.1.5)
where 8~z and 8~z are the accumulated plastic components of the total shear
8 yZ = 2:1 ( Xa + BW)
By
strains. Substituting (11.1.10) into (11.1.8), the compatibility equation is
obtained in terms of the stress es :

. )' to the compatibility equations (4.7.2), it is

Substituting equat10ns (11 ·1. 5 ;n t f these equations are identically satisfied BT yZ- -
-
xz 2Ga+gx,y
BT= ()
d h
seen that the first three an t e as o Bx By (11.1.11)
and the other two become

~ (_ B8 yZ + B8 XZ ) = O
Bx Bx By X
g ( ,y
) = 2G (B8~z
By
_ B8f z)
Bx (11.1.12)

_ ~ (_ B8 yZ + B8 XZ ) = O
By Bx By We now introduce a stress function r/> such that

B8 yZ _ 08 xz = constant (11.1. Br/> _ Br/>

or Bx oy T xz = By OX (11.1.13)
238 The Torsion Problem [Ch. 11 Sec. Il-I] Torsion of Prismatic Bar. Generai Relations
239
Then the equilibrium equation (11.1.9) is identically satisfied and the com- It should be noted that equation (11.1.15) is equivalent to the statement
patibility equation (11.1.11) becomes that the resultant shear stress at the boundary is tangent to the boundary.
2
This must always be true if the Iaterai surface of the bar is force-free. It aiso
2 _ 8 4> 82 4> _
\j 4> = 8X2 + 8y2 - -2Ga - g(X, y) (11.1.14) follows, since equation (11.1.17) and consequent1y equation (11.1.15) hold
for any line 4> = constant in the cross section, that the resultant shear stress
For the elastic problem g(x, y) is equal to zero. at any point is tangential to the 4> = constant line passing through that point.
The boundary conditions for the problem can be obtained direct1y from The lines 4> = constant are called the stress trajectories. Furthermore, from
equations (3.3.1). The first two of these are identically satisfied and the third (11.1.13) it folIows that the resultant shear stress T at any point is given by
reduces to
(11.1.15)
T = VT;z + T~z = J(:~r + (:~r (11.1.19)
From Figure 11.1.3 it can be seen that or T = Igrad 4>1

The resultant shear stress is thus equai to the gradient of the stress function 4>.
Let us now calculate the resultant forces and moments acting on any cross
section. The force in the x direction is given by

Qx = JJTxz dx dy = JJ:~ dx dy
= J[4>(x, A) - 4>(x, B)]dx =O (11.1.20)

FIGURE 11.1.3 Geometry of boundary. where the double integraI is taken over the area of the cross section and
4>(x, A) and 4>(x, B) are the values of 4> at two opposite points ofthe boundary
dy
l = cos (n, x) = ds at a given value of x, and are consequent1y equai to zero because of the
(11.1.16) boundary condition (11.1.18). In a similar fashion, it folIows that the y
dx component of the resultant stress is zero. Finally, the torque acting on the
m = cos (n, y) = - ds section is computed from

and (11.1.15) becomes, upon combining with (11.1.13),

M = JJ(TyZX - Txzy)dx dy

or 4> equals a constant along the boundary. In the case of simply connected
=- JJ(:~ x + :~Y)dX dy (11.1.21)

boundaries, e.g., solid bars, this constant can be chosen arbitrari1y, since we Integrating by parts and making use again of the boundary condition
are interested only in the derivatives of 4>. It is, therefore, for convenience (11.1.18) results in
chosen to be zero, so that the boundary condition becomes

4>=0 on the boundary M = 2 JJ4> dx dy (11.1.22)

240 The Torsion Problem [Ch. 11 Sec. 11-2] Elasticity Solutions
241
If a solution is obtained for equation (11.1.14) subject to the boundary the ~ou~dary condi~ion (11.1.18), g, = 0, will obviously be satisfied, and
condition (11.1.18), then the stress es can be computed from (11.1.13) and the substItUtlllg (11.2.2) lllto (11.1.14) results in
strains from (11.1.1 O). (The calculation of the plastic strains will be discussed
subsequent1y.) The equilibrium and compatibility equations, the stress-strain
relations, and the boundary conditions will all be satisfied. The assumptiòn (11.2.3)
(11.1.1), or equivalently (11.1.4), thus leads to the correct solution of the Hence
torsion problem. It should be noted, however, that the solution requires the
same stress distributions to act on every cross section, including the end
(11.2.4)
sections. However, by Saint-Venant's principle, if the beam is sufficient1y
long, the solution will be valid for all cross sections far enough away from
is the solution for the elastic case.
the ends for any stress distribution acting on the ends, provided the resultant
T~e torque req~ir~d to produce the angle of twist per uni t length a is
force is zero and the resultant moment is given by (11.1.22).
obtallled by subStItUtlllg the solution (11.2 .4) into (11 .l .
22), g1Vlllg
..
Equation (11.1.14) is the well-known Poisson's equation, which is encoun-
tered so frequent1y in mathematical physics. Its solution can be obtained by
many different techniques. For the elasticity problem, the right si de is a (11.2.5)
constant, and solutions, at least for simple shapes, can readily be obtained.
For the plasticity problem the right side is a function of the plastic strains The consta~t GJ is called the torsional rigidity, or torsional stiffness, of the
and is therefore unknown until the solution is obtained. (The problem is bar, for ObVlOUS reasons.
nonlinear.) For materials with or without strain hardening we can use the To obtain the shear stresses, the solution (11.2.4) is differentiated to give
method of successive elastic solutions described in Chapter 9. For perfect1y
plastic materials, a simpler, more specialized approach, to be described sub-
og, a2
T xz = oy = - 2 a2 + b 2 Gay
sequent1y, can sometimes be used. In either case the elasticity solution is a
(11.2.6)
prerequisite to the plasticity solution, and we shall therefore first present some og, b2
solutions to the elasticity problem. T yZ = -ox = 2 a2 + b 2 Gax
and the resultant shear stress is

11-2 ELASTICITY SOLUTIONS (11.2.7)

Equation (11.1.14), with g(x, y) equal to zero, can sometimes be solved T~e maximum stress will occur on the boundary at the point closest to the
by guessing a solution, if the boundary of the cross section is of a simple aXlS of the bar at x = 0, y = b. Thus
shape. For example, if the bar has an elliptic cross section, the equation of
the boundary curve being
(11.2.8)

T(10 obtain the warping function w(x, y, a), we first compute the strains from
1.1.10) :

then choosing for a stress function

(11.2.9)
242 The Torsion Problem [Ch. 11 Sec. 11-2] Elasticity Solutions
243
and then, from equation (11.1.5),
y
2 2

8x = bb + a ay
8w
2
-
a2
l
(11.2.10) o

Therefore,
b2 _ a2
w = b2 + a2 axy + constant

and since at the origin w must vanish, the constant must equal zero, and FIGURE 11.2.1 EquilateraI triangle.

a2 If we therefore choose as a stress function

w(x, y, a) = bb 2 _
axy (11.2.11)
:3
2
2
+a
The lines of constant W are therefore equilateral hyperbolas.
~ = c(x - :3)(y - ~ - ja)(y + + ja)
If the cross section is a circ1e, then bis equal to a in aH the previous formu-
. ~ will be zero on the boundary. Substitutinginto (11.1.14) [withg(x y) _ O]
las, resulting in glVes for c: ' -

C = -Ga
v'3
2a
Hence

T XZ = -Gay (11.2.12)
~ = ~: (V3 x- a)(y - :3 - ;a)(y + :3 + ;a) (11.2.14)
T yZ = Gax
T = Gar is the solution to the problem. The stresses the tor ue and .
T max = Gaa function can be computed as before. ' q, the warpmg

w=o Fi As a :~~1 ;xample,. consider a bar of rectangular cross section, as shown in

gure . . . For thIS case the solution is not as simple as for the previous
Next consider a bar whose cross section is an equilateral triangle as shown y
in Figure Il.2.1. The origin of x and y axes is taken at the centroid. Then the

equation of the straight lines representing the three sides are

b
a
x=-
v'3 o
x
(11.2.13)

FIGURE 11.2.2 Bar of rectangular cross section.

 244 The Torsion Problem [Ch. 11
Sec. 11-3] Membrane Analogy
cases, since it is no longer possible to guess a solution. Equation (11.1.14) 245
and right boundaries of the quadrant For a .
must be solved by one of the available methods. For example, the method th d' . square sectlOn only the poi t
on e lagonal and to the right of th d' le ' ns
of separation of variables is used in reference [2], resulting in an infinite-series resulting in ~n(n _ l) . e lagona or left) need be considered,
solution, whereas in reference [3] the Green's function is used, resulting in a 2 equatlOns. Along the lower boundar b
symmetry, equation (11.2.15) becomes y, ecause of
double infinite series. Here the finite-difference method will be used, since
it is relatively simple and can be direct1y extended to elastoplastic problems.
We note first that because of symmetry, only one quadrant of the section 4>1+1.1 + 4>1-1.1 + 24>1.2 - 44>1.1 = -2Gah2 (11.2. 16a)
need be considered. For a square cross section the diagonals are also lines and along the Ieft bùundary,
of symmetry and only one octant is used. The quadrant is divided into a
grid of n x m points as shown in Figure Il.2.3. At each of the grid points,
4>1.1-1 + 4>1.1+1 + 24>2.1 - 44>1,} = -2Gah2 (11.2.16b)
m and at the center,
• • • • • • •
• • • • • • •
44>2.1 - 44>1.1 = -2Gah 2
• • • • • • • (11.2.16c)
(,;;)
• • • • • • • • • j Along the diagonal of a square,
• • • • • • • • • }-1
• • • • • • • 24>1+1.1 + 24>1.1-1 - 44>1.1 = -2Gah2
• • • • • • • • • (11.2.16d)
• • • • • • • • • 3 .~UCh ~ soIut~on :vas obtained for a square cross section using an Il x Il
• • • • • • • • 2 gn . as s own In FIgure 11.2.3. The 55 resulting equations were solved b
stralghtforward Gauss-Seidel process esee reference [9]) Th . Ya
2 3 ;-1 n st· h' h . e maXlmum shear
less, w IC occurs at the centers of the sides and th t
FIGURE 11.2.3 Finite-difference grid for rectangle. below with the values from reference [2]: ' e orque are compared

such as the point designated by (i, j), equation (11.1.14) is written in finite-
difference form: Finite
Re/. [2] Difference
4>1+1.1 + 4>1-1.1 + 4>1.1-1 + 4>1.1+1 - 44>1.1 = -2Gah 2 (11.2.15) Tmax/Gaa 1.351 1.343
M/Gaa 4 2.250 2.244
where h is the grid spacing assumed constant and is the same in both the 4>1.1/Gaa 2 0.589 0.589
x and y directions.
An equation such as (11.2.15) can be written for each of the n x m grid
It is seen that the solution with this many grid points is sufficientIy accurate.
points, resulting in a set of n x m simultaneous linear equations for the
unknown values of 4> at each of the points. Once the </>,s are determined as
the solution of this set of equations, the shear stress can be obtàined from
equations (11.1.13) by numerical differentiation and the torque for a given 11-3 MEMBRANE ANALOGY
angle of twist per unit length a from equation (11.1.22) by numerical inte-
Solutions of the elastic torsion r bI
gration. mental1y by means of th P o em can also be obtained experi-
Actually the number of equations to be solved is (m - 1) x (n - 1) rather sid e membrane analogy suggested by PrandtI [4] C
er a membrane such as a soap film havin h . on-
than m x n, since the boundary conditions require 4> to be zero at the section ofthe bar being twisted Ifth d g t. esame shape as the cross
. e e ges of thlS membrane are fixed and a
246 The Torsion Problem [Ch.
, 11 Sec. 11-4] Elastoplastic Torsion. Perfect Plasticity
247
, appl'l
pressure lS d toe
one si,
de the membrane will deflect
[2] by 269)'
an amount glven
in the plastic region, whereas in the elastic part of the bar
, of the following equations (reference , p,
by the so1u t lOn ,
\12</> = -2Ga
(11.4.3)
(11.3.1)
and </> = Oon the boundary ofthe bar. The eIastopIastic boundary is unknown
and is determined from the conditions that </> and its first derivatives (the
h is the deflection of a point of the membrane, p the applied pr~ssuref' shear stresses) are continuous across this boundary and that the resultant
w ere z "1 h in the membrane. Companson o
and ~ the constant tenslO~ ~~~4un[~i;:~(X, y) equal to zero for the elastic
shear stress is Iess than or equaI to k inside the eIastic region. Equation
(11.4.2) can aIso be written
equatlOns (11.3.1) and ( '. ) d' t 1 The deflection z of the membrane
1 ] h the analogy lmme la e y.
prob em s ows ' n d if 2Gex is equal to p/S, z is equal to </>. /grad </>/ = k
correspo~ds t~e
to stre7 :~::~~b;ane at any point is proportional to the
(11.4.4)
The maXlmum s ope o . t and the volume under the membrane inside the pIastic region, In other words, the sIope of the </> surface is a
resultant shear stress at thde pom _ O pIane) is proportional to the torque constant, equal to k, in the pIastic region, it is not greater than k in the elastic
(b the membrane an t h e z -
etwe~n,
, 1f
nit len th. The membrane analogy lS usefu or region, and the height and sIope of the </> surface are continuous across the
producmg a tW1St of ex per u, ~; complicated shapes and has been used eIastopIastic boundary,
determining the stress fun~tlO~ °lastic torsion for perfect1y plastic materials The above conditions on </> for a perfectly pIastic materiaI suggest the
very successfully. Hs extenslOn o p
extension of the membrane analogy to a partially pIastic bar [6, 7]. A roof
will be discussed in Section 11.4.
of constant slope, proportionaI to k, is erected with the membrane as its base.
As the membrane is pressurized and deflects, it wiII approach the roof, The
region of the membrane corresponding to the region of the bar flowing
11-4 ELASTOPLASTIC TORSION.PERFECT pIasticalIy wiII be pressed against the roof and wiII have the same sIope as the
PLASTICITY roof. The rest of the membrane, corresponding to the elastic region, wiII not
be touching the roof and wiII have a smaller sIope.
,
If the applied torque is sufficlently 1arge, p 1as t'lC flow (will occur.
P bI Since the
2 and The membrane-roo! analogy furnishes a simple physicaI and intuitive
'11 1 s occur at the boundary see ro em picture ofthe growth ofthe pIastic zones as the torque is increased. To obtain
maximum stress Wl . a way will start at some point on the boundary and
reference [5]), a pla~tlC z,one h is increased, Additional plastic quantitative resuIts wiII usualIy entail a considerabIe amount of Iabor, For
d d the mtenor as t e torque the case of complete pIastic yieIding, the soIution becomes much simpIer,
sprea towar other oints in the cross section, For the
zones may SUbS~qUent1Yblstar\~!
case of the torslOn pro em, yield ~riteria of von Mises and of Tresca In this case the membrane wiII be in contact with the whole roof, and it is
no Ionger necessary to use a membrane, Instead, one constructs a roof of the
both reduce to proper sIope, This can be done by simpIy heaping dry sand onto a pIate whose
T 2xz + T yz2 --k2 (11.4.1) shape is simiIar to the cross section of the bar. Since the torque is equaI to
twice the volume of sand (see Problem 5), the torque required to produce
complete yieIding can readiIy be determined. Thus for a circIe of radius a,
. h ield stress in slmple , shear. Accor d'm g to the .
von
.,Mises .
where k lS t e y . ;- d d' t the Tresca cntenon lt lS the volume of the sand hilI (in this case, a eone) is
,.. v 3 an accor mg o , ,
cntenon, k lS equal to Go/ : d . , pIe tension If the matenalls
/2 h e G is the ywl stress m Slm , .
equal to Go
perfect1y , W er
plastic, then oequatlOn
, (11:.
4 l) mus
. t hold everywhere in the plashc
region. In terms of the stress functlOn </>, where h is the height of the heap. Since the sIope of the sand hilI corresponds
to the shear yieId stress k,

(:~r + (:~r = k 2
k=-a
h
248 The Torsion Problem [Ch. 11 Sec. 11-51 Elastoplastic Torsion with Strain Hardening
249
and the torque is given by where eo and ao are the yield strain and yield stress, respectively, related to
(11.4.5) each other by ao = Eeo and a is a characteristic linear dimension of the
cross section.
Similarly, for a rectangle with dimensions a x b [8], The system of equations to be solved for a simply connected cross section
can now be written

M p = 1- 2
12 a (3b - a)k
(11.4.6)
(11.5.2)
·
F 19ure 4 1 shows the sand-hill analogies for the above two cases.
Il ..

u=o on boundary (11.5.3)

BU
- Bg (11.5.4)

foE---- b -----)o-j (11.5.5)

FIGURE 11.4.1 Sand-hl'll analogies for circular and rectangular cross sections. 2 '/-2--2
Et = V3 v Ey + Ex (11.5.6)

11-5 ELASTOPLASTIC TORSION WITH (11.5.7)

STRAIN HARDENING
. blem for strain-hardening materials has received relativ~ly (11.5.8)
The torslOn pro. . , t '11 be shown that the method of succeSSIVe
little attention. In thlS sectl.on l Wl . i ns can readily be adapted to the
elastic solutions or succeSSIve ap~ro;'lmat o then becomes a simple limiting The relationship expressed in equation (11.5.7) is obtained from the
torsion problem. The pe;fe::~bie~s ~~ ~::ar strain hardening. The plastic uniaxial stress-strain curve and, as is evident, relations in terms of plastic
case of the mo~e genetr~ will be used and for convenience the following strains-total strains are being used.
strain-total stram equa lOns ,
The successive approximation method proceeds in the usual manner. The
dimensionless quantities are introduced.
plastic strainsare assumed to be zero everywhere. Equations (11.5.3) are
solved by any available method. The stresses, the total strains, and equivalent
u=_rP- total strain are computed by means of equations (11.5.4) through (11.5.7)
- 2Geoa
with the help of the stress-strain curve. If at any point in the cross section
the equivalent plastic strain as computed from (11.5.7) is negative, this point
is in the elastic region, and the plastic strains at this point are set equal to
7' xz l + P, 7'z 1+p, zero. Otherwise, new approximations to the plastic strains are calculated
7' = -- =- - 7' xz 7' = -y- = -- 7'YZ
x - 2Geo ao Y - 2Geo ao by means of equations (11.5.8). One then returns to equation (11.5.2) and
process repeated until convergence is obtained. The method wilI be illus-
trated for bars of rectangular and circular cross sections. For a circular cross
with linear strain hardening the solution can be obtained in closed
g = x/a 'T} = y/a
250 The Torsion Problem [Ch. 11 Sec. 11-6] Bar with Rectangular Cross Section 251
The results of such a calcuiation for a square cross section with Il x Il
11-6 BAR WITH RECTANGULAR CROSS SECTION grid points as shown in Figure 11.2.3 are shown in Figures 11.6.1 through
11.6.4. In these calcuiations linear strain hardening was assumed. Equation
The eiastic solution for a bar with a rectanguiar cross section by means of
(11.5.7), reiating the equivalent piastic strain to the equivalent totai strain,
finite differences was presented in Section 11.2. To obtain the eiastopiastic can then be written (see Section 7.9)
solution the function g(x, y) is subtracted from the right side of equation
(11.2.15), which in terms of the dimensioniess quantities defined in (11.5.1)
becomes Ep = 1 + j{l + ft)(mf1 - m) (11.6.3)

where
4.0
gl,j
1 (P
= 2H Ex,l,!+l -
P
Ex,l,j-l -
P
ElI,Hl,j
+ ElI,l-l,!
P ) (11.6.2)
3,2

and H is the grid spacing divided by a.

The onIy difference between equations (11.6.1) and (11.2.15) is in the 2.4
x
o
numbers appearing on the right side, which now depend on the piastic Q.E

strains and change from iteration to iteration. Equations (11.6.1) can tliere- '" 1.6

fore be solved in the same way as equations (11.2.15) for the eiastic case.
Once the values of U are determined at all the grid points, corresponding 0.8

values of piastic strains are computed by means of equations (11.5.4) through

(11.5.8), as fully described in Section 11.5. The gl,! are then recomputed and o
equations (11.6.1) solved again, the process being repeated unti! convergence,
is obtained. FIGURE 11.6.2 Variation or E:;'ax with f3.
m
1.0
m
1.0

4,0
2.0

3.2
1.6
M*
1.2 2.4

~
)(
o
E
...
0.8
_QQ5 O

o 6

FIGURE 11.6.1 Variation or T max with f3. FIGURE 11.6.3 Variation or M* with f3.
252 The Torsion Problem [Ch. Il
where the strain-hardening parameter m is the ratio of th~ slope of the linear
hardening curve to the slope of the elastic curve, as pr~vlOusly ~efined. For
the perfect1y plastic case m is equal to 0, and for the elastlC case m lS equal to 1.
Sec. 11-7] Bar with Circular Cross Section
253
The figures show the effects of the strain-hardening parameter and the angle
of twist on the maximum stress, the maximum plastic strain, the size of the
plastic zone, and the torque. The results are also summarized in Table Il.6.1.
Although the calcuiations are described using deformation theory, a
similar calcuiation, increasing et in steps, gave aimost identical results. This
is in agreement with similar calcuiations in reference [11]. As shown in
reference [12], incrementaI and deformation theories give identical results for
a perfectly piastic material of any cross section or a strain-hardening materiai
of circuiar cross seption. For strain-hardening materiais of noncircuiar cross
sections they will yie1d different results. It appears, however, that the differ-
ences will in generaI be slight.

