Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

N. E. Quest; Volume 4, Issue 2, July 2010.

Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

Newsletter
Of
NORTH EAST INDIA RESEARCH
FORUM

http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/northeast_india_research/
www.neindiaresearch.org

N. E. Quest; Volume 4, Issue 2, July 2010.

Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
Green chemistry and a sustainable
future
At first I would like to thank Dr. Arindam
Adhikari and all other group members for
giving me the opportunity to write the
editorial of North East Quest, July issue. It
was at times little depressing when not
enough articles were coming in at proper
time and the regular time to publish the
magazine was going out of hand. But now it
is ready in a readable format. My special
thanks go to Dr. Bipul Sarma who helped
me a lot in collecting the articles from
different group members.
I am writing this editorial on “Green
Chemistry” as the awareness is utmost
necessary at this moment for all of us to
save the environment for the future in all
possible ways.
The word “Green Chemistry” relates us to
an old existing but newly emerging
approach in chemical science which, focuses
on following some simple principles that in
turn secures a safe and healthy environment
for future. The principles mainly focus on
the prevention of waste than to treat or clean
up waste after it is formed. There are twelve
main principles that lead to the science of
creating safe, energy efficient and non-toxic
products and processes that offers a concrete
path towards solving the environmental
problems our society faces today.
At the time when the whole world has
started suffering from the harsh effect of
environmental pollution in all possible
ways, the practice of green chemistry in
every filed including basic science, industry
and general life is becoming vastly
important.
July 2010
Many countries around the world have
already started programmes in green
chemistry in their schools and universities to
make more and more people aware of the
benefits of green chemistry principles, how
they might change the path of environmental
degradation towards positive, how they
could ensure a safe world for our coming
generations.
The governments are also allocating lots of
funds towards green chemistry research. In
the United States, The National Science
Foundation and Environmental Protection
Agency supports various research
programmes and awards to bring more and
more scientists and industries in to the field
of Green Chemistry. Even the Publishers
like American Chemical Society and the
Royal Society of Science in Europe are
taking much interest in creating awareness
amongst the scientific society through their
journals, seminars and the awards.
In India also, the Department of Science and
Technology had established a special task
force on green chemistry to promote it
during 2003. Many universities, CSIR
institutes, and institutes under DST are
supporting various projects and program
towards creating the awareness in this field.
But still we have to go a long way before we
could make most of our scientific society
and the common people aware of the
principles that will hand us a sustainable
future for the coming generation. I wish that
time will come very soon when we could
stop ourselves from destroying our own
world anymore.
(Babita Baruwati)
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

Table of Contents
1 From the desk of editor 1
2 North east Forum, beginning, growth etc. 3-6
3 A North East India Research Forum Initiative 6-7
4 Members in news, fellowships etc 8
5 Science news 9-10
6 North East Indian made us proud 11

ARTICLE SECTION

7 Mathematics as a career (Shanta Laishram) 12-15

8 Historical Developments and Present Trends of Research in Soft 16-24
Magnetic Materials ( M.P.C. Kalita)
9 Electrocatalysis, Fuel cell, Oxygen reduction reaction, etc. 24-28
( Pankaj Bharali)
10 Stem Cells and Their Potential Applications in Therapeutics 28-33
(Khirud Gogoi)
11 Coffee: The most popular beverage (Progyashree Goswami) 34-36
12 Circular Dichroism: An excellent technique for determination of 37-39
absolute configuration (Pori Buragohain)

THESIS SYNOPSIS

13 STRUCTURAL AND THERMAL ANALYSIS OF ORGANIC 40-46

SOLIDS (Bipul Ch. Sarma)
14 INVESTIGATIONS ON HIGH DENSITY HOLOGRAPHIC DATA 46-59
STORAGE AND CONTENT-ADDRESSABLE SEARCH
(Bhargab Das)

INSTRUMENT OF THE ISSUE

15 Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) ( Bipul Ch Sarma) 59-63

63
16 Letter from Members (Akashi Baruah)
17 Members face 64
18 Jobs ,Postdoc, Etc 65-68
19 Details about the NE forum 69
20 End cover

2
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
North East India Research Forum
th
was created on 13 November
2004.
1. How we are growing.
Every forum has to pass through difficult phases
at the time of birth. NE India Research Forum is
also no exception. At the very beginning, it was
a march hardly with few members (from
chemistry only) and today the forum comprised
of a force of 350 elite members. Now we are in a
position such that people voluntarily come and
join the group irrespective of disciplines.
Graph of no of members w.r.t. months
2. Discussions held in the forum
• Necessity of directory of all the members of
the forum.
• Possibility of organising conference in the
N. E. India.
• Taking initiation on setting up of South East
Asian Scientific Institute.
• On selection of Best paper award.
• Let us introspect.
3. Poll conducted and results
• North East India is lacking behind the rest
of the country due to-
1. Geographical constrain = 0%
2. Bad leadership = 40%
3. Lack of work culture = 36%
4. Corruption = 18%
5. Apathy from Central Govt. = 4%
July 2010
• Which area of science is going to dominate
by creating a great impact on society in next
decade?
1. Nanoscience & nanotechnology =
22%
2. Biotechnology = 11%
3. Nanobiotechnology = 38%
4. Chemical Engineering = 0%
5. Medicine = 11%
6. Others = 16%
7. None = 0%
• Kindly let us know your view regarding the
following topic. What activities of this group
you like most?
1. Research articles = 33%
2. Information about vacancy/positions
available = 10%
3. Way to have a contact with all members =
29%
4. Scientific discussions = 14%
5. Others = 2%
• Selection of name for Newsletter
There were total 36 proposals submitted by
members of the forum for the Newsletter. The
name proposed by Mr. Abhishek Choudhury,
N.E. QUEST received the maximum number of
votes and hence it is accepted as the name of the
Newsletter.
• How often should we publish our newsletter
'' N. E. Quest’’?
1. Every 3 months = 61%
2. Every 6 months = 38%
3. Once a year = 0%
4. Editors of Previous NE-Quest Issues
1. Vol 1 Issue 1 April, 2007
Editor: Dr. Arindam Adhikari
2. Vol 1 Issue 2 July 2007
Editor: Dr. Tankeswar Nath
3. Vol 1 Issue 3 October 2007
Editor: Dr. Ashim Jyoti Thakur
4. Vol 1 Issue 4 January 2008
Editor: Mr. Pranjal Saikia
3
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

5. Vol 2 Issue 1 April 2008 • Supporting schools in rural areas by

Editor: Dr. Sasanka Deka
6. Vol 2 Issue 2 July 2008
Editor: Dr. Rashmi Rekha Devi
7. Vol 2 Issue 3 October 2008
Editor: Dr. Prodeep Phukan
8. Vol 2 Issue 4 January 2009
Editor: Dr. Manab Sharma
9. Vol 3 Issue 1 April 2009
Editor: Dr. Debananda Ningthoujam
10. Vol 3 Issue 2 July 2009
Editor: Dr. Robert Singh Thangjam
11. Vol 3 Issue 3 October 2009
Editor:Dr Pankaj Bharali
12. Vol 3 Issue 4 January 2010
Editor: Dr. Abdul Wahab
13. Vol 4 Issue 1 April 2010
Editor: Dr. Utpal Bora
14. Vol 4 Issue 2 July 2010
Editor: Dr. Babita Baruwati
5. A domain in the name of
neindiaresearch.org is booked.
6. Future activities
Proper planning and consequent implementation
always play an important role in every aspect.
Some of the topics / activities / suggestions
which were being discussed, time to time in the
forum will get top priorities in our future
activities. Those are mentioned here,
• Preparing complete online database of N.E.
researchers with details.
• Organising conference in the N.E. region-
proposed by Dr. Utpal Bora.
• Research collaboration among
members.
different ways.
• Best paper awards.
• Compilation of book on ‘Education system
of different countries’. Initiative for this
project is taken by Dr. Mantu Bhuyan,
NEIST, Jorhat, Assam
7. New activity
• Guidelines for the members are being
formulated by the moderators of the NE
India Research Forum. These guidelines are
placed in the forum for discussion.
• HimMedia Laboratories Pvt. Ltd is willing
to sponsor some future activities of the
forum and have asked for space to advertise
for their products in the N.E.Quest. Starting
the issue (July 2009) N. E. Q. is providing
www. one page for the advertisement. Details
about this deal will be informed soon once
finalised. Thanks to Dr. Robert Thangjam
for his initiative in this matter.
• North East India Research Forum cell has
been started in the following university and
colleges colleges,
1. Cell in the Dibrugarh University
Contact: Dr. Jitu Ranjan Chetia
Dept. of Chemistry
Email: jituranjan@yahoo.co.in
2. Cell in Tezpur University
Contact: Dr. Ashim J. Thakur
Dept. of Chemistry
Email: ajtthax@yahoo.com
forum
Phone: +91 (3712) 267008/9/10 extn
5059

• Motivate student to opt for science 3.Cell in Manipur University

education.
• Help master’s students in doing projects in
different organisation-proposed by Dr.
Khirud Gogoi.
Contact: Dr. Debananda S. Ningthoujam
Coordinator, Microbial Biotech Lab
Reader & Head,
Dept of Biochemistry,
Manipur University, Canchipur,
Imphal, India
Email: n.debananda@gmail.com

