ASM Handbook, Volume 6: Welding, Brazing, and Soldering
D.L. Olson, T.A. Siewert, S. Liu, and G.R. Edwards, editors, p 315-317
DOI: 10.1361/asmhba0001381
Friction Welding
Schillings Tsang, EG&G Rocky Flats
FRICTION WELDING (FRW), in its sim-
plest form, involves two axially aligned parts.
While one part is rotated, the other stationary
part is advanced to make pressure contact. Axial
force then increases to generate the frictional
heat necessary for welding at the abutting sur-
faces in order to form a solid-state joint. Friction
welding can be divided into two major process
variations, depending on the manner by which
rotational energy is converted into frictional
heat. The first process, direct-drive, or continu-
ous-drive, FRW, has been used commercially
since the 1940s. It requires constant energy from
a source for any desired duration. The second
process, inertia-drive FRW, which was devel-
oped in the early 1960s, uses the kinetic energy
stored in a rotating flywheel.
Direct-Drive Friction Welding
Figure 1 shows the layout of a direct-drive
FRW system. The spindle is first driven to a
predetermined constant speed, and the two parts
are brought together under a preset axial force.
Both rotation and force are maintained for a spe-
cific period determined either by a time or a
distance, so that the frictional heat will raise
temperatures at the abutting surfaces enough to
render the material plastic and suitable for weld-
ing. (However, direct-drive friction welds are
almost never made using a single level of axial
load. The vast majority of welds are made using
a minimum of two axial force levels. The second
axial load is basically added to the beginning of
the weld cycle to yield a preheating phase. In
fact, direct-drive friction welds using three axial
loads are more commonly applied than those
using a single load.) The spindle is then disen-
Motor Clutch
Spindle Brake
Schematic showing relation of workpieces to key components of a direct-drive FRW system. Source:
Fig. 1 Ref 1
gaged from the driving unit, and a brake is ap-
plied to bring the spindle to rest. At the same
time, axial force either remains unchanged or is
raised to complete the weld.
Inertia-Drive Friction Welding
In inertia-drive FRW (Fig. 2), a flywheel and
the rotating part are mounted in a spindle, which
is driven to the desired speed. The drive source is
then disengaged, and the two parts make contact
under a preset axial force. The free-rotating fly-
wheel decelerates under either the same applied
force or later under a larger force. Meanwhile,
kinetic energy stored in the flywheel and spindle is
converted to frictional heat at the abutting sur-
faces. The weld is complete when the flywheel
comes to a stop. A subsequent higher forging force
may be used after the flywheel has stopped.
Welding Parameters
Direct-Drive FRW Variables. Three param-
eters control the character of a weld in direct-
drive FRW: rotational speed, duration of rota-
tion, and axial force. During welding, there is
not only an axial shortening of the part length,
often called axial displacement or upset, but also
a resisting torque of friction to rotation, which
also undergoes change. Figure 3 shows the
change in various events occurring throughout
the whole process. Based on the shape of the
friction torque curve, it is convenient to divide
direct-drive FRW into three phases:
• Phase 1: Initial friction (that is, break-in or
first friction) phase
• Phase 2: Heating (that is, friction) phase
• Phase 3: Forging (that is, upsetting) phase
Workpieces to be welded
I
/ duced braking) leads to higher peak. If the axial
Hydraulic cylinder
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All rights reserved.
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In phase 1, the torque rises rapidly after the start
of the process. It then peaks and drops before
leveling off when phase 1 ends. The rapid rise
and gradual fall of torque is associated with the
interlocking and breaking of asperities and sub-
sequent softening of the material at the faying
surfaces by frictional heating.
Friction torque remains somewhat constant in
phase 2, indicating that the process reaches a
balance of effects between strain hardening and
thermal softening. Both the faying surfaces and
material immediately behind are by then suffi-
ciently heated to permit the two parts to be
forged together.