11-7 BAR WITH CIRCULAR CROSS SECTION

For a bar with a circular cross section the solution is greatly simplified.
In particular, for the case of linear strain hardening, a c1osed-form solution
can be obtained. In polar coordinates the displacements are

Ur = O Ue = etrz (11.7.1)
m f3 M* T max €~ax
and the only nonzero strain is
o 2 1.786 0.751 0.820
3 1.918 0.751 1.824
4 1.955 0.751 2.851 (11. 7.2)
5 1.977 0.751 3.959
The stress-strain relation can therefore be written
0.05 2 1.813 0.785 0.758
3 1.997 0.825 1.623
4 2.094 0.862 2.434 (11. 7.3)
5 2.166 0.899 3.240
6 2.228 0.934 4.003
The von Mises equivalent stress reduces to
0.10 2 1.838 0.818 0.701
3 2.073 0.893 1.478
(11. 7.4)
4 2.223 0.963 2.209
5 2.347 1.032 2.919
and the equivalent plastic strain is
6 2.465 1.099 3.618

0.20 2 1.890 0.881 0.600

2.220 1.022 1.250 (11.7.5)
3
4 2.471 1.156 1.870
5 2.717 1.290 2.488
6 2.966 1.426 3.116
(11.7.6)
t,
, ì

The Torsion Problem [Ch. 11 Sec. 11-7] Bar with Circular Cross Section 255
254
and the criticaI angle of twist per unit length will be
Let
(Je - S r
2Gso = e (i==P
(11.7.7)
(11.7.13)
or

where a is the radius of the bar. Then equation (11.7.6) can be written in To summarize, the strain-hardening solution is found as follows. The
dimensionless form as elastoplastic boundary Pc is first determined from equation (11.7.11). The
stress and strain in the elastic region for P :::; Pc are then computed from
equations (11.7.2) and (11.7.3) with s:z set equal to zero. In the plastic region
(11.7.8) P > Pc, equation (11.7.10) is solved, usually by an iterative method. s:z can
then b~ computed from equation (11. 7.5) and the shear stress from (11. 7.3).
Once the shear stress is known throughout the section, the torque can be
The stress-strain curve can be written in dimensionless form as computed by integration.
Let us now consider the case of linear strain hardening. Equation (11. 7.9)
(11.7.9)
for the stress-strain curve can be written

and combining with (11.7.8) results in

(11. 7.14)

Hence equatio~ (11.7.10) becomes

which can be solved iteratively for €p'

Equation (11.7.10) is valid only in the plastic region. Let this regio n exten.d
bet ween P = Pc and P - - l • To determine the position of the e1astoplastrc
boundary, i.e., Pc, let Sp = O when (Je = (Jo or when V3 (3p - 2(1 + p,)
€p = 3 + 2(1 + p,)m/{l - m) P ~ Pc (11.7.15)

Note that the criticaI value of P is obtained when the numerator of (11. 7.15)
Hence from (11. 7.8) vanishes, which resuIts again in equation (11.7.11).
Once the equivalent plastic strain is known from equation (11.7.15), the
2(1+ p,) shear strain and the stress are computed from (11.7.5) and (11.7.3).
Pc = V3 (3
have thus obtained a complete solution in closed formo To compute the
define 1'0 == Toz/2Geo. Then
which depends only on Poisson's ratio and the yield str~in but no~ on
stress-strain curve. The value of (3 at which plastic flow )ust starts 1S
from equation (11.7.11) by setting Pc equal to 1. Thus the criticaI value
M * =- 2-G
M 3 = 27T'
soa o
il
TOP 2dP (11. 7.16)

will be substituting

(3c
- 2(1
- v3+ p,) _{tf3P
1'0 - 1(3 P
P :::; Pc
"2 P - €o P ~ Pc
256 The Torsion Problem [Ch. 11 Sec. 11-7] Bar with Circular Cross Section
257
results in
ResuIts of eomputations using the above formulas are shown in Figures
M* = 7rt - v'37r[tA(1 - p~) + tB(l - p2)]
11.7.1 through 11.7.3. Figure 11.7.1 shows the elastoplastie boundary as a
funetion of f3. Figure 11.7.2 shows the effeet of the strain-hardening para-
meter on the shear stress for f3 = 5.0, and Figure 11.7.3 shows the effeet of
where
v'3f3 (11.7.17) these parameters on the torque.
A = 3 + 2(1 + p,)m/(l - m)
2(1 + p,)
B=
3 + 2(1 + p,)m/{l - m)

Note that for Pc = 1 (no plastie flow) the torque reduees to ~he elastic torque
as given in equation (11.2.12). For a perfeet1y plastie matenal, m
1.0 0.20

m = ° A = ~3 B = -i(1 + p,)
0.8 11111111!!~~~§~§~===:0.10
,... g.05
0.15

and M* = 2'1r(1; p,) (1 - !pn 0.6

3 3 Te
004
or M = 2;~io [1 - 12J3a3 (~:r] (11.7.18)

and we reeover the classical solution as given in referenee [lO].

o 0.2 004 0.6 0.8 1.0
20 P

FIGURE 11.7.2 Variation of TO with P for various m: f3 = 5.0.

18

16
m
14 4 0.20

12
3
1310

8 M*
2
6

o 0.2
o 4 8 12 16 20
Pc 13
I
FIGURE 11.7.1 Variation of pc with f3. FIGURE 11.7.3 Variation of M* with f3 for various m. I
l!
I l;
258 The Torsion Problem [Ch. 11 Generai References
259

Problems
9. ~:J~'l~~~ga, Matrix Iterative Analysis, Prentice-HalI, Englewood Cliffs,
lO. W. Prager and P G Hodg J Th
1. Show that the Ioading is radiaI for the torsion problem of a bar with a circular New York, 1951, ·P. 72. e, r., eory of Perfectly Plastic Solids, Wiley,
cross section, so that totai plasticity theories may be used, as long as there is 11. J. H. Huth, A Note on Plastic Torsion J. A I M h
2.
no unloading.
Show that the maximum shear stress for a solid bar of elliptic cross section
12. i'
W. Prager, An Introduction to the' Mafte~at~C ~~ 1955, pp. 432-:-~34.
J. Appl. Phys., 18, 1947, pp. 375-383. lca eory of PlastIclty,
under torsion occurs on the boundary at the point c10sest to the axis of the
bar.
3. Determine the stresses, the torque, and the warping function for the triangular GeneraI Reference
cross section bar of Figure 11.2.1.
4. Show that if the Iaterai surface of the bar is stress-free, the resultant shear Johnson, W. and P. B. Mellor Plasticity for M h .
Princeton, N.J., 1962.' ec amcal Engineers, Van Nostrand,
stress must be tangent to the boundary.
5. Show that if p/S is equai to 2Ga, the applied torque acting on a bar is equal Prager, W., and P G Hodge J Th ,l'
York, 1951. '. ,r., eory OJ Perfectly Plastic Solids, Wiley New
to twice the volume between a membrane of the same shape as the cross
section of the bar and the z = O pIane.
6. Determine the torque acting on a bar of circular cross section by calculating
the volume under a membrane of the same shape.
7. Show that for the torsion problem the yield criteria of von Mises and Tresca
both reduce to equation (11.4.1).
8. Using the Saint-Venant assumptions (11.1.4), show that for a bar of circular
cross section the radiaI and tangential displacements become
Il, =O IlO = arz
and consequently the only nonzero strain is eoz = tra.
9. Calculate the torques required to produce a twist of 0.004 rad/in. in a 2-in.-
diameter shaft if the material is perfectly plastic, and if the material strain
hardens with m = 0.1. Assume E = 30 X 106, P, = 0.3, and Uo = 30 X 103•

References

1. B. Saint-Venant, Mémoire sur la torsion des prismes, Mem. Acad. Sci. Math.
Phys., 14, 1856, pp. 233-560.
2. S. Timoshenko and T. N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1951, p. 275.
3. V. Kantorovich and V. I. Krylov, Approximate Methods of Higher Analysis,
P. Noordhoff, Groningen, 1958, p. 70.
4. L. Prandtl, Zur Torsion von prismatischen Staeben, Physik. Z., 4, 1
pp. 758-759.
5. I. S. Sokolnikoff, Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1956, p. 117.
6. A. Nadai, Der Beginn des Fliessvorganges in einem tortierten
Angew. Math. Mech., 3, 1923, p. 442-454.
7. A. Nadai, Theory of Flow and Fracture of Solids, VoI. 1, M(~GJrav{-E[jll,
New York, 1950.
8. W. Johnson and P. B. Mellor, Plasticity for Mechanical Engineers,
Nostrand, Princeton, N.J., 1962, p. 132.
 Sec. 12-1] PIane Strain Proble
m of a R19ld-Perfect1y Plastic Material
O
o
261

CHAPTER 12 Bx = Bx(X, y)
a y = ay(x, y)
By = By (X, y)
a z = az(X, y)
a x = a x ( X, y)

'TXY = 'TXY(x, y)
(12.1.1)

Since 'T z = 'T = O it ~ 11 h .

and a i: a pri~cipaI' stres~. ows t at the z dIfection is a principaI direction
z
For a rigid-pIastie materiaI th l ' .
totaI strains and strain incre~ et e astle stralllS are neglected, so that the
. en s are equa! to the corresp d' l'
strallls and strain increments, and the Lé _ . . on lllg astle ?
equation (7.2.5)] vy Mlses relatlOns result III [see

(12.1.2)
TRE SLIP-LINE
FIELD
and since dBz = O, the last equation gives

(12.1.3)
12-1 PLANE STRAIN PROBLEM OF A RIGID-
and also the mean stress is
PERFECTLY PLASTIC MATERIAL

In the previous chapters it was shown how the successive-approximation (12.1.4)

method can be applied to a variety of probIems, inc1uding pIane strain and The von Mises yield criterion for this case becomes
pIane stress eIastopIastic probIems. In these probIems the constrain,ts imposed
by the eIastic parts of the materiaI prevented unrestrained pIastic flow. In
many metaI-forming processes, such as rolling, drawing, forging, etc., Iarge (12.1.5)
unrestricted pIastic flows occur exeept for very smaH eIastic zones. For sueh where k is yield stress in simple shear and h b .
probIems it may not be unreasonabIe to negIect the eIastic strains and assume inste d f Th ". 'T as een wntten for brevity
a o 'T xv· e eqU1hbnum equations to be satisfied are
the materiaI to be l'igid-pel'fect/y plastic, as shown in Figure 2.6.1(b). Any
eIastic part of the body is then assumed to act as a rigid inc1usion and the
pIastic parts can flow freeIy at constant equivaIent stress.
A great dea! of work has been done on soIutions of this type of probIem (12.1.6)
under conditions of pIain strain, using the theory of slip lines. This 8ay 8'T

will be devoted to a brief discussion of this theory. We begin by writing

8y + 8x = O

equations of pIane strain for a rigid-pIastic body. By pIane strain is

Equations (12 .1.6) and (12 ..
unkno 1 5) represent three equations in the three
the condition wherein the dispIacements aH occur in paraHeI pIanes in
y
of stre wns a x, a , and. 'T. If the boundary conditions are given only in terms
body, say, pIanes paralleI to the xy pIane, and aH stresses and strains
independent of z; i.e., any re;:::~~~~: t~qU~tlOns are .sufficie?t to give the stress distribution without
W e ~ ress-stralll relatlOns. Such problems are ealled statically
BZ = Bxz = ByZ = 'T xz = 'TyZ = O
. ·s : pOlllted out a similar situation in discussing the sphere
In ectlOn 8.3. However, if displacements or velocities are specified
260
262 . The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12
Sec. 12-1] Piane Strain Problem of a Rigid-Perfectly Plastic Material
263
over par t of the b oundary
,
then thestress-strain relations must be used to
h com- Having determined the principai stresses and directions, the maximum and
relate the stresses to the strains and the problem becomes muc more minimum shearing stresses and directions can readily be determined. These
plicated. . . t of and k shearing stresses act on the pianes bisecting the principai directions as
The principal stresses in the plastic field can be wntten m erms G m described in Section 3.4. Their values are given by
as follows:
(12.1.10)

The maximum shear directions will be designated by the ex and ,8 directions.

(12.1.7) ex, called thefirst shear direction, is taken 45° clockwise from the first principai
direction, as shown in Figure 12.1.1, and,8, the second shear direction, is 900
counterclockwise from the first shear direction or 45° counterc1ockwise from
the first principai direction, as shown.
Let B be the angie which the first shear direction makes with the x axis
or, from (12.1.4) and (12:1.5), (measured counterc1ockwise). Then

B = e/> - 45°
(12.1.8)
1
tan 2B = - tan 2e/>

Th t step is to find the prindpal directions. We define thefirst principal and, from (12.1.9),
direc~:ne:s the direction of the maximum principal stress. L~t e/> ~e the angle
between the first principal direction and the x axis as shown m FIgure 12.1.1. tan 2B = G
y
- G
x
(12.1.11)
2'T
It follows therefore that
y
cos 2B = ii
(12.1.12)
. 2B Gy - Gx
sm = 2k

At every point in the piastic fieId, the angle which the maximum shear
direction makes with the x axis is determined by equations (12.1.11) or
(12.1.12). If curves are now drawn in the xy pIane such that at every point
FIGURE 12.1.1 Principal directions and ex and,8 lines.
of each curve the tangent coincides with one of maximum shear directions,
then two families of curves called shear lines, or slip lines, will be obtained.
· (3 ..
Then from equat lOn 3 6) for the prineipal directions it follows that Obviously, since the maximum and minimum shear directions at a point are
orthogonal to each other, the two families of slip lines will form an orthogonai
2'T set. These two families of curves will be called the ex lines and ,8 lines, respec-
tan 2e/> = _ G
Gx y tiveIy.
It shouId be carefully noted that aiong an ex line ex is varying and ,8 is
..
WhICh glVes two va1ues of 't'-I. differing by 90°. The second principal direction constant, and aiong a ,8 line ,8 is varying and ex is constant. ex and ,8 are mereIy
is taken 90° counterc1ockwise from the first. parameters or curvilinear coordinates used to designate the point under
264 The Slip.Line Field [Ch. 12
, Sec. 12-1] Piane Strain Problem of a Rigid.Perfect1y Plastic Materia!
265
con SI'der at1'on , J'ust as x and y designate the point.
( Thus
f.i )
the point P shown m
' 12..1 2 can be designated P (Xl> Yl) or p 0:3, {"2 • From (12.1.14) it is seen that the state of stress can be determined in terms
F 19ure
of two independent quantities, a m and e. The equilibrium equations can be
written in terms of these quantities by substituting (12.1.14) into (12.1.6).
f3 lines Thus
~
oa 2k (cos2e-
oe. oe)
-E! -
ox ox + s1ll2e-
oy = O

(12.1.15)
oa ( oe. oe)
-E! + 2k cos 2e - - Slll 2e - = O
oy oy ox
or defining
x
FIGURE 12.1.2 Families of et and (3 lines.
we can write
, n the maximum shear planes equals the
The normal stresses actmg o t' (3 4 5) Thus the
. . l tresses as shown by equa 10n .. . ox _ cos 2e oe _ sin 2e oe = O
average of the pnnClpa s 'f l t the o: and (3 lines are given by
stresses acting normal and tangen la o
ox ox oy
(12.1.16)
oX _ sin 2e oe + cos 2e oe = O
(12.1.13) oy ox oy
Now the choice of the x and y axes is arbitrary. If we choose the x and y axes
as illustrated in Figure 12.1.3.
at a given point to coincide with the o: and (3 directions at this point, then
e = Oand
y
o o o o
ox = 00: oy = 0(3
and equations (12.1.16) become

ox oe (12.1.17)
0(3 + 0(3 = O
L---------------------~x
FIGURE 12.1.3 Stresses normal and tangential to et and (3 lines.
Equations (12.1.17) are called compatibility equations (not to be confused
with the strain compatibility equations). Each equation contains derivatives
Finally, we can express a x , a y, an d 7' in terms of a m and e, as follows: in only one direction. Integrating,

ax =am -ksin2e
along the o: curve
ay = a m + k sin 2e
along the (3 curve (12.1.18)
7'= k cos 2e
where Cl and C2 are constants. These equations were first derived by Hencky
An these results can a1so be ob tame
. d by use of Mohr's diagram. in 1923, [14].
 266 The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12
Sec. 12-2] Velo city Equations
From equations (12.1.18) it is apparent that if X and 8 are prescribed on 267
the boundary, it should be possible to proceed along constant a and fllines ~~~;ename.
are no extensions, only shearing flows in the slip directions-hence
to determine X = a m/2k and 8. Ifthe displacements or ve10cities are prescribed
over part of the boundary, as is frequently the case, these equations are not Now consider the velocities in the slip directions. From Figure 12.2.1,
sufficient to obtain a solution and the velo city equations following must also
be used. y

12-2 VELO CITY EQUATIONS

The Lévy-Mises relation (12.1.2) can also be written

q

d8 X - d8 y _ ax - ay
d8 XY - 7'XY
(12.2.1)
~--~~----------~x
FIGURE 12.2.1 Velocities in a and fl directions.
In addition, the incompressibility condition with d8 z = O is

(12.. 2.2) Vx = Va cos 8 - vp sin 8

It is convenient to divide the strains by dt, the increment of time, and write v =
y Va sin 8 + vp cos 8 (12.2.5)
these equations in terms of velocities. Of course, these equations remain
homogeneous in t, which acts merely as a scaling parameter. Then :! 8 = O, t1he x ~xis will coincide with the a direction and the condition that
e norma stralll rates be zero can be written

.
8a = (8V
- x) = O
8x 0=0
where Vx is the velocity in the x direction; i.e., Vx = du/dt and similarly
vy = dv/dt. Equations (12.2.1) and (12.2.2) become 8p
. = (8V
-8y y)
=O
0=0

(8v x /8x) - (8v y /8y) _ ax - ay or, from (12.2.5),

(8v x /8y) + (8v y /8x) - 27'
(12.2.3) 8va 88
8x - vp 8x = O

88 8vp (12.2.6)
va 8y + 8y = O
Now since the principal axes of stress and of plastic strain increment
coincide (see Section 7.2), it follows that the maximum shear stress lines and
maximum shear velocity lines coincide, or that the stress slip lines are the ~hre' since the hX dire~tion. is the same as the a direction and the fl direction is
same as t e y dlrectlOn,
same as the velo city slip lines. Also the strain rates normal to the a and p ,

directions are equal to the mean strain rates [see equation (4.5.4)]. Therefore, 8va
-8
88 I
,
,

a - v 8a = O
p -

8vp 88 (12.2.7)
8fl + Va 8fl = O
268 The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12
Sec. 12-3J Geometry of the Slip-Line Field
lf f3 is kept constant in the first equation and a in the second equation, we 269

can write 1. He~cky's first ~heorem states that the angle between two slip lines of
dv« - Vp de = ° along an aline
?ne famIly at the pomts where they are cut by a slip line of the other family

dvp + v« de = ° along a f3 line

(12.2.8) IS constant along their lengths. This is shown in Figure 12 31th
e1 and e2 being equa!.
I
. ., e ang es

These are the compatibility equations for the velocities first derived by
Geiringer in 1930, [15].
lf the problem is statically determined, the slip line field and the stresses
can be found from equations (12.1.18) (or their equivalent) and the stress
boundary conditions. The velocities can then be computed from (12.2.8) (or
their equivalent) using the velocity boundary conditions, since de will now
be known from the stress solution. lf, however, the problem is not statically
determined, which means that the stress boundary conditions are insufficient
to obtain a unique slip-line field, then equations (12.1.18) must be solved
simultaneously with (12.2.8) using both the stress boundary conditions and
the velo city boundary conditions. This is an extremely difficult problem and
must usually be done by trial and error. A slip-line field satisfying all stress
conditions is assumed. The velocities are then computed and a check made
to see if the velo city boundary conditions are satisfied. lf not, the slip-line
field is modified and the procedure repeated as often as necessary. This is FIGURE 12.3.1 Demonstration of Hencky's first theorem.
obviously a very laborious process, since the construction of just one slip-line
field is a lengthy task.
21: A) II a Iines (f3lines) turn through the same angle in going from one f3 line
It is worthwhile to note some of the differences between Hencky's stress (a me to another.
equations (12.1.18) and Geiringer's velocity equations (12.2.8).
~. lf on~ a line (f3 line) is straight between two f3 Iines (a lines) then alI
1. Hencky's equations relate two unknowns, X and e, by two equations. a lmes (f3 !mes) are straight between these two f3 Iines (a lines). Furthermore
Geiringer's equations relate three unknowns, v x , V y , and de, by two equations. these straIght segments have the same length. '
2. Hencky's equations give the stress state all along a known slip line ifthe 4. lf both the a and f3 Iines t' h . .
in the . . s raIg t m a certam regI'on , alI the stresses
.are
stress state is known at one point on the slip line. Geiringer's equations will reglOn are ~onstant. ThIS IS called a field of uniform stress state.
not give the velocities along a known slip line, if they are known at one point. 5. Along a straIght shear line the state of stress is constant
3. Hencky's equations force certain restrictions on the geometry of the 6. lf the. state of stress is constant along a curve, then eith~r the curve is
slip-line field, as we will shortly see. Geiringer's equations pIace no restriction e~be~~ed I~.~ field of constant stress or else the curve is a straight shear line
on the geometry ofthe slip-line field, except through the boundary conditions. Ii' e ~a II of curvat~re ~f the a Iines (f3 Iines) where they intersect a give~
f3 ~~ (ad~me). decrease m duect proportion to the distance traveled in the
pOSIIve IrectlOn~: the f3 line (a line). Therefore, if the plastic zone extends
;;.r el~oUgh, the radlI of curvature eventuaIIy become zero, so that neighboring
12-3 GEOMETRY OF TUE SLIP-LINE FIELD

Hencky's equations, as mentioned above, impose some rather severe

T: ~ne~run together and the solution ends at the envelope of the sIip lines
IS IS uencky's second theorem. .

restrictions on the geometry of the slip-line field, which are a great aid tur~ ~:::e sroc~ed along a given sIip .line of one fami1y, the centers of curva-
computation. We willlist a number of these but prove only a few to p lmes of the other famIly form an involute of this sIi l'
the method of attack. Of~h Thl~ el~velope of the slip lines of one fami1y is the locus of t~e I~:~PS
e s IP mes of the other family.
 270
The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12
lO. The envelope of the slip lines of one family is a limiting line across Sec. 12-3} Geolnetry of the SliP-Line Field
which the shear lines of the other family cannot be continued. 271
Il. If the radius of curvature of an aline (ft line) jumps discontinuously as
it crosses a f3line (a line), al1 a lines (f3 lines) crossing the f3 Ii ne (a line) wiII
suffer the same jump in radius of curvature. This also means that the deriva-
tives ofthe stresses are discontinuous across the slip line.

There are many similar theorems, but they are not of practical interest.
Hencky's first theorem can easily be proved as foIIows. Referring to Figure c
12.3.1, along the a line AD, the first of Hencky's equations (12.1.18) gives

and along the f3 line CD, the second equation gives > ( I ~ R/3-c,q
cr

~------------ R/3

Therefore, FIGURE 12.3.2 Proof of Hencky's second theorem.

of curva'ure R, ha, decreased by an amoun' ~p,

and a' 'he poin' D, Rs has
~',
(12.3.1)
Also along AB,
decrea,ed by an amo un, 'o firs' order of 'mali quan'i'ie,. In tbc limi,
and along BC XA + BA = XB + BB
Xa - Ba = XB - BB
Therefore,
(12.3.5)
(12.3.2)
or, comparing with (12.3.1),
or, more conveniently for computational purposes, since Aa == R"AB and
Af3 == -RpAB, equations (12.3.5) can be written

(12.3.3)
which proves Theorem 1. AR" - Rp AB == O
along a f31ine
Theorem 2 is a direct corol1ary, since from equation (12.3.3), ARp + R" AB == O
along an a line (12.3.6)

Equations (12.3.5) are the mathematical statement of Theorem 7 and

hence Theorem 7 is proved. ,

Theorem 3 is also a direct corol1ary, since if one of the lines is straight, say
AD, then BD - BA = O and therefore Ba - BB = O, so the other line is also
straight.
Similatly Theorems 4 through 6 foIIow directIy from Hencky's equations
(12.1.18). Theorems 7 through lO are based on the theory of pIane curves.
Thus let the radii of curvature of the a and f3 lines at the point A in Figure
12.3.2 be designated by R" and R p, respectively. At the point B the radius
The proof, .of the o'ber ,heorem, are given in Prager aud Hodge [lJ and
"'11 not be gwen here. Figure 12.3.3 illu,tra'" 'ome of 'he" prope"i".
ABCD and A'B'C'D' are neighboring a shear lines. AA' BB' CC' and DD'
are.infinitesimal arcs ofthe f3lines. The center of curvat;re or'these'arcs form
an Involute PQRS of the slip line ABCD. (An involute is the curve obtained
'0
by unwinding a fiexible "ring originally lY;ng on 'he curve, tba' 'he "ring
"a1~ay, 'angen, 'o 'he curve. The original curve is 'he evolu'e of the involute

~ip
aUd" tbe locu, of the radii of curvature of the involute.) At tbc point T where
the lOvolu'e PQRST mee', the line ABCDT, the di,tance be'ween tbe
!!r1Mi.'W.,y?

