4.

3 Curve Sketching
Our aim in this section of the notes is to use as little information about a function as possible to
reconstruct the graph of the function without any aid from technology.

4.3.1 General Characteristics of a Graph

Combining the information that the first and second derivatives give about a twice-differentiable
function f (x), we have the following four possibilities.

sign of f � (x) and f �� (x) properties of f (x) general shape of the graph of f (x)

f � (x) > 0, f �� (x) > 0 increasing, concave up steeply curved upward; bowed downward

f � (x) > 0, f �� (x) < 0 increasing, concave down gradually curved upward; bowed upward

f � (x) < 0, f �� (x) > 0 decreasing, concave up gradually curved downward; bowed downward

f � (x) < 0, f �� (x) < 0 decreasing, concave down steeply curved downward; bowed upward

4.3.2 Vertical Asymptotes

Consider the rational function f (x) = x+1
x−1
for x �= 1. Observe that f (x) increases without
bound — i.e., f (x) tends to infinity — as x approaches x = 1 from the right. On the other
hand, observe that f (x) decreases without bound — i.e., f (x) tends to negative infinity — as x
approaches x = 1 from the left. Using the language of one-sided limits, we have that
x+1 x+1
lim+ f (x) = lim+ = ∞ and lim− f (x) = lim− = −∞.
x→1 x→1 x−1 x→1 x→1 x−1
We refer to the line x = 1 as a vertical asymptote of the graph of f (x).
Definition. We call the line x = a a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function f (x) if
lim f (x) = ±∞ or lim f (x) = ±∞.
x→a+ x→a−

Recall that when f (x) is a rational function, there is a simple criterion for determining whether
the graph of f (x) has any vertical asymptotes.

Criterion for Finding Vertical Asymptotes of a Rational Function. Given any rational
function — i.e., a function of the form f (x) = p(x)
q(x)
, where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials — the
line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f (x) if we have that q(a) = 0 but p(a) �= 0.
x2
Multiple Vertical Asymptotes. Give all vertical asymptotes of the graph of f (x) = −x2 +4
.

Solution. Using the above criterion for finding vertical asymptotes of a rational function, it suf-
fices to find all a such that −a2 + 4 = 0 but a2 �= 0. Using the square root property (or by fac-
toring and using the zero product property), we have that −x2 + 4 = 0 if and only if x = ±2. We
conclude by the above criterion that our vertical asymptotes are given by x = −2 and x = 2. �

47
 −9 2
Why Can’t We Have p(a) = 0 and q(a) = 0? Consider the function g(x) = xx−3 . Explain why
g(x) does not have any vertical asymptotes. Why does this not violate the above criterion?

4.3.3 Horizontal Asymptotes

Consider the rational function f (x) = x+1
x−1
for x �= 1. Observe that f (x) approaches y = 1 as x
approaches positive and negative infinity. Using the language of limits at infinity, we have that
x+1 x+1
lim f (x) = lim = 1 and lim f (x) = lim = 1.
x→∞ x→∞ x − 1 x→−∞ x→−∞ x − 1

We refer to the line y = 1 as a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f (x).

Definition. We call the line y = b a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function f (x) if

lim f (x) = b or lim f (x) = b.

x→∞ x→−∞

Recall that when f (x) is a rational function, there is a simple criterion for determining whether
the graph of f (x) has any horizontal asymptotes.

Criterion for Finding the Horizontal Asymptote of a Rational Function. Consider poly-
nomials f (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 and g(x) = bm xm + · · · + b1 x + b0 , and define the rational
function r(x) = fg(x)
(x)
for all x such that g(x) �= 0.

1.) Given that n < m, we have lim r(x) = 0, and r(x) has a horizontal asymptote y = 0.
x→±∞

an an
2.) Given that n = m, we have lim r(x) = , and r(x) has a horizontal asymptote y = .
x→±∞ bm bm
3.) Given that n > m, we have lim r(x) = ±∞, and r(x) has no horizontal asymptote.
x→±∞

Finding the Horizontal Asymptote. Give the horizontal asymptote of the graph of
2
f (x) = −xx2 +4 , if it exists.

Solution. We note that f (x) satisfies property (2.) above, hence f (x) has a horizontal asymptote.
Using the above criterion, we conclude that our horizontal asymptote is given by y = −1. �

Polynomial Graphs Have No Asymptotes. Given a polynomial function p(x), the graph of
p(x) has no vertical or horizontal asymptotes.

Proof. We note that every polynomial p(x) can be written as a rational function p(x)1
. Because
the denominator of this rational function is never zero, we conclude that the graph of p(x) has
no vertical asymptotes. Furthermore, if the degree of p(x) is at least one, then the limits of p(x)
at positive and negative infinity are either positive or negative infinity, depending on the leading
coefficient and degree of p(x). Either way, p(x) has no horizontal asymptote.

48
4.3.4 Curve Sketching: Getting Our Hands Dirty
We are now able to consider a general procedure for curve sketching.