4
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
4.Cell in Mizoram University
Contact: Dr. Thangjam Robert Singh
Assistant Professor
Department of Biotechnology
Mizoram University, Aizawl, India
Email: robth@mzu.edu.in
Phone: +91 389-2330861/2330859 (O)
5.Cell in Govt. Science College, Jorhat
(Jorhat Institute of Technology)
Contact: Mr. Prasanta Kumar Bordoloi,
Senior Lecturer
Email: prasantabordoloi@yahoo.co.in
Mobile: +91-9957036339
6.Cell in Arya Vidyapeth College,
Guwahati
Contact: Mr. Pabitra Kalita,
Senior Lecturer
Email: pabitra_kalita@rediffmail.com
Mobile No: +91-9613133859
& Dr. Pradip Bhattacharyya,
Senior Lecturer
Email: prdpbhatta@yahoo.com
Mobile No: +91-9864087494
7.Cell in Pandu College, Pandu
Contact: Mr. Sanchay Jyoti Bora
Lecturer, Department of Chemistry
E-mail: sanchay.bora@gmail.com
Mobile: (+91) 9854078814
8.Cell in Bajali college, Pathsala
Contact: Mr. Arindam Talukdar, Lecturer,
Environment and Tourism Dept.
Email: katharpankaj@yahoo.com
&Mr. Satyendra Nath Kalita,
Lecturer, Deptt. of Zoology
Email: satyendranathkalita@gmail.com
To run the forum smoothly, to make it more
organised and to speed up activities, formation
of a committee/team is essential. The combined
discussion of the moderators and senior
members make the forum feel the importance of
Advisors, co-ordinator, volunteer, webmasters
July 2010
etc. Of course it needs more discussion and will
be approved by poll.
8. Guidelines for the forum
The moderators formulated some guidelines
for the forum which are as follow. These
guidelines were kept open for discussion in
the forum. With time and need the
guidelines will be changed.
1. Anybody in the forum can start a
meaningful and constructive discussion
after discussion with moderators.
2. Comments from the individual members
do not necessarily reflect the view of the
forum.
3. No single moderator can take a crucial
decision. All decision would be taken by
the moderators unanimously or together
with the group as majority.
4. One should not write any massage to the
forum addressing some particular
members. It should always start with
Dear all / Dear esteemed members etc.
5. If one has to write a mail to a particular
member she/he should write personal
mail.
6. Everyone has the freedom to speak but
that doesn’t mean that one should attack
personally. Of course we do have
differences. There can be debate or
discussion, but it should always be a
healthy one. One’s personal comment
should be written in such a way that it
reflects his/her view only. It should not
touch other's sentiments/emotions.
7. Whenever we are in a forum, society,
home, members should be sensitive /
caring enough to their comments so that
it does not hurt sentiment of any second
members.
8. Members should not post greetings
messages (Bihu wish, New Year wish
etc) to the forum.
5
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
9. Members should post authentic news
only. The source of the news should be
authentic. No controversial news or
comment should be posted to the
forum.
10. Our main aim is to discuss science to
generate science consciousness,
scientific temperament, sensitivity,
awareness and research for the benefit of
the mankind in general and North East
India in particular.
11. In severe cases, moderators can take a
hard decision unanimously or majority
wise (may be through poll). (This point
needs to be accepted by all the
members).
While sending request or while fulfilling
request for articles please follow the
following points.
• The forum has been formed to help each
other. When a member requests
articles/literature to forum, members of
the forum are always happy to help the
person by supplying the articles. But at
this stage we have to keep in mind that
the article should be sent to the person
who requested it, not to the whole forum
as it creates lots of unnecessary mails in
the message box of the forum. Moreover
if it continues, it becomes an irritation
also for many members.
• It is also the duty of the person who
requests article to acknowledge the
person who helped him/her. This can be
done by writing ' Request fulfilled
by......' in the subject area while
composing the mail and write a thanking
message in the main message board.
Once this is done, then if some other
members want to send the article will
know about the status of the request.
July 2010
This will also help members in keeping
mailbox clean. For example
• Moreover sending articles (copyright
protected articles) to the open forum
violates copyright act. So please send
the article to the person who requests not
to everybody through this open forum.
------------------------------------
A North East India
Research Forum
Initiative
North East India Research Forum in
association with Pragyan- Tinsukia college
organized a lecture cum interactive session
for young science aspirants on 17th of April
2010 at Tinsukia College, Tinsukia, Assam.
Prof. Arvind Anant Natu from Indian
Institute for Science Education and Research
(IISER)-Pune was invited for the event to
talk on ‘ Opportunities in Pure Science’.
The main aim of the lecture was to motivate
students towards pure science for higher
education. It was Dr. Arindam Adhikari,
who on his way to his home at Tinsukia
from Stockholm met Dr. Arvind Natu in
Pune and convinced him to deliver a lecture
in Tinsukia on the said topic. After reaching
Tinsukia, Dr. Adhikari contacted Mr.
Sushanta Kar of Tinsukia college about
arranging the lecture. Mr. Kar was excited to
know about that and agreed to organize the
lecture in Tinsukia College. As it was a
festival season, everybody was skeptical
about the success of the lecture initially.
After several meetings slowly people started
coming forward. The duo personally and
along with faculty members from Tinsukia
college, viz. Mr. Anjan Borthakur, Mrs.
Dipika Bhattacharjee visited the schools in
Tinsukia to inform about the lecture and
invited to take part in the event. The target
6
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
group for the lecture was class 10th, 11th and
12th students along with their parents and
teachers. The main aim of the lecture was to
motivate students towards pure science for
higher education.
In the mean time Dr. Adhikari contacted
past student of Tinsukia college and one of
the members of North East India Research
Forum Dr. Mukut Gohain who was working
at Univerisided de Bugos, Madrid, Spain
and informed him about the event. He
helped in getting students from
Doomdooma, Philobari and Kajikhowa for
the event.
The event was presided over by Dr. Bhuban
Gogoi, principal of Tinsukia college. From
North East India Research Forum, Dr.
Adhikari and Dr. Gohain were present on
that event. Dr. Adhikari, who was working
in the Institute for Surface Chemistry,
Stockholm, Sweden introduced himself,
Prof. Natu and Dr. Gohain also to the
audience. Dr. Adhikari, also briefed the
audience about the North East India
Research Forum
(www.neindiaresearch.org), it’s activities
and about it’s online science magazine N. E.
Quest. He, in his speech raised the issue
‘Need of Higher Science & Technology
institute in and around Tinsukia district‘. He
raised the issue why despite having
abundant resources in this area, Tinsukia
and its adjoining areas still lacks a higher
educational institute like university or any
scientific research organization which is
needed for homogeneous development of
the country. Dr. Gohain also expressed in
his speech the necessity of such higher
educational institute in this most backward
part of this country.
Prof. Natu delivered an interesting and
inspiring lecture on that occasion. He gave
many examples of day to day and advanced
July 2010
technology which has been inspired from
nature. He also introduced IISER to the
student, its admission process and education
system. There was an interesting interactive
session afterward. Dr. Adhikari, one of the
main initiator of the event and Mr. Dilip
Kalita helped the audience by presenting a
brief translated Assamese version of the
talk. In the event, Dr. Sukhen Chakraborty
also expressed his views about the event
asked the organizers to organize more such
events. Mr. Kar also gave a brief
information about organizing the lecture.
Many retired and present science teachers of
Tinsukia college from various fields were
present on that occasion and appreciated this
kind of activities. At the end Prof. Natu and
the audience appreciated the step taken by
North East India Research Forum and urges
to take more such activities.
Following are the schools participated in the
event
1. Chikaragaon Jatiya Bidyalaya,
Doomdooma
2. Philobari Jatiya Bidyalaya,
Doomdooma
3. Panitola Girls High Schools, Panitola
4. Baruahola High School, Panitola
5. Aniruddha Junior Science College,
Dibrugarh
6. Soumarjyoti, Parbotia, Tinsukia
7. Teg Bahadur, Tinsukia
8. A- New High school, Tinsukia
9. St. Stephens School Tinsukia
10. Senairam H. S. School, Tinsukia
11. Saumar Jyoti Bidyapith, Tinsukia
12. Guru Tegbahadur Sr.Secondery
School, Tinsukia
13. St. Stephen School, Tinsukia
14. Pinwood Junior College, Tinsukia
15. English Academi, Tinsukia
16. A New High School, Tinsukia
17. Jatiyo Bidyalaya, Tinsukia
(http://www.sentinelassam.com/state2/story.php
?sec=2&subsec=7&id=39531&dtP=2010-06-
22&ppr=1)
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
1. Dr. Santa Laishram has joined
Indian Statistical Institute, Delhi as an
Assistant professor from July 2010.
He was working as an assistant
Professor at Indian Institute of Science
Education and Research (IISER),
Bhopal before joining ISI, Delhi.
2. Dr. Arindam Adhikari has joined as
a scientist in Central Electrochemical
Research Institute (CECRI/CSIR)
Kadaikudi, Tamilnadu from June
2010.
3. Dr. Kamalesh Prasad, Scientist,
Central salt and Marine Research
Institute, Bhavnagar, has been
awarded with the CSIR young
scientist award in chemical sciences
for the year 2010.
4. Mrs. Parasha Hazarika has been
awarded Ph.D. degree by Dibrugarh
University recently. She did her
Ph.D. under the supervision of Dr.
Dilip Konwar (Sc. E1) of Synthetic
Organic Chemistry Division, NEIST,
Jorhat. Her topic of research is
“Development of new synthetic
reagent systems and synthesis of
some drug intermediates: A green
approach”. She has published 7
papers in different international
journals of repute.
5. Manashjit Gogoi (Research Scholar,
Department of Biosciences and
Bioengineering, IIT Bombay), and
his team members won the first Prize
July 2010
in BEST (Biotechnology
Entrepreneurship Students' Team).
The topic was Novel, cost effective
point of care diagnostic system for
detection of cancer: A way
towards better cancer diagnosis.
6. Dr. Babita Baruwati has been
selected to join Hindustan Unilever,
Bangalore as a research scientist. She
will join the company on 2 nd
November 2010. She is presently
working as a research associate at
United States Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.
7. Dr. Mukut Gohain has joined
Department of Chemistry, University
of the Free State, Bloemfontein,
Republic of South Africa as post
doctoral fellow from July 2010
--------------------------------------------
In science the credit goes to the man
who convinces the world, not the man
to whom the idea first occurs.
Sir Francis Darwin, Eugenics
Review, April 1914
-----------------------------------------------
8
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

183 species of butterfly documented India unveils prototype of $35

in Arunachal tablet computer

As many as 183 species It looks like an iPad, only it's 1/14th the
of butterfly have been cost: India has unveiled the prototype of a
identified and photo
$35 basic touchscreen tablet aimed at
documented in the buffer
students, which it hopes to bring into
area of Namdhapa
National Park in
production by 2011.
Arunachal Pradesh
during the 5-day 13th If the government can find a manufacturer,
Butterfly India Meet. the Linux operating system-based computer
would be the latest in a string of "world's
Stating this, Ariff Siddiqui, an organiser, said cheapest" innovations to hit the market out
more species would be found in the core area of India, which is home to the 100,000 rupee
of the park which they could not venture into ($2,127) compact Nano car, the 749 rupees
due to rain. ($16) water purifier and the $2,000 open-
heart surgery.
The thirty participants from different parts of
the country also identified numerous moths The tablet can be used for functions like
apart from some glittering beetles like 'Golden word processing, web browsing and video-
Tortoise' during the meet which ended on conferencing. It has a solar power option too
Friday. - important for India's energy-starved
hinterlands - though that add-on costs extra.
Dr Alfred, Former Director of the Zoological
Survey of India also said, "This is an "This is our answer to MIT's $100
encouraging indicator for existence of many computer," human resource development
other species of the butterflies in the core area minister Kapil Sibal told the Economic
in Namdhapa and in new forests in the area." Times when he unveiled the device on
Thursday.
Students from five schools in and around
Miao town were invited to participate in an
In 2005, Nicholas Negroponte - co-founder
awareness programme entitled 'Breakfast with
Butterflies'
of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology's Media Lab - unveiled a
prototype of a $100 laptop for children in
http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/183- the developing world. India rejected that as
species-of-butterfly-documented-in- too expensive and embarked on a multiyear
Arunachal/651125 effort to develop a cheaper option of its
own.

9
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
Negroponte's laptop ended up costing about
$200, but in May his nonprofit association,
One Laptop Per Child, said it plans to
launch a basic tablet computer for $99.
Sibal turned to students and professors at
India's elite technical universities to develop
the $35 tablet after receiving a "lukewarm"
response from private sector players. He
hopes to get the cost down to $10
eventually.
Mamta Varma, a ministry spokeswoman,
said falling hardware costs and intelligent
design make the price tag plausible. The
tablet doesn't have a hard disk, but instead
uses a memory card, much like a mobile
phone. The tablet design cuts hardware
costs, and the use of open-source software
also adds to savings, she said.
Varma said several global manufacturers,
including at least one from Taiwan, have
shown interest in making the low-cost
device, but no manufacturing or distribution
deals have been finalized. She declined to
name any of the companies.
India plans to subsidize the cost of the tablet
for its students, bringing the purchase price
down to around $20.
"Depending on the quality of material they
are using, certainly it's plausible," said Sarah
Rotman Epps, an analyst at Forrester
Research. "The question is, is it good
enough for students?"
Profitability is also a question for the $35
machine.
Epps said government subsidies or dual
marketing - where higher-priced sales in the
developed world are used to subside low-
cost sales in markets like India - could
convince a manufacturer to come on board.
July 2010
This and similar efforts - like the Kakai Kno
and the Entourage Edge tablets - show that
there is global demand for an affordable
device to trim high textbook costs, she said.
If it works, Epps predicts the device could
send a shiver of cost-consciousness through
the industry.
"It puts pressure on all device manufacturers
to keep costs down and innovate," she said.
The project is part of an ambitious education
technology initiative by the Indian
government, which also aims to bring
broadband connectivity to India's 25,000
colleges and 504 universities and make
study materials available online.
So far nearly 8,500 colleges have been
connected and nearly 500 web and video-
based courses have been uploaded on
YouTube and other portals, the Ministry
Read more at:
http://www.ndtv.com/article/technology/indi
a-unveils-prototype-of-35-tablet-computer-
39424?cp
----------------------------------------------------
Science is facts; just as houses are made of
stone, so is science made of facts; but a pile
of stones is not a house, and a collection of
facts is not necessarily science.
Jules Henri Poincaré French athematician
Anybody who has been seriously engaged is
scientific work of any kind realizes that over
the entrance to the gates of the temple of
science are written the words: 'Ye must have
faith.'
Max Planck
----------------------------------------------------
10
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

Other than Grand Challenge award he is the

recipient of many other prestigious
fellowships that includes Harold E. Johns
Award by Canadian Cancer Society (2009),
Schweisguth prize; International Society of
Pediatric Oncology Research Association
(2008), Schweisguth Prize, International
Society of Pediatric Oncology (SIOP),
Netherland (2008), Hind rattan award (2007)
etc.

His main research interest is in developing

Dr. Bikul Das (MBBS, PhD) is presently an appropriate experimental system to study
working as a postdoctoral fellow in the the stable Vs unstable state of stemness
division of medicine oncology in state. His work has been published in
Stanford University, California. He various Book series as well as
joined Stanford as a recipient of internationally reputed journals.
prestigious “Grand Challenge Grant
Award”, Bill and Melinda Gates Dr Bikul Das is also associated with
Foundation for 2009-2010. Bhagawati Samaj Sewa that works towards
the improvement of social and spiritual
He got his PhD in Medical Science health of people living in rural Assam.
(Molecular Oncology) from University His present email: bikuldas@stanford.edu
of Toronto, Canada and continued to
work as a postdoctoral fellow in the ------------------------------------------------------
same institute during the period 2007- Science information through the lens
2009. Prior to his PhD, he completed his
MBBS degree from Guwahati Medical
College and Hospital. Before moving to
Canada, he worked as a Senior House
Officer in the division of Internal
Medicine, Mongar Referral Hospital,
Bhutan as well as a house officer in
internal medicine at Guwahati Medical
College and Hospital. He established
Micro Clinic, in Sualkuchi, Assam, in
1993. He also helped in the
establishment of North East Medical
Care and Research Center, Guwahati, This is not an art; these are the micro-organisms that
Assam. grow at the edge of hot basins in Yellowstone
National Park, USA.
----