Forging takes place in phase 3, which starts at
the time of declutching and braking. Spindle
rotation is immediately retarded, and the decel-
eration depends on braking time. Because the
brake force itself can be set, braking time can
also be a variable. Deceleration varies in the
welding of different materials. However, the
torque may not rise at all but drops abruptly at
the onset of phase 3 if braking is sudden. This
brings the rotating spindle to rest almost in-
stantly, and the larger force is applied after spin-
dle rotation stops. In this case, there is no tor-
sional forge, and forging is brought about by
upsetting.
Axial force in phase 3 is usually increased to
effect forging. The friction torque again rises
after the onset of this phase, reaching another
peak before sharply falling off to zero. This peak
varies with deceleration and applied axial force.
Under some circumstances, this final peak can
be omitted by delaying the onset of the forging
force.
This is done only at or after the stoppage of
spindle rotation by braking. In this case, forging
is carried out by upsetting without torsional
forging. Although two-stage welding is applied
more frequently in direct-drive friction welding,
one-stage welding is sometimes used, especially
in research work (Ref 2).
When the axial force remains unchanged,
slower deceleration (longer braking time by re-
force is increased in phase 3, braking time is
shortened, but the peak still rises because of the
larger applied force. Rising friction torque in
phase 3, characteristic of FRW, contributes to
torsional forge, which is more effective than
316 / Solid-State Welding Processes

Flywheels . Chuck Nonrotating vise debonding by the release of stored strain energy,

tj
Although dwell times can range from 0 to 30 s, 1
to 2 s is typical.
The kinetic energy used for inertia-drive FRW
depends on the product of the flywheel moment
of inertia and the square of rotational speed. The
frictional heat generated at the faying surfaces,

~//'~~"~"~/
,
Spindle Surfaces to
1'
Hydraulic
however, is determined by the rate of change of
this energy (or the energy delivery rate), which
is influenced by the moment of inertia of the
flywheel and the axial force. For a given kinetic
be welded cylinder
energy input and a given axial force, a smaller
Schematic showing relation of workpieces to key Components of an inertia-drive FRW system. Source:
Fig. 2 Refl flywheel (with smaller moment of inertia) deliv-
ers the energy at the faying surfaces faster than a
larger flywheel (with larger moment of inertia).
Weld flash For a given energy input using the same fly-
wheel, a larger axial force increases flywheel
Axis of 0 ~/~ Welding deceleration rates, intensifies heat generation,
rotation Im force
and raises temperatures at the faying surfaces. A
Completed weld rapid energy input and a high rate of heat gener-
ation, typical of inertia-drive FRW, result in
very short weld cycles. There is little time for
Friction torque (two stage welding) heat to dissipate in the axial direction, so the
Speed heat-affected zone (HAZ) remains narrow.
L Friction phase ~ I~ Forging phase Direct-Drive Versus Inertia-Drive FRW.
i, Force - - --

t
Lower rotational speed and smaller axial force
Upset . . . .
are generally used in direct-drive FRW. Direct-
Torque . . . . .
drive FRW also offers greater latitude in process
IF#st friction I ~ Second friction I ~ Forging delay
phase phase time variables, because heating time in phases 1 and 2
E is preset as duration of rotation or upset distance,
p
which is a welding parameter, and because forg-
/Friction speed (variable) ¢11/,/
j~F~rci'n~"~a
g g fo'Ucce'~~ Friction torque
ing phase can be controlled by braking time,
== '/ '" j - I (single-stage welding)
~5 9f '~ i, I axial force, and forging time. Nevertheless, both
Welding Firstfriction Braking rate I Forging length processes do produce welds of equal quality
i starts force when proper welding parameters are imple-
/J~eco'~d fri~c;io"~ ~,I | I
r mented. Torsional forging is required when
/.,~ force
, I Upset forging by upsetting with inertia-drive friction
. . . . ";,'A - ' t - - I distance welding; it is not required when forging by up-
Jl"~ t f setting with direct-drive friction welding. A
First L . I~ Second f r i c t .i o. ~n ~ . lI~.,
time - . ~~ - ~ Forging t " r m e L~ Friction upset distance comparison of the two processes is presented in
friction ~ Table 1.
