Module 3: Inverse kinematics

▶ Inverse kinematics using:

Algebric solution, Geometric solution, Wrist partitioning,
Matrix inversion based technique, Interative solution.
▶ Rotation matrix to Euler angles,
▶ Velocity analysis, Jocobian Matrix.
▶ Acceleration analysis.
▶ Demonstrations and analytical examples.

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Inverse Kinematics

Definition: Given the end-effector pose: Solving for joint variables,

joint angles θn - in case of revolute joint and joint displacement dn
in case of prismatic joint.

Solvability: Generally all systems with revolute and prismatic joints

having total of 6 DoF (or less) in a single chain are solvable.
Exceptions: One with several intersecting axes. Systems with
more than 6 DoF normally have redundant solutions. Unique
solution in case of any constraints (if exists) e.g. Humanoid.

Reachable Workspace: Is a volume of workspace that the robot

can reach in atleast atleast one possible configuration.

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Algebric Solution
Example 1: 3R Planar Robot

P2x = px − a3 cos ψ
(1)
P2y = py − a3 sin ψ

P2 is now known and the

remaining system is 2R.

P2x = a1 C1 + a2 C12 (2)

P2y = a1 S1 + a2 S12 (3)

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3R planar: Inverse kinematics

Squaring and adding (2) and (3) we get:

2 + P 2 = a2 + a2 + 2a a [C C + S S ]
P2x 2y 1 2 1 2 1 12 1 12
2 2
= a1 + a2 + 2a1 a2 C2
2 + P 2 − (a2 + a2 )
P2x 2y 1 2
=⇒ C2 =
2a1 a2
Finally, [ ]
P 2 + P 2 − (a2 + a2 )
θ2 = cos−1
2x 2y 1 2
(4)
2a1 a2
Using (2), we get:
P2x = a1 cos θ1 + a2 (cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 )
Rearranging, we get:
P2x = (a1 + a2 cos θ2 ) cos θ1 − a2 sin θ2 sin θ1
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3R planar: Inverse kinematics

Assume,
m cos ϕ = a1 + a2 cos θ2
(5)
and m sin ϕ = a2 sin θ2
Squaring and adding we get:
m2 = (a1 + a2 cos θ2 )2 + (a2 sin θ2 )2
Or, m2 = a12 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos θ2
√
=⇒ m = a12 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos θ2
From (5) m sin ϕ = a2 sin θ2
( )
−1 a2 sin θ2
=⇒ ϕ = sin
m
Thus m and ϕ are known.

. Now, P2x = m(cos ϕ cos θ1 − sin ϕ sin θ1 ) = m cos(θ1 + ϕ)

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3R planar: Inverse kinematics

( )
−1 P2x
θ1 = cos −ϕ (6)
m
[ ]
2 + P 2 − (a2 + a2 )
P2x
cos−1
2y 1 2
Already obtained, θ2 =
2a1 a2
From, (4) and (6): θ1 + θ2 + θ3 = ψ

=⇒ θ3 = ψ − (θ1 + θ2 )

Thus, θ1 , θ2 and θ3 is all known.

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Discussion on Inverse Solutions
Problems with solution bearing arccos and arcsin

The solutions are ill conditioned and inconsistent because:

▶ The accuracy of Arc cosine function in determining the angle
is dependent on the angle. i.e. cos(−θ) = cos(θ).
▶ When sin θ approaches zero, i.e, for θ ≈ 0 or θ ≈ 180◦ , give
an inaccurate solutions or are undefined.


0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 90◦ for +x and +y

90◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ for −x and +y
Also: θ = atan2(y , x) =

 −180◦ ≤ θ ≤ −90◦ for −x and −y

−90◦ ≤ θ ≤ 0◦ for +x and −y

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Defining two argument atan or tan−1

atan2() is used to account for the full range of angular solution,

(also known as four quadrant arctan). Defined as:
 y

 −a tan(− ), y <0

 x y



π − a tan(− ) , y ≥ 0, x < 0
y x
θ = atan2(y , x) =

 a tan( ), y ≥ 0, x ≥ 0

 x

 π/2, y > 0, x = 0


undefined y = 0, x = 0

HW 2: Repeat the above solution using atan2(y, x) solution.