11
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
Mathematics as a Career
Dr. Shanta Laishram
Is there anything more to do than
1 + 1 = 2?
That’s the perception many people have for
mathematics! Quite a lot of people think that
mathematics is dry and very difficult which
is not quite true. In fact many people are just
frightened by the name of mathematics. GH
Hardy, one of the most well-known
mathematicians of the last century, wrote in
the book A Mathematician’s Apology
(London 1941, pp. 14):
The fact is that there are few more “popular”
subjects than mathematics. Most people
have some appreciation of mathematics, just
as most people can enjoy a pleasant tune;
and there are probably more people really
interested in mathematics than in music.
Appearances may suggest the contrary, but
there are easy explanations. Music can be
used to stimulate mass emotion, while
mathematics cannot; and musical incapacity
is recognized (no doubt rightly) as mildly
discreditable, whereas most people are so
frightened of the name of mathematics that
they are ready, quite unaffectedly, to
exaggerate their own mathematical
stupidity.
If you think Mathematics is difficult and
useless, think again. Today you may be
counting numbers as if it is very natural.
You are using internet securely and sing
ATM Cards and unknowingly, primes are
used. There are lots of other examples where
mathematics is used. But I am going to tell
you about a career in mathematics and how
is it being a mathematician.
July 2010
Who is a Mathematician?
A person who does mathematics is a
mathematician. Unlike many other areas of
science or engineering or other fields,
mathematics is something which you can do
all over your life. Paul Erd˝os, one of the
most prolific mathematicians of the last
century, rightly said: “Mathematicians
never die, they just stop doing
mathematics!”
A working mathematician is person who
contributes in the advancement of
mathematical knowledge by way of
teaching, research and sharing knowledge.
To become a mathematician, one needs to be
trained in mathematical thinking by way of
exposing to different areas and needs to
learn a lot of related materials. In the next
section, i will mention the different ways on
how to become a working mathematician.
Why one does wants to be a
Mathematician?
This is question which many people may be
planning to ask! A mathematician, if
interested in mathematics, can work all the
time without getting bored. Also the
pleasure of proving some theorem of your
own which no one has ever found is
something really fulfilling. When I proved
my result (theorem) for the first time, I find
it really pleasurable. The happiness I felt is
something I can not really express. As most
of you might have noticed, solving a
problem which others feel is difficult is a
pleasure in itself and here finding and
inventing a new result on your own is
something very exciting! Also solving the
problems which have implications in other
areas of science and day to day life is a
source of immense joy.
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
One has to also understand that staying in
academics and research is not very highly
paid as those working for Financial and
other company jobs. However it pays you
sufficiently to have a very good and decent
life for you and your family. After all, money
is not everything. The pleasure of working
with freedom and contributing and inventing
something new and sharing knowledge is
what makes people interested to continue in
academics and research.
How to become a Mathematician?
A student who wants to become a
mathematician has to study mathematics
upto certain level and go for PhD. Usually,
students need to do Master in Mathematics
after their Bachelors degree and then go for
PhD programs. However nowadays, there
are courses which train students for
mathematics right after class XII. Students
can go for Integrated Masters program at
Indian Institute of Science Education and
Research (IISER)s at Bhopal, Mohali,
Kolkata, Pune and Trivandrum, National
Institute of Science Education and
Research(NISER) at Bhubaneshwar, Centre
for Basic Sciences(CBS) at Mumbai and
some of the Indian Institute of
Technology(IIT)s like IIT Kanpur. It is
worth knowing that students admitted at
IISER, NISER, CBS get a fellowship of Rs
5000 per month currently.
Currently some of the best places for doing
undergraduate (BSc) courses in Mathematics
are at B. Math programs at Indian Statistical
Institutes (Kolkata, Blore and Delhi) and at
Chennai Mathematical Institute (CMI) in
Chennai. Some of the BSc programs at
Central Universities are also considered very
good.
July 2010
However one should not worry if you cannot
get though at the above institutes. Students
can go for good Masters programs at IITs
and Integrated PhD program at Indian
Institute of Science (IISc) Blore and at other
universities. Also BSc passed students can
go for PhD program directly at Tata Institute
of Fundamental Research (TIFR) Mumbai,
Institute of Mathematical Sciences (IMSc)
Chennai and Harish-Chandra Research
Institue(HRI) Allahabad where they will be
given Masters Degree in addition to PhD
Degree.
Those students who have a Master Degree
can apply for PhD programs at leading
institutes in India and Abroad. TIFR, IMSc,
HRI, IISc, IITs and IISERs and above
institutes are very good places for PhD
programs in India. Though students need to
get CSIR-UGC Junior Research Fellowship
(JRF) for getting into some of the institutes
and universities, TIFR, IMSc, HRI, IISc,
IISER, NISER has its own selection
procedure.
Also there are lots of opportunities for
pursuing PhD at Universities abroad
particularly in US, Canada and European
Universities. Though students usually need
to write Graduate Record Examination
(GRE) for admission into US universities,
GRE is not usually required for Canada and
European universities. University of
Princeton, University of California, Berkely,
Harvard Univ, MIT, Stanford, Yale,
Chicago, Cambridge, Oxford are some of
the top places for mathematics in the world.
Career opportunities of a Mathematician
Mathematicians are usually involved in
research and teaching positions in
Universities and Institutes. However
recently, there have been job opportunities
for mathematicians (even with those with
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
Masters even) in Industry, particularly
banking and finance. Also Mathematicians
are employed at various governmental
organisations like ISRO (Indian Space
Research Organisation), DRDO (Defence
Research and Development Organisation)
and DAE (Department of Atomic Energy).
How does one prepare to become a
Mathematician?
A student can start preparations to become a
mathematician at any given time in their life
though it is always preferable to start early.
As some of you might have heard, Olympiad
programs are a good way to start in
mathematics though its not the best way.
Even if you do not do well in mathematics at
school level, there is nothing to worry about.
You can pick up at college and masters
level. Main thing needed for being a
mathematician is having patience and
willing to learn. There is no place for lazy
people in mathematics.
What mathematics teaches is being logical
in life and not to believe things blindly. It
trains you in reasoning. So, even if you do
not become a well known mathematician,
you become a nice and reasonable human
being.
How I came into Mathematics
Since childhood, I have been interested in
mathematics, particularly solving problems.
I used to solve the exercises just after
teacher starts teaching the chapters and
sometimes before that.
When I got 99 out of 100 in my Class 10th
exam (by CBSE, New Delhi), I became
more interested in mathematics. I also liked
solving Olympiad problems during my Class
11 - 12. Main motivation came when I was
attending Mathematics Training and Talent
Search program sponsored by NBHM. I
July 2010
attended it first time at IIT Chennai where I
got to interact with mathematicians from
well known institutes and students from all
over the country and it was very motivating.
After that I got to be in touch with some
faculties at HRI and IMSc and attended
some summer programs. Finally I joined
TIFR after my BSc for PhD program and
since then I have been working as a
mathematician. One interesting aspect of
being a mathematician is to get opportunities
to travel and interact with mathematicians
working in related areas from all over the
world. I have been lucky enough to travel at
many important places in the world. Also,
one has the enough freedom to work
anytime. Of course, sometimes you may be
thinking on a problem and you may continue
to think on that even when you are walking
or eating, without bothering about other
things. But the real joy is when you get an
interesting idea to solve a problem. Perhaps
this prompted Hardy to say “If I could find a
proof that you were going to die in five
minutes, I would of course be sorry to lose
you, but the sorrow would be quite
overweighed by the pleasure in the proof”
while talking to Bertrand Russell. Russell
entirely sympathized with him and was not
at all offended!!! But one thing which we
have to remember is that there is no
substitute for hard work and patience pays.
Important organizations and programs
for mathematics
• National Board for Higher
Mathematics (NBHM) gives
scholarships and funds math
programs.
http://www.nbhm.dae.gov.in
• Mathematics Training and Talent
Search Program
http://www.mtts.org.in
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

• Kishore Vaigyanik Protsahan • Chennai Mathematical Institute

Yojana(KVPY) (CMI) Chennai http://www.cmi.ac.in
http://www.iisc.ernet.in/kvpy
• Indian Institute of Science (IISC)
• Summer Research Fellowships Bangalore http://www.iisc.ernet.in
Programme of JNCASR, Bangalore
http://www.jncasr.ac.in/extn_prog/sr • Indian Institute of Science Education
fp and Research (IISER)
http://www.iisercity.ac.in
• Visiting Students’ Research
Programme (VSRP) at TIFR • National Institute of Science
http://www.tifr.res.in/vsrp Education and Research
Bhubaneshwar
• Summer Programme in Mathematics http://www.niser.ac.in
in HRI http://www.hri.res.in/vsp_
maths.html • Centre for Basic Sciences Mumbai
http://www.cbs.ac.in
• Indian Academy of Sciences • Indian Institute of Technology(IIT)s
Summer Fellowships at Chennai, Delhi, Guwahati,
http://www.ias.ac.in Kanpur, Kharagpur, Mumbai,
Roorkee, Patna, Indore, Ropar,
• IISER Admissions http://iiser- Gandhinagar, Hyderabad,
admissions.in Bhubaneshwar

• National Entrance Screening Test • Jawaharlal Nehru University Delhi

(NEST) http://www.nestexam.in http://www.jnu.ernet.in

Well known Institutes for mathematics • Central University Hyderabad

(not the exclusive list) (HCU) http://www.uohyd.ernet.in

• Tata Institute of Fundamental • Panjab University Chandigarh

Research (TIFR) Mumbai. http://www.pu.ac.in
http://www.tifr.res.in
• Institute of Mathematical Sciences • University of Mumbai, Mumbai
(IMSc) Chennai. http://www.mu.ac.in
http://www.imsc.res.in
The author is presently working as an
Assistant Prof. in ISI Delhi.
• Indian Statistical Institute (ISI)s at
Email: shantalaishram@gmail.com
Kolkata, Delhi and Bangalore.
http://www.isical.ac.in
----------------------------------------------
• Harish-Chandra Research Institute
(HRI) Allahabad.
http://www.hri.res.in

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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

Historical Developments and changed after the discovery of amorphous

Present Trends of Research in Soft soft magnetic materials prepared by rapid
solidification technique [3] and more
Magnetic Materials
recently after the advent of ultra fine
magnetic materials with crystallite size of
Dr. M P C Kalita
the order of 10 nm prepared by controlled
crystallization of melt-spun amorphous
Abstract
precursor [4].
Ferromagnetic materials with coercivity
typically below 100 Oe are known as soft
Applications of Soft Magnetic Materials
magnetic materials (SMM). SMM materials
find wide applications in transformer cores,
The applications of SMM fall into two broad
electrical appliances, magneto fluids etc.
categories, viz. AC and DC applications. For
Coarse grained Fe-Si soft magnetic alloys
AC applications, the important consideration
were developed as early as 1900. Since then
is how much energy is lost in the system as
a significant progress in the development of
the material is cycled around its hysteresis
SMM occurred with coercivity as low as
loop. The energy loss originates from two
below 10-3 Oe obtained in nanocrystalline
main sources viz. hysteresis loss (which is
and amorphous SMM which were developed
the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop) and
in the 1970 and 1980s. In this article, the
eddy current loss (which is related to the
historical development of SMM and its
generation of electric currents in the
present trend of research have been
magnetic material and the associated
discussed.
resistive losses). Hysteresis losses can be
reduced by the reduction of the coercivity,
Introduction
with a consequent reduction in the area
enclosed by the hysteresis loop. Eddy
Ferromagnetic materials are classified as
current losses can be reduced by increasing
‘soft’ or ‘hard’ based on their coercive field
the electrical resistivity of the material and
or simply coercivity. Usually, materials with
by laminating the material. In DC
coercivity less than 100 Oe are considered to
applications, the material is magnetized in
be soft, while those with coercivity above
order to perform an operation and then
1000 Oe are termed hard magnetic
demagnetized at the conclusion of the
materials. The coercivity, is known to
operation.
depend on the composition and
The development of SMM has been
microstructure of the material. In the early
mainly driven by the search for superior soft
days, magnetic materials were mainly
magnetic alloys and to meet the
prepared by casting process. These early
requirements of applications. Recent
magnetic materials are known to get harder
research has been focused on achieving
(i.e. exhibit an increase in coercivity) with a
materials with low coercivity, high
decrease in their crystallite size [1].
permeability and high saturation
Therefore, early research activities on soft
magnetization in a cost effective way. The
magnetic materials were mainly confined to
continuing development of better materials
the development of appropriate alloys with
has considerably improved the efficiency of
large crystallite sizes, so that materials with
key building blocks of present electrical
better soft magnetic properties could be
obtained [2]. However, this approach

16
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
appliances like motors, generators,
transformers, inductors, etc.
Conventional Soft Magnetic Alloys
Among the soft magnetic alloys (SMA)
which find wide applications, Fe-Si is one of
the earliest to be discovered. Barrett et al.
[5] reported the improvement in the soft
magnetic properties of Fe with the addition
of Si in 1900. Significant progress occurred
after the discovery of grain-oriented Fe-Si
alloys and Ni-Fe alloys such as permalloy in
the 1940s [6]. The range of SMM was
further extended by the development of
ferrites in the 1950s [6]. The major families
of the conventional SMA with important
applications are briefly discussed below.
Fe-Si alloys
In electrical power generation and
transmission, the highest demand is for
transformer cores. Fe-Si alloys are used for
transformer cores in exclusion of all other
SMA and are commonly known as
‘electrical steels’ or ‘silicon steels’. In the
power industry, electrical voltage is almost
always AC and at low frequency (50 - 60
Hz). At these frequencies, eddy currents are
generated in the transformer core. Silicon is
a less costly and easily available material
and therefore gets importance to meet the
huge demands of transformer core materials
in large quantities. Addition of Si in Fe
reduces the magnetocrystalline anisotropy
and magnetostriction (i.e. length change on
magnetization) of Fe and thereby reduces
the coercivity. Further, the resistivity of Fe
increases with the addition of Si and thereby
reduces the eddy current losses. The
addition of too much of Si makes the
material extremely brittle and difficult to
July 2010
produce, resulting in a practical limitation of
the additive to 4 wt %. Often Al is added in
Fe-Si alloys to increase the ductility of the
alloy. Alloys with atomic composition
Fe75Si15Al10 (known as Sendust) are used as
electrical steels for some special
applications. Selected magnetic properties of
some Fe-Si alloys are listed in Table 1.
Ni-Fe alloys
These alloys, known as permalloy, are
extremely versatile and are used over a wide
range of compositions (from 30 to 80 wt%
Ni). Over this composition range, the
properties vary considerably and the
optimum composition must be selected for a
particular application. There are special
grades of Ni-Fe alloys that have zero
magnetostriction and zero magnetic
anisotropy, such as mumetal which is
produced by a careful heat treatment and
minor additions of Cu and Cr. These alloys
have extremely high relative permeability
(up to 300000), and coercivity as low as
0.005 Oe. However, low saturation
magnetization and the high cost of Ni as
compared to Si limits these alloys only for
some special applications. Selected
magnetic properties of some Ni-Fe alloys
are listed in Table 2.
Fe-Co alloys
These alloys have higher saturation
magnetization than pure Fe. They have both
AC and DC applications, but high ost of Co
has limited their applications only for some
special purposes. Selected magnetic
properties of some Fe-Co alloys are listed in
Table 3.
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

Table 1 : Selected magnetic properties of some Fe-Si alloys [Ref. 7].