272 The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12 Sec. 12-4] Some Simple Examples
273
the straight lines be the (X lines and the circular arcs the f3 lines. Then from
Hencky's first equation, since e is constant along an (X line, X must also be
constant along an (X line, and, from the second equation, since evaries linear1y
with distance aiong a f3 line, X must vary Iinearly with distance aiong a f3line.
Thus the mean stress is constant in the radiaI direction and varies Iinear1y
with the angie measured from the x axis. To find the stress components we
then make use of equations (12.1.14). This type of slip-line fieid is called a
centered fan. Note that the center of the fan is a singuiar point of the stress
field, since it can have any one of an infinity of values.

FIGURE 12.3.3 Involute and limiting line. (Reference [1].) Indentation by a Punch
, . . lines becomes zero, and so does the radius of curvature of
~:~g;~i~:~~r~:h T, as stated in ~heorem 7, It is a point on the envelope of We now consider a probIem which combine s, or "patches" together, the
state of uniform stress and the centered fan-the indentation of a semi-
the (X lines and is a cusp of the f3 Ime.
infinite body by a flat rigid punch in the form of an infinite strip. Figure
12.4.2 shows a typicai pIane [2]. It is assumed that the surface of the punch

12-4 SOME SIMPLE EXllMPLES y

-qlines
----/3 lines
State of Uniform Stress

lf the stress is constant throughout the fie1d, the slip lines form two ,sets
of orthogonal straight lines. This follows direct1y fro~ ~encky's eqUatlOn~
(12.1.18), for if X is constant, then e is constant. ThlS IS the converse o
Theorem 4 of Section 12.3.

" '''-
Centered Fan FIGURE 12.4.2 Slip lines under lubricated flat punch.

C 'd SII'p-line field composed of a set of radiallines originating from and body are perfectly lubricated, so that there is no friction between them.
onSl er a 'F' 12 4 l Let
a point and a set of concentric circular arcs as shown m Igure . . . It is also assumed that there is a constant pressure over the face of the punch.
For the boundary conditions we have that over the segment AB there is a
C( lines uniform pressure kp, and the rest of the boundary is stress-free. We consider
only the case of incipient plastic flow, since once plastic flow progresses, the
shape of the boundary GABC changes considerably and it is necessary to
satisfy the boundary conditions on the deformed boundary.
Assume now that plastic flow occurs over a segment AG of the free bound-
ary as shown. The length of this segment is as yet not known. From the
boundary condition on this segment

FIGURE 12.4.1 Centered fan.

onAG
 274 The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12 Sec. 12-4J Some Simple Examples
275
From the yie1d condition,
are at 135° (or -45°). As before, region AEB is a constant stress region, the
slip lines being straight lines with 8 = in-. From the boundary condition,

it folIows that X= U
x
+ Uy = l - P}
4k 2 inAEB
Ux = ±2k (12.4.5)
8 = in-
Intuitively we would expect Ux to be compressive and we tentatively assume
Now AF and AE are straight IX slip lines and it follows from Theorem 3 of
onAG Section 12.3 that alI the shear lines in between these two are straight, or
(12.4.1)
region F AE is a centered fan. The stresses are then constant along any radiaI
Since the shear stress is zero, AG is a principal direction and the slip lines line from A to the arc FE and vary linearly along any arc such as IJ from the
value
must be at ± 45° with AG. This also follows from the last of equations
(12.1.14). The IX lines make 45° angles with AG and the f3lines 135° (or -45°), X= -t along AF l-p
to X =~ alongAE
as shown in Figure 12.4.2.
Consider the triangular region AGFformed by AG and the slip lines AFand
GF. By Theorem 6 of Section 12.3, this is a constant stress regipn. The slip Similar results hold in the regions GBD and BDC.
lines are straight lines with 8 = 71"14. The mean stress X is a constant and must The pressure p exerted by the punch to produce this state can readily be
satisfy equations (12.1.18) throughout this region. Since on the boundary AG determined. The li ne AF is an IX line and line HIJK is a f3 line. The com-
patibiIity relation to be satisfied along the f3 line (Hencky's second equation) is

X +8= constant
it folIows that AlongHI,

X=
8=4
-t}
71" inAGF (12.4.2)
AlongJK,
X = --!- and 8 = i
Now consider the boundary AB. Since it has been assumed that there is X = t(1 - p) and 8 = in-
no friction, T = O along this boundary, so that Hence

U
y
= - kP} along AB
--!- + i = te1 - p) + in-
(12.4.3)
1'=0 or
(12.4.6)
Therefore,
The velocity distribution is readily determined from the Geiringer equations
(U x~ uyf = k 2 (12.2.8). Ifthe punch is moving with a velocity Uo in the negative y direction,
then region ABE moves as rigid body attached to the punch with the same
or Ux = Uy ± 2k = k(2 - p) (12.4.4) velocity. In region AEFG, v'" equals zero and vp equals Uo/VI Region AEF
thus moves out with velocity Uo/V2 and region AGF moves in the direction
where the plus sign has been chosen (see Problem 7). It folIows then, just as FG with the same velocity.
for the segment AG, that AB is a principal direction and the slip lines make
The above solution was obtained by Prandtl [3J. An alternative solution
± 45° angles with AB. This time the f3lines are at 45° with AB and the IX lines
given by Hill [4J, assumes the rigid-plastic boundary to be HIJKLMN instead
 276 The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12
Sec. 12-5] Numerical Solutions ol Boundary-Value Problems
of GFEDC. An analysis similar to the previous one shows that regions 277
y
AHI and AJK are constant state regions and AIJ is a centered fan. The
stresses in these regions are the same as previously obtained but the velocities
are different, the outward flow velocity being twice that of the previous
solution.
Actually an infinity of solutions can be obtained between the two limiting
solutions discussed above. This illustrates one of the difficulties of the pIane
strain solution for a rigid-plastic material. More than one solution (or no
solution) may be obtained for a given problem, and the "correct" solution
may be impossible to ascertain. The only truly satisfactory method is to
solve the complete elastoplastic problem using the Prandt1-Reuss relations.
This, of course, will in generaI be extremely difficult. It is often possible,
however, to determine the most probable solution, and sometimes a minimum
force criterion may be used.
In addition, we note the nonuniqueness of the boundary values due to the
quadratic yield conditions. Thus in equation (12.4.1) the negative sign was --------------------------------.x
chosen for G x on the basis of intuition. If the plus sign had been chosen, the FIGURE 12.5.1 NumericaI soIution of first boundary-vaIue probIem.
pressure exerted by the punch, equation (12.4.6), would have come out
(1, 2), w~ich is a rough approximation to the true intersection point of the
negative, which is impossible. So we know that the negative choice was
correct. However, the correct choice of sign was not really known a priori,
IX a~d f3 h~es. (If the IX and f3 lines happened to be straight lines, the inter-
sectlOn pomt would be exact.) The points (2 3) (3 4) (4 5)
and this will often be the case. d t . d' , , , , , ,etc., can be
e ermme approxlmately the same way From H k' .
. enc y s equatlOns we have

X11 - 811 = X12 - 812

12-5 NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS OF X22 + 822 = X12 + 812 (12.5.1)
BOUNDARY-VALUE PROBLEMS
We can therefore solve for X12 and 812 , giving us
In the above example of the punch indentation, the slip lines and the
solution were obtained completely in closed form from the boundary condi-
tions. In generaI, however, numerical or graphical methods will be necessary.
In this section a brief discussion of the simplest numerical methods will be
(12.5.2)
presented. For this purpose we must distinguish among three types of 812 = X22 - X11 + 822 + 811
boundaries, as shown in Figures 12.5.1 through 12.5.3. Figure 12.5.1 shows 2
In the same way we find
a case where the boundary curve Co is not a slip line. The values of X and 8
are given on this boundary and it is desired to construct the slip-line fieH
We choose a number of stations on the arc Co and try to construct the
lines passing through these points. The various shear lines are """'~5~'" We ~an now ?ro.ceed to find X and 8 at (1,3), (2, 4), (3, 5), and (4,6). We thus
1,2, 3, etc., and a grid point at the intersection of the ith IX line with obtam the sh?-hne .field and the stresses in the entire region bounded by C
f3 line is designated i,j. :~d t~he termmal shp lin~s AP and QP. A little reflection indicates that th:
Now consider the points (I, l) and (2, 2) on the curve Co. At the u 10n cannot. be carned beyond region APQ without some additional
(1, 1) draw a straight line with angle 81 1> representing the IX line through . ThlS leads us to the following theorem Given an arc C whi h
point. At (2, 2) draw aline with angle 822 + 71/2. The two lines intersect ~~ not a slip lin~ a~d all the stresses acting at every ;oint along the a:c, th:n
e complete shp-hne field and the corresponding stresses can be determined

l',
Il
278 The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12
See. 12-6] Geometrie Construetion of Slip-Line Fields
279
within the region bounded by Co and the intersecting .termi~aI slip lines as
similar to those previously outlined. Details of the solution techniques for all
shown in Figure 12.5.1. Region APQ is called the reglOn oJ mfluence of the
three types of boundary-value probIems, as well as methods for improving
are Co· . h d' b' l the accuracy, can be found in references [1], [4], and [5].
If the are Co is itself a slip line, then the prevlOUS met o 1S o VlOUS. y
inapplicable. If a second slip line, intersecting the. first one,. as ~hown 1ll
·
F 19ure 52 , is also given , a solution can be obtamed. For 1f e 1S known
12..
12-6 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION OF
SLIP-LINE FIELDS
y
A geometrie construction for the stress and velo city fieIds, which is fre-
quent1y very useful and Ieads to a better insight into the principles underlying
slip-line theory, has been suggested by Prager [6]. For this purpose we make
use of two planes, called the stress pIane and the physical pIane, as shown in
Figure 12.6.1. Consider a point p undergoing plastic flow. The stress vector
A y

c
L-----------------------~x
FIGURE 12.5.2 Second boundary-value probiem.

along both slip lines, then e can be determined ~t t~e adjoining net points by
use of Hencky's first theorem. The complete shp-Ime field can then ~e con-
structed within the quadrilateral shown in Figure 12.5.2. !o determme the
stress es it is necessary to know the value of X at just one pomt on the bound-
ary sli; line, for by use of Hencky's equations (12.1.18) X can then be
~--- rrx
computed throughout the region. . .
(a)
Alternatively, ifthe curve Co is a slip line, a solutio~ can ~e obtamed 1f o~ a
second intersecting curve, not a slip line, either X or e1S specIfìe~. The sol~tlOn
can then be obtained in the region indicated in Figure 12.5.3, usmg techmques
TI
(b)

FIGURE 12.6.1 Stress pIane (a) and physicai pIane (b).

acting at the point p will depend on the orientation of the area element
through the point p upon which it acts. This is shown in the physical pIane
ofFigure 12.6.1(b). The figure shows the traces ofseveral area elements whose
UVLLH"L~ lie in the xy pIane. These area elements actually contain the point p
are here shown separated for clarity. The shaded side of a given trace
ret,res:en-ts material, and the stresses shown are those transmitted from the
ummal:teCl side to the shaded side. Instead of identifying an area element by
FIGURE 12.5.3 Third boundary-value probiem.
direction of its normaI, it is convenient to identify it by the direction of
280 The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12 Sec. 12-6] Geometrie Construetion of Slip-Line Fields
281
the trace of the element on the xy pIane. Thus angles will be measured Ss
counterelockwise from the negative y axis instead of the x axis.
On the stress pIane, Figure 12.6.1(a), a Mohr cirele is plotted for the
stress state at the point P of the physicai pIane. The Mohr's cirele is con- I I I

structed using the following convention. A shear stress which will cause the
element to rotate in a elockwise sense is considered as positive, counter-
elockwise as negative. Thus the stress state (a x, - T xy) on pIane P A is shown
as point A of the stress pIane. On pIane PB, whose normai stress is a y, the
shear stress is positive (elockwise) and (ay, T XY ) gives the point B in the stress
pIane. We note that the angle <P between the resultant stress Sand the normai
stress Sn in the stress pIane is the same as the angie between the resultant
stress and the normai stress in the physicai pIane, but it is measured in the
opposite direction; Le., if <P is measured elockwise in the stress pIane it is (a)
measured counterelockwise in the physicai pIane as shown. (b)
FIGURE 12.6.2 Cycloid trace of p I t I
Once the points A and Bare determined, the Mohr's cirele can be con- line in physical pIane (b). (Referen~ee[~~) s ress p ane (a) and corresponding slip
structed in the usuai way by drawing a cirele through A and B whose center
lies at the intersection of AB with the Sn axis. The stress vector acting on any the first and second slip lines a~ P are aiso known from PI and PII. If we now
pIane through P can now be found from the following consideration. If a move ,alo.ng the. second shear Ime (f3 line) to the point P', the pole P of the
straight line is drawn in the stress pIane through any stress point (e.g., A or Mohr s clfele wlll move to P' as the circ1e rolls on the tangent line S = _ 11
B) parallei to the trace in the physicai pIane upon which the stress acts, it The tangents to the two slip lines atP ' are given by the directions P'I :ndP'I~'
will intersect the Mohr's cirele at a point P, and ali such lines will intersect a~ s~own by the dashed lines in Figure 12.6.2(a). Alternativel sinc:
the circle at this same point. The point P is called the pole of the Mohr's p II ~s normai to the cyeloid at P (the point II is the instantaneous ~nter of
I

cirele. In Figure 12.6.1(a) the pole is obtained by drawing a verticalline rotatlOn), the element of the slip line at P' in th h . l I '
h l e p ySlCa pane IS normal to
through A to the point P or a horizontai line through B. For example, to t e e ement o!the cycloid at P ' in the stress pIane. The slip lines at the point P"
obtain the stress vector on pIane OC rotated ex degrees counterclockwise from can be .estabhshed the same way. At the same time the stress es a' and "
OA, one draws aline through P on the Mohr's circle paralle1 to OC or ex determmed from the. positions of the center of the cirele. It is ap;arentafr~:
degrees counterelockwise from P A. The point of intersection of this line with the above tha~ Cy~101~S generated in this fashion are the images in the stress
the Mohr's cirele gives the state of stress on the pIane Pc. pIane of the shp hnes m the physical pIane.
The top and bottom points of the Mohr's cirele, Iabeled I and II, corre- Prager has also shown [6] how to construct the velo city fie1d at the same
spond to the planes upon which the maximum and minimum shearing stresses
± k act. The directions of the traces of these planes are given by the 8+d8
PI and PII. These directions are the first and secop.d shear directions or 1)t
ex and f3 directions, respectiveIy, as defined in previous sections.
The geometrie construction of the slip-line field can now be o
making use of the following fact, proved by Prager in reference [6]. As
move along a slip line in the physicai pIane, the pole oJ the Mohr's
traces out a cycloid in the stress pIane. It does this by rolling without ' r - - -...... x
aiong the top tangent T = k if we move along an ex line and along the
tangent T = - k for a f3 line. Thus assume the stress state is known at
point P in the physicai pIane of Figure 12.6.2(b). The Mohr's cirele and (a) Slip lines
( b) Hodograph
pole P can be constructed as shown in Figure 12.6.2(a). The directions FIGURE 12.6.3 Hodograph construction of ve10city field.
 282 The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12
See. 12-61 Geometrie Construetion ol Slip-Line Fields
time as the slip lines. Let Pl> P 2 , and P s be neighboring points on the first 283
slip line, as shown in Figure 12.6.3. The 1inePl P 2 is in the first shear direetion. Ss

Let Va and Vp be the velocity eomponents in the two slip direetions at P l and
...
I Ss=k
Iet Va + dVa and Vp + dvp be the eorresponding velocities atP2 • The eondition B
that there be no extensions, only shearing flows in the slip direetions [see "\
equation (12.2.4)], requires that the projeetions of the velo city veetors at the
points Pl and P 2 onto the line P l P 2 must be equa!. This yields immediately
the Geiringer equation (12.2.8):
(o)
dV a - Vp de = o ( b)

The seeond equation, FIGURE 12.6.4 Geometrie construetion of sIip !ines.

dvp + Va de = o possible to draw two circles for eaeh of the points For e '.
12.6.5 the stress veetor S aeting at a . t P h . xample, m FIgure
to the point A of the stress pIane. Th~~~~h the !:e~dr:wn from the ~rigin
is obtained from similar eonsiderations along a f3line. as
Consider the velo city pIane, ealled the hodograph, of Figure 12.6.3(b). The ean be drawn, eaeh with radius k and w'th th~ t , owever, two eIrcles
veetors OPl and OP2 represent the velocities of the points P l and P 2 , respee- shown. One of these eorrespond t ll eIr eenters on the S n aXIs,
. as
tively. Sinee, as stated above, the projeetions of these two veetors onto the S O a ower mean normal t th
other and these solutions are therefore ealled th s ress an the
line P l P 2 of Figure 12.6.3(a) must be equaI, the veetor differenee PlP2 must respeetively. As indicated on the figur th l e weak and strong solutions,
be orthogonal to P l P 2 in the physieal pIane. In other word s, line elements be different for the two circles Wh' :' f ehPo es an~ the shear direetions will
in the veloeity pIane must be normal to the eorresponding line elements of determined from additional boun~e o t eds~ .SoIutlOns to ehoose is usually
the physical pIane. In generaI, therefore, corresponding elements oj the slip-line_ b ary con ItIons or from lo k' h
oundary eonditions as a whole rather than t . .o mg at t e
field and hodograph are orthogonal, and hence corresponding elements oj the is due to the quadratie nature oi the yield erit:ri one pomt. .Th~s uneertainty
stress pIane and hodograph are parallel. puneh indentation problem of Seetion 12 5 on, as was mdICated for the
In eonneetion with the above, it should be pointed out that the velocity Returning now to Figure 12 6 4 h .. .
fields under eonsideration need not be eontinuous, and veloeity fields with circles for points A and B ar~ ~h t e ~ea~SOIutI.on is adopted. The Mohr's
lines of diseontinuity are often eneountered. Sueh lines of diseontinuity must respeetively. As the solid-line circl:~~ll/a:o= S~~Id l ~nd broken-line eircles,
be shear lines (or the envelope of the shear Iines). The velo city eomponents traee a eycloid which is the image of th fi g l~ I~e T = k, the pole will
normal to any slip line is eontinuous aeross the slip line, but the tangenti al broken-line circle rolls along Ss = _ k t~e rs~ s tp h~e throu~h A. As the
velocity may have different values on both sides. It follows from the Geiringer shown by the brok l' h' .' pomt B wIlI desenbe a eycloid,
equations that the velo city jump must be eonstant along any slip line. This en me, w Ieh wIlI be the image of the second slip line
also follows from the faet that the slip lines are the eharaeteristics of
governing differential equations, as will be shown in Seetion 12.7. In
hodograph, the two sides of aline of velocity diseontinuity are mapped
parallel eurves, as shown in referenee [6].
To illustrate how one begins to eonstruet a slip-line field for given
eonditions, eonsider a boundary are along which the forees are ,... ...'~,..'rih"ri
as shown in Figure 12.6.4(a). The material adjaeent to this are is known to
in a state of plastic flow, and from the boundary stresses the maximum
direetions and henee the slip-line direetions ean be determined. A
circle ean be eonstrueted in the stress pIane for eaeh of the points A and
of the physical pIane. Here a diffieulty is immediately eneountered, for
FIGURE 12.6.5 Strong and weak solutions.
284 The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12 Sec. 12-8J Slip Lines as Characteristics
285
through B. The intersection of the two cycloids at C wiIl be the image of the to determine if the stress fields in the rigid regions also satisfy equilibrium
intersection of the two slip lines in the physical pIane at C. The directions of and the boundary conditions and nowhere exceed the yield stress. If such a
the normals to the cycloids at C fix the directions of the tangents to the slip statically admissible stress field exists in both the plastic and rigid parts, then
lines at C in the physical pIane. The actuallocation of C in the physical pIane this solution constitutes a lower bound, and since the solution is both an
is found from the conditions that AD = CD and BE = CE. This amounts upper bound and a lower bound, it is a complete solution, giving the true
to assuming that the slip-line arcs AC and BC are circular. load for the problem.
Once the slip lines have been established, the hodograph can be constructed The fact that a statical1y admissible stress field as defined above gives a
from the known velocities on the boundary using the orthogonality relation lower bound is expressed by the lower bound theorem [lO], which can be
between the slip line and hodograph elements. stated as follows: A load which produces a statically admissible stress field will
The ab ave is a brief outline of Prager's geometrie construction of slip-line be equal to or less than the true load that will produce plastic flow.
fields. The interested reader is referred to references [6] through [9] far further Lower bound solutions are usually difficult to obtain since it would be
discussion and examples. necessary to salve the equilibrium equations in the elastic or rigid region.
Upper bound solutions can be obtained from sIip-line solutions and are of
greater vaIue, in as much as they ensure that a certain operation will be
12-7 COMPLETE SOLUTIONS. UPPER AND performed, since the calculated Ioad will be greater than the required Ioad.
LOWER BOUNDS Discussions of methods of obtaining upper bounds with examples can be
found in references [11] and [5].
The sIi p-li ne solutions discussed heretofore are incomplete in that no
attempt has been made to extend these solutions into the rigid regions
adjacent to the plastic regions to determine whether an equilibrium stress
distribution satisfying the boundary conditions and nowhere exceeding the 12-8 SLIP LINES AS CHARACTERISTICS
yield point exists in those regions. Such partial solutions are upper-bou~d
solutions; i.e., they overestimate the load necessary to produce the plastlC
The slip lines previousIy discussed are actually the characteristics of the
differential equations defining the problem. AH the properties of charac-
flow. This follows from the upper bound theorem, derived in reference [lO].
teristics of hyperbolic equations and all the mathematical methods for
We shall discuss the upper and lower bound theorems in greater detail in
solving such equations can therefore be applied directly to the pIane strain
Chapter 13. Far our purpose here, the upper bound theorem can be stated
probIem of a rigid-perfectIy plastic materia!. In this section we shall briefly
briefly as follows: A load which produces a kinematically admissible velo city
describe the ori gin and properties of characteristics to give the reader an
field will be equal or greater than the true load.
insight into the mathematical origin of slip-Iine fieIds. The reader interested
A kinematically admissible velo city field is one which satisfies the velocity
onIy in the physical description of the previous sections may skip to Chapter
boundary conditions, is incompressible, and is continuous with continuous
13 without Ioss of continuity.
first derivatives, except at certain discontinuity surfaces where the normal
Consider the first-order differential equation
velocity must be continuous but the tangential velocity may suffer a jump on
crossing the surface. Furthermore, on the boundary we must have
eu
a-+b-=c
eu
ex ey (12.8.1)

where a, b, and c are functions of u, x, and y but not of the partial derivatives
where X and Y are the boundary forces and dS is an element of boundary of u. Such an equation is called quasilinear. Introduce the standard notation
area.
Since the slip-line solutions give kinematically admissible velocity eu eu
they are upper bound solutions. To obtain a complete solution, it is ne1cessary ex ==p ey == q (12.8.2)
5 ,
286 The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12 Sec. 12-8] Slip Lines as Characteristics 287