time
Friction time J-I Braking time Completion of welding

Time IL
W e l d Quality and
Product Evaluation
Plot of welding parameters versus time for a direct-drive FRW system. Courtesy of D.L. Kuruzar,
Fig. 3 Manufacturing Technology, Inc. At present, there is no satisfactory nonde-
structive method for detecting a friction weld of
poor strength. (X-rays are used to identify de-
conventional forge by upsetting. Phase 3 ends respectively, are both included as a welding pa- fects that can cause welds of poor quality.) Weld
shortly after spindle rotation stops. This period rameter of axial force. On the other hand, when quality control and product evaluation must rely
of forging or upsetting time can also be consid- the force remains constant throughout the proc- on the control of the process and the machine
ered a fourth welding parameter. ess, it is called one-stage welding. The second that is used to produce the welds.
Inertia-Drive FRW Variables. There are friction-torque peak in two-stage welding is gen- In direct-drive FRW, both rotational speed
three welding parameters in inertia-drive FRW: erally higher than that in one-stage welding be- and axial force affect axial shortening or upset in
flywheel mass (expressed by moment of inertia), cause of the larger axial force applied in phase 3. addition to the mechanical properties of the weld
rotational speed, and axial force. The events de- As stated in the section "Direct-Drive FRW produced. There can be a correlation between
scribed for direct-drive FRW also occur in iner- Variables" in this article, the peak in one-stage the upset and the quality of the weld. Further,
tia-drive FRW. Except for rotational speed, the welding depends on braking time: It rises with upset in phase 2 increases almost linearly with
curves shown in Fig. 4 are similar to those longer braking time. time. The upset of this phase, often called fric-
shown in Fig. 3. The process can also be divided In two-stage welding, the larger axial forging tion burn off, and its rate, the friction burn off
into three phases based on the shape of the fric- force is applied when the flywheel rotational rate, have been believed to control weld quality.
tion-torque curve. Unlike direct-drive FRW, du- speed decreases to a fraction of the initial Indeed, some researchers use burn off instead of
ration of rotation and forging time in phase 3 are value for example, 0.1 to 0.5. Friction torque duration of rotation as a welding parameter. In
not predetermined but controlled by the three again rises to a second peak, which as in direct- inertia-drive FRW, because duration of rotation
welding parameters. drive FRW, is higher than in one-stage welding. is not preset but controlled by the three welding
If axial force differs in phases 2 and 3, the This phase is prolonged beyond cessation of the parameters, the total upset, instead of friction
process is called two-stage welding, and the flywheel rotation. This extra time, called dwell burn off, is supposed to indicate weld quality.
forces, called heating force and forging force, time, is used for cooling of the joint to avoid This presumes that the same amount of kinetic
 Friction Welding / 317

Weld flash • Filler metal, flux, and shielding gas are not
required. Unlike fusion welding, friction
Axis of ( ~ Welding ~ lf~ welding is not hazardous to operator health
rotation ~ [~ force ~ q
and is safer, because there is no metal spatter,
Completedweld radiation, fume, or electric hazard involving
high voltage, arcs, and sparks.
• Defects associated with melting-solidification
Friction torque (two-stage welding) phenomena are not present in FRW, because
Welding starts it is a solid-state process.
I ~- Speed
Frictiontorque (single-stagewelding) - < ~, t • It is possible to make transition joints of dis-
Force----
similar metals that are difficult or even impos-
.. F.otionwe,d,ogforce I Opset . . . .
sible to weld by other processes (for example,
(single-stageweld) J / I! i Torque . . . . . refractory and exotic metals).
fl ~ ~ / I Forgingforce
/" I \ ~ / [ / / (two-stageweld) • Lower labor costs, simple part design, sim-
/ irieti°i; peed _~__ .-
~ .~/-.P~.= ---,I~ . . ~ Upset speed pler weld fixtures, lower energy require-
?----~--~¢-~'-~ IJ I I (single-stage
welding) ments, and a short weld cycle (a matter of
.t / I ~'~ --
--
-- "¢" ---- " ~ ~-
-4'-- ._1
Forgingforce = 1 / . . . .
seconds) make the process cost effective for
-o producing components normally made by
-- // I~ I: ;I ,~... . . .speeu
upset . . . .4 ~ 'sin Ie-stage
| ~ tsung - weld)
' .~ t-orgmg length
other processes.