Fe-Si Alloy Composition Maximum Coercivity, Saturation

Permeability, µmax HC (Oe) Polarization, JS (T)
Fe-Si Fe96Si4 4000 - 15000 0.4 - 1.5 2.1
(Non-oriented)
Fe-Si Fe97.5Si2.5 4000 - 12000 0.15 - 1.5 2.0
(Non-oriented)
Fe-Si Fe96Si4 5000 - 20000 0.5 - 1 2.0
(Non-oriented)

Fe-Si Fe97Si3 40000 0.1 2.0

(Grain-oriented)

Table 2: Selected magnetic properties of some Ni-Fe alloys [Ref. 7]

Alloy Composition Maximum Coercivity, Saturation

Permeability, HC (Oe) Polarization, JS
µmax (T)
78 Permalloy Ni78Fe22 8000 0.05 1.08

Hipernik Ni50Fe50 4000 0.05 1.60

Supermalloy Ni79Fe16Mo5 100000 0.005 0.79

Mumetal Ni77Fe16Cu5Cr2 20000 0.05 0.65

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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
Table 3: Selected magnetic properties of some Fe-Co alloys [Ref. 7].
Alloy Composition Maximum
permeability, µmax
Permendur Fe50Co50 5000
Supermendur Fe49Co49V2 60000
Soft Ferrites
At high frequencies, metallic SMM simply
cannot be used due to the eddy current
losses. Therefore, soft ferrites, which are
ceramic insulators, become the most
desirable material. These materials are
ferrimagnetic with the general chemical
formula MO.Fe2O3, where M is a transition
metal. Mn-Zn ferrite, commercially known
as ferroxcube, can be used at frequencies up
to 10 MHz, for example in telephone signal
transmitters / receivers and in switch mode
power supplies [7].
Amorphous and Nanocrystalline Soft
Magnetic Alloys
Remarkable progress in SMM took place in
1970s and 1980s with the advent of rapid
solidification technique (RST) which
provided a route to produce magnetic
materials with new compositions and
microstructure. Amorphous materials (also
called metallic glasses) produced by RST
are attractive candidates to replace the
conventional spectrum of SMM in both DC
and AC applications. Selected magnetic
properties of some amorphous materials
prepared by RST are listed in Table 4.
Since the discovery of amorphous SMA in
1970s, crystallization of the amorphous
July 2010
Coercivity, Saturation
HC (Oe) Polarization, JS (T)
0.05 2.45
1 2.40
precursors was known to yield coarse grain
microstructure with crystallite size of about
0.1-1µm with deterioration of the soft
magnetic properties. However, a historical
milestone in magnetic materials was
achieved by Yoshizawa et al. [4] in 1988,
who found that crystallization of Fe(Si,B)
glasses with the combined addition of small
amounts of Cu and Nb yields an ultrafine
grain structure of bcc Fe(Si) with crystalline
size ~10-15 nm embedded in a minority
amorphous matrix. These nanocrystalline
alloys were found to exhibit coercivity ~10-3
Oe previously obtained only in case of
permalloys and Co-based amorphous alloys.
The significance of the these nanocrystalline
alloys is that ultra low coercvity could be
obtained in Fe-Si based alloys with high
saturation polarization of 1.2 T or even more
with the potential of a huge impact in all soft
magnetic applications. Typical structural
and magnetic parameters of some
nanocrystalline alloys are listed in Table 5.
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

Table 4: Selected magnetic properties of some amorphous alloys prepared by RST [Ref. 8].

Alloy composition Coercivity, HC (Oe) Saturation polarization, JS

(T)
Co68Fe4(MoSiB)28 0.004 0.55

Co72(FeMn)5(MoSiB)23 0.006 0.8

Fe76(SiB)24 0.04 1.45

Table 5: Typical structural and magnetic parameters of some nanocrystalline alloys

Alloy composition Crystallite Coercivity, Saturation Reference

size, D HC (Oe) Polarization, JS (T)
(nm)
Fe73.5Cu1Nb3Si13.5B9 13 0.006 1.24 [4]

Fe73.5Cu1Nb3Si15.5B7 14 0.005 1.23 [9]

Fe84Nb7B9 9 0.1 1.49 [9]

Fe86Cu1Zr7B6 10 0.04 1.52 [9]

Fe91Zr7B2 17 0.07 1.63 [9]

Origin of Soft Magnetism in where, γW is the domain wall energy and JS

Nanocrystalline Materials
The coercivity of a material is strongly
dependent on its microstructure. The
crystallite size and defects like grain
boundaries, non-magnetic inclusions and
internal stresses influence the coercivty.
According to Mager [10], the coercivity
determined by grain boundaries is a linear
function of the reciprocal of the diameter of
the crystallite, D, according to the relation
is the saturation polarization. The wall
energy can be expressed as [11]
γ W = kTC K / a (2)
where k is the Boltzmann constant, TC is the
Curie temperature of the material, K is the
magnetocrystalline anisotropy and a is the
lattice parameter. From equations (1) and
(2), one can write

γW 1 kTC K / a 1
HC ≈ 3 (1) HC ≈ 3 (3)
JS D JS D

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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

However, the D-1 dependence on coercivity will always be some easiest direction
is valid only when the crystallite size is determined by the statistical fluctuations. As
higher than the ferromagnetic exchange a consequence, the resulting anisotropy K
length (FEL) where the magnetization is
is determined by the mean fluctuating
governed mainly by the magnetocrystalline
amplitude of anisotropy energy of N
anisotropy of the crystallites [11]. FEL is a
crystallites, which is given by
basic parameter in domain theory which
characterizes a minimum range over which 3/ 2
the magnetization can vary appreciably and K  D 
K ≈ = K   (5)
can be expressed as [11] N  Lex 

A
Lex = (4)
K

where A is the exchange stiffness constant

and K is the magnetocrystalline anisotropy
constant. It determines the barrier between
single domain and multi domain structures.

For crystallite size less than the

ferromagnetic exchange length,
magnetization process is governed by the
interplay of magnetocrystalline anisotropy
of the crystallites and the ferromagnetic
exchange energy. The theoretical model by
Herzer known as random anisotropy model
(RAM) [13] which explains the origin of
ultra low coercivity in nanocrytalline
ribbons is briefly discussed below. The Fig. 1: Schematic representation of RAM. The solid
RAM was originally proposed by Alben et arrows indicate the randomly fluctuating
al. [14] for amorphous ferromagnets. Herzer magnetocrystalline anisotropy.
applied it to explain the ultra low coercivity
in nanocrystalline ribbons. In turn, the exchange constant is now
related self consistently to the average
The basic idea of RAM is depicted in Figure anisotropy by substituting K for K in
1.2. It shows an assembly of randomly
equation (5), i.e.
oriented ferromagnetically coupled
crystallites of size D with A
Lex = (6)
magnetocrystalline anisotropy constant K. K

The effective magnetocrystalline anisotropy As magnetocrystalline anisotropy is

affecting the magnetization process results suppressed by exchange interaction, the
3
from averaging over the N = (Lex / D ) scale on which exchange interaction
3
crystallites within the volume V = Lex of the dominate expands at the same time, and thus
local anisotropies are averaged out more
exchange length. For a finite number, there

21
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

effectively. The combination of equations

(5) and (6) results in In recent years, mechanical alloying (MA)
has drawn a lot of research interest because
K4 6 of its versatility to prepare nanocrystalline
K ≈ D (7) soft magnetic alloys in a wide range of
A3
compositions in powder form with relatively
This relation is valid as long as the inexpensive equipments. Melt spun
crystallite size is less than the ferromagnetic nanocrystalline ribbons are thin and usually
exchange length Lex. The coercivity (HC) can brittle, which restricts their applications
mainly to toroidal cores. These limitations
be related to K using the relation between
can be overcome by the preparation of soft
HC and magnetocrystalline anisotropy for magnetic alloys by MA. Table 6 summarizes
coherent rotation of spins [15] the coercivity of mechanically alloyed
nanocrystaline soft magnetic powders
K KD 6 reported in the literature.
H C = pC ≈ pC (8) The crystallite size of the
JS J S A3
nanocrystalline powders mentioned in Table
6 is mostly in the range 10-20 nm. However,
the value of coercivity in the mechanically
where pC is a dimentionless parameter, JS is
alloyed nanocrystalline powders has been
the saturation polarization and A is stiffness
reported to be higher as compared to
constant. Accordingly, coercivity varies as
nanocrystalline melt-spun ribbons (HC ~10-3
D6 when D is less than the ferromagnetic
Oe). The higher values of coercivity have
exchange length. This is known as D6 law
been mainly attributed to the high strain and
for nanocrystalline materials and it explains
dislocations induced during the milling
the origin of soft magnetism in
process. In most of these reports, saturation
nanocrystalline ribbons.
magnetization has been reported to be
slightly less than that of pure Fe and
Mechanically Alloyed Soft Magnetic
independent of microstructure.
Materials

Table 6: Coercivity of mechanically alloyed nanocrystalline powders

Material Coercivity (Oe) Ref.

Fe100-xSix (x = 6.5 – 25) 120 - 140 [16]

Fe100-xSix (x = 0 – 40) 2.4 - 7.4 [17]

Fe100-xSix (x = 6.5 –20); Fe83.5Si13.5Nb3 53 - 65 [18]