Curve Sketching Algorithm. Given a function f (x), use the proceeding algorithm to sketch
the graph of f (x).

1.) Determine the domain Df (and range Rf , if possible) of f (x).

2.) Compute the x- and y-intercepts of f (x), if this is feasible.

3.) Determine the behavior of f (x) for large absolute values of x.

4.) Find all horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph of f (x).

5.) Determine the intervals where f (x) is increasing or decreasing.

6.) Find the relative extrema of f (x).

7.) Determine the concavity of the graph of f (x).

8.) Compute the inflection points of f (x).

9.) Plot a few additional points to help further identify the shape of the graph of f (x).

10.) Using the above steps, sketch the graph.

Cubic Curve Sketching. Sketch the graph of the cubic function f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 2.

Solution. We will follow the above ten-step algorithm.

1.) We have that Df = R and Rf = R, as f (x) is an odd-degree polynomial.

2.) Letting x = 0, we find that the y-intercept is (0, 2). Unfortunately, the x-intercepts are not
tractable without the aid of technology, so we will not find the x-intercepts.

3.) Using our knowledge of the cubic function, we conclude that f (x) rises right and falls left,
i.e., we have that lim f (x) = ∞ and lim f (x) = −∞.
x→∞ x→−∞

4.) Because f (x) is a polynomial, it has no asymptotes of any kind.

5.) We find all x-values such that f � (x) = 0, and we test values in the induced intervals. Ob-
serve that f � (x) = 3x2 − 12x + 9 = 3(x − 1)(x − 3), hence our critical numbers are x = 1 and
x = 3. We will take c = 0, c = 2, and c = 4 as test values so that f � (0) > 0, f � (2) < 0, and
f � (4) > 0. We conclude that f (x) is increasing on (−∞, 1) ∪ (3, ∞) and decreasing on (1, 3).

6.) Using our result from the previous step, it follows from the First Derivative Test that f (x)
has a relative maximum at (1, 6) and a relative minimum at (3, 2).

7.) We find all x-values such that f �� (x) = 0, and we test values in the induced intervals. Ob-
serve that f �� (x) = 6x − 12 = 6(x − 2), hence we have that f �� (x) = 0 if and only if x = 2.
We will take c = 1 and c = 3 as test values so that f �� (1) < 0 and f �� (3) > 0. We conclude
that f (x) is concave down on (−∞, 2) and concave up on (2, ∞).

49
 8.) Using our result from the previous step, it follows that (2, 4) is an inflection point of f (x).

9.) We have four points already with which to graph a cubic function, so we are finished with
our analysis. (Generally, as a rule of thumb, if we are sketching the graph of a polynomial,
we need as many points as the degree of the polynomial plus one.)

10.) Sketch the graph. �

x2
Rational Curve Sketching. Sketch the graph of the rational function f (x) = −x2 +4
,

Solution. We will follow the above ten-step algorithm.

1.) We have that Df = (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, 2) ∪ (2, ∞). Our range is not easy to determine, so we
will skip this step, as it will become clear later.

2.) Letting x = 0, we find that the y-intercept is (0, 0). Unsurprisingly, letting y = 0, we find
that the x-intercept is likewise (0, 0).

3.) Using our earlier result, we found that f (x) approaches the line y = 1 as |x| grows arbi-
trarily large. We note that for x > 2, we have that f (x) < 1 so that the graph of f (x)
approaches the line y = 1 from below as x tends toward infinity. Likewise, we note that for
x < −2, we have that f (x) < 1 so that the graph of f (x) approaches the line y = 1 from
below as x tends toward negative infinity.

4.) Using our earlier result, we have that f (x) has the horizontal asymptote y = 1 and two
vertical asymptotes x = −2 and x = 2.

5.) We find all x-values such that f � (x) = 0, and we test values in the induced intervals. Ob-
serve that f � (x) = (−x8x
2 +4)2 , hence we have one critical number of x = 0. We will take

c = −1 and c = 1 as test values so that f � (−1) < 0 and f � (1) > 0. We conclude that
f (x) is decreasing on (−∞, 0) and increasing on (0, ∞).

6.) Using our result from the previous step, it follows from the First Derivative Test that f (x)
has a relative minimum at (0, 0).

7.) We find all x-values such that f �� (x) = 0, and we test values in the induced intervals. Ob-
24x2 +32
serve that f �� (x) = − (−x �� ��
2 +4)3 , hence f (x) �= 0 for any x; however, we have that f (x) < 0

for x < −2 and x > 2, and we have that f �� (x) > 0 for −2 < x < 2. We conclude that f (x)
is concave down on (−∞, −2) ∪ (2, ∞) and concave up on (−2, 2).

8.) Using our result from the previous step, it follows that f (x) has no inflection points, as
there is no x-value for which the tangent line of f (x) exists and f �� (x) changes sign.

9.) We have f (−3) = − 95 = f (3), f (−4) = − 43 = f (4), and f (−1) = 1

3
= f (1).

10.) Sketch the graph. �

50