Then (12.8.1) can be written then there will obviously be no solution unless the numerators also vanish.
A curve C whose equation satisfies (12.8.7) is called a characteristic curve
ap + bq = c (12.8.3)
and if u is specified along such a curve, there will be no solution to th;
We now pose the following questiono Given a curve C in the xy pIane prob1em un1ess u is specified so that
along which the function u is specified, does there exist a solution u of equa-
tion (12.8.1) satisfying these "initial conditions " ? This is the two-dimensional du c
or
ana10gue of the ordinary first-order equation, where the initial value is dx =a (12.8.8)
specified at one point. The above problem is called the eauchy problem, and
the answer is that it depends on the curve e. causing the numerators in (12.8.6) to vanish. In the 1atter case, i.e., if u is
It is obvious that if given the values of u on C, p and q could be determined specified on C according to (12.8.8), there will be an infinity of solutions,
on C such that (12.8.1) [or (12.8.3)] was satisfied, then u could be computed since (12.8.6) are then indeterminate.
a small distance away from C by use of a Taylor series expansion in two To summarize: In answer to the question posed at the beginning, if u is
variables. That is, if the values of x and y on C are designated by Xc and Yc, specified along a curve C, then a solution to (12.8.1) exists provided Cis not
then a characteristic of the differenti al equation. If C is a characteristic, then
either there is no solution, if (12.8.8) is not satisfied, or there are an infinity
(12.8.4) of solutions, if (12.8.8) is satisfied. Equation (12.8.8) is called the compatibility
equation.
The value of u could thus be obtained at a neighboring curve. By repeating Let us illustrate these resuIts by a simple example [12]. Consider the
this process, u could be determined over some region, the limits of which, differential equation
if any, are not yet known. The Cauchy problem, in this case, therefore Bu Bu
reduces to the problem of determining p and q on the curve e. -+-=
Bx By
1
(12.8.9)
To find p and q we proceed as follows. Let s be the are length along the
or p+q=1
curve. Then if the derivatives p and q exist, we must have
Then a = b = c = 1 and, from (12.8.7),
(12.8.5)

Equations (12.8.5) and (12.8.3) give us two equations in the two unknowns dy = 1 (12.8.10)
dx
p and q. Solving these two equations gives
or y=x+A
cdy - bdu
p = a dy - b dx
The characteristics are therefore straight lines with slopes of unity, as
adu- cdx shown in Figure 12.8.1. For a solution to exist, u must satisfy (12.8.8) or
q = a dy - b dx
u= x +B = Y + (B - A) (12.8.11)
Thus, given a, b, and c, the va1ue of u on the curve C and the shape of the
curve, p and q can be computed from (12.8.6) and u in the neighborhood
of C obtained from (12.8.4). However, this will not be true for any curve C, along these lines. Suppose now that u is given on the line segment O < x < 1,
for if C is such that the denominator in (12.8.6) vanishes; i.e., if y = O. This line segment is the curve C of the previous discussion. Then
since Cis not a characteristic, we should be able to obtain a unique solution
for U. The simplest way to do this is to integrate along the characteristics.
ThllS considering the characteristic intersecting the x axis at x = Xl as shown,
 288 The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12
Sec. 12-8) Slip Lines a.s Characteristics
289
where Uo is the vaIue of u at O Th l'
x - -
, - Y -, e so utlOn eIsewhere however is
not, umque. We can add, for exampIe, a function K(x _ y) to ~ with K'an
arbltrary constant and still satisfy the initial conditions along the'I' _
Thus me x - y.

u = x + Uo + K(x _ y)
(12.8.13)
wilI satisfy the differentiaI equation (12 8 9) and aIso th ' 't' l I
' , . , e 1m la va ues on
y = x, T~l~ dlustrates ~he ~act that if the initial conditions are specified on
12.8.1 Characteristics for equation (12.8.9).
char~cte~lstlc, the SolutlO,n lS not unique, In this case we might say that the
FIGURE

the value of U specified at this point is U;, and since along this characteristic u soIutlOn l~ ~ot de~n~d umque1y at points not on this line because the terminaI
must satisfy (12.8.11), it follows that charactenstIcs c~mclde, and the region of influence is just the line itseIf.
A?~t~:r very l~portant property of characteristics can now be seen-the
B-A=ul posslblhtIes of dlscontinuities in the soIution Whl'ch
so that h ' , are propagated along
c aractenstIcs, For exampIe, suppose on the initialline y = O of th '
(12.8. Ila) exampIe we are given e prevlOUS
for alI
o< x < 1 u = fl(X)
U =J;(x) (12,8.14)
A solution has thus been obtained for the problem using the initial data
and the characteristic and compatibility equations (12.8.10) and (12.8.11). w~ere !t (Xl) ~ f2(Xl); i.e" u is doubIe-vaIued at this point. Then the solution
These equations are the equivalent of the originaI differenti al equation, Wl~ be doubIe-va,lued and hence discontinuous alI along the characteristic
which does not have to be used at alI. This method of solving a partial differ- ~ - x, - Xl, passmg through this point. The vaIues of u to the Ieft of this
ential equation by reducing it to a set of ordinary differential equations for Ime wIlI be determined by u = h(x) and to the right b = l' ( )
finding the characteristics and for integrating along the characteristics is I "1 f : ' , y U J2 X •
n a SImI ar ashlOn, dIscontinuities in the derivatives of u may be
called the method of characteristics. Thus the introduction of characteristics gated along characteristics. For exampIe, if we are given that at y = ~~opa-
not only serves the purpose of determining whether a unique solution exists
but actually provides a method for obtaining the solution. u = 1
From the above example it is apparent that the solution is defined and is
u=x+t
unique only in the region bounded by the terminal characteristics at x = O and
x = 1. This region is called the region ofinfluence. To determine the solution Then the soIution using (12,8.11) is
outside this region requires additional data outside the range O < x < 1.
We can state this result as a generaI theorem.
u=y+l to the left of y =x - t
A partia! differential equation having rea! characteristics has a unique solution
within the region bounded by the curve C upon which the initial data is specified, u=x+t to the right of y = x - t (12.8,15)
and the two characteristics intersecting the ends of C. If C coincides with
characteristic there is no unique solution. On the Ii ne y =x _.1 i t' , ,
2' U S con muous, but the denvatIves of u are not, for
Let us consider now the case when u is specified along one of the ""'" m,-
teristics, say, the line x = y. For 8u 8u
8x = O 8y = 1 to the Ieft of y = x - t
specified on this line such that
8u 8u (12,8.16)
u = x + Uo = Y + Uo 8x =1 8y =O to the right of y = x - t
290 The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12 Sec. 12-8] Slip Lines as Characteristics
These derivatives are therefore discontinuous all along the characteristic (12.8.17), then as before u can be d t . 291
y =x --t. a small distance away from th e ermmed as well as its first derivatives
. e curve by Ta 1 .
In the above example the differential equation (12.8.9) was linear. It was t h IS way the solution can be cont' d. yor senes expansions, and in
. mue mto the reg' L
therefore possible to determine the characteristics once and for all independ- secon d denvatives on the lon. et us see then if th
curve can be computed . On th e curve e
ent1y of the solution u. Thus equation (12.8.7) could be integrated first and
then equation (12.8.8) solved for u along the characteristics. However, if the du = 8u dx + 8u
equation were quasilinear, i.e., if a and b were functions of u, then equation 8x 8y dy
(12.8.7) could obviously not be solved for the characteristics without first 2
knowing the solution u. In this case it is necessary to solve (12.8.7) and
and d (88U) -_ 8X2
8u 82u
dx + 8x oy dy
x
(12.8.8) simultaneously; i.e., u and the characteristics must be determined
0 2
simultaneously. d (8 U) = OX02U8y dx + 8y2
y
8 ud
Y
or
rdx + sdy = dp
Second-Order Equation sdx + tdy = dq
Let us now consider the second-order quasilinear partial differential and the differenti al equation is (12.8.20)
equation
(12.8.17)
rA + sB + tC = D
A, B, C, D, dq, and dp, being known on the
to solve for the unknown second d ' . curve, we have three equations
By quasilinear we mean that the coefficients may all be functions of u, envatIVes r, s, and t. For examp1e,
8u/8x, 8u/8y, as well as of x and y. Using the standard notation,