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Using Transcendental Solution
Equations of the form: a cos θ + b sin θ = c

Solution by reducing it to polynomial.

1 − u2
Substituting cos θ =
1 + u2 ( )
2u θ
And, sin θ = , where u = tan
1 + u2 2
We get, a(1 − u 2 ) + 2bu = c(1 + u 2 )
(a + c)u 2 − 2bu + (c − a) = 0
√
b ± a2 + b 2 − c 2
=⇒ u =
(a + c√ )
b ± a 2 + b2 − c 2
Or, θ = 2 tan−1
a+c
When, a + c → 0, θ = 180◦
. Which is a closed form solvable solvable equation.
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Geometric Solution
By demonstration

Inverse Kinematics: 3R Spatial and 3R Planar manipulators.

Demonstration using Cinderella 2.0

Drawing links forward kinematics in Cinderella.

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Kinematic Decoupling

A given 6 DoF system may be decoupled to:

▶ Inverse position kinematics
▶ Inverse orientation (wrist) kinematics
R= 0R 3R
3 6 ≡ End-effector Position and Orientation.

3R
[0 ]−1 [0 ]T
6 = R3 R= R3 R

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The Wrist Solution
 
q11 q12 q13
Given the end-effector orientation Q ≡ q21 q22 q23 .
q31 q32 q33
which is the 3 × 3 block matrix of the end-effector homegeneous
transformation matrix T.

The joint angles can directly be obtained as:

θ1 = a tan 2(q23 , q13 )
(√ )
θ2 = a tan 2 2 2
q13 + q23 , q33
θ3 = a tan(−q32 , q31 ).
where 0 ≤ θ2 ≤ π. For alternate solution when θ1 is 180◦ apart:
θ1 = θ1 + π, θ2 = −θ2 i.e., (−π ≤ θ2 ≤ 0), and θ3 = θ3 + π. And
θ1 = a tan 2(−q
( √ 23 , − q13 ) )
θ2 = a tan 2 − q13 + q23 , q33
2 2

.
θ3 = a tan(−q32 , − q31 ).
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Differential Motion
Mathematical Definition of a Jacobian J

Let yi = fi (x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · , xj )
∂f1 ∂f1 ∂f1
δy1 = δx1 + δx2 + · · · · · · + δxj
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xj
∂f2 ∂f1 ∂f2
δy2 = δx1 + δx2 + · · · · · · + δxj
∂x1 ∂x1 ∂xj
..
.
∂fi ∂fi ∂fi
δyi = δx1 + δx2 + · · · · · · + δxj
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xj
 ∂f ∂f1 ∂f2 
1
   ∂x1 ∂x2 · · ·
∂xj  δx 
δy1  ∂f ∂f2  1
δy1   
2 ∂f 2
· · ·
 
 δx
  ∂xj   2
In matrix form as:  .  =  
∂x1 ∂x2
  .. 
 .   ..
. .. .. ..   . 
 . . . . 
δyi  ∂fi ∂fi ∂fi  δxj
. ···
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xj
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The Robot Jacobian
In case of a 6 DoF robot: p 
= f (θ1 , θ2 , · · · , θ6 )
  ˙
ωx θ 1
ωy   θ˙2 

  Robot ˙
ωz 
=⇒      3
θ
 vx  = Jacobian  
θ˙4 
  J  
 vy  θ˙5 
vz θ˙6
Where, ωx , ωy , ωz represents differential motion of the end-effector
about X , Y , and Z , axes respectively of the base frame.
And vx , vy and vz represents the velocities along the base
coordinate axes.

Written as: Twist te

[te ]6×1 = J6×n θ̇ n×1 (7)

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Iterative Solution: Resolved motion rate technique

[te ]6×1 = J6×n θ̇ n×1

=⇒ ∆θ = J−1 ∆X

The robot is made to move using small incremental steps and the
angle solution is obtained.

θ(tk+1 ) = θ(tk ) + J−1 te (tk+1 − tk )

(tk+1 − tk ) → time step of increments on the trajectory.

