CHAPTER 2

Special Theory of Relativity 2

2.1 The Need for Aether

2.2 The Michelson-Morley Experiment
2.3 Einstein’s Postulates
2.4 The Lorentz Transformation
2.5 Time Dilation and Length Contraction Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
2.6 Addition of Velocities
2.7 Experimental Verification
2.8 Twin Paradox
Do not worry about your
2.9 Space-time
difficulties in Mathematics.
2.10 Doppler Effect
I can assure you mine are
2.11 Relativistic Momentum still greater.
2.12 Relativistic Energy
2.13 Computations in Modern Physics Albert Einstein
2.14 Electromagnetism and Relativity
 Gedanken
(Thought)
experiments

It was impossible to achieve

the kinds of speeds
necessary to test his ideas
(especially while working in
the patent office…), so
Einstein used Gedanken
experiments or Thought
experiments.

Young Einstein
The complete Lorentz Transformation

x  vt x  vt 
x  x
1  v2 / c2 Length 1  v2 / c2
contraction
y  y y  y
z  z Simultaneity z  z
problems
t  vx / c 2
 
t  vx / c 2
t  t
1 v / c2 2
Time 1 v / c2 2

dilation

If v << c, i.e., β ≈ 0 and g ≈ 1, yielding the familiar Galilean transformation.

Space and time are now linked, and the frame velocity cannot exceed c.
 Timing events occurring in different places
Simultaneity can be tricky. Depending on how they’re
measured, different events will be
perceived in different orders by
different observers.

Frank
Fil
Fred

-L 0 L

Due to the finite speed of light, the order in which these two events
will be seen will depend on the observer’s position. The time
intervals will be: Fred: 2L/c; Frank: 0; Fil: +2L/c

But this obvious position-related simultaneity problem disappears if

Fred and Fil have synchronized watches.
Synchronized clocks in a frame

It’s possible to
synchronize clocks
throughout space
in each frame.
This will prevent the
position-dependent
simultaneity problem in
the previous slide.
But there will still be
simultaneity problems
due to velocity.
So all stationary observers in the Simultaneity
explosions’ frame measure these
events as simultaneous.
Compute the interval as seen by
What about moving ones?
Mary using the Lorentz time
transformation.

K’
Mary

-L 0 L

t   g [t  vx / c 2 ]  g [v(2 L) / c 2 ]

 g (v / c)(2 L / c)  0!

Mary experiences the explosion in front of her before the one behind
her. And note that t’ is independent of Mary’s position!
2.5: Time Dilation and Length Contraction

More very interesting consequences of the Lorentz Transformation:

Time Dilation:

Clocks in K’ run slowly with respect to stationary clocks in K.

Length Contraction:

Lengths in K’ contract with respect to the same lengths in

stationary K.
We must think about how we
measure space and time.
In order to measure an object’s length in space,
we must measure its leftmost and rightmost
points at the same time if it’s not at rest.
If it’s not at rest, we must ask someone
else to stop by and be there to help out.

In order to measure an event’s duration in time,

the start and stop measurements can occur at
different positions, as long as the clocks are
synchronized.

If the positions are different, we must ask someone

else to stop by and be there to help out.
Proper Time
To measure a duration, it’s best to use
what’s called Proper Time.

The Proper Time, T0, is the time between

two events (here two explosions) occurring
at the same position (i.e., at rest) in a system as measured by a
clock at that position.

Same location

Proper time measurements are in some sense the most fundamental

measurements of a duration. But observers in moving systems, where
the explosions’ positions differ, will also make such measurements.
What will they measure?
Time Dilation and Proper Time
Frank’s clock is stationary in K where two explosions occur.
Mary, in moving K’, is there for the first, but not the second.
Fortunately, Melinda, also in K’, is there for the second.

Melinda Mary

K’

Mary and Melinda If Mary and

are doing the best Melinda are
measurement that careful to time and
can be done. K
compare their
Each is at the right measurements,
Frank
place at the right what duration will
time. they observe?
Time Dilation
Mary and Melinda measure the times for the two explosions in
system K’ as t1 and t2 . By the Lorentz transformation:

(t2  t1 )  (v / c 2 )( x2  x1 )
T   t2  t1 
1  v2 / c2
This is the time interval as measured in the frame K’.
This is not proper time due to the motion of K’: x1  x2.