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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
Fe75Si25
Fe100-xMx (M = Al, Si, Cu; x = 0 – 50)
Fe75Si25-xMx (M=Al,B,Cr;x=5,10)
Fe75Nb10Si5B10
Conclusion
The development of SMM has seen a rapid
change after the advent of amorphous and
nanocrystalline alloys. They offer a new
possibility of tailoring superior SMM with
high saturation magnetization. Although
nanocrystalline magnetic materials can be
obtained in a cost effective way by
mechanical alloying process, obtaining low
coercivity comparable to those prepared by
crystallization of rapidly solidified alloys
still remains a challenge for the researchers.
Reference
[1] G. Herzer, Physica Scripta T 49 (1993)
307.
[2] F. Ffeiffer and C. Radeloff, J. Magn.
Magn. Mater. 19 (1980) 190.
[3] R. Boll and H. R. Hildnger, IEEE Trans.
Magn. MAG-19 (1983) 1946.
[4] Y. Yoshizawa, S. Oguma and K.
Yamauchi, J. Appl. Phys. 64 (1988)
6044.
[5] W. F. Barrett, W. Brown and R. A.
Hadfield, Sci. Trans. R. Dublin Soc. 7
(1900) 7.
July 2010
50-120 [19,20]
3.8 - 50 [21]
20-150 [22,23]
50 - 95 [24]
[6] G. E. Fish, Proceedings of IEEE 78
(1990) 978.
[7] D. Jiles, Introduction to Magnetism and
Magnetic Materials, Chapman & Hall,
Newyork, (1991).
[8] G. Herzer, Proceedings of the NATO
Advanced Study Insititute on Magnetic
Hysteresis in Novel Materials 338 (1996)
711.
[9] K. Suzuki, A. Makino, N. Kataoka, A.
Inoue and T. Masumoto, J. Appl. Phys.
70 (1991) 6232.
[10] A. Mager, Ann. Phys. 6 F (1952) 15.
[11] S. Blundel, Magnetism in condensed
matter, Oxford University Press, (2001).
[12] J. S. Benjamin and M. S. Bamford,
Metall. Trans. A8 (1977) 1301.
[13] G. Herzer, IEEE Trans. Magn. 26
(1990) 1397.
[14] R. Alben, J. J. Baker and M. C. Chi , J.
Appl. Phys. 49 (1978) 1653.
23
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
[15] R. M. Bozorth, Ferromagnetism,
Princeton, N. J.: D. Van Nostrand, (1951).
[16] T. J. Zhou, Z. Yu and Y. W. Du, J.
Magn. Magn. Mater. 202 (1999) 354.
[17] J. Ding, Y. Li, L. F. Chen, C. R. Deng,
Y. Shi, Y. S. Chow and T. B. Gang, J.
Alloys Compd. 314 (2001) 262.
[18] S. Miragheai, P. Abachi, H. R. M.
Hosseini and A. Bahrami, J. Mater.
Process. Tech. 203 (2008) 554.
[19] M. P. C. Kalita, A. Perumal and A.
Srinivasan, J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 320
(2008) 2780.
The author is working as an Assistant Prof. at Department of Physics, Gauhati University
Email: manoskalita@gmail.com
-------------------------------------------------------
Electrocatalysis, Fuel cell, Oxygen
reduction reaction, etc
Dr. Pankaj Bharali
Spurred on by society's increasingly urgent
demand for an inexpensive, environment-
friendly alternative to the internal
combustion engine, research into
electrocatalytic fuel cells has yielded many
exciting advances in the past few years. This
rapid rate of progress, however, has created
a daunting challenge for anyone attempting
to track the important new trends in
electrocatalysis. Electrocatalysis was
designed to save scientists hours of arduous
legwork by providing an authoritative
review of the most important recent
advances in all technologically relevant
aspects of electrocatalysis. Electrocatalysis
is an indispensable working resource for
electrochemists, chemical engineers, surface
July 2010
[20] M. P. C. Kalita, A. Perumal and A.
Srinivasan, J. Phys D: Appl. Phys. 42
(2009) 105001.
[21] C. Kuhrt and L. Schultz, IEEE Trans.
Magn. 29 (1993) 2667.
[22] M. P. C. Kalita, A. Perumal and A.
Srinivasan, J. Phys D: Appl. Phys. 41
(2008) 165002.
[23] M. P. C. Kalita, A. Perumal, A.
Srinivasan, B. Pandey and H.C.Verma,
J. Nano. Sci. Nano Tech. 8 (2008) 4314.
[24] J. J. Sunol, L. Escoda, J. Fort, J. Perez
and T. Pujol, Mater. Lett. 62 (2008)
1673.
scientists, and materials scientists. Recent
research in the field of electrocatalysis
involves though not limited to the following
processes are-
* Electrocatalysis of hydrogen and
oxygen electrode reactions
* Electrooxidation of small organic
molecules
* Design and synthesis of new
electrocatalytic materials
* The distribution and storage of
hydrogen in metal hydrides
* Hydrogenation of organic compounds
as a means of hydrogen storage
* Electron, ion, and atom transfer
reactions
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
* Influence of the double-layer structure
on the rate of charge transfer
* A unified theory of electron and ion
transfer reactions at metal electrodes
Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that
directly convert chemical energy into
electrical energy with high efficiency and
low emission of pollutants. They consist of
an electrolyte medium sandwiched between
two electrodes (Figure 1). One electrode
(called the anode) facilitates electrochemical
oxidation of fuel, while the other (called the
cathode) promotes electrochemical
reduction of oxidant. Ions generated during
oxidation or reductions are transported from
one electrode to the other through the
ionically conductive but electronically
insulating electrolyte. The electrolyte also
serves as a barrier between the fuel and
oxidant. Electrons generated at the anode
during oxidation pass through the external
circuit (hence generating electricity) on their
way to the cathode, where they complete the
reduction reaction. The successful
conversion of chemical energy into
electrical energy in a primitive fuel cell was
first demonstrated over 160 years ago.
However, in spite of the attractive system
efficiencies and environmental benefits
associated with fuel-cell technology, it has
proved difficult to develop the early
scientific experiments into commercially
viable industrial products. These problems
have often been associated with the lack of
appropriate materials or manufacturing
routes that would enable the cost of
electricity per kWh to compete with the
existing technology.
The types of fuel cells under active
development are summarized in Figure 1.
The oxidation reaction takes place at the
anode (+) and involves the liberation of
July 2010
electrons (for example, O2– + H2 = H2O +
2e– or H2 = 2H+ + 2e–).
Fig. 1 Summary of fuel-cell types
These electrons travel round the external
circuit producing electrical energy by means
of the external load, and arrive at the
cathode (–) to participate in the reduction
reaction (for example, ½ O2 + 2e– = O2– or
½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e– = H2O). It should be noted
that as well as producing electrical energy
and the reaction products (for example, H2O
and CO2), the fuel-cell reactions also
produce heat. The reaction products are
formed at the anode for solid-oxide fuel
cells (SOFC), molten-carbonate fuel cells
(MCFC) and alkaline fuel cell (AFC) types,
and at the cathode for phosphoric-acid fuel
cell (PAFC) and polymeric-electrolyte-
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) types. This
difference has implications for the design of
the entire fuel-cell system, including pumps
and heat exchangers. To maintain the
composition of the electrolyte component in
the MCFC system, CO2 has to be
recirculated from the anode exhaust to the
cathode input. Additionally, the composition
of the polymeric-membrane electrolyte has
to be carefully controlled during operation
by an appropriate ‘water management’
technology.
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
The AFC, PEMFC and PAFC stacks
essentially require relatively pure hydrogen
to be supplied to the anode. Accordingly, the
use of hydrocarbon or alcohol fuels requires
an external fuel processor to be incorporated
Fig. 2 Fuel-cell types and fuel processing
Although selected fuels can be introduced
directly into the anode compartment of the
high-temperature fuel cells (SOFC and
MCFC), better thermal management of the
stack can usually be achieved by having
separate reformer compartments that are
thermally integrated within the stack to
produce a mixture of fuel and syngas (H2
and CO). For the lower-temperature fuel
cells (PAFC and PEMFC), external
reformers are required. Some of the fuel has
to be consumed in these external reformers
to maintain the operating temperature.
Moreover, dilution of the H2 fuel reduces
performance of the cells, resulting in
significant efficiency losses compared with
operation on pure H2. It should be noted that
the AFC stack cannot be operated on
July 2010
into the system. This item not only increases
the complexity and cost of the system, but
also decreases the overall efficiency as
indicated in Figure 2.
reformate fuels because of the presence of
CO2 in these gases.
In contrast, MCFCs and SOFCs operating at
higher temperatures have the advantage that
both CO and H2 can be electrochemically
oxidized at the anode. Moreover, the fuel-
processing reaction can be accomplished
within the stack, which enables innovative
thermal integration/management design
features to provide excellent system
efficiencies (~50%).
Fuel cell reactions invariably involve
oxygen reduction at the cathode. Normally
the fuel cell developers concentrate on the
anode electrode since this is involved in the
combustion of the fuel and hence directly
involved in the performance of the fuel cell.
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
However, the counter cathode reaction is
also equally important and developing
suitable electrode which can promote
oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in
an appropriate manner in terms of the
suitable electrode, reaction kinetics and also
stability under the operating conditions and
atmosphere are important factors that have
been considered so far. The ORR is a multi-
electron reaction that proceeds via several
elementary steps. In aqueous solutions on
electrodes, it appears to occur in two
pathways:
(i) A “direct” four-electron reduction,
wherein four electrons are transferred in
concert
and (ii) A “series” pathway that involves
H2O2 as the intermediate:
A series four-electron reduction
involves the transfer of two electrons to
form peroxide, which, without leaving the
electrode’s surface, is further reduced to
H2O with the exchange of an additional two
electrons and two protons. There are three
possible first steps in the ORR:
(i) splitting of the O-O bond upon
adsorption on two metal sites (S) in a bridge
configuration, O2 + 2S → O* + O*;
(ii) formation of the superoxide anion, O2 +
2S + e− → O2−; and
(iii) simultaneous electron and proton
transfer, O2 + 2S + (H+ + e−) → HO2.
Identifying the first step would clarify the
pathway of the ORR that takes place on
catalytically active metal surfaces. The role
of the superoxide anion and the details of the
July 2010
reaction mechanism on surfaces supporting
a four-electron reduction pathway still defy
an unquestionable description. Such
information is essential for further advances
in electrocatalysis since it could resolve the
question of the first reaction step on metal-a
prerequisite for formulating the reaction
mechanism on a molecular level and
defining the right approach for designing
new electrocatalysts.
It has been always advocated that Pt
supported on carbon or alloys of Pt are the
better known cathodes for Fuel cell
applications. There have been various
attempts in the literature using various other
types of alloys, (mostly non noble metal
based ones) some complexes involving
phthalocyanines (may be mimicking the
biological systems) and some cluster
compounds. The above materials have been
chosen with some prior input like they
function in natural systems or they have
some parameters like (reduction) potential
appropriate for oxygen reduction. It is
however necessary to consider a few other
factors in conjunction with these basic
postulates namely the reducing capacity of
the electrode or to effect the transfer of
electrons to the substrate ( in this case
oxygen) based on its acceptor levels.
The further few points to be considered are:
1. In biological systems the reduction
reaction takes place in an atmosphere and
how does this alter the reduction state of
oxygen has to be carefully analyzed and
appropriate remedies to be sought in the
practical chemical systems.
2. It may be necessary to incorporate
alternate cluster systems not only matching
the electronic energy levels appropriate for
charge transfer between the electrode and
the reducing species namely molecular
27
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
oxygen, but the formulation has to plug in
information on the stability, kinetics of
electron transfer and also the possibility of
the system formulated to activate molecular
oxygen on its surface.
3. It is possible to bring in new concepts like
MN4 type clusters which can effect the
reduction of oxygen in a facile manner from
the point of view of energetics. The
relevance of these systems to satisfy other
conditions has to be examined. It is hoped
that newer insights will evolve on these
points and any other points that may arise
for this important reaction in the near future.
The author is a postdoctoral fellow at the Research Institute for Ubiquitous Energy Devices,
AIST-Kansai, Japan. Email: pbharali@gmail.com
-----------------------------------------------------
Stem Cells and Their Potential
Applications in Therapeutics
Dr. Khirud Gogoi
Introduction
Stem cells have the remarkable potential to
develop into many different cell types in the
body during early life and growth. In
addition, in many tissues they serve as a sort
of internal repair system, dividing
essentially without limit to replenish other
cells as long as the person or animal is still
alive. When a stem cell divides, each new
cell has the potential either to remain a stem
cell or become another type of cell with a
more specialized function, such as a muscle
cell, a red blood cell, or a brain cell (Figure
1).
Stem cells are easily distinguished from
other cell types by two important
characteristics. First, they are unspecialized
cells capable of renewing themselves
July 2010
References
1. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/
2. B. C. H. Steele, A. Heinzel, Nature
2001, 414, 345.
3. M. Shao, P. Liu, R. R. Adzic, J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 7408.
4. J. Wu, J. Zhang, Z. Peng, S. Yang, F. T.
Wagner, H. Yang, J. Am. Chem. Soc.
2010, 132, 4984.
5. B. Viswanathan, C. V. Rao, U. V.
Varadaraju, Photo/Electrochem. &
Photobio. Environ., Energy and Fuel,
2006, 43.
.
through cell division, sometimes after long
periods of inactivity. Second, under certain
physiologic or experimental conditions, they
can be induced to become tissue- or organ-
specific cells with special functions.
Until recently, scientists primarily worked
with two kinds of stem cells from animals
and humans: embryonic stem cells and non-
embryonic "somatic" or "adult" stem
cells. Scientists discovered ways to derive
embryonic stem cells from early mouse
embryos nearly 30 years ago, in 1981. The
detailed study of the biology of mouse stem
cells led to the discovery, in 1998, of a
method to derive stem cells from human
embryos and grow the cells in the
laboratory. These cells are called human
embryonic stem cells. The embryos used in
these studies were created for reproductive
purposes through in vitro fertilization
procedures. When they were no longer
needed for that purpose, they were donated
for research with the informed consent of
the donor. In 2006, researchers made
another breakthrough by identifying
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
conditions that would allow some
specialized adult cells to be "reprogrammed"
genetically to assume a stem cell-like state.
This new type of stem cell, called induced
pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs).
Stem cells are important for living
organisms for many reasons. In the 3- to 5-
day-old embryo, called a blastocyst, the
inner cells give rise to the entire body of the
organism, including all of the many
specialized cell types and organs such as the
heart, lung, skin, sperm, eggs and other
tissues. In some adult tissues, such as bone
marrow, muscle, and brain, discrete
populations of adult stem cells generate
replacements for cells that are lost through
normal wear and tear, injury, or disease.
Given their unique regenerative abilities,
stem cells offer new potentials for treating
diseases such as diabetes, and heart disease.
However, much work remains to be done in
the laboratory and the clinic to understand
how to use these cells for cell-based
therapies to treat disease, which is also
referred to as regenerative or reparative
medicine.
Fig. 1: Stem Cells: The body’s master cells.
All other cells arise from stem cells,
including blood cells, nerve cells and others.
Laboratory studies of stem cells enable
scientists to learn about the cells’ essential
July 2010
properties and what makes them different
from specialized cell types. Scientists are
already using stem cells in the laboratory to
screen new drugs and to develop model
systems to study normal growth and identify
the causes of birth defects.
Research on stem cells continues to advance
knowledge about how an organism develops
from a single cell and how healthy cells
replace damaged cells in adult organisms.
Stem cell research is one of the most
fascinating areas of contemporary biology,
but, as with many expanding fields of
scientific inquiry, research on stem cells
raises scientific questions as rapidly as it
generates new discoveries.
Potential uses of human stem cells
There are many ways in which human stem
cells can be used in research and the clinic.
Studies of human embryonic stem cells will
yield information about the complex events
that occur during human development. A
primary goal of stem cell research is to
identify how undifferentiated stem cells
become the differentiated cells that form the
tissues and organs. Scientists know that
turning genes on and off is central to this
process. Some of the most serious medical
conditions, such as cancer and birth defects,
are due to abnormal cell division and
differentiation. A more complete
understanding of the genetic and molecular
controls of these processes may yield
information about how such diseases arise
and suggest new strategies for therapy.
Human stem cells could also be used to test
new drugs. For example, new medications
could be tested for safety on differentiated
cells generated from human pluripotent cell
lines.
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
Fig. 2: Potential uses of Stem Cells in
therapeutics
Other kinds of cell lines are already used in
this way. Cancer cell lines, for example, are
used to screen potential anti-tumor drugs.
The availability of pluripotent stem cells
would allow drug testing in a wider range of
cell types. The most important potential
application of human stem cells is the
generation of cells and tissues that could be
used for cell-based therapies. Today,
donated organs and tissues are often used to
replace ailing or destroyed tissue, but the
need for transplantable tissues and organs
far outweighs the available supply. Stem
cells, directed to differentiate into specific
cell types, offer the possibility of a
renewable source of replacement cells and
tissues to treat diseases including
Alzheimer's diseases, spinal cord injury,
stroke, burns, heart disease, diabetes,
osteoarthritis, and rheumatoid arthritis
(Figure 2). For example, it may become
possible to generate healthy heart muscle
cells in the laboratory and then transplant
those cells into patients with chronic heart
disease. Preliminary research in mice and
other animals indicates that bone marrow
stromal cells, transplanted into a damaged
heart, can have beneficial effects. Whether
July 2010
these cells can generate heart muscle cells or
stimulate the growth of new blood vessels
that repopulate the heart tissue, or help via
some other mechanism is actively under
investigation. For example, injected cells
may accomplish repair by secreting growth
factors, rather than actually incorporating
into the heart. Promising results from animal
studies have served as the basis for a small
number of exploratory studies in humans.
Other recent studies in cell culture systems
indicate that it may be possible to direct the
differentiation of embryonic stem cells or
adult bone marrow cells into heart muscle
cells (Figure 3). In people who suffer from
type 1 diabetes, the cells of the pancreas that
normally produce insulin are destroyed by
the patient's own immune system. New
studies indicate that it may be possible to
direct the differentiation of human
embryonic stem cells in cell culture to form
insulin-producing cells that eventually could
be used in transplantation therapy for
persons with diabetes.
To realize the promise of novel cell-based
therapies for such pervasive and debilitating
diseases, scientists must be able to
manipulate stem cells so that they possess
the necessary characteristics for successful
differentiation, transplantation, and
engraftment.
To summarize, stem cells offer exciting
promise for future therapies, but significant
technical hurdles remain that will only be
overcome through years of intensive
research.
Key research events on Stem Cells
1908 - The term "stem cell" was proposed
for scientific use by the Russian histologist
Alexander Maksimov (1874–1928) at
congress of hematologic society in Berlin. It
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
postulated existence of haematopoietic stem
cells
Fig. 3: Strategies to repair heart muscle with
adult stem cells.
• 1960s - Joseph Altman and Gopal
Das present scientific evidence of
adult neurogenesis, ongoing stem
cell activity in the brain; like André
Gernez, their reports contradict
Cajal's "no new neurons" dogma and
are largely ignored.
• 1963 - McCulloch and Till illustrate
the presence of self-renewing cells in
mouse bone marrow.
• 1968 - Bone marrow transplant
between two siblings successfully
treats SCID.
• 1978 - Haematopoietic stem cells are
discovered in human cord blood.
• 1981 - Mouse embryonic stem cells
are derived from the inner cell mass
by scientists Martin Evans, Matthew
Kaufman, and Gail R. Martin. Gail
Martin is attributed for coining the
July 2010
term "Embryonic Stem Cell".
• 1992 - Neural stem cells are cultured
in vitro as neurospheres.
• 1997 - Leukemia is shown to
originate from a haematopoietic stem
cell, the first direct evidence for
cancer stem cells.
• 1998 - James Thomson and
coworkers derive the first human
embryonic stem cell line at the
University of Wisconsin–Madison.
• 2000s - Several reports of adult stem
cell plasticity are published.
• 2001 - Scientists at Advanced Cell
Technology clone first early (four- to
six-cell stage) human embryos for
the purpose of generating embryonic
stem cells.
• 2003 - Dr. Songtao Shi of NIH
discovers new source of adult stem
cells in children's primary teeth.
• 2004–2005 - Korean researcher
Hwang Woo-Suk claims to have
created several human embryonic
stem cell lines from unfertilised
human oocytes. The lines were later
shown to be fabricated.
• 2005 - Researchers at Kingston
University in England claim to have
discovered a third category of stem
cell, dubbed cord-blood-derived
embryonic-like stem cells (CBEs),
derived from umbilical cord blood.
The group claims these cells are able
to differentiate into more types of
tissue than adult stem cells.
• 2005 - Researchers at UC Irvine's
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
Reeve-Irvine Research Center are
able to partially restore the ability of
mice with paralyzed spines to walk
through the injection of human
neural stem cells.
• August 2006 - Rat Induced
pluripotent stem cells: the journal
Cell publishes Kazutoshi Takahashi
and Shinya Yamanaka.
• October 2006 - Scientists at
Newcastle University in England
create the first ever artificial liver
cells using umbilical cord blood stem
cells.
• January 2007 - Scientists at Wake
Forest University led by Dr. Anthony
Atala and Harvard University report
discovery of a new type of stem cell
in amniotic fluid. This may
potentially provide an alternative to
embryonic stem cells for use in
research and therapy.
• June 2007 - Research reported by
three different groups shows that
normal skin cells can be
reprogrammed to an embryonic state
in mice. In the same month, scientist
Shoukhrat Mitalipov reports the first
successful creation of a primate stem
cell line through somatic cell nuclear
transfer.
• October 2007 - Mario Capecchi,
Martin Evans, and Oliver Smithies
win the 2007 Nobel Prize for
Physiology or Medicine for their
work on embryonic stem cells from
mice using gene targeting strategies
producinggenetically engineered
mice (known as knockout mice) for
gene research.
July 2010
• November 2007 - Human induced
pluripotent stem cells: Two similar
papers released by their respective
journals prior to formal publication:
in Cell by Kazutoshi Takahashi and
Shinya Yamanaka, "Induction of
pluripotent stem cells from adult
human fibroblasts by defined
factors", and in Science by Junying
Yu, et al., from the research group of
James Thomson, "Induced
pluripotent stem cell lines derived
from human somatic cells"
pluripotent stem cells generated from
mature human fibroblasts. It is
possible now to produce a stem cell
from almost any other human cell
instead of using embryos as needed
previously, albeit the risk of
tumorigenesis due to c-myc and
retroviral gene transfer remains to be
determined.
• January 2008 - Robert Lanza and
colleagues at Advanced Cell
Technology and UCSF create the
first human embryonic stem cells
without destruction of the embryo.
• January 2008 - Development of
human cloned blastocysts following
somatic cell nuclear transfer with
adult fibroblasts.
• February 2008 - Generation of
pluripotent stem cells from adult
mouse liver and stomach: these iPS
cells seem to be more similar to
embryonic stem cells than the
previous developed iPS cells and not
tumorigenic, moreover genes that are
required for iPS cells do not need to
be inserted into specific sites, which
encourage the development of non-
viral reprogramming techniques.
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
• March 2008-The first published
study of successful cartilage
regeneration in the human knee
using autologous adult mesenchymal
stem cells is published by clinicians
from Regenerative Sciences.
• October 2008 - Sabine Conrad and
colleagues at Tübingen, Germany
generate pluripotent stem cells from
spermatogonial cells of adult human
testis by culturing the cells in vitro
under leukemia inhibitory factor
(LIF) supplementation.
• October 2008 - Embryonic-like stem
cells from a single human hair.
• March 2009 - Andras Nagy,
Keisuke Kaji, et al. discover a way
to produce embryonic-like stem cells
from normal adult cells by using a
novel "wrapping" procedure to
deliver specific genes to adult cells
to reprogram them into stem cells
without the risks of using a virus to
make the change The use of
electroporation is said to allow for
the temporary insertion of genes into
the cell.
The author is working as a Research Associate at Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cellular
and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093
Email : kgogoi@ucsd.edu
Prafulla Chandra Roy managed to
synthesize NH4NO2 in its pure form, and
became the first scientist to have done so.
Prior to Ray’s synthesis of Ammonium
nitrite it was thought that the compound
undergoes rapid thermal decomposition
releasing nitrogen and water in the process.
He also discovered the compound
July 2010
Key References on Stem Cells:
• Thomson J, Itskovitz-Eldor J,
Shapiro S, Waknitz M, Swiergiel J,
Marshall V, Jones J (1998).
"Embryonic stem cell lines derived
from human blastocysts". Science
282 (5391): 1145–1147.
• Takahashi K, Yamanaka S (2006).
"Induction of pluripotent stem cells
from mouse embryonic and adult
fibroblast cultures by defined
factors". Cell 126 (4): 663–676.
• Takahashi K, Tanabe K, Ohnuki M,
Narita M, Ichisaka T, Tomoda K,
Yamanaka S (2007). "Induction of
pluripotent stem cells from adult
human fibroblasts by defined
factors" Cell 131 (5): 861–872.
For a more detailed discussion of stem
cells, follow the websites:
• http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/
• http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus
/stemcells.html
• http://www.isscr.org/public
http://www.explorestemcells.co.uk
http://www.stemcellresearchnews.co
m
mercurous nitrate in 1896. The discovery
contributed as a base for significant future
research in the field of chemistry. He
published his discoveries in the “Journal of
Asiatic Society of Bengal”. He was the
founder of “Bengal Chemicals and
Pharmaceuticals”, India’s first
Pharmaceutical company.
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