Explanation by demonstration using Virtual Robot Simulator 1.0.

Drawback: The system converges to the nearest solution only and

valid for non-singular Jacobian.
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The Jacobian Computation

ω0 = 0
ω 1 = θ̇1 e1
ω 2 = θ̇1 e1 + θ̇2 e2
..
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ω n = θ̇1 e1 + θ̇2 e2 +
· · · + θ̇n en

ȯ1 = 0
ȯ2 = ȯ1 + ω 1 × a1
= θ̇1 e1 × a12
..
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ȯn = θ̇1 e1 × a1,n +
θ̇2 e1 × a2,n + · · · +
θ̇n−1 en−1 × an−1,n
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Computing Jacobian J

ai,j ≡ ai + ai+1 + · · · + aj−1

And, a1,e ≡ ai,n + an

Using Equations:
ω n = θ̇1 e1 + θ̇2 e2 + · · · + θ̇n en
ȯn = θ̇1 e1 × a1,n + θ̇2 e1 × a2,n + · · · + θ̇n−1 en−1 × an−1,n
[ ] [ ]
Jω e1 e2 ··· en
J= = (8)
Jv e1 × a1e e2 × a2e · · · en × ane 6×n

The i th column of[ J is given

] by:
ei
ji ≡ in case of revolute joint.
e ×a
[ i ] i,e
0
ji ≡ in case of prismatic joint.
ei
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Example 1: A 2 DoF Manipulator
xB = l1 cos θ1 + l2 cos(θ1 + θ2 )
yB = l1 sin θ1 + l2 sin(θ1 + θ2 )

Differentiating:
ẋ = −l1 S1 θ̇1 − l2 S12 (θ̇1 + θ̇2 )
ẏ = l1 C1 θ̇1 + l2 C12 (θ̇1 + θ̇2 )

[ ]matrix
In [ form as: ][ ]
ẋ −l1 S1 − l2 S12 −l2 S12 θ̇1
=
ẏ l1 C1 + l2 C12 l2 C12 θ̇2
 
Diff.
Motion =
of EE
 
[ ] Diff.
Jacobian Motion of
. Joints
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Jacobian of two link manipulator using (8)
Simplified expression for Jacobian is: Jv = [e1 × a1e e2 × a2e ]
where, e1 = e2 = [0 0 1]T

And, a1e = a1 + a2 ≡ [l1 C1 + l2 C12 l1 S1 + l2 S12 0]T

a2e = a2 ≡ [l2 C12 l2 S12
 0]
T

i j k
e2 × a2e =  0 0 1 = i(−l2 S12 ) − j(−l2 C12 )
l2 C12 l2 S12 0
= −l2 S12 i + l2 C12 j
Similarly, e1 × a1e = (−l1 S1 − l2 S12 )i + (l1 C1 + l2 C12 )j

Extracting the non-zero terms of J and arranging in 2 × 2 matrix

we get: [ ]
−l1 S1 − l2 S12 −l2 S12
J=
l1 C1 + l2 C12 l2 C12
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HW 3: Find the Jacobian for a 2 DoF planar RP manipulator.
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Jacobian Inverse
Twist: [te ]6×1 = J6×n θ̇ n×1

=⇒ θ̇ = J−1 te

In order to find joint rates, provided end-effector rates are given.

Is it always possible?

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Jacobian Inverse
Twist: [te ]6×1 = J6×n θ̇ n×1

=⇒ θ̇ = J−1 te

In order to find joint rates, provided end-effector rates are given.

Is it always possible?: NO

Alternative: Multiply both sides of (7) by JT

JT T
n×6 J6×n θ̇ n×1 = Jn×6 [te ]6×1

[JT J]n×n θ̇ n×1 = JT te

=⇒ θ̇ = [JT J]−1 JT te

. Pseudo Inverse of J = [JT J]−1 JT

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Singularity
Degeneracy: Occurs when a robot loses a DoF and thus cannot
perform as desired. This occurs under following conditions:
1. The robot’s joint reach their physical limit and thus cannot
move further.
2. The robot reaches the workspace boundary.
3. In the middle of the workspace, if the Z-axis of two similar
joints becomes colinear. Moving any of the joint would result
in same motion.
4. No. of DoF is < 6 and there is no solution for the robot.
5. The determinant of J is zero.
The mathematical condition which is responsible for this is known
as singularity. Practically for points 2, 3 and 5 above.

