EVOLUTION (PAPER 3, OPTION D)

Evolution is the process of cumulative change in the heritable

characteristics of a population. It is a change in the gene/allele frequencies
of a population.

Microevolution Macroevolution
Small-scale changes over Large-scale changes in form
generations. involving whole groups of
species and genera (as seen in
fossil records)

Four PROCESSES needed for first cells to form:

1. Inorganic (water, CO2, ammonia) synthesis of simple organic
molecules. Examples: amino acids, nucleotides, glucose.

2. Assembly of simple organic molecules into polymers.

Examples: Amino acids to proteins, nucleotides to nucleic acid, glucose
to starch.

3. Formation of polymers capable of self-replication, allowing

inheritance of characteristics.
Examples: RNA, DNA

4. Packaging of molecules into membranes with internal chemistry

different from surroundings.

Seven STEPS in the evolutionary process which

led to appearance of life on Earth:
1. Formation of Earth (~4600 mil. years ago) with:
 Organic chemicals
 High temperature
 Lightning
 UV light penetration
 Reducing atmosphere
 Water

2. Prebiotic synthesis and accumulation of amino acids, purines,

pyrimidines, lipids, sugars, and other organic molecules in the
primitive terrestrial environment.

3. Prebiotic condensation reactions  synthesis of proteins and nucleic

acids with self replicating and catalytic/enzymatic abilities (RNA). First
two catalysts responsible for polymerization reactions were probably clay
minerals/metal sulfides and RNA.

4. Synthesis of lipids  self-assembly into double-layered membranes.

5. Capturing of prebiotic molecules (self-replicating and catalytic) within

their boundaries.

6. Formation of protobiont. Immediate precursor to first living systems

with internal chemical environment different from surroundings.

Protobionts exhibit co-operative interactions between small catalytic

peptides, replicative molecules, proto-tRNA and protoribosomes.

7. Evolution of protobiont into a prokaryotic cell.

Miller and Urey Experiments

Mixture of methane, ammonia, hydrogen, steam put in reaction chamber.
Electric charges provided energy for reaction of gases.
Gases condensed and boiled.

Experiment continued for a week. After that week, samples were taken
from the collection trap for analysis.

</= 4% of carbon (methane) was converted into amino acids.

In this and subsequent experiments, it has been possible to form all 20
amino acids commonly found in organisms.
Besides that, nucleic acids, several sugars, lipids, adenine and ATP (if
phosphate added to flask) were formed.

Early atmosphere may be similar to vapors given off by modern volcanoes.

Vapors: CO, CO2, N2.
Note: lack of free atmospheric oxygen.

Three POSSIBLE THEORIES for origin of life

on Earth
The six conditions of prebiotic Earth (1. High temp, 2. Lighting, 3. UV
light, 4. Reducing atmosphere, 5. Water, 6. Organic chemicals) make the
following theories possible.

1. Ocean surface (tidal pools)

 Suggests that life began in a tide pool, pond or on moist clay on
primeval Earth.
 UV light or electrical discharges would have energized the gases
from volcanoes to form prebiotic molecules in froth.
2. Panspermia (cosmic ancestry)
 Proposes that living organisms arrived on Earth from comets and
meteors.
 The organic compounds and water on the comets may have been
delivered to early earth when heavy bombardment occurred 4000
m.y.a.
3. Undersea thermal vents
 Proposes that life started at ancient volcanic vents.
 Necessary gases, energy and possible source of catalysts (metal
sulfides) are provided in this environment.

Role of RNA

RNA
1. Self-replicating
2. Catalytic

Can act as both genes AND enzymes, resolving the “chicken and egg
problem” as:
Genes require enzymes to form
Enzymes require genes to form

RNA molecules performing the catalytic activities necessary to

assemble themselves from a nucleotide soup may have led to the
first stage of evolution.

(A Ribozyme is a type of RNA that catalyzes its own replication.)

RNA then began to synthesize proteins

Endosymbiotic theory for origin of

eukaryotes
It is thought that eukaryote cells evolved from the ingestion of
prokaryotes by larger prokaryote cells.

An (endo)symbiotic relationship was formed with the cells they engulfed.

The ingested prokaryotes became two types of organelles:

1. Mitochondria: for aerobic respiration
2. Chloroplasts: for photosynthesis in aerobic conditions

The state of mitochondria before/when ingested was purple bacteria.

For chloroplasts, it was cyanobacteria. (already capable of photosynthesis)

Both chloroplasts and mitochondria have a self-replicating circular

chromosome.
The chromosome uses a genetic code that contains prokaryotic features,
supporting the origins of chloroplasts and mitochondria as
endosymbionts.

The theory is further supported by the fact that both also have double
membranes (one thought to belong to their initial state before ingestion
and the other thought to belong to the host prokaryote cell).

Darwin-Wallace theory of evolution by

natural selection
They showed that species changed throughout time. They reasoned it in
this way:

1. All organisms have a high reproductive rate. But. Food supply and
other necessities limited.  competition between offspring.

2. Variation in all characteristics among offspring. Some better adapted

than others. Sources: mutations and sexual reproduction.

3. Individuals possessing favourable variations survive longer in a given

environment, so more chance to pass on these characteristics to offspring.

4. The survival of the fittest – each successive generation better

adapted to environment.

5. New species evolve from old species.

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Cline: variation within population of same success. (eg blue eyes)

Environmental changes select the more favourable genotype and therefore

change the gene frequency in gene pool of population.

(check emails)

* Evolution of the Horse

Fossil evidence shows a succession from the horse ancestor with four
toes to a modern horse with one toe  trend towards reduced number of
toes, increase in size and durability of teeth.