Coffee: The most popular beverage right temperature for the correct amount of
time.
Progyashree Goswami

History

An Arabian shepherd named Kaldi found his

goats dancing joyously around a dark green
leafed shrub with bright red cherries in the
southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula. Kaldi
soon determined that it was the bright red
cherries on the shrub that were causing the
peculiar euphoria and after trying the
cherries himself, he learned of their
powerful and stimulus effect. This way
Coffee was born in Arab and Ethiopia
during 850- 900 Christian Era (C.E.) and
became today’s worldwide most popular
beverage. South America (Brazil) is in the The Chemistry
1st rank in coffee production.
Coffee Acidity

The pH of coffee is found to be acidic and

may be broadly classified into three groups:
aliphatic, chlorogenic, and alicyclic
carboxylic and phenolic acids. Roasted
coffee contains (a) volatile and, (b) non-
volatile aliphatic carboxylic acids, (c)
heterocyclic furanoid carboxylic acid, (d)
chlorogenic, (e) alicyclic and phenolic, (f)
inorganic acids. Lactic, Acetic, Citric,
Maleic, Phosphoric, Quinic, Clorogenic,
Introduction Palmitic, Linoic acid are some of the major
ingredients. Caffeine is found to be the
The word coffee is believed to be derived principal stimulating ingredient.
from Chaoua (English), Caffé (Italian),
Kaffa (Ethiopia) etc. The shrub species of
the genus Coffea produce green then red
color berries from which coffee is extracted.
Three major steps needed to prepare the
green beans for consumption are (1) beans
must be roasted 8-12 minutes and finally
reach a temperature of 210–225 °C, (2) then
coffee must be ground relative to how it will
be brewed and (3) the freshly roasted and
freshly ground coffee must be brewed at the

34
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

Coffee Aroma flavor compounds that were lost in the initial

extraction. The principle based on
Coffee aroma is responsible for all coffee equilibrium and solvent/ solute properties.
flavor, sweet, salt, bitter, and sour taste. Three major decaffeination processes are (i)
Near 800 volatile aromatic compounds are Swiss water process, (ii) CO2 process, (iii)
discovered today and they are responsible Sparkling water process.
for different tastes. Recent reviews
emphasized that chemists have identified
150 aliphatic compounds including 56
carbonyl compounds and 9 sulfur containing
compounds; 20 alicyclic compounds,
including 10 ketones; 60 aromatic benzenoid
compounds, including 16 phenols; 300
heterocyclic compounds, including 74
furans, 10 hydrofurans, 37 pyrroles, 9
pyridines, 2 quinolines, 70 pyrazines, 10
quinoxalines, 3 indoles, 23 thiophens, 3
thiophenones, 28 thiazoles, and 28 oxazoles
in coffee bean. A recent report by Müller
and Hoffman from Germany on the complex
chemistry that occurred in coffee roasting is
presented in the following scheme, ©
American Chemical Society. β-
damascenone (like cooked apples), 2-
furfurylthiol (sulfury, roasty), 2-isobutyl-3-
methoxypyrazine (earthy), guaiacol (spicy),
2,3-butanedione (buttery), and 4-hydroxy-
2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone (caramel-like),
(E)-damascenone (honey like), 3-Mercapto-
3-methylbutylformate (catty), 3-Methyl-2- Coffee Bitter Taste
buten-1-thiol (amine like), 4-Vinylguaiacol
(spicy), Vanillin (vanilla), 2,3-Pentanedione The bitter taste from coffee is directly
(buttery) etc. are the most influential dependent to the extent of extraction which
components in coffee for its aroma. is correlated upon the roast, the mineral
content of the water, water temperature,
Decaffeination time, grind size, and brewing procedure.
Caffeine has a distinct bitter taste and has a
Decaffeination is the process by which most test threshold of only 75-155 mg/L. Robusta
of relatively harmful ingredients to our coffee contains higher levels of both
health are removed and to enhance coffee caffeine and chlorogenic acids, which are
quality. This consists of soaking the beans partly responsible for bitterness and
in water to dissolve the caffeine, extracting astringency in coffee. Bitterness of caffeine
the caffeine with either a solvent (methylene may be weakened when polyphenols are
chloride, ethyl acetate etc.) or activated introduced. Astringent and metallic tastes in
carbon, and then re-soaking the coffee beans coffee have been attributed to
in the decaffeinated water to reabsorb the dicaffeoylquinic acids. Trigonelline is

35
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

perceived as bitter at concentrations of

0.25%, whereas chlorogenic acids
necessitate a concentration of 0.4% at pH of
5 to be perceived as bitter. Trigonelline
degradation is proportional to roast degree.
Its byproducts include pyridines, which are
said to contribute a roasty aroma to the
coffee. Quinic acid, a degradation product of
chlorogenic acids is present at twenty times
its threshold value and is partly responsible
for the perceived bitterness in coffee.
Furfuryl alcohol is thought to contribute a
burnt and bitter taste to coffee.