Demonstrate: Singularity conditions and alternative inverse

. kinematic solutions. Try it out for the 2-link !
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Extracting kinematic parameters from the Robot’s
Homegeneous Matrix
 
nxi sxi axi pxi
nyi syi ayi pyi 
Ti = A1 × A2 × · · · × Ai = 
nzi szi

azi pzi 
0 0 0 1
T1 = A1 ,
T2 = A1 × A2 ,
T3 = A1 × A2 × A3 ,
T4 = A1 × A2 × A3 × A4 ,
T5 = A1 × A2 × A3 × A4 × A5 ,
T6 = A1 × A2 × A3 × A4 × A5 × A6 .

e1 = [0 0 1], e2 = T1 (1 : 3, 3),
e3 = T2 (1 : 3, 3), e4 = T3 (1 : 3, 3),
e5 = T4 (1 : 3, 3), e6 = T5 (1 : 3, 3).
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Extracting kinematic parameters
a1e = pe = [px6 py 6 pz6 ] ≡ T6 (1 : 3, 4),
a2e = pe − p1 ≡ T6 (1 : 3, 4) − T1 (1 : 3, 4),
a3e = pe − p2 ≡ T6 (1 : 3, 4) − T2 (1 : 3, 4),
a4e = pe − p3 ≡ T6 (1 : 3, 4) − T3 (1 : 3, 4),
a5e = pe − p4 ≡ T6 (1 : 3, 4) − T4 (1 : 3, 4),
a6e = pe − p5 ≡ T6 (1 : 3, 4) − T5 (1 : 3, 4).

J(1 : 3, 6) = e6 , J(1 : 3, 5) = e5 ,
J(1 : 3, 4) = e4 , J(1 : 3, 3) = e3 ,
J(1 : 3, 2) = e2 , J(1 : 3, 1) = e1 ,
J(4 : 6, 1) = e1 × a1e , J(4 : 6, 2) = e2 × a2e ,
J(4 : 6, 3) = e3 × a3e , J(4 : 6, 4) = e4 × a4e ,
J(4 : 6, 5) = e5 × a5e , J(4 : 6, 6) = e6 × a6e .

Equivalent MATLAB⃝ R
function for this is cross(e6,a6e);
. Note: The order is reverse in case of J!
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Acceleration Analysis
[
]
ωe
Since twist: te = = Jθ̇
ve
Taking derivative:
ṫe = Jθ̈ + J̇θ̇ (9)
[ ]
T T , ω̇ T and v̇T are angular and linear
where, ṫe = ω̇ T
e v̇e e e
accelerations.

θ̈ ≡ [θ̈1 , θ̈2 , · · · , θ̈n ]T → Joint Acceleration.

[ ]
ėi
And, j̇i ≡
ėi × ai,e + ei × ȧi,e
Vectors ėi and ȧi,e are time derivatives of the vectors ei and ai,e .

. HW 4: Find J̇ of a two-link manipulator.

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∗
Role of J in statics
Using principle of Virtual Work:

weT δx = τ T δθ
[ ]
T T → vector of moments and forces (wrench).
weT = nTe , fe
τ → Joint torques.
δx → End-effector angular and linear displacements.
δθ → Joint displacement.

As δx = Jδθ, weT Jδθ = τ T δθ

=⇒ weT J = τ T

Or, τ = JT we

. Note: Role of J in control will uncovered in Module 7.

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Rotation matrix and Angular rates
Consider a time varying rotation matrix Q. Since Q is orthogonal

QQT = QT Q = 1 ≡ I3×3

On differentiating it yields: Q̇QT + Q̇T Q = O

Let Ω = Q̇QT , which is a 3 × 3 skew symmetric matrix ?