I~X
dp O
dq dy
(12.8.18)
D C
s=
dx (12.8.21)
equation (12.8.17) is written dy O
O dx dy
Ar + Bs + Ct = D (12.8.19)
A B C
Now assume that on some initial curve Co in the xy pIane, the values of u, If the determinant in the den: .
l omlllator vallIshe th .
and its normal derivative are given. Alternative1y the partial derivatives p and un ess the numerator also vanishes' h' h sere wIll be no solution
q are given, for then u and the normal derivative can be computed. The of solutions. If the denominato ' I~ w IC case there are an infinite number
r vallIS hes,
values of u, p, and q along Co are called a strip of first order and u, p, and
must obviously satisfy the condition A(dy)2 - B dx dy + C(dX)2 = O
or dy )
2 (12.8.21a)
du = p dx + qdy A ( dx
d
-Bd~+C=O
called the strip condition.
which gives
We now ask ourse1ves the same question as before. Does there exist
solution u of equation (12.8.17) satisfying these initial conditions? If
second derivatives r, s, and t on the curve can be determined so as to
(12.8.22)
> ••
The Slip-Line Field [Ch.12
292
Equation (12.8.22) defines two sets of curves (one using the p1us. sign, one
using the minus sign). These are called characteristic curves, and 1f the data
are given a10ng one of these curves, no solutio~ exists u~less, as a1ready
mentioned, the numerator determinants a1so vamsh. For th1S case,
A dp dy + C dq dx - D dx dy = O (12.8.23)
A10ng the characteristic curves equation (12.8.23) must be satisfied. This is
the compatibility equation. . .
Equations (12.8.22) and (12.8.23) rep1ace the part~a1. differenti~l equatlOn
(12.8.17) and if the initia1 curve is not a charactenstIc, a solut1.on can. be
obtained by finding the characteristics from (12.8.22). and. then l~tegra~mg
a10ng the characteristics using (12.8.23). If the equatlOn lS non1mear, 1.e.,
if A, B, and C are functions of u, p, and q, then (12.8.22) and (12 ..8.23) must
be solved simultaneously, as discussed for the first-order equatlOn. If the
data are prescribed a10ng one of the characteristic curves, there is no unique
solution.
The above discussion implies that (12.8.22) can be solved obtaining two
2
rea1 families of curves. But this can on1y be true if B - 4AC ;:o: O. If
B2 _ 4AC < O there are no real characteristics. There are therefore three
types of equations.
1. B2 _ 4AC > O. The equation is called hyperbolic. There are two sets
of characteristics.
2. B 2 _ 4AC = O. The equation is called parabolic. There is on1y one set
of characteristics. . 2. A linear relationship a(aujan) + bu = c(x, y) is prescribed on an arc
3. B 2 _ 4AC < O. The equation is called elliptic. There are no rea1
characteristics.
The parabolic equation is similar to the hyperbolic with. regard ~o the
properties and use of the characteristics. The first-order equatlO~s prevlOus1y
discussed are actually parabolic, since they a1ways have one fam11y of charac-
teristics (if the coefficients are rea1). In fact, since there are no second deriva-
tive terms B 2 - 4AC = O.
The pr;perties of the hyperbolic equation are then essentially the same as
previous1y discussed for the first-order equation. We shall briefty note some
of these properties and make a comparison with the elliptic case.
In the elliptic case, if u and its norma1 derivative is prescribed a10ng any
curve C then a solution can a1ways be found in the neighborhood of C.
If the vaÌues are prescribed on a c10sed boundary, which is the usua1 case, the
solution will be determined within the bounded region. It is necessary, how-
ever, that u be regu1ar on C, Le., it possess derivatives of all orders.
Sec. 12-8] Slip Lines as Characferistics 293
In the hyperbolic (and parabolic) case, ifthe curve Cis not a characteristic,
a solution exists. The prescribed values in this case need not be reguiar and
the higher derivatives ofthe prescribed values may have finite jumps at points
on C. These discontinuities are then propagated aiong the characteristics
where they originate. If C is a characteristic curve, there is no solution un1ess
u and its derivatives satisfy a compatibility relation, in which case there are
an infinity of solutions. It is a1so evident that c10sed boundaries are exc1uded ,
for a given characteristic would then intersect the boundary twice, and values
of u and its derivatives could not be assigned arbitrari1y to both points of
intersection.
Boundary-Value Problerns
There are generally three types of boundary-value problems for hyperbolic
equations, [13].
l. Given u, p, and q on a curve Co which is not a characteristkand which
intersects each characteristic at most once, u can be determined in a triangular
region Do bounded by Co and a characteristic of each family as shown in
Figure 12.8.2(a). The curves y constant and x constant are the characteristic
curves of each family. More specifically, the value of u at each point P of
Do is determined by the values of u and its derivatives on the portion Cp of
Co which is bounded by the characteristics through P. The segment Cp is
called the domain oJ dependence of the point P.
Co, and in addition u is prescribed on a characteristic arc Cc passing through
one end point of Co. The solution can again be obtained in the triangular
region bounded by Co, Cc, and the characteristic of the other family inter-
secting Cc and Co, as shown in Figure 12.8.2(b).
3. u is prescribed on two intersecting characteristics Cc and C~, as shown
in Figure 12.8.2. Of course, u must satisfy the compatibility reiation on both
characteristics. The solution is determined in the quadrilateral bounded by
the four characteristics as shown.
The reader will recognize the similarity between these three boundary-va1ue
problems and the three boundary-value prob1ems for slip-line fie1ds discussed
in Section 12.5.
Finally, it follows that by combining these three basic types of boundary
conditions, more complicated conditions can be used. For example, in
Figure 12.8.2(d), u, p, and q may be given on Co. But then only one relation
of the type a(aujan) + bu = c(x, y) can be prescribed on each of Cb and C~.
 294 The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12
Sec. 12-8] Slip Lines as Characferistics
x~constont 295
simple problems have been solved in this way. The widest use of the method
of characteristic is found in conjunction with numerical methods.
y~constont
Suppose then that u, p, and q are given along a noncharacteristic are C and
Y~constont
we wish to obtain the solution in the region bounded by C and the two
~~~~~~~:::- region Dp terminaI characteristics as shown in Figure 12.8.2(a). It is desired to solve
equations (12.8.22) and (12.8.23) numericalIy. If A, B, and C are functions
region Do
only of x and y, (12.8.22) can be solved separately and the characteristics
constructed independently of the initial conditions. Such characteristics are
called fixed. If A, B, and C are aiso functions of u, p, and q, then (12.8.22)
(o) (b)
and (12.8.23) must be solved simultaneously. (Note: If A, B, and C are
functions of u, p, and q but not of x and y, then it is possible to interchange
the roles of the independent and dependent variables and transform the
+-
c parti al differential equation into a linear differential equation with x and y
~
Ul
C as the dependent variables. This is called a hodograph transformation. The
o
U
I~
solution is then obtained in the pIane of u and 8u/8n, or p and q, called the
y~constont
y~constont hodograph piane, instead of the xy pIane.)
Equations (12.8.22) can be written

dy+ =f+ dx
dr =f- dx (12.8.24)
where

f+ B + VB2 - 4AC
2A
(12.8.25)
B - VB2 - 4AC
2A
(d)
and (12.8.23) can then be written
;:GURE 12.8.2 Boundary-value problems (Reference [13].)
D dy - - Af+ dp - C dq = O along anf+
.. . ions shown can then be patched together along
The solutlOns m the vano~s reg . h'l 8 f8x and 8uf8y may be dis- D dy + - Af- dp - C dq =O (12.8.26)
characteristics so that u lS contmuous, w 1 e u . . along anf-
.
contmuous. Note agam . that closed boundaries are not adm1ss1ble.

Numerical Solution

An anal tical solution of the hyperbolic equation can be effected in theory,

b R · Y, thod which essentially reduces the boundary-value pro
y e1mann s me g, b't r curve Co [Figure 12.8.2(a)] to a ~lnllll"01
of the first kind alonbl an ~ t~:a t~ird kind along two intersecting charac-
boundary-value pro em o . t f
" [F'
tenstlcs 19ure .. 10 8 2(c)] . This is essentlally the
. h counterpar
nly oa few
function in solving elliptic equations. In practlce, owever, o
FIGURE 12.8.3 NumericaI soIution.
296 The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12 Sec. 12-8] Slip Lines as Characteristics
297
Let us then draw the curve C and two families of characteristics as shown with
in Figure 12.8.3. Consider any two adjacent points P and Q on C and let the Bu
f+ characteristic from P intersect the f- characteristic from Q at R. If the
À
uU = -B dx
X
-Bu dy
+ dy
characteristics are fìxed, the position of the point R is known. If the charac- (12.8.30)
Bv
teristics depend on the solution, the coordinates of R must be determined at À
uV = -B dx
X
-Bv dy
+ By
the same time that p and q are determined at this point. Equations (12.8.24)
and (12.8.26) are now written approximately as follows: then by a similar procedure the equation for the characteristics is
2
YR - yP = t(fR+ + f/)(x R - xp) dY )
(aE - eA) ( dx + (eB + fA - bE - aF) c;:x + bF - fB' = O
(12.8.31)
YR - YQ = t(fR- + fQ-)(XR - xQ)
and (12.8.27) and the compatibility relation along the characteristics is
t(DR + Dp)(YR - Yp) - t(ARfR+ + Apf/)(PR - pp)
- t(CR - Cp)(qR - qp) = O du dx dy O

t(D R + DQ)(YR - YQ) - t(ARfR- + AQfQ-)(PR - PQ) dv O O dx

=0 (12.8.32)
- t(CR - CQ)(qR - qQ) = O d a b e

Aiso from the condition D A B E

du = p dx + qdy It will now be s~o:vn that the slip lines discussed in Sections 12.1 through
12. 7 ar~ charactenstIcs of the governing differential equations and all the
UR - Up = t(PR + PP)(XR - x p) + t(qR + qp)(YR - Yp) proper~les of c~aracteristics discussed in Section 12.8 app1y to them. We
(12.8.28)
or UR - uQ = t(PR + PQ)(XR - xQ) + t(qR + qQ)(YR - YQ) st~rt wlth ~quatlOns (12.1.16), which are essentiaIIy the equilibrium equations
wlth the yleld condition included:
Equations (12.8.27) and one of (12.8.28) furnish five equations for the five
BX B8. B8
unknowns XR, YR, PR, qR, and UR' These equations are nonlinear and they -B - cos 28 d- - Slll 28 - = O
X x By
usually have to be solved by some iterative method. Convergence is usually
(12.8.33)
rapid if the interval PQ is not too large. BX . B8 B8
In the same way, the solution at other grid points adjacent to the initial "8 -
Y
Slll 28 B-
x
+ cos 28 - = O
By
curve, such as Sin the figure, can be obtained. From R and S we can proceed
to T, and so ono The solution is of course defined only in the region bounded These ar~ two simuItaneous quasilinear first-order equations, and if they are
by the terminaI characteristics, as previously explained. hyperbob~ we sh~u1d be ab1e to use the method of characteristics. Comparing
the coefficlents wlth those in (12.8.29), it is seen that

a= l b=O e = -cos 28 f= -sin28 d=O

Two First-Order Equations. Slip Lines A=O B=1 E = -sin28 F = cos28 D = O
If we have two first-order equations of the form and equation (12.8.31) for the characteristics becomes

& &
Bu Bu
a Bx + b By + e Bx + f By = d dY)
sin 28 ( dx
2

+ 2 cos 28 d Ix - sin 28 = O

A Bu B Bu E dv- F Bv - D or dy -cos 28 ± l
Bx + By + Bx + By- dx = sin 28 (12.8.34)
.... J

298
2
The Slip-Line Field [Ch. 12
"I
1
Sec. 12-8] Slip Lines as Characteristics
299
2 sin 8 t II 9. Show that the choice of a plus sign in equation (12.4.1) or a minus sign in
or = an u
2 sin 8 cos 8 equation (12.4.4) would Iead to solutions which violate the initiai assump-
(12.8.35) tions.
(Xf = - cot 8 = tan (8 + ~) lO. Prove that the point of intersection of aline drawn through the pole of the
Mohr's circle and the circle will give the stress state acting on a pIane whose
trace is parallei to this line.
But tan 8 and tan(8 + 'T/'/2) are the slopes of the slip lines, so that (12.8.35)
shows that the characteristics ofthe differentia1 equations (12.8.33) are just the
References
slip 1ines. We can identify the ex slip 1ines with the p1us characteristics and the
f3 slip lines with the minus characteristics, as defined by equations (12.8.35). 1. W. Prager and P. G. Hodge, Jr., Theory of Perfect/y Plastic Solids, Wiley
To determine the compatibi1ity re1ation that must be satisfied a10ng the New York, 1951.
slip lines, equation (12.8.32) gives 2. P. G. Hodge, Jr., An Introduction to the Mathematicai Theory of Perfectly
Plastic Solids, ONR-358, Feb. 1950.
dx dx dy O 3. L. Prandtl, Vber die Harte Plastischer Koerper, Goettinger Nachr., Math.
Phys. KI., 1920, pp. 74~85.
d8 O O dx 4. R. Hill, The Plastic Yielding of Notched Bars Under Tension, Quart. J.
=0 (12.8.36)
O O -cos 28 Mech. Appl. Math., 2, 1949, pp. 40-52.
5. E. G. Thomsen, C. T. Yang, and S. Kobayashi, Mechanics of Plastic Defor-
O O -sin 28 mation in Metal Processing, Macmillan, New York, 1965.
6. W. Prager, A Geometricai Discussion of the Slip-Line Field in PIane Plastic
or dx - (sin 28 X+ cos 28)d8 = O
Flow, Trans. Roy. Inst. Tech. (Stockholm), 65, 1953, pp. 1~26.
7. W. Prager, The Theory of Plasticity: A Survey of Recent Achievements,
Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., 169, 1955, pp. 41~57.
and, from (12.8.34),
8. H. Ford, The Theory of Plasticity in Relation to Engineering Application,
dx + d8 = O J. Appl. Math. Phys., 5, 1954, pp. 1~35.
9. J. M. Alexander, Deformation Modes in Metai Forming Processes, Proceed-
or x- 8= constant a10ng ex characteristic
(12.8.37)
ings of the Conference on Technical Engineering Manufacture, Institute of
Mechanicai Engineers, New York, 1958, Paper No. 42.
X +8 = constant a10ng f3 characteristic
10. D. C. Drucker, H. J. Greenberg, and W. Prager, The Safety Factor of an
Eiastic~Plastic Body in PIane Strain, J. Appl. Mech., 18, 1951, pp. 371~378.
which are Hencky's equations, previous1y obtained. 11. W. Johnson and P. B. Mellor, Plasticity for Mechanical Engineers, Van
Nostrand, Princeton, N.J., 1962.
12. L. Fox, Numerical Solution of Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations,
ProbIems Pergamon Press, London, 1962.
13. G. A. Korn and T. M. Korn, Mathematical Handbook for Scientisfs and
1. Derive equation (12.1.5). . . Engineers, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961.
2. Show that the principai stresses for pIane stram problems are glven by 14. H. Hencky, Ueber einige statisch bestimmte Faelle des Gleichgewichts in
equations (12.1.7) and (12.1.8). . plastischen Koerpern Z. angeli'. Math Mech., 3, 1923, pp. 245~251.
3. Show that the Tresca criterion differs from equatlOn (12.1.5) only by a 15. H. Geiringer, Beit zum VoIlstandigen ebenen Plastizitats-problem, Proc 3rd
multiplicative constant. Infern. Congr. Appl. Mech, 2, 1930, pp. 185~190.
4. Derive equation (12.1.9).
5. Show that equations (12.1.14) can be obtained by means of equations
GeneraI References
(12.1.4) and (12.1.12).
6. Prove Theorems 6 and 8 of Section 12.3. .
Prager, W., Introduction fo Plasticity, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1959.
7. Determine the ve10city distribution for the condition of Figure 12.4.2 usmg
Ford, H., Advanced Mechanics of Materials, Wiley, New York, 1963.
the Geiringer equations.
8. Obtain the complete solution for the rigid punch indentation of Figure
12.4.2 assuming the rigid plastic boundary to be HIJKLMN.
 Sec. 13-2J Simple Truss
301
determine the stresses and strains in the structure, but rather what is sought
CHAPTER.13 is the load-carrying capacity or limiting load at which the structure wi11
collapse. This type of analysis is called limit design or plastic design, and the
load at coHapse is called the plastic collapse load.
For the great majority of problems this type of approach makes more
sense than a design based on an elastic analysis. Furthermore, since the stress
distribution is not sOjlght, it is much simpler. There are other important
problems, however, which cannot be resolved on the basis of simple limit
analysis. Among these are buckling, fatigue, and fracture.
The first use of plastic design in structures was apparent1y ma de by
Kazinczy in the design of apartment buildings in 1914 (see reference [I]).
Since then many contributions have been made to this theory both in this
country and abroad. Plastic design is already part of certain specifications in
LIMIT some countries, and it is being used more and more by engineers in this
country.
ANALYSIS

13-2 SIMPLE TRUSS

13-1 DESIGN OF STRUCTURES To illustrate the concepts behind limit analysis a few simple examples
taken from reference [2] wilI be considered. Let us start with the problem
The theory of limit analysis is used primarily in the design of steel structures of the simple symmetric truss shown in Figure 13.2. I and analyze this truss
composed of various elements such as beams, frames, girders, arches, etc.
For many years the basis for structural design has been the allowable stress
concept. The allowable stress was usuaIly taken to be the yield st~ess of the L L
material and the design stress was then taken io be some fractlOn of the 2
aIlowabI~ stress, depending on the factor of safety used. In some applica~ions
the aIlowable stress was governed by the possibility of buckling or fatIgile.
The design methods used were always elastico . .. ..
It is apparent, however, that the important conslderatlOn l~ an engmeenng
structure is not whether the yie1d stress is exceeded at some pomt, but whether F
the structure will carry the intended loads or perform its intended function, FIGURE 13.2.1 Simple truss.
and there is really no reason for assuming that the stress in the structure
should never exceed the elastic limit. As a matter of fact, it is fair1y evident by the conventional elastic method and by the method of limit analysis.
that in almost all structures, Iocal plastic flow will occur at stress raisers and Assume
6
the tl'uss to be made of mild steel with an elastic modulus E = 30 X
at points of discontinuity in the geometry, and, furthermore, residual stresses 10 and a yield stress ao = 30,000. The stress-strain curve is assumed elastic-
as high as half the yield strength may aIready be in some elements as they perfect1y plastico Let L = 12 in. and cross-sectional area of aH three members,
2
come from the stee1 mills, before the load is even applied. A = I in. • The conventional analysis proceeds as foHows. Let T be the
1
The practice is therefore becoming more widespread to desi.gn structu~es l'esultant force in bar I and T 2 the resultant forces in each of the bars 2.
into the plastic range, the materials being assumed to behave m ~n elastlc- Then equilibrium of forces requires
perfect1y plastic manner. In these design procedures no attempt l~ made to
300
{13.2. I)
.... i),

T·,'

302 Limit Analysis [Ch. 13

l
Sec. 13-2] Simple Truss
303
Since this is a redundant structure (having more members than necessary to and the elongations are
maintain equilibrium), the equilibrium equation (13.2.1) is obviously not
sufficient to obtain the solution and the continuity of displacement must be
used. The elongation of rod l is 8 = 5,860 x 12 x
2 30 X 106
Y2 = 000331 .
. 111.

(13.2.8)
8 _ T1 L (13.2.2)
81 = v'l (0.00331) = 0.00468 in.
1 - AE

This completes the elastic analysis, the stresses and deformation having been
and the e1ongation of each of rods 2 is (see Figure 13.2.2) determined. If the question is now asked, How strong is the truss?, the usual
answer is to quote a factor of safety giving the ratio of the maximum safe
10ad to the applied 10ad. The conventional practice has been to take the

/::/
maximum safe 10ad as that 10ad which would just cause the maximum stress
to reach the yield stress. In this case, therefore, the factor of safety would be

/ ao 30,000

,2/
/ ..[2 L f = TIfA = 11,720 = 2.56 (13.2.9)

and the maximum safe load presumably is

82
F max = 2.56 x 20,000 = 51,2001b (13.2.10)
FIGURE 13.2.2 Elongation.
However, if the material is ductile, as in the case of miId or structural steel,
this safety factor and the corresponding maximum safe load are not too
(13.2.3) meaningfuI. The actual load that can be carried by the truss is considerably
greater. Assuming the material to be perfectIy plastic, if the load is raised to
For continuity of displacements, 51,200 lb, the middle bar wiII just be at the yield. However, bars 2 wiIl only
be at t their yield, since the stress in these bars is one half the stress in the
(13.2.4) middle bar, as seen from equation (13.2.5). As the load is increased above
which results in 51,200 Ib, the stress in the middle bar wiII remain the same, since it is already
(13.2.5) at the yie1d, and the. additional load wiII be carried by the other two bars.
Substituting into (13.2.1) gives Furthermore, since the latter two bars are still elastic, the deformations of
F the system wiII stilI be smaII. The 10ad can be increased until the outside bars
T2 = 2 + v'2 just reach the yield point. From (13.2. I) the load at which this wiII occur is
(13.2.6)
2F F = ao + v'l ao = (1 + v'l)ao = 72,400Ib
TI = 2 + v'2 (13.2.11)

This is the plastic coIIapse load. The deflections just as this load is reached
Thus if F = 20,000 lb, will be

TI = 11,7201b 82 = 0.017 in.

(13.2.7)
T 2 = 5,8601b (13.2.12)
81 = v'l 82 = 0.024 in.
-.------------------------------------------- ---- ---- -- .

r
!
.J

304 Limit Analysis [Ch. 13 Sec. 13-3] Pure Bending or Beams .30.5
which are still smaIl. If the load is increased beyond 72,400 lb, large deforma- Thus, using pla~tic design, 30 per cent of the material is saved. Furthermore,
tions will take pIace and it can be assumed that the structure is no longer under the workmg load of 20,000 Ib, the actual stresses in the bars are
usable.
We note that the factor of safety based on the load-carrying capacity is, 11,720
al = -TI
A
=- - = 14' 100
0.83
for the case F = 20,000,
72,400
fp = 20,000 = 3.62

which are welI within the elastic range.

rather than 2.56. Moreover, the load-carrying capacity or the plastic coIlapse
load is determined simply from the equilibrium equation (13.2.1) and a
knowledge of the yield stress. The detailed elastic analysis previously made 13-3 PURE BENDING or BEAMS
was not necessary. This is another great advantage of limi t analysis.
Now consider the inverse problem, Le., the problem of design rather than The next probIem considered is the pure bending of a beam. Consider the
analysis. Supposing we were given a truss such as shown in Figure 13.2.1, beam shown in Figure 13.3.1. The conventions for positive moments and
and told to design such a truss to have minimum cross-sectional areas for a
working 10ad of 20,000 lb, and a factor of safety of 3, taking all three bars M M
(r-------------------~ ~2b~
t
to have equal areas.
According to elastic design, the forces in the bars at a 10ad of 3 x 20,000 =
60,000 lb would be, from (13.2.6), I >x I )~ì
T. = 60,000 = 17 600 lb FIGURE 13.3.1 Beam under pure bending.
2 3.414 '

deflections as shown in this figure will be used throughout. The bending

TI = 35,200 lb moment is given by

To keep the stress in the middle bar below the yie1d stress of 30,000 psi, the M = 2b Jh
-h
za x dz (13.3.1)
area would have to be
With the usual assumption of beam theory that pIane sections remain pIane
35,200 l 17' 2 the strain ex is given by
A = 30,000 = . m.
ex = kz (13.3.2)

If plastic analysis were used, however, the stresses in alI three bars could where k is the curvature of the middle surface.
be allowed to reach 30,000 psi at a 10ad of 60,000 lb. Therefore, from
(13.2.1), If M is sufficient1y small, the stresses will be elastic and

(13.3.3)
A(l + V2) x 30,000 = 60,000
Substituting into (13.3.1) and integrating gives
2
or A = 2.;14 = 0.83 in.
(13.3.4)
306 Lirnit Analysis [Ch. 13
Sec. 13-4] Bearns and Frarnes with Concentrated Loads
307
T h e maXlmum
. stress wilI occur at the outer fibers . and. wiIl be tensile
I hat
As M increases, eventually l' approaches zero, as shown in (d). At this time
z = h and compreSSIve . a t z - -Il . When this maXlmum stress equa s t e
the complete beam is flowing plastically and the moment can no Ionger be
yield stress uo, we have, from (13.3.3),
increased. The value of the moment at this condition is called the yield
moment, limiting moment, or ful!y plastic momento Denoting this moment by
Uo = kEh (13.3.5) Mo, from (13.3.7)

and subStltut111g
. . 111 . t o (13 ..
3 4) gives for the moment when the outer fiber just (13.3.8)
reaches the yield stress
Comparing equations (13.3.8) and (13.3.6), it is seen that the ratio of the
fulIy pIastic moment to the maximum eIastic moment is
(13.3.6)

On the basis of elastic analysis this is the maximum allowa~le. momento Zo

e
= 1.5
(13.3.9)
H owever, 011 the basis of plastic analysis, it is evident
.that . thls IS. not the
d
. oment the beam can withstand, since If the moment IS lncrease This ratio is called the shape facto/' of the beam. It wiII, of course, be differ-
maXlmum m . fib f th
b d M the additionalload wilI be transferred to the 111ner ers o . e ent for different-shaped cross sections. For a circuIar cross section, for
eyon ., l d' h wn 111
b am The stress distributions for various states of oa 111g ar~ s o
F:Igure. 13 .3.2. The first figure (a) shows the distribution when MIS less than

Me 4 b 2
3" h 0"0 40"0 bhA (1+-f) 3
fO"oA ~0"0bh2 t b2hO"o
(a) (b) (C) (d)
Mo 2bh 20"0 40"0 bhA (1+ -f) -t0"0A
3 2-.f2
3 0"0
bh 2
-t b 2hO"o
Mo Hti
FIGURE 13.3.2 Stress distributions in rectangular beam. Me
1.50
1.70
1+ki 2.34 2.00
M (b) shows the distnbutlOn
. . wh en M JUS
. t equa ls M e, and as M is increased FIGURE 13.3.3 Shape factors for common beam sections.
m~~e of the beam reaches the yield stress but the part ~~tween l'h a~d - ~'h
is stilI elastic, as shown in (c). The moment for the condltlOn shown 111 (c) IS,
exampIe, it wiII be l. 70. Figure 13.3.3 shows the values for severaI common
from (13.3.1), beam sections.

rh + 4b lh
M = 2b
J
-rh
kEz2 dz
r/I
uoz dz