Frank, on the other hand, records x2 – x1 = 0 in K with a (proper)

time: T0 = t2 – t1, so we have:

T0
T 
1  v2 / c2
Time Dilation
1) T ’ > T0: the time measured
between two events at different
positions is greater than the time
between the same events at
one position: this is time dilation.

2) The events do not occur at the same space and time

coordinates in the two systems.

3) System K requires 1 clock and K’ requires 2 clocks for the

measurement.

4) Because the Lorentz transformation is symmetrical, time

dilation is reciprocal: observers in K see time travel
faster than for those in K’. And vice versa!
Time Dilation Example: Reflection
Mirror Let T be Mirror
the round-
trip time
in K

L
vT/2

Mary Frank Fred

v
K’ K
T0  2 L / c cT / 2  (vT / 2) 2  L2
Reflection (continued) cT / 2  (vT / 2) 2  L2

The time in the rest frame, K, is:

T  (2 / c) (vT / 2) 2  L2

But T0  2 L / c or L  cT0 / 2

T  (2 / c) (vT / 2) 2  (cT0 / 2) 2

or T  (v/c)2 T 2  T02

or T 2  (v/c)2 T 2  T02
or T 2 [1  (v/c)2 ]  T02 So the event in its rest
frame (K’) occurs faster
or T  g T0 than in the frame that’s
moving compared to it (K).
Time stops for a light wave
T0
Because: T 
1  v2 / c2

And, when v approaches c:

1

1  v2 / c2

For anything traveling at the speed of light:

T  

In other words, any finite interval at rest appears infinitely long at the
speed of light.
Proper Length

When both endpoints of an

object (at rest in a given frame)
are measured in that frame,
the resulting length is called
the Proper Length.

We’ll find that the proper length is the largest length observed.
Observers in motion will see a contracted object.
 L0
Length Contraction
Frank Sr., at rest in system K, measures the length of his
somewhat bulging waist:
L0 = xr  xℓ ← Proper length
Frank Sr.
Now, Mary and Melinda measure it, too, making simultaneous
measurements (t   tr) of the left, x , and the right endpoints, xr
Frank Sr.’s measurement in terms of Mary’s and Melinda’s:

( xr  x )  v(tr  t  ) L
L0  xr  x    g L
1  v2 / c2 1  v2 / c2
where Mary’s and Melinda’s measured length is: L  xr  x

Moving objects
L  L0 / g  L0 1  v / c 2 2
appear thinner!
Length contraction is also reciprocal.

So Mary and Melinda see Frank Sr. as thinner than he is in his

own frame.

But, since the Lorentz transformation is symmetrical, the effect

is reciprocal: Frank Sr. sees Mary and Melinda as thinner by a
factor of g also.

Length contraction is also known as Lorentz contraction.

Also, Lorentz contraction does not occur for the transverse

directions, y and z.
Lorentz
Contraction v = 10% c

v = 80% c
A fast-
moving
plane at
different
speeds. v = 99% c

v = 99.9% c
2.6: Addition of Velocities
v

Suppose a shuttle takes off quickly from a space ship already

traveling very fast (both in the x direction). Imagine that the space
ship’s speed is v, and the shuttle’s speed relative to the space ship
is u’. What will the shuttle’s velocity (u) be in the rest frame?

Taking differentials of the dx  g (dx  v dt )

dy  dy
Lorentz transformation [here
between the rest frame (K) and
the space ship frame (K’)], we dz  dz 
can compute the shuttle velocity
in the rest frame (ux = dx/dt): dt  g [dt   (v / c 2 )dx]
The Lorentz Velocity Transformations
Defining velocities as: ux = dx/dt, uy = dy/dt, u’x = dx’/dt’, etc., we
find:
dx g (dx  v dt ) ux  v
ux   
dt g [dt   (v/c ) dx] 1+ ux v/c 2
2

with similar relations for uy and uz: Note the g’s in uy and uz.