Coffee Side Effects

A list of most harmful side effects of

caffeine complied from Google is
1. Caffeine makes heart beat abnormally
fast.
2. Caffeine compresses the blood vessels in
brain causing massive headaches.
References
3. Caffeine is a strong diuretic causing body
to become dehydrated.
1. http://www.coffeeresearch.org
2. http://www.wikipedia.org
4. Due to over-activation of the central
3. Coffee: The Chemistry of Quality. 107-
nervous system (CNS) sometime people
110.
experience tremors after drinking caffeine.
4. The Flavour of Coffee. In Development of
Food Science. 3B: 1-47. 1986.
5. Women who drink one cup of coffee
5. Food Chemistry, 1987, 26, 59-69
every day has only half chance to be able to
6. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2007,
get pregnant as those who drink no coffee. If
115.9, A456-A459.
2 cup a day it is 5 times less chance.

6. Caffeine can cause tension or stiffness in

The author is a Research Scholar at Natural
your neck, shoulders, jaw, hands, legs or
Product Division, NEIST, Jorhat, Assam.
stomach.
Email:progyashree.goswami@gmail.com
7. It can cause mood swings or periods of
depression during the day
------------------------------------------------------
8. Caffeine can cause coldness in hands and
feet because it restricts circulation.

36
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

Circular Dichroism: An
excellent technique for
determination of absolute
configuration
Pori Buragohain

Knowledge of absolute configuration

of asymmetric, chiral carbon atom is
essential for the understanding of
enzyme mechanism, drugs action,
structure –function relations, as well as
determination of biological structure.
Without the knowledge of absolute
configuration, it is not possible to
discover or develop a drug. Also it
plays a crucial rule in drugs
registration. In general determination
of absolute configuration is achieved
using single crystal x-ray analysis
making use of anomalous dispersion.
Difficulty arises when crystal is not of
suitable quality. But using circular
dichroism technique absolute
configuration could be determined When circularly polarized light passes
easily in solution. through an absorbing optically active
medium, the speed between right and
Circular dichroism (CD) refers to the left polarizations differ (cL ≠ cR) as
differential absorption of left and right well as their wavelength (λL ≠ λR) and
circularly polarized light. the extent to which they are absorbed
(εL≠εR).
Electromagnetic radiation consists of
an electric and magnetic field that Circular dichroism is the difference ∆ε
oscillate perpendicular to one another ≡ εL- εR. The electric field of a light
and to the propagating direction. While beam causes a linear displacement of
linearly polarized light occurs when charge when interacting with a
the electric field vector oscillates only molecule (electric dipole), whereas the
magnetic field of it causes a circulation
in one plane and changes in magnitude,
of charge (magnetic dipole). These two
circularly polarized light occurs when
motions combined cause an excitation
the electric field vector rotates about
of an electron in a helical motion,
its propagation direction and retains
which includes translation and rotation
constant magnitude. Hence, it forms a
and their associated operators. The
helix in space while propagating. For
experimentally determined relationship
left circularly polarized light (LCP)
between the rotational strength (R) of a
with propagation towards the observer,
sample and the ∆ε is given by
the electric vector rotates
counterclockwise. For right circularly
polarized light (RCP), the electric
vector rotates clockwise.

37
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
The rotational strength has also been
determined theoretically,
We see from these two equations that
in order to have non-zero ∆ε, the
electric and magnetic dipole moment
operators ( and
) must transform as the
same irreducible representation. Cn and
Dn are the only point groups where this
can occur, making only chiral
molecules CD activeSimply, since
circularly polarized light itself is
"chiral", it interacts differently with
chiral molecules. That is, the two types
of circularly polarized light are
absorbed to different extents. In a CD
experiment, equal amounts of left and
right circularly polarized light of a
selected wavelength are alternately
radiated into a (chiral) sample. One of
the two polarizations is absorbed more
than the other one, and this
wavelength-dependent difference of
absorption is measured, yielding the
CD spectrum of the sample. Due to the
interaction with the molecule, the
electric field vector of the light traces
out an elliptical path after passing
through the sample. So, optically
active chiral molecules display this
technique. CD spectroscopy has a wide
range of applications in many different
fields, means in UV, VIS, near IR and
IR regions.
Among these only vibrational circular
dichroism, which uses light from the
infrared energy region, is used for
structural studies of small organic
molecules, and most recently proteins
and DNA. Recently, commercial VCD
spectrometer becomes available.
Vibrational circular dichroism (VCD)
is a spectroscopic technique which
July 2010
detects differences in attenuation of
left and right circularly polarized light
passing through a sample. It is
basically circular dichroism
spectroscopy in the infrared and near
infrared ranges.
Because VCD is sensitive to the
mutual orientation of distinct groups in
a molecule, it provides three-
dimensional structural information.
Thus, it is a powerful technique as
VCD spectra of enantiomers can be
simulated using ab initio calculations,
thereby allowing the identification of
absolute configurations of small
molecules in solution from VCD
spectra. Among such quantum
computations of VCD spectra resulting
from the chiral properties of small
organic molecules are those based on
density functional theory (DFT) and
gauge-invariant atomic orbitals
(GIAO). As a simple example of the
experimental results that were obtained
by VCD are the spectral data obtained
within the carbon-hydrogen (C-H)
stretching region of 21 amino acids in
heavy water solutions. Measurements
of vibrational optical activity (VOA)
have thus numerous applications, not
only for small molecules, but also for
large and complex biopolymers such as
muscle proteins (myosin, for example)
and DNA.
For biopolymers such as proteins and
nucleic acids, the difference in
absorbance between the levo- and
dextro- configurations is five orders of
magnitude smaller than the
corresonding (unpolarized)
absorbance. Therefore, VCD of
biopolymers requires the use of very
sensitive, specially built
instrumentation as well as time-
averaging over relatively long intervals
of time even with such sensitive VCD
spectrometers. Most CD instruments
produce left- and right- circularly
38
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
polarized light which is then either
sine-wave or square-wave modulated,
with subsequent phase-sensitive
detection and lock-in amplification of
the detected signal.
In the figure below, a schematic
overview of the instrument is given.
Infrared light is passed through a linear
polariser to generate a linearly
polarised light. A photo-elastic
modulator subsequently converts it a
left and right circularly polarised light.
The light is then passed through the
selected sample (a liquid or solution)
and then finally to the detector. The
VCD signal is then demodulated with a
lock-in amplifier tuned to the PEM
modulation frequency. Simultaneously
both IR and VCD spectra are obtained.
The eye cataract surgery was known to
Indian physician Sushruta in 6 th
century BCE. Traditional cataract
surgery was performed with a special
tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a
curved needle used to loosen the lens
and push the cataract out of the field of
vision. The eye would later be soaked
with warm butter and then bandaged.
Greek philosophers and scientists
July 2010
To determine the absolute
configuration of a molecule the
following steps are taken
1. The experimental VCD spectrum is
measured.
2. The VCD of one of the enantiomers
is stimulated using ab initio DFT
methods. The spectrum of other
enantiomer is obtained by reversing the
signals for the VCD bands, or
calculating the VCD of mirror image
structure (opposite enantiomer).
3. The experimental spectrum is then
compared with the two stimulated
spectra to see which enantiomer gives
the best correlation between sign and
intensities. At last we can conclude
VCD is an excellent technique for the
determination of the absolute
configuration and conformation of
small and medium sized molecules in
solution. Increase in computer
calculation speed will result in an
extension of this technique to larger
and more flexible molecules and will
allow more efficient calculation of
VCD spectra.
The author is a Research Scholar at
Natural Product Division, NEIST,
Jorhat, Assam.
traveled to India where these surgeries
were performed by physicians.
The Sushruta Samhita contains 184
chapters and description of 1120
illnesses, 700 medicinal plants, a
detailed study on Anatomy, 64
preparations from mineral sources and
57 preparations based on animal
sources.
39
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
Thesis Synopsis
STRUCTURAL AND THERMAL
ANALYSIS OF ORGANIC SOLIDS
Dr. Bipul Ch. Sarma
Supervisor: Prof. Ashwini Nangia
School of Chemistry, University of
Hyderabad, India
CHAPTER 1: Crystal Engineering
Crystal engineering relies on non-
covalent bonding in the solid state with
desired properties and functions
mainly focused on the use of more
directional hydrogen bonds. It is the
synthesis of supramolecular structures
in the solid state which has now
become an interdisciplinary subject
dealing with the self-assembly of
molecular crystals using hydrogen
bonding, electrostatics, π-stacking,
halogen bonding, van der Waals
interactions, and metal-coordination
bonding. The Cambridge Structural
Database (CSD) provides an excellent
tool for accessing the efficiency and
reproducibility of a particular
supramolecular synthon. This subject
deals with various solid forms like
polymorphs, host-guest complexes,
network solids, salts, hydrates,
cocrystals, more preferably
pharmaceutical cocrystals.
The ability of a compound to exist in
more than one crystalline modification
is polymorphism, a phenomenon with
tremendous importance in
pharmaceutical development and
materials science as it can alter
physical and chemical properties.
Different types of polymorphism like
conformational, synthon, packing
polymorphism etc. could be possible
for all kinds of molecules. However
July 2010
the exact molecular features for a
compound for it to be polymorphic are
still elusive. Among the various
analytical methods used for the
characterization of polymorphs,
thermal analysis (i.e. differential
scanning calorimetry,
thermogravimetry, hot stage
microscopy), spectroscopy (FT-IR,
NIR, Raman etc.), in-situ variable
temperature powder X-ray diffraction
and finally single crystal X-ray
diffraction have received considerable
attention.
Thermal relation among
kinetic/thermodynamic polymorphs,
such as enantiotropic or monotropic,
and their stability must be understood.
Understanding the recurrence of more
than one molecule or conformation
(i.e. Z' > 1) in the crystal lattice is
currently being an active topic for
chemists and crystallographers. Our
study shows higher probability of
occurrence of Z′ > 1 structure using
high temperature crystallization
methods: melt and sublimation.
Apart from polymorphs and hydrate
structures, organic salts and cocrystals
can show effective advantages over
neutral APIs.
Cocrystal is a multi-component crystal
structure in which two or more
compounds coexist through hydrogen
bonds or non-covalent interactions. If
the reactants are solids at ambient
conditions, the multi-component
crystalline materials are cocrystals and
those composed of one or more solids
and a liquid are known as solvates or
pseudopolymorphs. The multi-
component system is known as
“molecular salt” or “organic salt” if
proton is transferred from acid to base
in ionic state. Common problems
encountered with Active
40
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs), in
terms of their solubility, dissolution
rates, and stability can be solved by
making salt, cocrystal etc. without the
need to make or break covalent bonds.
The rational construction of novel
open-framework organic solids has
received particular interest because of
their diverse applications such as
chemical separation, drying agents,
reactions and catalysis in a microcavity
and for electro optic, nonlinear and
magnetic materials. Hydration of
molecules in the crystal structure is a
common phenomenon, especially in
pharmaceuticals.
CHAPTER 2: Conformational and
Synthon Polymorphism in Host
Compounds
1,1-Bis-(4-hydroxyphenyl)cyclohexane
(1) is a very good host molecule. The
pure host form was never crystallized.
The gust-free form of 1 was
successfully isolated as two
polymorphs using solvent less
crystallization techniques: melt and
sublimation. However several solvents
were attempted, only solvent inclusion
crystals or ill-defined powders were
obtained. These techniques are further
employed to generate new polymorphs
of isomeric dihydroxybenzoic acids (2,
3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). All these compounds
are highly prone to give
solvate/hydrate forms upon solvent
crystallization. Two polymorphs of
3,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2), a new
polymorph of 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic
acid (3) and guest free form of 3,4-
dihydroxybenzoic acid (4) were
crystallized by melting and
sublimation.
A new hydrate polymorph of 3,4-
dihydroxybenzoic acid was isolated
along with tetrahydrofuran,
acetylacetone and dioxane solvates of
3,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2•THF,
July 2010
2•Acac and 2•Diox) to confirm that
they are prone to form solvates. 5, 6
and 7 gave either decomposed
polyphenols or reported forms in the
literature.
COOH
COOH COOH
OH
OH
HO OH OH
2 3
OH
4
COOH
COOH COOH
HO OH OH OH
1 HO OH
OH
HO
7
5 6
Fig. 1: Popular hosts. They were
successfully treated to melt and
sublimation to find a new guest-free
form or a new polymorph.
Polymorphs of 1 differ in the
conformations of OH groups which
lead to the difference in molecular
arrangement in crystalline lattice.
Polymorphs of isomeric
dihydroxybenzoic acid differ in nature
of hydrogen bond synthons in their
crystal structures however two hydrate
polymorphs of 4 show differences in
packing. Two solvent free methods to
obtain guest free forms of molecules
that are prone to give solvent/water
included structures on crystallization
were investigated. These methods
show potential to generate new
polymorphic modifications. Phase
transition from metastable to stable
polymorph was explained in detail by
differential scanning calorimetry
(DSC), hot stage microscopy (HSM)
and hydrogen bonding changes in 1.
CHAPTER 3: High Z′ Structures by
Solvent Less Methods
Crystal structures with multiple Z' (=
number of molecules in the
asymmetric unit) are now being
intensely studied to understand the
factors leading to high Z′ crystal
structures. A Cambridge Structural
Database (CSD) search on structures
41
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

crystallized using solvent free methods mechanism of phase transition between

such as melt and sublimation was crystalline modifications.
X
carried out. It is found that solvent-free
X
crystallization methods show a much X

higher probability of multiple Z'