Ω + ΩT = O

Post multiplying both sides by Q, we get: ΩQ = Q̇

Which allows us to
 express time derivative
 of Q̇ as a function of Q.
0 −ωz ωy
Ω =  ωz 0 −ωx 
. −ωy ωx 0
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Example: Calculation of Ω for Qz

Rotation matrix for rotation about Z is

 
cos α − sin α 0
Q =  sin α cos α 0
0 0 1
 
−α̇ sin α −α̇ cos α 0
It’s time derivative is Q̇ =  α̇ cos α −α̇ sin α 0
0 0 0
   
0 −α̇ 0 0 −1 0
Ω ≡ Q̇QT = α̇ 0 0 = 1 0 0 α̇
0 0 0 0 0 0
Comparing this we get ω = [ωx , ωy , ωz ]T = [0 0 α̇]T

Which is angular velocity of the frame about Z .

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Euler Angles from Rotation Matrix

For R31 ̸= ±1
θ = − sin−1 (R31 )
−1
Or, = π + sin
( (R31 ) )
R32 R33
ψ = atan2 ,
( cos θ cos θ )
Given rotation matrix R21 R11
ϕ = atan2 ,
  cos θ cos θ
R11 R12 R13 For R31 = −1
Q = R21 R22 R23  ϕ = anything; 0
R31 R32 R33 θ = π/2
ψ = ϕ + atan2(R12 , R13 )
For R31 = 1
ϕ = anything; 0
θ = −π/2
ψ = −ϕ + atan2(−R12 , −R13 )
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Euler Angle (RPY) rates and Angular velocity

Rotation matrix in terms of Roll ψ, Pitch θ and Yaw ϕ angle is

Rϕ,θ,ψ = R
z, ϕ Ry , θ Rx, ψ 
C ϕC θ C ϕSθSψ − SϕC ψ C ϕSθC ψ + SϕSψ
=  SϕC θ SϕSθSψ + C ϕC ψ SϕSθC ψ − C ϕSψ  (≡ Q)
−Sθ C θSψ C θC ψ
Using ṘRT ≡ Ω we get:

Ṙ = Ṙz Ry Rx + Rz Ṙy Rx + Rz Ry Ṙx

ṘRT = Ωz + Rz Ωy RT T T
z + Rz Ry Ωx Ry Rz
 
0 0 0

x = 0 0 −1 ψ̇
Where, Ωx = Ṙx RT 
0 1 0
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Euler Angle (RPY) rates and Angular velocity

   
0 0 1 0 −1 0
Ωy = Ṙy RT
y =
 0 0 0 θ̇ and Ωz = Ṙz RT 
z = 1 0 0 ϕ̇
−1 0 0 0 0 0
Substituting these we get,
 
0 −1 + Sθ ψ̇ Sϕ Cθ ψ̇ + Cϕ θ̇
Ω =  −(−1 + Sθ ψ̇) 0 −Cϕ Cθ ψ̇ + Sϕ θ̇
−(Sϕ Cθ ψ̇ + Cϕ θ̇) −(−Cϕ Cθ ψ̇ + Sϕ θ̇) 0
 
0 −ωz ωy

≡ ωz 0 −ωx 
−ωy ωx 0

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Euler Angle (RPY) rates and Angular velocity

Comparing these we get three independent equations, which on

solving gives,
    
ωx Cϕ Cθ −Sϕ 0 ψ̇
ω = ωy  =  Sϕ Cθ Cϕ 0  θ̇ 
ωz −Sθ 0 1 ϕ̇
Inverse transformation is given by
   −1  
ψ̇ Cϕ Cθ −Sϕ 0 ωx
 θ̇  =  Sϕ Cθ Cϕ 0 ωy 
ϕ̇ −Sθ 0 1 ωz
  
Cϕ Sϕ 0 ωx
= sec θ −Sϕ Cθ Cϕ Cθ 0  ωy 
Cϕ Sθ Sϕ Cθ Cθ ωz
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Demonstrations using MATLAB and VRS 1.0

1. MATLAB Code for Inverse Kinematics

2. Kinematic Parameter Extraction.
3. Singularity and Alternative Euler angle solutions using VRS
1.0.
4. Differential cartesian motion.

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