13-4 BEAMS AND FRAMES WITH
but, from (13.3.5),
CONCENTRATED LOADS
kE = Uo
l'h
In Section 13.3 the case of pure bending where aH sections of the beam
Hence
M = 4b (
l rh
o
uoz 2 dz
l'h
+ l") =
rl!
uoz dz ibh2uo(3 - l' 2)
behaved the same way was discussed. We now consider concentrated Ioads
where the moment distribution varies aIong the beam. Our purpose, as before,
wiII be to determine the collapse Ioads of the structure.
..... a

308 Lirnit Analysis [Ch. 13

Sec. 13-4] Bearns and Frarnes with Concenfrafed Loads
309

F
Cantilever Beam with Tip Load A;t-<---L----~k-----L---~
-, C
(o) B
Consider a cantilever beam with a concentrated load at the tip as shown in
Figure 13.4.1. The bending moment will obviously vary linearly from zero

:t~ - -: : =o - =: : : (: : ~:r:)=-====~===_=-..J
~t-:-:-A_ _ _ _ _ _--,JIF
~~<~---------L--------~~
(o)

----(bj----

(c)

FIGURE 13.4.1 Col1apse of cantilever beam.

Fo
at the tip to a maximum at the built-in end as shown. If Mo is the yield (e)
moment, then for some load Fo for which
FIGURE 13.4.2 Collapse of simple indeterminate beam.
M = LFo = Mo (13.4.1)

the section at A will become fully plastico Since perfect plasticity has been
assumed, the beam will now be able to rotate freely about the point A and
will thus have collapsed. We say that a yield hinge or plastic hinge has formed
at A. Such a hinge can be thought of as one which is locked in pIace as long
as the moment Mis less than Mo, and which becomes free to turn freely when
M becomes equal to Mo. The collapse load, from (13.4.1), is obviously
Mo 2bh2uO
Fo =7: =-L- (13.4.2)
for a rectangular cross-sectional beam.
Indeterminate Beam
The indeterminate beam shown in Figure 13.4.2 is considered next. The
end A is built in and the end Cis simply ~upported so it can carry no moment,
the load F being applied at the middle. The elastic solution first requires
determining the reaction at C, which can be done by first calculating the
displacement at C whh the support removed and calculating the reaction at
C necessary to bring the deflection back to zero with the force F removed.
The moment distribution can then be computed. To determine the collapse
load, however, none of this is necessary. The moment distribution when
everything is elastic is shown in (b), and as the force Fis increased, eventualIy
the section at A will become fulIy plastic, the moment at A being - Mo. A
yield hinge is thus formed at A, just as in the case of the cantilever previously
discussed with the resultant moment distribution as shown in (c). Because
of the support at C, however, the beam will not yet collapse. As the load is
further increased, the point A cannot carry any more moment, but the rest
of the beam can and the moment at B will continue increasing until it reaches
the plastic moment Mo, at which time a second yield hinge is formed. The
beam will then collapse, as shown in (e).
The calculation of the collapse load for this case is very simple. Let the
310 Limit Analysis [Ch. 13 Sec. 13-4] Bearns and Frames with Concentrated Loads
311
reaction at C be denoted by R. Then since the moment at A is - Mo and at
carry no moments. ~here are two concentrated forces, a vertical force of
Bit is Mo,
amount 2F and a honzontal force 3F as shown. The criticaI points h th
MB = Mo = RL t '11 . . w ere e
momen s Wl atta111 th~lr largest absolute values are obviously the points
MA = - Mo = 2LR - FoL marked 1,2, ~nd 4. ~t lS seen that unlike the beam ofthe previous example
3:
Rence where both cntICal p0111ts had to develop yield hinges l't' t .'
h' , IS no necessary 111
Fo = 3Mo R= Mo t lS case for alI four criticaI points to develop yield hinges. As a m tt f
L L
(13.4.3)
f~ct, there are three distinct possibilities, as shown in (b), (c), anda (~~ :f
FIgure 13:4.3. Each. of these three configurations is a possible mechanism.
For a beam of rectangular cross section it follows from (13.3.8) that The questlOn then anses as to which is the correct one This can be d t . d
as follows. . e erm111e

Fo = 6bh2ao Le~ us consider each of these modes of collapsein turno Let the reactions
L at. ~0111t 5. be denoted by RI and R 2, and consider the moments at the four
cntICal p0111tS.
At this point it might be well to introduce a term frequently used in limit
MI = 2RIL - 8FL
analysis, the term mechanism, or kinematic mechanism. By a mechanism is
meant an articulated system which can deform without a finite increase in M2 = 2RIL - 2FL - 2R2 L
load. Thus in the previous example when the second yield hinge was formed (13.4.4)
M3 = RIL - 2R2 L
at B, the system became a mechanism as shown in (e). There exist essentially
two hinged bars which can deform freely for an infinitesimally applied load. M4 = -2R2 L
We might say then that one of the objectives of limit analysis is determining
when a mechanism will be formed, and in the case when more than one Eliminating the two reactions RI and R 2 gives
mechanism is possible for a system, to determine which is the collapse
mechanism. This last point will be illustrated in the next example. - M2 + 2M3 - M4 = 2FL
(13.4.5)
- MI + M2 - M4 = 6FL

Simple Frame If it is now assumed that the frame will collapse by the mechanism shown in
(c), then MI = -M M - M and M M F
. o, 2 - o, 4 = - o. rom the second of
The example of a simple frame as shown in Figure 13.4.3 will now be equatlOns (13.4.5),
considered. Point 1 is built in and point 5 is pin supported and can therefore
F= 2L MO)
and from the first of (13.4.5),
(13.4.6)
M3 = iMo

Now consider the mechanism shown in (b). Rere

M 2 = -Mo
Then, from (13.4.5),
(o) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 13.4.3 Collapse of simple frame. (13.4.7)

312 Limit Analysis [Ch. 13
Sec. 13-5] Theorems or Limit Analysis
313
· h"IS Impos sl'bIe . The second mechanism shown in (b) is therefore not
wh IC the collapse load exactly, and recourse must then be had to the upper and
possible. . . (d) . lower bound theorems, which provi de upper and lower bounds to the true
Finally, consider the third mechalllsm shown m . collapse load. These theorems are essentially the same as those presented in
Section 12.7 for the load to produce incipient plastic flow in a rigid-perfectly
plastic material. They were first presented by Gvozdev [3] and independently
Then, from (13.4.5), proved by Hill [4, 5] for the rigid-perfectly plastic material, by Drucker et al.
[6, 7] for the elastic-perfectly plastic material, and in references [8] and [9] for
F= 5Mo (13.4.8) the special cases of beams and frames. We shall present the theorems in their
8L
generaI formo The proofs, which are based primarily on the principle of
But this violates the originaI assumption for this case-that ~here is no. yiel.d virtual work, can be found in the cited references and in a particular1y elegant
form in reference [lO].
. t t' 2' l' e the moment at 2 is less than Mo. ThIS mechalllsm IS
hmge at s a lOn , .. , . f () th ly
therefore aIso no t a dmissible, leaving the mechalllsm
. o c. as(1346) e on
POSSI'bleone. The true collapse Ioad is therefore glVen by equatlOn d' .t. .the
Several results can now b e noted . The collapse loads correspon. . mg
(13 o4 6) Lower and Upper Bound Theorems
cases of (d) and (b) are higher than the true collapse 10ad given m ....
It appears, then, that as the load is slowly increased from zero, the frame w1l1 Jf an equilibrium distribution of stress can be found which balances the
collapse the first chance it gets. . applied load and is everywhere below yield or at yield, the structure will not
Second if the load is decreased in these last two case s, so .t~at the maxlmu~ collapse or will just be at the point of collapse. This gives a lower bound on
the limit load, and is called the lower bound theorem.
moment does, not excee d M o, it would be necessary. . to dIVIde by 12 and 4'
respectively, as seen from (13.4.7) and (13.4.8), g1V1ng The structure must collapse if there is any compatible pattern of plastic
deformation for which the l'ate at which the external forces do work is equal
to or exceeds the rate of interna! dissipation. This gives the upper bound on
and the limit load and is called the upper bound theorem.
The lower bound theorem merely says that the structure will withstand the
But these are less than the true collapse load of applied load by rearranging the internaI stresses to best advantage, if at alI
possible. It gives lower bounds on, or safe values of, the limit or collapse
FL loading. The maximum lower bound is the limit load.
Mo = 2 The upper bound theorem says that if a path of failure exists, the structure
will take the path. It gives upper bounds on the limit load. The minimum
I f 11 then that as the Ioad is slowly increased, th~ frame will not upper bound is the limit 10ad. Since exact limit loads cannot usualIy be ob-
collapse for any load f or which
t o ows . some equilibrium configuratlOn can be found, tained for practical problems, these two theorems enable one to bracket the
l 't produces a mechalllsm. . answer sufficiently c10se for engineering purposes.
unThese
ess 1 two concep ts can be formalized into basic theorems of limit analysls In addition to the lower and upper bound theorems, the following theorems
to be discussed in Section 13.5. are sometimes useful [11].
Addition of weightIess material cannot resuIt in a lower collapse load.
Increasing the yield strength of the material in any region cannot weaken
THEOREMS or LIMIT ANALYSIS the body.
13-5
Residual or thermal stresses or deflections have no influence on the limit
.
The prevlOus problems were simple enough so that the correct collapse load.
d'ffi lt In more
l d Id be obtained in each case without too much 1 cu y. . The first two of these are stated in the negative because the converses are
c~~p~~~ted probIems, however, it may be difficult or impossible to obtalll not necessarily true; Le., addition of material or increase in yield strength
pz

314 Limit Analysis [Ch. 13 Sec. 13-5] Theorems of Limit Analysis

315
may, or may not, increase the strength of a body, but it will certainly not bound theorem can now be stated as follows' The rfi .
decrease it. statically ~dmissible multiplier; Le.,f?:. À_.' sa ety factor IS fhe largest
The upper and lower bound theorems can be stated in a more precise and
(O:d :el~c1ty field) is calle~ kinematically admissible if it satisfies the velocit
elegant fashion by first introducing the following definitions and concepts [2], lSp acement constra111ts and if the total external rate of y
which are useful in their own right. by the actualloa~s on this velocity field is positive. work De done
Generalized stresses Qj are used to designate the state of stress in a body. Let the generahzed strain-rate vector associated . h . . .
These may be actual stresses, so that Ql = a x , Q2 = a y, etc.; or they may admissible velocity field be desi nated b'* W1t a glven .k111~matIcally
be moments, as in the case of beams, so that Ql = M; or resultant forces indicate that th' . g y ql , where the astensk IS used to
and moments as in the case of shells, where Ql = Ne, Q2 = Nq" Q3 = Me, kinematically a~~~s~~~e~~~:s~~~~~~ ~~u~ sttr~in-frate ~ector but one that is
etc. The choice of generalized stresses to be used depends on the particular .* b' Iss1pa 10n unctlOn correspondin t
qi can e determ111ed from equation (13 5 3) d . g o
problem and is a matter of convenience and is not necessarily unique. Once structure to obtain the total internaI d: '. at~ 111tegrated over the complete
Isslpa lOn D l We n d fi J, •
such a choice has been made, however, the corresponding generalized strains matically admissible multiplier À+ as the ratio of th ' . o~ e ne a ane-
qj are defined so that the increment of internaI work done is given by energy dissipations : e 111terna to the external

(13.5.1) À+ = DI
De (13.5.4)
For example, for the beam prob1ems considered, the generalized stress at a The upper bound theorem is then stated as follows' Th' .
hinge is M, and the corresponding generalized strain is the rotation B, the smallest kinematically admissible multiplier' i e f < .À+ e safety factor IS the
internaI work at the hinge being equal to MB. be summarized by the reiation ' .. , - . Both theorems can
Instead of using the increment of internaI work as given by equation
(13.5.1), it is more convenient to introduce the dissipationfunction or specific (13.5.5)
power of dissipation, given by
Th~ above theorems furnish upper and Iower bounds for
questlOn of the uniqueness of the l t' . the Ioad. The
(13.5.2) . so u lOn must stIlI be .d d
umqueness of the safety factor follows from equation (13 5c05n)slItere . TIhe
be shown [4 12 13] . '" can a so
where the dots designate time derivati ves. The dissipation function is uniquely at the start ~f piasti~ ~s111g. the ~rincipie of virtual work, that the stress field
determined by the strain rates (even for singular yield lo ci [10]), and we can
consequent1y write fo~~:; which faH on th~~::a~g~~~::~::t !~ ;7~~if!~t~~~:sa:~~ea~::rse::
mi~:t: :!:!I:h:x;:f~eF~!:!e l~s~. . ~f. ;~:s:ntdheAor1.embs"lct~nSidedr
(13.5.3)
the indeter-
s Ul 111 an the end B is
Consider an arbitrary structure of volume V and surface S subject to
certain geometric constraints and upon which a load distribution P j acts.
Let À be a multiplier and consider the structure under the loads ÀPi as À is
slowly increased from zero. The safety factor fis defined as the smallest value
of À for which the structure can undergo an increase in deformation without
increase in lo ad ; i.e., the safety factor is the ratio of the collapse load to
actualload.
We now define a statically admissible stress field as one which is in
equilibrium, is in equilibrium with the external Ioads ÀPl> and
exceeds the yieid limit. The multiplier À- corresponding to such a (b)
admissibie stress fieid is called a statically admissible multiplier. The FIGURE 13.5.1 CoIlapse of bea m with distributed load.
316 Limit Analysis [Ch. 13
Sec. 13-5J Theorems of Limit Analysis
317
simply supported and the distributed load is of intensity P. The beam will Equating the rates of work done, by the upper bound theorem
collapse when yield hinges are formed at A and at some as yet unknown point
designated by x = g. The correct solution can readily be obtained. Let R be PL2
the reaction at the point B. Then the moment at any x is given by T=3MQ
(13.5.11)
M(x) = R(L - x) - tP(L - X)2 (13.5.6) or p+ = -PL2 = 12
MQ

Since yield hinges form at x = O and x = g, :omdPari~g ,,:ith equation (11.5.9), it is seen that an upper bound has bee
loun Wh1Ch lS reasonably dose. n
M(O) = RL - tPL2 = -MQ . A .lo,,:er bound to P is obtained as follows. Calculatin the
(13.5.7) d1stnbutlOn due to the load p [assuming M(O) _ M] gl' moment
Q resu ts III
M(g) = R(L - g) - tP(L - g? = MQ - -

AIso, since at x = g, M must be a maximum, (13.5.12)

M'W = -R + P(L - g) = O (13.5.8)

No,,: t.his m~me~t ~istribution is not an admissible one (not stati calI
adm1ss1ble), Slllce 1t glVes values greater than M Th t h ' y
Solving equations (13.5.7) and (13.5.8) for R, g, and P, f Q. us e maX1mum value
o m o.ccurs at x/L = i'z- and is equal to 25/24 If th '" .
the moments and l " . we erelore mult1ply alI
b Th . oad by 24/25, an adm1ss1ble moment distribution which
RL
r = MQ = 2 + 2v.r2 = 4.82843 y eorem 2 lS a lower bound, will be obtained. Hence '

p = 24/25 x 12 = 11.52 (13.5.13)

PL2 -
p = MQ = 6 + 4V2 = 11.65685 (13.5.9)
is a lower bound for the collapse load.
- The collapse load is thus bounded by
g = Lg = .r
2 - v 2 = 0.58579
11.52 :s; p :s; 12
or we can write
Equations (15.5.9) give the exact answer to the problem. However, for more (13.5.14)
complicated problems the exact solution may become very difficult. An p = 11.76 ± 0.24
approximate solution can be obtained by finding upper and lower bounds.
We note first that if some arbitrary value g were chosen for the hinge, an which is sufficiently accurate for engineering purpose~.
upper bound would result, for the correct value of g will cause the yield F~r greater accuracy one could now take the value x/L = -2_ h h
prevlOUS moment distribution w a s ' ' . 12, W ere t e
~~;o~~n:en~:S~tion o:tainda new an: :;~:~r:~;~ra~:u~~n:n~h~~~:c;~~~~f:~
limit to be reached at a lower load. Let us then arbitrarily choose the mid-
point g = t as the hinge point. Then if the hinge A rotates through an angle
e, g will rotate through an angle 2e and the total internaI work will be ower oun . The collapse load is theQ found to be

11.65674 :s; p :s; 11.65714 (13.5.15)

The externalload P moves an a verage distance of iLe and the external work l bForbthe above simple example there is little difference in the amount of
a or etween the exact solution and the method of upper d l b
For l an ower ounds
We = PL(iLe) = iPL2 e is fa;:~;e~~o~P ex problems, however, the method ofupper and lower bound~
318 Limit Analysis [Ch. 13 Sec. 13-6) Method of Superposition of Mechani
sms 31
. 9
h
W ere n lS the number f' d
o m epen dent equatlOns
. of e 'l'b'
· d d' qUI l num or numb
13-6 METHOD OF SUPERPOSITION OF of m epen ent mechamsms, m the number' er
MECHANISMS to specify the bending moment diagram ano: bet~dmg m:ments necessary
constraints. For ex ampIe, the frame or' Fi u:e 1; num er of redund~nt
In the simple examples previously discussed, it was possible to list alI moments at the points 1 through 4 it has t g d d.4·3 has fo~r bendmg
collapse mechanisms and to determine which of these was the correct one. h ~ , wo re un ant constramts d.
t ere ore has two independent equations of equilibrium as'
ven b ,a~ lt
For complicated structures this is no longer possible and more systematic (13.4.5). It also has two independent mech' ,glh y.equa:lOns
methods are needed to detennine the limit loads. One such generaI method 13 4 3(b) amsms, as s own m FIgur
.. and (c). The mechanism of Figure 13 43(d) b b' e
will be briefly discussed in this section. The interested reader is referred to combining the other two mechanisms. " can e o tamed by
references [2, 14, 15, 16] for more comprehensive treatments.
For the problem under consideration Figure 13 6 1 . l
The method oJ superposition oJ meehanisms due to Symonds and Neal
[17, 18] basically involves combining or superposing various elementary
~ndicated, and the degree ofredundancy'r is equal t~~' :e~~::a to as li
mdependent mechanisms. For these independent mech~nisms wee~~:~:e ~~;
meehanisms to obtain the collapse mechanism, the true collapse mechanism
being distinguished by the lowest collapse load. The method will be described
by means of an illustrative problem taken from reference [17]. 2P
Consider the frame shown in Figure 13.6.1, loaded as indicated. Let the
fulIy plastic moment in the legs be Mo and in the horizontal beams 2Mo.
There are lO possible sections where plastic hinges can occur, as indicated
by the numbers in the figure. The hinge in the beam with the distributed load
may occur at some unknown distance x as shown.
The first step is to determine the number of linearly independent meehanisms
(o)
for the structure. It can be shown that this will equal the linear1y independent (b)
static equations of equilibrium, which in tum is equal to the number of
bending moments necessary to specify the bending moment diagram com-
pletely minus the degree of redundancy of the structure; Le.,

n= m - r (13.6.1)

15

,,,
----------, l
x~
17 8,
,
1
,
(c)

FIGURE

basie or elementary .meehanisms shown in Figure 1362

(d)

13.6.2 Elementary mechanisms.

. " There are t hree such

, elementary mechamsms defined as follows:
1. h'Beam meehanisms as shown in (a) and (b) . These are charactenzed
.
!, !
1
12L o?e l:ge adt .ea~h end and one hinge under each concentrated load and one
by
1 , hmge lor a Istnbuted load.
, 1
110 91 2.. Frame or p.a~el meehanisms as shown in (c). These are characterized
by hmg~s at the ]omts and supports but not under loads.
1~<~/-----2L------~~+I~~------2L ~I' re 3. Joznt. meehanisms as shown in (d). These are fiet't' h'
l IOUS mee amsms
presentmg the small rotation of a joint where three or b .
FIGURE 13.6.1 Two-bay frame. Connected. more mem ers are
 Limit Analysis [Ch. 13
320
There is also a fourth type of basic mechanism used in the analysis of
gabled frames, called a portai mechanism, which will not be used here.
The next step is to compute the collapse lo ad for each of the elementary
mechanisms of Figure 13.6.2. For'this purpose the work equation obtained
from the principle of virtual work is used. The principle of virtual work
states that if a structure is in equilibrium under a system of external forces,
then the external work done by these forces during any virtual displacement
is equal to the internaI work done by the stresses on the strains due to this
virtual displacement, the virtual displacement being any displacement com-
patible with the constraints. For the case of a frame structure composed of
rigid members, this principle takes the form of the following work equation:
(13.6.2)
where PI are the k externalloads, 81 the small displaceinents of a mechanism
motion, Mi the plastic moments, and 01 the corresponding small rotations.
The use of this equation is further simplified by the fact that the product MIOI
is always positive, so that we need not consider the signs ofthe MI or the 01,
Applying equation (13.6.2) to the mechanisms of Figure 13.6.2 gives for
Figure 13.6.2(a),
2P(LO) = MoO + 2Mo(20) + 2MoO
or PL = 3.5Mo (13.6.3)
In the above equation the hinge at section 2 was assumed to take pIace in
the verticalleg, which is weaker, having a plastic moment of Ma rather than
2Mo as in the beam.
For the mechanism of (b),
Sec. 13-6] Method or Superposition or Mechanisms 321
The frame can faH in one of the three mechanisms analyzed or in some
combination 01' them. The correct failure mechanism is the one requiring the
smallest load P. Hence in combining the mechanisms we choose only those
combinations which are likely to give smaller loads than the mechanisms
already available. Examination of the work equation (13.6.2) shows that to
reduce the load the work done by the load should be made as large as possible
and the internaI work of the plastic moments should be made as small as
possible. This leads to the following rules for combining mechanisms:
1. Two mechanisms should be combined so as to eliminate at least one
common hinge. Only then can the failure load be less than for each of the
individuaI mechanisms.
2. If necessary a joint connecting three or more members may be fotated
in order to reduce the internaI work at, this joint. This corresponds to the
elementary mechanism of Figure 13.6.2(d).
3. For a beam with a distributed load, the hinge is first arbitrarily assumed
to be at the midpoint of the beam. If the actual collapse mode contains this
hinge, its correct position can then be determined. In practice the variation
of this hinge position is small and can be neglected.
Let us apply these rules to the present problem. The mechanism of Figure
13.6.2(c) is most likely to be correct, since it corresponds to the smallest value
of P. If it is combined with mode (a), the hinge at section 2 is eliminated, so
that by rule 1 the resultant value of P should be lower. This combined mode
is shown in Figure 13.6.3. The work equation can be obtained for this new
mechanism of Figure 13.6.3, but it is usually simpler to modify one of the
4P
p

Ox) ( 2LO )
4P"2
( = 2Moe + 2Mo 2L _ x + Mo 2LxO- x
(8L - x)L
PL = 2x(2L _ x) Mo

For the mechanism of (c),

p(2Le) = 6MoO
PL = 3Mo ~-----2L------~~~'~~'-----2L------~
There is no work equation for the mechanism of Figure 13.6.2(d). FIGURE 13.6.3 Combined mechanism.
322 Limit Analysis [Ch. 13 Sec. 13-7] Limit Design
323
.
prevlOUS wor k equations , here the one for the mechanism of Figure 13.6.2(c),
The mechanism yielding the lowest collapse load is the one of Figure
equation (13.6.5).
13.6.3, and this is therefore the correct collapse mode, the load being given
by equation (13.6.6). However, to verify that this is the correct solution, it is
P(2Vi) + 2P(L8) = 6Mo8 - M o8 + 2Mo(28) + 2Mo8
necessary to calculate the remaining moments to make sure that none of
or PL = 2.75Mo (13.6.6) them exceeds the yield moment. The four independent equations of equilib-
rium are
. . hanism thus gives a 10wer collapse lo ad and is there:o~e
Thls c~mbm~ m:~ of the others. To determine whether it is correct, It IS 2PL = 2M3 - M2 - M4
more hkely t ~n ~hek other combinations. Neither mechanism (b) .or (~) 2PL = 2M7 - M6 - Ms
\03.~.;ccombines
n;c;:sg::e favorably with Figure 13.6.3, ~ince nOb.hmg\l~ 2PL = M 2 - MI + M5 - MIO +M - Ms
(13.6.8)
o .. However both of these together wIlI com me Wl g

thereby 13.6.3
Figure ehmmateld...
to e Immat e the'hinge of section 5 without introducing one at 0= M4 + M5 - M6

2P where for the second equation x was taken to be equal to L. Substituting

P 8
M3 = 2Mo
e
l
2L
into equations (13.6.8), and solving for the remaining moments gives

e
10 9j
/ Thus none of the remaining moments exceeds the fully plastic moment for
that member, so that the failure mode of figure 13.6.3 is the correct one.
(13.6.9)

2L )01<' 2L )01
The above example illustrates the use of the method of superposition of
FIGURE 13.6.4 Combined mechanism. mechanisms. Obviously the method requires some skill in combining favor-
able mechanisms. Such skill can readily be acquired by experience and
· 6. This new combination is shown
sect lOn . din Figure 13.6.4. Whether it is practice. The method then offers a relatively simple procedure for finding the
advantageous or not must now be det~rml~e . collapse load of framed structures under proportionalloading.
The work equation for this mechamsm IS

4P(L8) + 4P( ~8) = Mo(58) + 2Mo(68) 13-7 LIMIT DESIGN

Hence Heretofore the problems discussed have been primarily those of analysis.
PL = 2.83Mo (13.6.7)
A given structure was analyzed to determine the maximum safe load. Of
equal importance is the problem of design where the loads are specified and
. . 7 ssumed at the midpoint
In the above equation the hmge at sectlOn t w~s a f x can be determined the best structure, in some sense, to carry these loads must be determined.