dy dy uy
uy   
  
dt g [dt  (v/c ) dx ] g (1+ u x v/c )
2 2

dz dz uz
uz   
dt g [dt   (v/c ) dx] g (1+ ux v/c 2 )
2
The Inverse Lorentz Velocity Transformations
If we know the shuttle’s velocity in the rest frame, we can calculate it
with respect to the space ship. This is the Lorentz velocity
transformation for u’x, u’y , and u’z. This is done by switching primed
and unprimed and changing v to –v:

dx ux  v
ux  
dt 1  u x v/c 2

dy uy
uy  
dt g (1  u x v/c 2 )

dz  uz
uz  
dt g (1  u x v/c 2 )
Relativistic velocity addition

1.1c Galilean velocity

addition
1.0c
Speed, u

0.9c
Relativistic velocity
addition
0.8c
0 0.25c 0.50c 0.75c
v = 0.75c Speed, u’
Example: Lorentz velocity transformation
Capt. Kirk decides to escape from a hostile Romulan ship at 3/4c, but
the Romulans follow at 1/2c, firing a matter torpedo, whose speed
relative to the Romulan ship is 1/3c.
Question: does the Enterprise survive?

vRg = 1/2c vtR = 1/3c vEg = 3/4c

Romulans torpedo Enterprise

vRg = velocity of Romulans relative to galaxy

vtR = velocity of torpedo relative to Romulans
vEg = velocity of Enterprise relative to galaxy
Galileo’s addition of velocities

We need to compute the torpedo's velocity relative to the galaxy

and compare that with the Enterprise's velocity relative to the
galaxy.

Using the Galilean transformation, we simply add the torpedo’s

velocity to that of the Romulan ship:

vtg  vtR  v Rg  vtg  13 c  12 c  65 c

Now, 5
6 c  34 c  The Enterprise is no more!
Einstein’s addition of velocities
Due to the high speeds involved, we really must relativistically
add the Romulan ship’s and torpedo’s velocities:

ux  v vtR  v Rg
ux  vtg 
1  ux v c 2 1  vtR v Rg c 2
1
c  12 c
 vtg  3
 5
7c
1  1
3 c 2 c / c
1 2

5
c  43 c  The Enterprise survives to seek out new worlds
7
and go where no one has gone before…
Example: Addition of velocities
We can use the addition formulas even when one of the velocities
involved is that of light.
At CERN, neutral pions (p0), traveling at 99.975% c, decay, emitting
g rays in opposite directions. Since g rays are light, they travel at the
speed of light in the pion rest frame. What will the velocities of the g
rays be in our rest frame? (Simply adding speeds yields 0 and 2c!)
Parallel velocities:
ux  v cv cv cv
ux     c
1  ux v c 1  cv c 1  v c (1/ c)(c  v)
2 2

Anti-parallel velocities:
ux  v c  v c  v (c  v)
ux      c
1  ux v c 1  cv c 1  v c (1/ c)(c  v)
2 2
“Aether
Drag”

In 1851, Fizeau measured the degree to which light slowed down

when propagating in flowing liquids.

Fizeau found experimentally:

 1 
u  c / n  1  2  v
 n 

This so-called “aether drag” was considered evidence for the aether
concept.
“Aether Drag” Armand Fizeau
(1819 - 1896)

Let K’ be the frame of the water, flowing

with velocity, v. We’ll treat the speed of
light in the medium ( u, u’ ) as a normal
velocity in the velocity-addition equations.
In the frame of the flowing water, u’ = c / n

u  v c/nv  c  1  nv/c
u   
1+ uv/c 1+ (c / n)v/c  n  1+ v/nc
2 2

c c c v
   (1  nv/c)(1  v/nc)    (1  nv/c  v/nc)   v  2
n n n n
c  1 
  1  2  v which was what Fizeau found.
n  n 
2.7: Experimental Verification of Time Dilation
Cosmic Ray Muons: Muons are produced in the upper atmosphere in
collisions between ultra-high energy particles and air-molecule nuclei.
But they decay (lifetime = 1.52 ms) on their way to the earth’s surface:
N  t   N 0 2 t 
No relativistic correction

With relativistic correction

Top of the atmosphere

Now time dilation says

that muons will live
longer in the earth’s
frame, that is,  will
increase if v is large.
And their average
velocity is 0.98c!
Detecting muons to see time dilation
It takes 6.8 ms for the 2000-m path at 0.98c, about 4.5 times the muon
lifetime. So, without time dilation, of 1000 muons, we expect only 1000 x
2-4.5 = 45 muons at sea level.