/ ./ Limitations of FRW include the following:
Ill i¢wo-stageweuul I ~ ~i, I ~ I J distance • The welding area of at least one part must be
rotationally symmetrical, so that the part can
rotate about the axis of the welding plane.
Frictionuoset distance / ""Z-- Coo,ngdwe,, Typical part geometries that can be friction
Completion ~ t (single-stage
weld) welded are: bar to bar, bar to tube, bar to
of welding I plate, tube to tube, and tube to plate.
Cooling dwell • This process is normally limited to making
Time it (two-stage weld) fiat and angular (or conical) butt joints.
Plot of welding parameters versus time for an inertia-drive FRW system. Courtesy of D.L Kuruzar, • The material of at least one component must
Fig. 4 Manufacturing Technology, Inc. be plastically deformable under the given
welding conditions. For example, alumina
can be joined to aluminum, but alumina can-
Table 1 Process parameters of direct-drive FRW systems relative to inertia-drive not be joined to alumina. Another example is
FRW systems the joining of polymers (that is, plastics).
It is assumedthat similar or dissimilar metals of the same size are being joined.
Thermoplastics, unlike thermosetting plas-
Process parameter Direct-drive FRW Inertia-drive FRW tics, can be friction welded because thermo-
Welding parameters Rotational speed Flywheel moment of inertia plastics are softened by frictional heat but
Duration of rotation or friction burnoff Rotational speed thermosetting plastics decompose.
distance Axial force
Axial force
Conversion of energy Constant energy in a preset duration Fixed energy in flywheel; duration of rotation Process Applications
to frictional heat of rotation determined by welding parameters
Energy input Low High The applications of FRW fall into two catego-
Heat generation rate Low High ries:
Cycle time Similar Similar
HAZ width Wide Narrow Batch and jobbing work: Used when a rela-
Machine system spindle Less rigidity Greater rigidity and more powerful clamping tively low volume of parts is required, espe-
rigidity forces required
cially when expensive dies must be used but
energy and axial force will produce the same cannot be justified
to indicate a defective weld when its upset falls
amount of upset at the end of the process (given outside the proven band of the standard.
Mass production: Applications that span a
the same materials and cross sections). wide range of industries (agricultural, aircraft
The welding parameters of either direct-drive engine, automotive, earthmoving, electrical,
or inertia-drive FRW are set using a particular Advantages and Limitations petroleum, and so on) producing components
machine. So once this machine is properly cali- ranging from simple butt joints of drive shafts
Advantages of FRW. Friction welding has a and oil drilling pipes to complicated or critical
brated, the process becomes almost entirely ma- number of advantages over other joining proc-
chine-dependent. Regardless of the process used aircraft engine components
esses (such as fusion welding, brazing, and dif-
to evaluate the product of friction welding under fusion bonding):
a given set of parameters, once variations in REFERENCES
machine components and dimensional toler- • Special attention to surface cleanliness is not 1. Inertia Welding: Simple in Principle and Ap-
ances for a particular weld are determined, an necessary, because FRW tends to disrupt, dis- plication, Weld. Met. Fabric., Vol 47 (No.
acceptable tolerance band of the total upset can place, and finally remove surface films in 8), 1979, p 585
be established as a standard. A monitor will weld flash (this does not apply to heavy mill 2. C.R.G. Ellis, Continuous Drive Friction
compare the upset of each weld relative to this or heat-treat scales, which can interfere with Welding of Mild Steel, Weld. J., Vol 51
reference. The machine will automatically stop frictional heating). (No. 4), 1972, p 183-185