of the beam according to rule 3. The c?r.rec vaT~iSOgives a value of x equa! It should be first noted that for some design problems the methods pre-
from the condition that P should be a md~mmu7' of PL remains the same as viously discussed can be used directly: For example, if Mo is the plastic
t O 982L instead of L. The correspon mg va ue
~
gIVen. byequa tl'on (13 ..
67) to three significant figures.
moment in one of the beams of the structure which is considered as a reference
beam and aiMO are the plastic moments in the other elements of the structure,
 Limit Ana1ysis [Ch. 13
T References
324 325
where (Xl corresponds to the ith e1ement and the (Xl are all specified, then the 2.Calculate the shape facto f b .
3. Determine the collapse l~a~rf~r :~::\~!e~lrcul.ar cross section.
design problem becomes one of finding the value of Mo for collapse to occur
if the concentrated load F is located at d ~~mmat; beam of Figure 13.4.2
under the specified loads. This is called a restricted design problem [14]. To 4. Obtain the collapse load for a beam b \tl~ ance L from the built-in end.
find Mo, the upper and lower bound theorems can be used as before, noting trated load at the center. m m at both ends with a concen-
that the lower bound theorem now gives an upper bound on the required value 5. Find the collapse load for the frame of . .
of Mo and the upper bound theorem gives a lower bound on the value of Mo· horizontalloads are equa!. FIgure 13.4.3 If the vertical and
Thus in using the method of superposition of mechanisms of Section 13.6, 6. Repeat Problem 5 with the verticallo d .
7. Determine the collapse lo ad fo : eqlual to tWlce the horizontalload.
instead of combining mechanisms to obtain the lowest collapse load, we ends. r a Ull1~orm y loaded beam built in at both
combine the mechanisms to obtain the largest plastic momento The procedures
For the problem of Figure 13 6 1 h
8. . .
for both types of problems are of course exact1y the same. instead of 4P the other load . . , ~ .ow that If the dlstributed lo ad is 5P
g
For the illustrative problem of Section 13.6, as shown in Figure 13.6.1, the the mechanis~ of Figure 13 : ;em amI m ufnchanged, the frame will fail by
9 R . . a t a oa d o 2.61M IL
highest value of the plastic moment Mo is obtained for the combined mecha- . epeat Problem 8 assuming the distributed I d ' o .
mechanism is the one of Figure 13 6 2(b) oa IS 8P. Show that the failure
nism of Figure 13.6.3 and from equation (13.6.6) is given by lO D' h '.. .. at a load of 175M IL
. enve t e eqmlIbrmm equations (13.6.8). . o·

Mo = 0.364PL (13.7.1)
References
The choice of sections to be used in constructing the frame of Figure 13.6.1
1. G. Kazinczy, Experiments with Cl d'
is thus determined by equation (13.7.1). 5, and 6, 1914. ampe Glrders, Betonszemle, 2, Nos. 4,
In generaI, however, the designer seeks not only a safe design but one which
2. i95~: Hodge, Jr., Plastic Analysis 01 Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York,
will also minimize the cost or the weight. It is to be realized that a minimum
weight design does not always result in a minimum cost design. However, 3.
A. A. Gvozdev. The Determination f h
because of the many factors entering into the cost of a design, the methods Statically Indeterminate Systems U dO t ~ Value ?f the Collapse Load for
ings 01 the Conlerence on Pl t' ~ ~~gomg.PlastIc Deformation, Proceed-
that have been developed for optimum design are primarily based on the as
Moscow 1938 pp 19-33 T ICI eJo~'matlOns, Akademiia Nauk SSSR
minimum-weight criterion. In any case this furnishes a go od starting point , ,. . rans ated mto En ]' h b R '
thwaite, Intern. J. Mech. Sci 1 1960 g IS Y . l'v!. Haythorn-
for the designer. 4 R H'll ." , pp. 322-355
. . I, On the State of S t r ' ....
A design method for minimum weight was first discussed by Heyman [19], Phi!. '!'lag ., 42, 1951, pp. 86:~~;~ a PlastIc-RIgld Body at the Yield Point,
followed by Foulkes [20], Livesley [21], and Heyman and Prager [22]. The 5. R. HIlI, A Note on Estimatin th Y Id .
Body, Phil. Mag., 43, 1952, PP.g353~35~~ -Pomt Loads in .a Plastic-Rigid
basic problem is one in linea/' p/'og/'amming, where one seeks to minimize a
weight function subject to inequality constraints [23]. However, the number 6. D. C. Drucker, H. J. Greenberg and W P
Elastic-Plastic Body in PIane St '. J . rager, The Safety Factor for an
of variables and constraints is so large, except for relatively simple frames,
that a straightforward use of linear programming techniques would quickly
7.
Theorems for Continuous Media ci .
ci
D. C. Drucker, W. Prager an;~' J' PI. Mech., 18, 1951, pp. 371-378.
~eenberg, Extended Limit Design
exhaust the capacity of even a large computer. The method of Heyman and 8. H. J. Greenberg and W. Prager Li~~~~ (lpl. Math., 9, 1952, pp. 381-389.
Prager [22], however, does not require as much computer storage and is ASCE, 117, 1952 p 447 First p'ubl' h deSIgn of Beams and Frames, Trans.
,.. IS e as Tech Rept A181 B U .
completely automatico Furthermore, it can be used for analysis as well as Press, Providence, R.I., 1949. '. -, rown mv.
design. A complete description of the method is given in reference [22] and in 9. M. R. Horne, Fundamental Propositions i n th .
J. Inst. Civil Engrs. (London) 34 1949 1950 e PlastIc Theory of Structures,
reference [14]. lO W P A ' , - , pp. 174-177
. . rager, n Introduction to Plasticity Add' W l .
1959. ' Ison- es ey, Reading, Mass.,

Problerns 11. D. C. Drucker, Limit Analysis and D .

1954, pp. 421-423. eSIgn, Appl. Mech. Rev., 7, No. lO,
1. Consider a truss similar to the one shown in Figure 13.2.1, where the angle 12. R ..Hill, On the Problem of Uniqueness in the Th ..
between the vertical bar and each of the other two bars is 60°. Find tM SolId, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 4 1956 247 e~ry of a Rlgld-Plastic
302-307. '" pp. -255; 5,1957, pp. 1-8, 153-161,
eiastic and piastic safety factors if F = 20,000 Ib.
... J

Limit Analysis [Ch. 13

326
13. R. M. Haythornthwaite and R. T. ShieId, A Note on the Deformabie
Region in a Rigid-Plastie Strueture, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 6, 1958, pp.
127-131.
14. C. E. Massonnet and M. A. Save, Plastic Analysis and Design, VoI. I, Ginn
CHAPTER 14
(Blaisdell), Boston, 1965.
15. B. G. Neal, The Plastic Methods oj Structural Analysis, Wiley, New York,
1956.
16. J. F. Baker, M. R. Horne, and J. Heyman, The Steel Skeleton, VoI. II,
Cambridge Univo Press, New York, 1956.
17. P. S. Symonds and B. G. Neal, Reeent Progress in the Piastie Method of
Strueturai AnaIysis, J. Franklin Inst., 252, 1951, pp. 383-407,469-492.
18. B. G. Neai and P. S. Symonds, The Rapid Ca1culation of the Piastie Collapse
Load of a Framed Strueture, Proc. Inst. Civil Engrs. (London), 1, 1952,
pp. 58-71.
19. J. Heyman, Piastie Design of Beams and PIane Frames for Minimum
Materiai Consumption, Quart. Appl. Math., 8, 1951, pp. 373-381.
20. J. Foulkes, The Minimum Weight Design of Strueturai Frames, Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London), Series A223, 1954, pp. 482-494. CREEP
21. R. K. LivesIey, The Automatie Design of Strueturai Frames, Quart. J.
Mecl!. Appl. Math., 9, 1956, p. 257-278.
22. J. Heyman and W. Prager, Automatie Minimum Weight Design of Steel
Frames, J. Franklin Inst., 266, 1958, pp. 339-364.
23. G. B. Dantzig, Linear Programming and Extensions, Prineeton Univo Press,
Prineeton, N.J., 1963. 14-1 BASIC CONCEPTS

GeneraI References
Baker, J. E, M. R. Horne, and J. Heyman, The Steel Skeleton, VoI. II, Cambridge
Univo Press, Cambridge, 1956.
Commentary on Piastie Design in Steel, Progress Reports No.1 and No.2 of the
Joint WRC-ASCE Committee on Piastieity Reiated to Design, Froc. ASCE,
85, No. EM3, 1959.
Drueker, D. C., Piastie Design Methods, Advantages and Limitations, Brown
Univ; Div. oj Appl. Math. Tech. Rept. No. 24, 1957.
Hodge, P. G., Jr., Plastic Analysis oj Structures, MeGraw-Hill, New York, 1959.
Massonnet, C. E., and M. A. Save, Plastic Analysis and Design, VoI. 1, Ginn
(Blaisdell), Boston, 1965.
Neal, B. G., The Plastic Methods oj Structural Analysis, Wiley, New York,
2nd ed., 1963.
Van den Broek, J. A., Theory of Limit Design, Trans. ASCE, 105, 1940, pp.
638-661.
. WhenTh'a material. stretches under constant Ioad the phenomenon IS . called
Cleep. IS was bnefty mentioned in Section 24 h .
. , w ere some typICaI creep
curves were shown. A test which is carried out at constant Ioad is th C
called a creep test and the measured strains are called creep strains Therel ore
ofthe creep curve (strain versus time) at any point is called the . .e s ope
The shap f th .. creep late.
bd' .. e o e umaxlaI creep curve as shown in Figure 14.1.1 has led to
a su IVISlOn of the creep curve into three parts.
1. Primary creep, where the creep rate is decreasing rapidIy.
2. tSecondary (or steady state) creep, where the creep rate is essentially
cons ant.
3. Tertiary creep, where the creep rate increases very rapidly.
th Si;ce.the primary part of the creep curve is usually of short duration and
in ~h ertlary :art leads quickly to rupture, the greatest interest usually lies
e secon. ary part, aIthough the primary part cannot always be neglected
A ~he classICaI creep experiments were carried out by Andrade [1]. in 1910'
n rade ~oncluded that at constant temperature and constant stress th~
creep stralll can be represented by an equation of the form

(14.1.1)

327
 Creep [Ch. 14 Sec. 14-1] Basic Concepts
328 329
Equations (14.1.5) imply that the curves for different stress levels are
geometrically similar, and this is approximately true.
In particular, the functions (:3(a) and k(a) are frequently taken to be power
functions of the stress [2, 3]; Le.,

(:3(a) :;: Bam

(14.1.6)
k(a) = Ka n

Such expressions often fit the data fairly well. For example, for a gas turbine-
alloy steel (Allegheny 418, 12% Cr, 3% W) the data could be fitted fairly
Time well by assuming
FIGURE 14.1.1 Typical uniaxial creep curve.
81 = 3.36 X 1O-30a6t1/2
(14.1.7)
Equation (14.1.1) can aiso be approximated by writing 82 = 4.41 X 1O- 32 a6,2t

8 = 81 + 82 In performing calculations, it is the strain rate at any time which is of

(14.1.2) importance. To determine the strain rate, we differentiate equations (14.1.5)
where 81 = (:3t 1 /3 to get
82 = kt
lÌ 1 = q(:3t q - 1

(14.1.8)
81 an d 82 are no
w recognizable as the primary and secondary components of
. ' t lÌ 2 = k(a)
the totai creep strain, for if we differentiate them w1th respect to tlme, we ge
Alternatively, since from (14.1.5),
lÌ 1 = 1-(:3t- 2 /3
lÌ 2 = k
(14.1.3)
t -
_ (8fj1)1/q (14.1.9)

We see then that lÌ 1 is Iarge for small times but becomes vanishingIy small for
large times whereas lÌ 2 is constant with time.
Many e~periments on different materiais have shown, however, that the
exponent i in equation (14.1.3) is not adequate a~d can vary between 0.4 and
0.85. Therefore, the relationship generally used 1S of the form
(14.1.4)
where q and (:3 depend on the material.
The constants (:3, k, and q will in generaI depend on the ~t~ess and the
temperature. The assumption is usually made, however, t~at q 1S mdependent
of the stress and that at constant temperature we can wnte
81 = (:3(a)t q (14.1.5)
82 = k(a)t
we can substitute (14.1.9) into (14.1.8) to eliminate t, giving
(14.1.10)
Thus the creep rate can be written as a function of stress, temperature, and
time, or of stress, temperature, and strain.
Basically, however, expressions of this type pose a fundamental difficulty.
For a relation of the form
lÌ =f(a, T, t, 8) (14.1.11)
implies that there exists a "mechanical equation of state." That is, the creep
rate at any ti me depends on the state of the system at that time and is inde-
pendent of how or by what path the system got to this state. There is con-
clusive evidence that this can generally not be true but may be true under
 T
j

330 Creep [Ch. 14 Sec. 14-2] Multidimensional Problems

331
.. Th' is similar to the problem ofusing deforma- process as shown in Figure 14.1.2(a). The life-fraction law assumes that the
certain restricted condltlOns. IS. H ever because there is at present
tion theory in plasticity calculatlOns. ~w '. h (14 1 Il) are creep rate depends upon the fraction of life used up, as shown in Figure
no other theoretical method that is practICal, equatlOns ~uc .as ., 14.1.2(c).
th limitations should be kept m mmd.
p used. Ho~ever; al:ayS taken at constant stress. The question then
Experimental data seem to lean toward the strain-hardening rule. However,
generally
.Cree data are ha m~Sata to be used for the case where the stress is varying
it has also been shown that if the stress is suddenly changed, a transient effect
takes pIace such that the strain rate is higher than that obtained even from
anses: How are tese the stress in a body is constant at a value
with time? For example, suppose l . h d to At what rate will the strain-hardening rule. It has therefore been suggested by Rabotnov (4]
. 1 Th stress then sud de n y IS c ange
~ at the new stress a2? To answer this question several
a2' that a modification be made in the strain-hardening rule, as shown in Figure
al Up to a tm:e t •
14.1.3. Instead of moving from O to A, as in the strain-hardening ruIe, we
the. body begm l t' e creep laws h ave b een p roposed [11] . Three such laws are
creepmg
dIfferentdc~m;.a IV 14 l 2 These are the strain hardening, time hardening, and
illustrate m Igure .... . law assumes that in going from one
life-fraction laws. The stram-hardemtngdepends on the existing strain in the 0"2
l l t the next the creep ra e
stress eve o. ., 14 1 2(b) The time-hardening rule assumes
material as indlcated m FIgure 'h' ti~e from the beginning of the creep
that the creep rate depends upon t e

6 6

5 5 35,000

~4 ~4 Time
c 30,000 é 30,000 FIGURE 14.1.3 Transient effect on creep rate.
23 2 3
if, (f)

2 2 move to a point D which has a higher strain rate. The point D is taken as the
25,000 25,000
point at which the strain is ada2 times the strain at A. The validity of this
I 20,000 20,000
type of approach requires much more experimental verification.
o 100 120 140 o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 If one uses the time-hardening ruIe, then the creep rates at any stress are
Time, hr Time, hr
(a) (b) given by equations (14.1.8). On the other hand, if the strain-hardening rule
is used, the creep rates are given by equations (14.1.10). We note that for
6
steady-state or secondary creep, all the rules become the same, since all the
5 35,000 stress curves are then parallel straight lines. (This is not evident from Figure
14.1.2, sin ce the primary parts of the curves have been great1y exaggerated).
30,000

2 14-2 MULTIDIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS

20,000 As mentioned before, all creep data are of the uniaxial type. How then do
o 60 80 100 120 140 we use this data for two-dimensionai and three-dimensional problems? The
Time, hr answer is, the same way as for any plasticity problem. Although the physicai
(c)
processes involved in creep are undoubtedly different than in ordinary plastic
FIGURE 14.1.2 Proposed creep Iaws: (a) time-hardening ruIe; (b) flow, we assume that the same relations hold for creep strains as for plastic
hardening ruIe; (c) life-fraction ruIe, strains. For example, the Prandtl-Reuss relations can be used for computing
332 Creep [Ch. 14 Sec. 14-3] Uniaxial Creep in Infinite Sfrip
333
the creep increments. Thus we assume an equivalent stress defined the same
way as in plasticity theory and an equivalent creep strain increment and write 14-3 UNIAXIAL CREEP IN INFINITE STRIP

etc. (14.2.1) sh Consider

. the
. simple uniaxial case of a th'm m
. fi't l .
111 e p ate of wIdth 2c as
own m FIgure 14.3.1 with a temperature distribution T(y) across the

The computations are then performed as for any plasticity problem. Instead y
ofusing the stress-strain curve, however, the creep curves, or equations such y =c
as (14.1.8) or (14.1.10) representing these curves, are used. ie and a e in these
equations are the equivalent strain rate and equivalent stress, respectiveIy.
The successive-approximation method is very usefui in making the calcuIa- ~--"'"-X

tions. T =1Q + 600(yL i.3 )

In generaI, solutions are obtained incrementally. One start;' with a given
increment of time and solves the problem by successive approximations. The y=-c
next increment of time is then taken and the process repeated. The solution FIGURE 14.3.1 Flat plate with temperature distribution.
can thus be extended to any time. For this purpose it is convenient to write
equations (14.1.8) as follows [using equation (14.1.6)]: width. Under these conditions, the only nonzero stress is

I::!ee = qBa,:t q - l
M ax = ax(y) (143
. .1)
(14.2.2)
or I::!ee = Ka~ M As in the usual theory of bending it is assumed that pl t' .
pIane. This requires t h a t ' ane sec lOns remam
or, for the case of the strain-hardening rule (14.1.10),
(14.3.2)
(14.2.3)
whe.re Cl and C2 are constants to be determined. Let ex and ax be the total
stram and stress at the middle of the time interval M e" the tot l t'
We note that in the case of steady-state creep, the incrementaI approach is t t' d e ' x a creep s ram
~p o Ime t, an I::!ex the additional increment of creep strain during the t'
not necessary, since the stress is constant and re1ations (14.1.8) and (14.1.10) mterval M. Then Ime
can be integrated directly (if we neglect eiastic strains).
With this brief exposition of the creep equations we shall proceed to ax I::!e"
several examples. The reader interested in more detailed discussions of creep
ex = E + rxT + e~ + T (14.3.3)
laws and their physical and phenomenological background is referred to the from which
generaI references at the end of the chapter.
Two examples will be considered. The first is the uniaxial problem of a ax = E( ex - rxT - e~ - I::!;~) (14.3.4)
thin infinite strip with a parabolic temperature distribution across the width.
This is exactly the same as the piastic flow problem treated in Section 9.2. The boundary conditions require that
Rere we will show how the stresses relax with time due to creep. The second
problem discussed is that of a rotating disk similar to the problem of Section
9.5. The same method of solution, by successive approximations, will be used re axdy = o
here for the creep problems as was used in Chapter 9 for the plastic flow
problems. Both these problems are taken from reference [5]. re axydy = o
(14.3.5)
334 Creep [Ch. 14 Sec. 14-4] Creep in Rofating Disks
335
The constants Cl and C2 of equation (14.3.2) can be determined by substituting . 4. !hese incrementaI strains are substituted into equation (14.3.8) and the
equations (14.3.2) and (14.3.4) into (14.3.5). Substituting these values of Cl lteratlOn proceeds from equation (14.3.8) to (14.3.4) to (14.3.9) back to
and C2 back into equation (14.3.2) and assuming E to be constant resu1ts in (14.~.8), etc., until the procedure converges to the correct set of incrementaI
stralllS and stresses.
e == ex - aT = ~ fa-a (aT + e~ + !~eDdy 5. At the start of the second time increment, the total strains e~ are now
2c
kno,:"n an~ ar~ equal to the incrementaI creep strains developed during the
+ 3~ fa-o (aT + e~ + !~e~)y dy - aT (14.3.6) preVl?US ~lme lllcre~ent. In fact, the total creep strains at the beginning of
2c any tlme llltervai wlll always be known and will be equal to the accumulated
As a specific exampIe, 1et incrementaI strains up to that time interval. The procedure for calculating
the average stresses and strains for the second or any other time interval is
T = T o + 600(y2 - t) then the same as in steps 1,2, 3, and 4.
E = 28 X 106 (14.3.7) The resu1ts of this calculation are presented in Figure 14.3.2. This figure
C= 1
a = 9.5 X 10- 6
y =0 center

----
40~----~------_______

Substituting these va1ues into equation (14.3.6) and noting the symmetry of
the problem resu1ts in ~ O

f (e~ + !~e~)dy
u1
c/)
Q)

e = -O.0057(y2 - t) + (14.3.8) t; -40

-80
This equation, along with the stress-strain relation (14.3.4) and some relation
between stress and creep rate, are alI that are needed to solve the plate
-120
problem. Let it be assumed that the relation between stress and creep rate is
ofthe form 100 1,000 10,000
Time, hr
(14.3.9)
FIGURE 14.3.2 Stress relaxation in plate.
Note that in equation (14.3.9) the sign of ~e~ must be taken the same as the
sign of u x , as indicated. It will generally be necessary to write the creep law shows a plot of the variation of the stress with time at the center and at the
in this form unless the stress exponent is an odd integer. The procedure for edge of the plate. For this problem as well as the subsequent ones, the
obtaining the solution to this problem is now as folIows: unknown integrals were evaluated numerically using Simpson's rule.

1. At the start of the first time interval M, e~ is known to be zero and

~e~ is assumed to be zero. Substituting these values into (14.3.8) gives the
elastic solution as a first approximation to the total strains.
2. Substitute this first approximation for the strain distribution into the
stress-strain relation (14.3.4) and solve for the first approximation to the
stress distribution.
3. Substitute this first approximation to the stress distribution into the
creep relation (14.3.9) and solve for the second approximation to the incre-
mentaI creep strains during the first time interval.
14-4 CREEP IN ROTATING DISKS
The simple example ofthe fiat plate of Section 14.3 involves uniaxial stress,
making it possible to determine directly the creep strains once the total
stresses and strains are known. In most cases of practical interest the stress es
are biaxial or triaxial in nature. The generaI procedure is then the same as
discussed in Chapter 9. As an example we consider the case of creep in a
rotating disk.
336 Creep [Ch. 14
T Sec. 14-4] Creep in Rotating Disks
337
We assu me that the von Mises yie1d criterion and the Prandtl-Reuss. d' t d Equations (14.4.4) and (14.4.5) must now be solved Simultaneously for the
stress-strain reiations are valid for both piastic fiow and ~reep, as m lca e stresses a r and aB subject to the proper boundary conditions for the disk. At
· (142
b y equat lOn .. l) , For probIems of thin disks with radIaI symmetry these any time t the total accumulated creep strains s; and sg up to that time t are
reiations are known. The increments in creep strain /),.s~ and /),.sg for the next time interval
/),.t are not yet known, but a set of values is assumed (such as the incrementaI
strains computed for the previous time interval). Since all the creep strains
/),.Se (2aB - a r) (14.4.1) now have known values, equations (14.4.4) and (14.4.5) form a linear pair of
/)"e" =-
B 2a e equations which can readily be solved for the stresses a r and aB' From the
assumed values of /),.s~ and /),.sg, /),.se is calculated by the first of equations
/),.s~ = -/),.s; - /),.sg
(14.4.2). This value of /),.se corresponds to a particuiar value of a e as given by
where as usuai equation (14.4.3). From these values of /),.se and a e as well as the stresses
computed from equations (14.4.4) and (14.4.5), new values for the creep
(14.4.2) increments /),.s~ and /),.sg are now computed from equations (14.4.1). These
better approximations to the incrementaI creep strains are put into equations
(14.4.4) and (14.4.5) and the process is repeated untii convergence is obtained.
The increment in equivalent strain /),.se will in generaI be a function of .the Equations (14.4.4) and (14.4.5) may be solved in a number of ways once
equivalent stress ae, the totai equivalent strain Se, the temperat~re T: the tlme the incrementaI strains are assumed to be known. Two methods have been
t, and the strain history of the material. Such a generaI reIatlOnshlp can be described in Section 9.5, the finite-difference method and the integraI-equation
written method. The finite-difference method is generally preferabie here, since the l'
(14.4.3) disk thickness and other dimensions are changing with time. In connection
with this, it shouId be noted that since a disk under creep conditions will grow
For probIems of piastic fiow without creep, the increment ~f e~uivalent and change dimensions with time, the values of l' and h appearing in equations
. A l'S a function of the equivalent stress a e and the stram hlstory or (14.4.4) and (14.4.5) should be the true values at the time t and not the
st ram uS e . d d t
Ioading path. For creep probIems the strain path becomes tlme- epen en . originaI values at zero time. Thus if H is the originaI thickness at the
For this time dependency of the strain path a number of Iaws have been originaI radiaI position R, the current values h and l'are given approximately
proposed such as discussed in Section 14.1. For ~he exam~Ies to be presented by [see equations (9.5.25) and (9.5.26)]
we shall use both the time-hardening and stram-hardemng rules, aIthough
any other Iaw can be used as we11. . h= H
We proceed essentially as in Section 9.5. The equilibrium equatlOn for the (I+ sg)(1 + 6~) (14.4.6)
disk is given by r = R(1 + sg)
d (hl'a) _ haB
dr r
+ pw 2hl'2 =O (14.4.4)
Furthermore, the strains appearing in the above equations should be natural
strains. However, since the strain increments will generally be small and
where h is the thickness, p the density, and w the r~tation~I speed. The. com~ the current dimensions of the disk will always be used, the error in using con-
patibility equation in terms of stresses is derived m SectlOn 9.5 and m th ventional strains will be negligible.
notation used here is Several cases of creep in rotating disks will now be considered. The first
case treats the same problem as that presented by Wahl et al. [6]. Since
!{ (aB _ /La r + aT + 6g + /),.sg) reference [6] negIects the transient condition, the same will be done here, in
dr E E
order to compare the results of the present method with those of that refer-
= l + /L a r - aB + e
Sr - 6Be + /),.se