Since 0.98c yields g = 5, instead of

moving 600 m on average, they travel
3000 m in the Earth’s frame.

In fact, we see 542, in agreement with relativity!

And how does it look to the muon? Lorentz contraction shortens the distance!
 2.8: The Twin Paradox
The Set-up
Mary and Frank are twins.
Mary, an astronaut, leaves
on a trip many lightyears (ly)
from the Earth at great
t
speed and returns; Frank
decides to remain safely
on Earth.
x
The Problem
Frank knows that Mary’s clocks measuring her age must run slow, so
she will return younger than he. However, Mary (who also knows
about time dilation) claims that Frank is also moving relative to her,
and so his clocks must run slow.

The Paradox
Who, in fact, is younger upon Mary’s return?
The Twin-Paradox Resolution

Frank’s clock is in an inertial system during the entire trip. But Mary’s
clock is not. As long as Mary is traveling at constant speed away from
Frank, both of them can argue that the other twin is aging less rapidly.

But when Mary slows down to turn

around, she leaves her original
inertial system and eventually returns
in a completely different inertial system.

Mary’s claim is no longer valid,

because she doesn’t remain
in the same inertial system.
Frank does, however, and
Mary ages less than Frank.
Atomic Clock
Measurement
Two airplanes traveled east
and west, respectively,
around the Earth as it rotated.
Atomic clocks on the
airplanes were compared with
similar clocks kept at the US
Naval Observatory to show vrotation > vplane
that the moving clocks in the
airplanes ran slower.

Travel Predicted Observed

Eastward -40 ± 23 ns -59 ± 10 ns Traveling twin
Westward 275 ± 21 ns 273 ± 7 ns Stay-at-home twin
There have been many rigorous tests
of the Lorentz transformation and
Special Relativity.

Particle Accuracy
Electrons 10-32
Neutrons 10-31
Protons 10-27

Quantum Electrodynamics also depends on Lorentz symmetry,

and it has been tested to 1 part in 1012.
2.9: Space-time When describing events in
relativity, it’s convenient to
represent events with a
space-time diagram.

In this diagram, one spatial

coordinate x, specifies
position, and instead of time t,
ct is used as the other
coordinate so that both
coordinates will have
dimensions of length.

Space-time diagrams were

first used by H. Minkowski in
1908 and are often called
Minkowski diagrams. Paths
in Minkowski space-time are
called world-lines.
Particular Worldlines

Stationary
observers
Slope of live on
worldline vertical
is c/v. lines.
A light
wave has a
45º slope.
The Light Cone
The past, present, and future are easily identified in space-time
diagrams. And if we add another spatial dimension, these regions
become cones.
Space-time Interval and Metric
Recall that, since all observers see the same speed of light, all
observers, regardless of their velocities, must see spherical wave
fronts.

s2 = x2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2 = (x’)2 + (y’)2 + (z’)2 – c2 (t’)2 = (s’)2

This interval can be written in terms of the

space-time metric:
y
1 0 0 0 x
x 0 1 0 0   y 
s2   x z ct  
z
y
0 0 1 0  z
  
0 0 0 1 ct 
Space-time Invariants
The quantity Δs2 between two events is invariant (the same) in any
inertial frame.
Δs is known as the space-time interval between two events.

There are three possibilities for Δs2:

Δs2 = 0: Δx2 = c2 Δt2, and the two events can be connected only by a light
signal. The events are said to have a light-like separation.

Δs2 > 0: Δx2 > c2 Δt2, and no signal can travel fast enough to connect the
two events. The events are not causally connected and are said to
have a space-like separation.

Δs2 < 0: Δx2 < c2 Δt2, and the two events can be causally connected. The
interval is said to be time-like.