___ r - /),.sg
_ ence. This is done by negiecting the eiastic strains, since the compatibility
E l' l' l' reiation (14.4.5) then becomes independent of time if the creep rate is given
338 Creep [Ch. 14 Sec. 14-4] Creep in Rotating Disks
339
by a function of stress times a function of time. The same problem will then where Cis determined from the rim 10ading ar(b) and is given by
be treafed inc1uding the elastic strains, to determine the effect of neglecting
the transient stress distribution upon the creep strains. The second case will
treat a similar disk using more complicated creep laws. The solution to the
problem will thus be presented using both the time-hardening and strain-
hardening rules.
(14.4.10)
and b is the outer radius of the disk.
Case l(a). Creep in Rotating Disk Neglecting Transient Condition The solution now proceeds as follows:
Consider a constant-thickness constant-temperature disk of 12-in. outside 1. Assume a value of b.t, say, 1 hour.
diameter and 2.5-in. inside diameter rotating at 15,000 rpm. Assume steady-
2. Assume values for b.e~ and b.eg, say, 0.001 everywhere.
state creep with the creep rate as used in reference [6]: 3. Calculate

Neglecting the elastic strains is equivalent to letting E approach infinity in

4. Calculate
equation (14.4.5), and since the stress distribution now becomes independent
of time, we can arbitrarily choose any time interval b.t and compute the a _ ( b.ec ) 1/6.2
stresses. The strains will, of course, be direct1y proportional to the assumed e - 4.41 X 1O-32!1t
time interval b.t. One method of solution is therefore as follows. Solve
equation (14.4.1) for the stresses. This gives 5. Calculate C from (14.4.10).
6. Calculate ar and ao from (14.4.8) and (14.4.9).
7. Calculate new values for b.e~ and b.eg from (14.4.1).
8. Go back to step 3.
(14.4.7)
The resuIts of carrying ~ut this calculation are shown in Figure 14.4.1 and
14.4.2 and compared wlth the results of reference [6]. It is seen from the

Letting E approach infinity, integration of equation (14.4.5) and substitution

into (14.4.7) results in

(14.4.8) 24
'(ii
a. o successive opproximotions
.n - - - Ref.(6)
where a is the inner radius of the disk. ~ 16
-t-
Integrating (14.4.4) and substituting (14.4.8) into the resultant equation (j)

gives 8

4 5 6
Rodius, in.
(14.4.9)
FIGURE 14.4.1 Creep stress in rotating disk neglecting elastic strains.
 Creep [Ch. 14 Sec. 14-4] Creep in Rotating Disks
340 341
0,04 o successive approximations 5. Steps 1 through 4 were repeated until there was no change in two
--Ref,(6) successive computations of the strain increments.
c
~O,02 The creep strains were thus computed at the end of 0.01 hour. To obtain
c the creep increments for the next 0,01 hour the same procedure was followed,
.~

ti O except that the total creep strains 8~ and 8~ were no longer zero but were
equal to the accumulated creep strains up to that time. A first approximation
-0,02 to the creep increments !J.8~ and !J.8~ was assumed (usually the values obtained
for the previous ti me interval), and steps 1 through 5 repeated, In this way
2 3 4 5 6
the incrementaI and total creep strains were computed up to 180 hours. The
Radius, in,
time interval was arbitrarily chosen so that the stress during any interval
FIGURE 14.4,2 Creep strains in rotating disk neglecting elastic strains. would not drop by more than approximately 1,000 psi. Thus this time
interval M was rapidly increased as the stress approached steady-state
fi ures that the agreement is excellent. The strains sho:"n in Figure 14.4.~ conditions.
w~re obtained by multiplying the strains computed usmg a M of 1 hou The results ofthis computation are shown in Figures 14.4.3 through 14.4,5.
by 180. Figure 14.4.3 shows the relaxation of the tangenti al stress with time at the

60 X10 3
Case l(b). Creep in Rotating Disk Including Transient Conditions
- - - - neglecting transient conditions
50
' k in Case l(a) was considered, with the elastic strains
The same d lS as k b 18 X 10 6
. luded this time. The modulus of elasticity E was ta en to e , 8. 40
mc ding to a disk temperature of 1000°F. The creep rate was the same v>
V>

~'" 30
corresp,on 1 given for Case l(a) To start with, a time interval M ofO.01 hour
as prevlOus y . . t !J. c and !J.e c -------------_:::_==-""-'"'-~~=-==-=._--
d as a first approximation the creep mcremen s 8 re ee
was ch osen, an , c nd c of
were all taken to be constant at 0.00001, the. total creep strams 8 r a 8e • 20
· zero at zero time . The calculatlOn then proceeded as follows.
course b emg
10
1. !J.8 e was computed from the relation
0.001

FIGURE 14.4.3 Stress relaxations in rotating disk, case l(b).

,
2. EquatlOns (1444)
.. and (14.4.5) .were solved for the stresses ar and ae inner and outer radii of the disk. It is seen that steady-state conditions are
by the method described in Section 9.5. obtained at about 10 hours and that the tangenti al stress at the inner surface
3. a e was computed from the relation persists for a long time at a slightly higher value than that computed neglecting
the transient stress distribution.
A )1/6,2 The tangenti al and axial creep strains at the end of 180 hours are shown
( UB e
ae = 4.41 x lO 32!J.t piotted in Figure 14.4.4 together with the scatter band of test resu1ts given in
reference [6]. From Figure 14.4.3 it can be seen that after a long period of
. tI' o ns were obtained for the strain increments !J.8~ and stability the stresses start rising. As the disk grows due to creep, the centrifugaI
4. New approx1ma
loading increases and the thickness at the center decreases, as can be seen
!J.e~ from (14.4.1).
342 Creep [Ch. 14 Sec. 14-4] Creep in Rotating Disks
343
0.08 - - including transient
canditions which shows that after a long period of stability the stresses gradual1y start
~ scatter - band test rising. The disk has now reached an unstable condition which may result in
0.06 results, Ref. (6) failure.

0.04

c Case 2. Nonlinear Creep Laws

:.:::: 0.02
.~
c In the previous examples the creep CUl'ves were assumed linear with the
'E O
+-
Ul creep l'ate independent of time. It will now be shown that more complicated
0.02 creep curves and creep laws can be used without any appreciable increase in
the complexity of the computations. Any nonlinear creep law can be used;
0.04 for illustration it will be assumed that the creep data can be represented by

0.06 (14.4.11)

The same disk as in case l will now be considered, with the creep data given
Radius, in
by equation (4.4.11), using both the time-hardening and the strain-hardening
FIGURE 14.4.4 Strain distribution at 180 hours, case l(b). rules previously mentioned.
For the time-hardening rule, since the creep l'ate depends on the actual

i:] ~
time elapsed, the creep l'ate at constant stress at the middle of the time
interval between t and t + l1t is obtained direct1y from (14.4.11):

~ 6.0ot---------------~ dee = qBu': ( t

dt)q-l
+ 2" dt (14.4.12)

:~1.65~
'2
~ where U e is the stress at the middle of the time interval and is assumed to be

l
1.45 constant duringthe interval. Solving (14.4.12) for U gives
e
'"
'O

g 1.25 --------------
e = (~)l/m
qB l1t
(
t +
dt)<l-q)fm
2
+-.~ 1.00
U (14.4.13)

jf
L:~
0.90 For the strain-hardening rule, the creep rate depends upon the total
accumulated creep rather than the accumulated time. Eliminating the time
~.SO.80t_~_L_~~I~I~I~II~-~-L1
..
~1~1~1~1~1~11~-~~~~1~11,1~11
100 1,00
O between equations (14.4.11) and (14.4.12) results in
1 10
Time, hr
= -l/m ( dee )q/m ( dee)<l-q)fm
FTGURE 14.4.5 Variation of disk dimensions with time, case l(b). U e B q dt Be + 2 (14.4.14)

from Figure 14.4.5. This increase in centrifugalloading and decrease.in cross where Be is the total accumulated creep strain up to the beginning of the time
section will eventualIy baI ance and finalIy surpass the stress. relaXat1~n, d~u~ interval under consideration and dB e is the strain increment during the ti me
to the creep. The stresses will start increasing alI over the d~sk ~nd t e ;s3 interval. The solution to this problem is now obtained in exact1y the same
may start creeping at an accelerating rate. This is illustrated m FIgure l 4 . . , way as for case l(b), except that in step 3, U e is computed by equation (14.4.13)
344 Creep [Ch. 14 References
345
for the time-hardening rule and by equation (14.4.14) for the strain-hardening 6
rule. For the time-hardening rule, track must be kept of the total elapsed
time, whereas for the strain-hardening rule, track must be kept of the total 35,000
accumulated strain. 2

Part of the results of this calculation for m equal to 6, q equal to 3", and
B equa1 t o l . 5 X 10- 30 are presented in Figures 14.4.6 and 14.4.7.. F'
The creep curves represented by these constants are shown 111 Igure
14.4.8. As would be expected, Figure 14.4.6 shows that the st~ess does. not 30,000
relax quite as rapidly using the strain-hardening rule as wIth the tllr:e-
hardening rule, since the creep rates will generally be 10;ver for the stra~n­
2
hardening rule. This can be used to explain the results of FIgure 14.4.7, WhlCh

25,000

- - time hardening
20,000
- - - - strain hardening
o 20 40 60 80 100
40 120 140
tangential stress at bare Time, hr

----------- FIGURE 14.4.8 Creep curved used with strain-hardening and time-hardening
rules.
20
tangential stress ot rim shows that the tarigential creep strain is essentially the same for both rules.
(Although the strain-hardening rule actually gave sIightly 10wer creep strains,
the difference is too small to show up on the figure.) Although as seen from
Time, hr
Figure 14.1.2, in going to a given stress the creep rate will be smaller for the
FIGURE 14.4.6 Stress relaxation for strain-hardening and time-hardening rules. strain-hardening rule than for the time-hardening rule, this is compensated
for in this problem by the fact that the stress does not relax as fast, so that
the total creep tU1'11S out to be about the same using either rule.
4 A comprehensive discussion of creep in rotating disks, including the effects
of the transient period, can be found in a series of papers by Wahl [6, 7, 8, 9,
time hardening
lO].
3 o strain hardening

é
~2
VI
References
o.
Q)

~
°1 1. E. N. da C. Andrade, On the Viscous.Flow of Metal and Allied Phenomena,
Frac. Roy. Soc. (London), A84, 1910, p. 1.
2. F. H. Norton, Creep o[ Steel at High TemperatI/l'es, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1929, p. 67.
0.01 3. R. W. Bailey, The Utilization of Creep Test Data in Engineering Design,
Time, hr Frac. Inst. Mech. Engrs., 131, London, 1935, pp. 186-205, 260-265.
4. Yu. N. Rabotllov, On the Equation of State of Creep, Proceedings o[ tlte
FIGURE 14.47 Creep at bore for strat'n-hardening and time-hardening rules. International Con[erellce 011 Creep, VoI. 2, New York-London, 1963, p. 117.
346 Creep [Ch. 14

5. A. Mendelson, M. H. Hirschberg, and S. S. Manson, A GeneraI Approach

to the Practical Solution of Creep Problems, Trans. ASME, 81D, 1959,
pp. 585-598.
6. A. M. Wahl, G. A. Sankey, M. J. Manjoine, and E. Shoemaker, Creep
Tests of Rotating Disks at Elevated Temperature and Comparison with
Theory, J. Appl. Mech., 21, 1954, pp. 222-235.
7. A. M. Wahl, Analysis of Creep in Rotating Disks Based on the Tresca
Criterion and Associated Flow Rule, J. Appl. Mech., 23, 1956, pp. 231-238
8. A. M. Wahl, Stress Distribution in Rotating Disks Subjected to Creep
Inc1uding Effects of Variable Thickness and Temperature, J. Appl. Mech.,
24, 1957, pp. 299-305.
9. A. M. Wahl, Further Studies of Stress Distribution in Rotating Disks and
Cylinders Under Elevated Temperature Creep Conditions, J. Appl. Mech.,
25,1958,pp.243-250.
lO. A. M. Wahl, Effects of the Transient Period in Evaluating Rotating Disk
Tests Under Creep Conditions, J. Basic Eng., 85, 1963, pp. 66-70.
11. H. R. Voorhees and J. W. Freeman, Notch Sensitivity of Heat-Resistant
Alloys at Elevated Temperature, Wright Air Development Center Tech. Rept.
No. 54-175, Part I, 1954.
INDEX

GeneraI References
Arutyunyan, N. Kh., Some Problems in the Theory 01 Creep, translated by H. E.
Affine transformation, 46
Nowottny, Pergamo n Press, London, 1966.
Alexander, J. M., 299
Finnie, J., and W. R. Heller, Creep 01 Engineering Materials, McGraw-Hill, Allen, D. N. de G., 163
New York, 1959.
Andrade, E. N. daC., 327, 345
Hult, J., Creep in Engineering Structures, Ginn (Blaisdell), Boston, 1966. Anisotropy, 13, 14
Odquist, F. K. G., Mathematical Theory 01 Creep and Creep Rupture, Oxford Arutyunyan, N. Kh., 346
Univo Press, London, 1966. Associated flow rule, 115
Bailey, R. W. 345
Baker, J. F., 326
Baldwin, W. M., 22
Bauschinger effe et, 13
theories of, 13, 14
Beam(s)
indeterminate, 308-10
pure bending, 305-307
with tip load, 308
Beltrami's energy theory, 74
Biharmonic operator, 217
Bland, D. R., 119, 133, 134, 163
Boundary-value problems, 276, 293
numerical solution, 276-78, 294-96
Bridgman, P. W., 16, 22
Brown, W. F., Jr. 22
Budiansky, B., 120, 134
Cauchy problem, 296
Centered ,fan, 272
Characteristics, 285-98
fixed,295
method of, 288
region of influence, 288
s!ip !ines, 296-98
Clough, R. W., 233
Compatibility equations, 60, 165, 265,
287,292
Compression test, 13
Coulomb, C. A., 71
Coulomb's theory, 73
Creep, 16, 327-45
of infinite strip, 333-35
laws, 330, 331
life-fraction, 330-331
strain-hardening, 330-331
time-hardening, 330-331
multidimensional problems, 331-32
primary, 327-29
rotating disks, 335-45
secondary, 327-29
tertiary, 327
Creep curves, 16, 328, 330, 345
Cylinder, hollow
criticai pressure, 158
linear strain hardening, 160-61
plastic flow, 156-61
strain-hardening material, 158-59

347

348
Cylinder, long solid, 193-97
Dantzig, G. B., 326
Davis, E. A., 212
Deformation
finite, 51
pure, 48
Deformation theories, 119-21
Dieter, G. E., 22
Disk, rotating, 197-208
creep of, 335-45
finite-difference formulation, 204-
208
integraI formulation, 198-203
Displacements, rigid-body, 44
Dissipation function, 314
Distortion energy, 68
Distortion energy theory, 75
Dixon, J. R., 224, 226, 233
Dorn, J. E., 23
Drucker, D. C., 23, 97, 111, 118,133,
134,299,313,325,326
Ductility, 12
Effective plastic strain increment, 102
Effective strain, 116
Effective stress, 102, 116
Eichinger, A, 91, 97
Elastic limit, 6
Elastoplastic problems, 2
ElIiptic equation, 292
Elongation, percent, 12
Energy
distortion, 68
elastic, 67, 68
Equation of state, mechanicaI, 329
Equilibrium equations, 29, 165
Equivalence of plastic work, 106
Equivalent modified total strain, 124
Equivalent plastic strain increment,
102, 106
Equivalent stress, 102, 106, 107, 108
Essenberg, F., 97
Felgar, R. P., 22
Finite deformation, 51
Finnie, J., 346
Flow rule, 109
associated, 115
for Tresca criterion, 108, 109
for von Mises criterion, 100-104
Flow stress, 6
Flow theories, 119-21
..... J
Index Index
349
Ford, H., 133, 299 Johnson, W., 22, 23, 134, 163 258 Marin, J., 11,22,97
Foulkes, J., 324, 326 259 ' ,
Martin, H. c., 233
Fox, L., 233, 299 Massonnet, C. E., 326
Fracture, true strain at, 12 Kantorovich, V., 258 Max!mum Ioad point, 6, 8, 9, Il
Free thermal expansion, 66 Kazinczy, G., 301, 325 Max~mum shear theory, 73
Kinematically admissible multiplier, Maxlmum strain energy theory 74
Geiringer, H., 268, 299 315 Maximum strain theory 72 '
Geiringer's equations, 268 Kinematically admissible ve10city field Maximum stress theory: 71
Generalized strains, 314 284, 315 ' Mechanism(s), 30
Generalized stresses, 314 Kinematic hardening, 95 elementary, 318
Goodier, J. N., 22, 23, 43, 63, 258 Kinematic mechanism, 310 beam, 319
Green's function, 185 Kobayashi, S., 299 frame, 319
Greenberg, H. J., 299, 325 Koff, W., 97 joint, 319
Griffith, A A, 223, 233 Koiter, W. T., 134, 156, 163 pane1,319
Gvozdev, A A, 313, 325 Korn, G. A, 299 portal,320
Korn, T. M., 299 fictitious, 319
Haigh-Westergaard stress space, 79-~8 Kronecker delta, 27 linear1y independent, 318
Hardening Krylov, V. I., 258 rules for combining, 321
isotropic, 13, 94 Melan, E., 119, 133
kinematic,95 Mellor, P. B., 22, 23, 134 163 258
Haythornthwaite, R. M., 326 Lee, E. H., 163
Lévy, M., 1,3, 100, 133 259 '"
Heller, W. R., 346 Membrane analogy, 245
Hencky, H., 1,3,77,134,265,299 Lévy-Mises equations 100 261
Life-fraction Iaw, 33Ò-31 ' Membrane-roof analogy, 247
Hencky's equations, 265 Mendelson, A, 134,212,233,346
Hencky's theorem, 269 Limit analysis, 300-26
of beams, 305-310 M~tal .forming processes, 2, 12, 15, 260
Heyman, J., 324, 326 Mlkhlm, S. G., 212
Hill, R., 1, 3, 22, 23, 97,133,134,163, ~ith concentrated Ioads, 307-310
M!nimum weight design, 324
275,299,313,325 m pure bending, 305-307
design of structures, 300-301 M~ses, R. von, 1,3,77,100,133
Hirschberg, M. H., 212, 346 Mlses, von, criterion, 75, 115, 129
Hodge, P. G., Jr., 22, 23, 62, 163, 259, of frames, 310-12
of simple truss, 301-305 ftow rule, 100-104
271,299,325,326 ~tress-strain relation, 100-104
Hodograph,281-84 theorems, 312-17
Iower bound, 313-15 Mlses, von, ellipse, 76
transformation, 295 Mohr, 0.,43
Hoffman, 0.,69,97, 163 upper bound, 313-15
Mohr's circle(s), 37-39, 280
Hooke, R., 64 Limit design, 301, 323, 324
for plastic strain increments, 101
Hooke's Iaw, 64, 65 restricted design problem 324
Livesley, R. K, 324, 326 ' pole of, 280
Home, M. R., 325, 326 for stress, 101
House, R. N., 3 Loading, definition of, 93
Mohr's diagram, see Mohr's circles
Hult, J., 346 Loading function, 92, 112
Mohr's theory, 77
Huth, J. H., 259 Load point, maximum, 6, 8,9, Il
Lode, W., 88, 89, 97, 109 Multiplier
Hydrostatic pressure, effect of, 16 kinematically admissible 315
Hyperbolic equation, 292 Lode's
statically admissible 314' 315
Hysteresis loop, 6 strain parameter, 109
Muskhelishvili, N. I., 226, 233
stress parameter, 88
Ilyushin, A A, 164,212 Lower bound theorem, 285, 313-15
Lower yield point, 6 Nadai, A, 258
Ince, E. L., 212 Naghdi, P. M., 97, 134
Incompressibility condition, 16 Lubahn, J. D., 22
Navier equations, 68
IncrementaI theories, 119-21 Ludwik, P., 7, 20, 22
Neal, B. G., 318, 326
Inglis, C. E., 223, 233 Necking, 6, 9, 12
Instability point, 6, Il Mclean, D., 22 Neuber, H., 224, 233
InternaI friction theory, 77 Magnusson, A. W., 22 Neutralloading,93
Irwin, G. R., 224 Manjoine, M. J., 15, 22, 346 Norton, F. H., 345
Isotropic hardening, 13, 94 Mansòn, S.S. 134,212,233,346 Novozhilov, V. V., 63
 ...,
350 Index Index
35 l
Octahedral planes, 35 Pure deformation, 48 upper bound theorem, 284 hypothesis, 107
Odquist, F. K. G., 346 Pure shear, 41-42 Sokolnikoff, 1. S., 43, 62, 63, 69, 233, Iinear, 17,20
Offset yield strength, 6 258
Optimum design, 324 Strain-hardening exponent, Il
Quinney, H., 90, 91,97,98, 109, 110 Sopwith, D. G., 163
Orowan, E., 223, 233 Strain-hardening hypothesis, 107
Spero, S. W., 212 Strain-hardening law, 330, 331
Osgood, W. R., 20, 23 Rabatnov, Yu. N., 331, 345 Sphere
Strain-hardening parameter, 153
Radialloading, 99, 120 compatibility equation for, 136
Parabolic equation, 292 Ramberg, W., 20, 23 Strain-invariance principle, 230-32
criticai pressure, 140 Strain rate, effect of, 15
Pearson, C. E., 43 Rankine theory, 71 equilibrium equation, 135 Strain Tensor, 44-62
Pearson, K., 133 Reduction in area, IO, 12 internai pressure, 138-48 Eulerian, 52
Perfectly plastic material, 17, 115, 116 Reuss, E., 100, 133 with linear strainhardening, 153-56 Lagrangian, 62
Pi piane, 81-87 Rigid body, 44 plastic ftow in, 138-56 see a/so, Strain
Picard's method, 164 Rigid body displacements, 44 Prandtl-Reuss relations, 136 Strength eoefficient, 11
Piane elastoplastic problem, 213-30 Rigid-perfectly plastic material, 17, 260 residual stresses, 145-47 Stress
Piane strain, 137,213-18,260 Roberts, E. Jr., 233 shakedown pressure, 147 boundary conditions, 32
Piane stress, 137, 213-18 Ros, M., 91, 97 strain-hardening material, 150-56 convention, 28, 29
of finite plate, 218-23 Rotating disk, see Disk, rotating stress-strain relation, 136 deviator, 39-41
of plate with crack, 223-30 Rotation Tensor, 48 thermalioading, 148-50 invariants of, 40, 41
Plastic collapse load, 301 Spherical coordinates, 135-37 effective, 102, 116
Plastic deformation, 6 Sachs, G., 69,97, 163 Statically admissible multiplier, 314, equivalent, 102,106,107,108,116
Plastic design, 301, 323, 324 Safety factor, 303, 304, 314, 315 315 generalized, 314
Plastic hinge, 308 Saint-Venant, B. de,l, 3,100,111, Statically admissible stress field, 285, invariants, 30, 33, 34
Plastic moment, 307 133,234,258 314 maximum shear, 34, 35
Plastic potential, 119 Saint-Venant's principle, 240 Statically determinate problem, 142, nominal,4
Plastic strain charts, 191-93 Saint-Venant theory, 72 261 normal,28
Plastic stress-strain relations, 98-134 Sand-hiII analogy, 247-48 Steele, M. C., 163 oetahedral shear, 35, 36, 101
generai derivation of, 11 0-119 Sankey, G. A., 346 Stockton, F. D., 97 principal, 30-33
Lévy-Mises, 100,261 Save, M. A., 326 Strain, 44-63 principal directions, 32
Prandtl-Reuss, 100-104 Schwartzbart, H., 22 compatibility of, 59-61 shear,28
Plastic work, 104 Shaffer, B. W., 3 conventional,4 maximum, 34, 35
equivalence of, 106 Shape factor, 307 deviator tensor, 58 octahedral, 35, 36, 101
Plate, infinite, see Strip, infinite Shear lines, see Slip lines modified, 124 spherical, 39
Plate, infinite, withhole, 208-11 Shell, thin circular, 183-93 diametral, 9 true, 7, 8, 13
Polar coordinates, 137 Sherby, O. D., 23 effective, 116 unit,28
Power of dissipation, specific, 314 Shoemaker, E., 346 engineering, 4 Stress function, 216, 237
Prager, W., 19, 22, 62, 109, 133, 259, Simple shear, 41-42 equivalent modified total, 124 Stress-strain curve, 4-11
271, 279, 280, 281, 284, 299, Singular yield conditions, 123 generalized, 314 conventionaI, 5-7
324, 325, 326 Slip lines, 263 invariants, 53, 55 dynamic models, 16, 17
Prandtl, L., 1, 3, 100, 133, 245, 258, compatibility equations, 265 logarithmic, 8 empirical equations, 20, 21
275,299 geometry of, 268-72 maximum shear, 55-57 idealizations, 16, 17
Prandtl-Reuss equations, 100-104,114, geometric construction, 279-84 modified total, 124, 167 kinematic models, 18-20
115,125,167,214 hodograph,281 natural,8 strain-rate, effe et of, 15
experimental verification of, 109, physical piane, 279 octahedral shear, 55, 57 true, 7-11
110 stress piane for, 279 plastic increment, 101 Stress-strain relations
Principal directions strong solution, 283 physical interpretation, 48-50 complete, 127-132
of slip line field, 262 weak solution in, 283 principaI, 53-55 elastic, 64-69
of strain tensor, 53-55 velocity equations, 268 shear,50 generai, 166
of stress tensor, 30-34 Slip line theory, 260-99 maximum, 55-57 incrementaI, 119, 120
Principal planes, 32, 53 complete solutions, 284 octahedral, 55, 57 plastic, 98-134
Proof strength, 6 lower bound theorem, 285 octahedrai plastic increment, 101 generaI, 114, 118
Proportionallimit, 5 principal directions, 262 true, 8, 10, 13 generaI derivation of, 110-119
Proportionalloading, 99, 120 principal stresses, 262 Strain Energy, see Energy Lévy-Mises, 100, 261
Punch indentati0V-' 273-76 shear directions, 263 Strain hardening, 6 Prandtl-Reuss, 100-104,114,115
 ......

352 Index Index

Stress-strain reiations (continued)
for Tresca criterion, 108, 109,
115
piastic strain-totai strain, 123-127
totaI, 119, 121
Stress tensor, 24-43, see also, Stress
Stress trajectories, 239
Strip, first order, 290
Strip, infinite thin, 172-82
linear strainhardening, 178-82
nonlinear strainhardening, 175-78
Strip condition, 290
Successive approximations, method of
circuiar shell, 183-93
convergence of, 169-71
creep probIems, 332-45
finite piate, 218-23
generaI description, 164-71
infinite piate with hoIe, 208-11
infinite thin strip, 172-82
plate with crack, 223-30
rotating disk, 197-208
solid cylinder, 193-97
sphere, 150-53
torsion of bar, 249-55
circuiar cross section, 253-55
rectanguiar cross section, 250-53
tube, 156-59
Successive elastic solutions, method of
(see, Successive approxima-
tions)
Superposition of mechanisms, method
of, 318-23
Swedlow, J. L., 229, 233
Symonds, P. S., 318, 326
Taylor, G. I., 90, 91, 97, 98, 109,110
Temperature
effect on metai properties, 15
transition, 15
Tensile strength, 6
Tensile test, 4-7
Tensor, 24-27
notation, 24-27
relative displacement, 47
rotation, 48
skew-symmetric, 26
substitution, 27
summation convention, 25, 26
symmetric, 26
Thomsen, E. G., 299
Time-hardening law, 330, 331
Timoshenko, S., 43, 63, 258
353
Todhunter, I., 133 Work-hardening hypothesis, 106, 107 convexity, 120-23
Torsion of prismatic bar, 234-57 Work increment, 26 corners, 120, 123
elasticity solution, 240-45 singular points, 120, 123
circular cross section, 242 subsequent, 92-96
elliptic cross section, 240-42 Yang, C. T., 299 Yield criterion, 70-79
equilateral triangle, 242, 243 Yang, W. H., 233 Beltrami's energy, 74
membrane analogy, 245 Yield Coulomb's, 73
rectangular cross section 243-45 cylinder, 82, 86 distortion energy, 75
generaI relations, 234-40 I effect.of hydrostatic pressure, 16 internaI friction, 77
plasticity solution, 246-58 functlOn, 79, 92 maximum shear, 73
circular section, 253-57 hinge, 308 maximum strain, 72
membrane-roof analogy, 247 locus, 82, 83, 87 max~mum strain energy, 74
perfect plasticity, 246-48 moment, 307 maXlmum stress, 71
rectangular section, 250-53 point, 5, 6 von Mises, 75
sand-hill analogy, 247-48 lower,6 Mohr's,77
strain hardening, 248-58 offset,·6 Rankine's, 71
Torsional rigidity, 241 upper,6 Saint-Venant's, 72
Total theories, 119-21 surface, 79,92 Tresca's, 73
Transition temperature, 15
Tresca, H., 1, 3
Tresca criterion, 73
fiow rule, 108, 109
kinematic model, 95, 96
stress-strain relations, 108, 109, 131
Trozera, T. A., 23
Truss, simple, 301-305
Tuba, I. S., 163,210,212,233
Tube (see Cylinder, hollow)
Tupp, L. J., 233
Tupper, S. J., 163
Turner, M. J., 233
Ultimate strength, 6
Uniform stress state, 272
Uniqueness condition, 111
Unloading, 6,93
definition of, 93
Upper bound theorem, 284, 313-15
Van den Broek, J. A., 326
Varga, R. S., 259
Wahl, A. M., 133, 337, 346
Wang, C. T., 212
Warping function, 236
Westergaard, H. M., 1, 3, 97
White, G. N., 163
Williams, M. L., 233
Work equation, 320
Work hardening, 6
definition of, 111
measures of, 104-107
hypothesis, 106, 107