structures compared to overall CSD O H S O O
H S H S
trends on Z' frequencies. Crystal N N
O
N
O
O
structure having Z' > 1 is <12%. Y z
Generation of high Z' structures by
melting and sublimation crystallization z
8. X=H, Y=Z=CH3 Y
can be understood as rapid cooling of 9. X=Y=Z=CH3
Y

the hot liquid or vapor in the open 10. Z=Y=Cl, X=CH3 14. X=Cl, Y=CH3
18. X=CH3, Y=H, Z=F
11. Z=Y=CH3, X=Cl 15. X=Y=CH3
flask or on the cold finger is a kinetic 12. X=Z=Cl, Y=CH3 16. X=Y=Cl
19. X=Y=CH3, Z=F
phase and the conditions under which 13. X=H, Y=Z=Cl 17. X=CH3, Y=Cl 20. X=Y=CH3, Z=Cl

hydrogen-bonded clusters are likely to O O

O H
O
condense in a pseudo-symmetric S S N
N
crystalline arrangement. 1,1-bis-(4- N S
H O
hydroxyphenyl)cyclohexane is a H
O

remarkable example to illustrate how Flexible Torsions Dimer Motif

close packing conflicts in a metastable
Z' = 2 structure are resolved in the
thermodynamic Z' = 1 polymorph.
CHAPTER 4: Polymorphism and
Phase Transition in
Phenylbenzenesulfonamides
A thorough screening for all the
possible polymorphs is considered an
essential step in pharmaceutical
industry to choose the best drug
formulation with desirable properties.
The original antibacterial sulfonamides
i.e. sulfa drugs are synthetic
antimicrobial agents (sulfathiazole,
sulfapyridine, sulfadiazine etc.) that
contain the sulfonamide functionality
(primary or secondary).
Our objective is to compare molecular
packing, nature of different types of
non-covalent interaction like hydrogen
bonds, and halogen interactions,
isostructurality of polymorphs and
more important solvent effect on
polymorphism and complete
spectroscopic analysis. A systematic
study on polymorphism gives insight
into structural relationship and the
N
H
S
O H
N
O H
N
O
S S
O O O
Catemer Motif
Fig. 2:(a) Phenylbenzenesulfonamides,
(b) Torsion flexibility, dimer or
catemer hydrogen bond.
Six molecules from a set of thirteen
(8–20) are found to be polymorphic
and all are well characterized by
powder X-ray diffraction, single
crystal X-ray diffraction, thermal
analysis, hot stage microscopy, Raman,
FT-IR, NIR spectroscopy, manual
heating/grinding experiment etc. Phase
transition from metastable to stable
polymorph was examined by HSM and
DSC in two systems further confirmed
by powder X-ray pattern and unit cell
parameter determination. N−H···O
catemer and dimer motif of
sulfonamide group (Figure 2b) is seen
as the main difference in two systems
(8 and 10) however C−H···O, C−H···π,
C−H···X, Cl···Cl interaction play a role
in differentiating other polymorphic
systems. Solvent plays significant role

42
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

in the nucleation of polymorphic

crystals.
SO3H
CHAPTER 5: Tetrahedral and H-
shaped Host Tectons
SO3H SO3H

Porous architectures and network

solids have important applications. SO3H
Tetraphenyl methanes and silanes with
boronic acid group have the potential
of exchange in guest inclusion and Fig. 3: (a) Tetrakis(4-sulfo phenyl)
predictable porous architetures methane (21). (b) Two types of water
includes guest species to the extent of molecules are sitting in square (red) and
60-65% in inter-connected channels. irregular interconnected channels (pink)
Tetraphenylmethane tetrasulfonic acid in the crystal structure
was synthesized (TPM-SO3H, 21,
Figure 3a) and crystallized from
MeOH to analyze structural and
thermal behavior as the structural
chemistry of sulfonic acid group has
not been explored in tetrahedral
molecules. Colorless needle-shaped
crystals of TPM-SO3H crystallized in
tetragonal space group I4(1)/a contains
¼ TPM-SO3H molecule and 3 water
molecules in its asymmetric unit giving
a host: guest ratio of 1:12 (Figure 3b).

TGA and X-ray crystal structure are

consistent with 1:12 host: water
stoichiometry (observed: 25.41%,
calculated: 25.23%, Figure 3c). Two
endothermic steps in DSC show water
is lost in two stages. TPM-SO3H can
reversibly uptake water from
atmosphere. This loss/reuptake of
water is quantitative and selective in
successive cycles (Figure 3d).
Compounds having properties of
reversible, quantitative and selective Fig. 3: (c) DSC and TGA curves of TPM-
uptake of water/solvent can have SO3H. The values are in accordance with
potential applications in dehydrating the X-ray crystal structure. (d) Water loss
agents and organic zeolites. and uptake is reversible in 3 successive
cycle in TGA.
H-shaped molecule 1,4-di[bis(4'-
hydroxyphenyl)methyl]benzene (22)
and its octamethyl derivative (23) were
synthesized (Figure 4) and crystallized
in solvated and guest-free forms to
analyze the occurrence of specific
network architectures

43
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
HO R R OH
OH OH
R R
O O
R R
OH OH
HO R R OH
22: R = H H shape
23: R = CH3
Fig. 4: Simple H-shaped molecule and
octamethyl derivative (22 and 23) are
synthesized and crystallized in
solvated and guest free form. 22•
CH3NO2 and 23• CHCl3 show rare
3 NH2
pentagonal (5, ) net.
4 NH2
Doubly interpenetrated 1D ladder is
observed in the guest-free form of 22.
Crystallization of 22 from CH3NO2
with varying amount of CF3CH2OH
afforded two CH3NO2 solvate
polymorphs as plate-shaped crystals in
space group Pbca and block crystals in
space group P21/c having different
network topologies. Pbca form shows
polycatenated porous hexagonal sheets
with degree of catenation 2/2.
However P21/c polymorph shows rare
3
pentagonal layer tiling of (5, 4 ) nets
extending in third dimension. Molecule
23 upon crystallization from CHCl3
solvents also afforded the same rare
3 H2O functional groups in these 11
(5, 4 ) net of contiguous pentagons in
2D sheet. The tetrahedral carbon
centers are 3-connected nodes and
hydrogen bonding OH groups are 4-
center nodes of congruent
cyclopentanoid rings. The first
examples of pentagon layer tiling in a
lattice inclusion organic host are
reported.
CHAPTER 6: Synthon Competition
and Cooperation in Cocrystals and
Salts
Hydrogen bond synthon competition
and cooperation was studied when four
functionalities: carboxylic acid,
July 2010
pyridine, amine, and hydroxyl are
simultaneously present in the
supramolecular system. Isomeric and
substituted hydroxybenzoic acids and
isomeric aminopyridines were selected
to prepare 11 cocrystals from methanol
solvent (Figure 5) and their structures
were characterized by X-ray
diffraction.
OH
HO OH
OH OH
Me
OH
Me
OH F Cl
COOH COOH
COOH COOH COOH COOH
4-HBA 3-HBA 3,5-DiHBA 3-F-4-HBA 3-Cl-4-HBA
24: 4-HBA.4-AP.H2O (1:1:1)
3,5-DiMe-4-HBA
25: 4-HBA.3-AP (1:1)
26: 3-HBA.4-AP (1:1)
27: 3,5-DiHBA.3-AP (1:1)
28: 3-F-4-HBA.4-AP.H2O (1:1:1)
29: 3-F-4-HBA.3-AP (1:1)
N N 30: 3-Cl-4-HBA.4-AP.H2O (1:1:1)
31: 3-Cl-4-HBA.3-AP (1:1)
4-AP 3-AP
32: 3,5-DiMe-4-HBA.4-AP.H2O (1:1:1)
33: 3,5-DiMe-4-HBA.3-AP (1:1)
34: 2(3,5-DiHBA).3-AP (2:1)
Fig. 5: Hydroxybenzoic acids (HBA)
cocrystallized with aminopyridines
(AP) and the resulting organic salt
composition (24-34). Four are hydrate
(24, 28, 30, 32) structures.
Proton transfer from COOH to pyridyl
N acceptor (PyN) occurred in all 11
molecular salts (24-34) leading to a
PyNH+···–OOC ionic synthon in 10
structures (24-33) and PyNH+···O=C
hydrogen bond in 34. The observed
hydrogen bonds were analyzed
between COO–, OH, NH2, PyNH+, and
structures, of which 4 are hydrates (24,
28, 30, 32). Synthons in this study are
compared with statistics extracted from
the Cambridge Structural Database to
summarize trends and predict
hydrogen bonding in new cocrystal and
salt structures. We show that hydrogen
bonding functional groups such as OH
and NH2 promote persistent formation
of ionic PyNH+···–OOC synthon in the
same supramolecular system. However
the ∆pKa rule for predicting neutral or
ionic O-H···N/N+–H···O– hydrogen
bonds is found to be inadequate in this
system. Even as bioavailability of a
drug is intimately related to its
formulation; neutral (cocrystal) or
44
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

ionic (salt), there is no easy way to polycatenated (6,3) net, rare

know the answer before structure 3
pentagonal (5, ) net are observed.
4
determination.
Important biological phenomenon of
proton transfer dependence on pKa and
CHAPTER 7: Conclusion and
functional groups present on salt
Future Prospects
formation was carried out by studying
a set of 11 molecular salts between
The immense importance of
isomeric hydroxybenzoic acid and
polymorphism in the formulation of
isomeric amino pyridines.
APIs is because they can alter the
physical and chemical properties.
Cocrystals, pharmaceutical cocrystals,
Therefore it is crucial to screen for all
salts, hydrates are also having
possible polymorphs of a drug and
substantial importance in
chose the right one, preferably the
pharmaceutical industry to modify the
most stable polymorph with desirable
properties of drugs. Salts and
properties for product formulation after
cocrystals have the potential to be
a complete thermal profile. Melt and
much more useful in pharmaceutical
sublimation crystallization are used to
products than solvates or hydrates
generate guest-free host structures and
because the number of
polymorphs. Stability relationship of
pharmaceutically acceptable solvents is
the two conformational polymorphs of
very small, and moreover solvents tend
1 is established. Melt crystallization
to undergo dehydration/desolvation in
and sublimation are likely to give high
the solid dosage forms. Crystal
Z′ structures. Our results were
engineering has significant
compared with overall Z′ frequencies
contribution and overlap with like
in CSD statistics. A series of secondary
organic chemistry, inorganic
sulfonamide molecules were
chemistry, supramolecular chemistry,
synthesized and screened and found six
X-ray crystallography, materials
polymorphic systems from solvent
research, computational chemistry and
crystallization and melting. Solid to
pharmaceutical chemistry and in
solid state phase transition was
current times it is moving from
observed and confirmed by
structure design to functional control.
spectroscopic techniques and thermal
analysis.
Selected Publications
[1] Appl. Organometal. Chem. 2004,
An organic host tetraphenylmethane
18, 440–445.
tetraphenylsulfonic acid was
[2] Chem. Commun. 2006, 4918–
synthesized and detail structural and
4920.
thermal analysis was carried out. This
[3] CrystEngComm 2007, 9, 628–631.
compound shows reversible and
[4] Mettler Toledo Thermal Analysis
selective guest release and uptake
Newsletter, 2007, 1, 9–13.
properties that can have potential
[5] Cryst. Growth Des. 2008, 8,
application in organic zeolite and in
1471–1473.
dehydrating agents. The organic
[6] Acta Cryst. 2008, A64, C449.
phenol host 1,4-di[bis(hydroxyphenyl)
[7] Cryst. Growth Des. 2008, 8,
methyl]benzene and its octamethyl
4546–4552.
derivative were synthesized and
[8] Cryst. Growth Des. 2009, 9,
crystallized in solvated and guest free
1546–1557
forms. Supramolecular network
[9] New J. Chem. 2010, 34, 623–636.
includes interpenetrated ladders,

45
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
[10] Cryst. Growth Des. 2010, 10,
2388–2399.
[11] J. Pharm. Sci. 2010 (In Press)
[12] Cryst. Growth Des. 2010 (In
Press)
[13] Book Chapter: Inclusion
Phenomenon in Phenol Host
© Nova Science Publishers,
Inc. USA, 2010.
Thesis Synopsis
INVESTIGATIONS ON HIGH
DENSITY HOLOGRAPHIC DATA
STORAGE AND CONTENT-
ADDRESSABLE SEARCH
Dr. Bhargab Das
1.1 Introduction
Owing to the continuous expansion of
the internet and digital
communications, the field of data
storage is facing challenging and
complex demands for new and
improved storage technologies that
provide higher capacities, higher
transfer rates, and shorter data access
times than the current storage products.
There is also demand for storage in
different areas of science such as, in
storing the huge image files generated
by astronomical telescopes, in handling
the data of high energy physicists, and
in the field of bioinformatics. At the
same time, both the magnetic and the
conventional optical data storage
technologies, where the individual bits
are stored as distinct magnetic and
optical changes on the surface of the
recording medium, are approaching
physical limits beyond which
individual bits may be too small or too
difficult to store. Holographic data
storage (HDS) systems, where
information is stored throughout the
July 2010
The author is presently working as a
Postdoctoral Fellow at Illinois
Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL,
USA. He will move to MIT, Boston
along with his Prof from September,
2010.
Email : sarmabipul@gmail.com
volume of a medium (not just on its
surface), are envisioned as a possible
answer to the next generation of high
speed and large capacity storage
devices. It promises huge storage
densities (> 500 GB in a 120 mm disc),
fast data transfer rates (> 10 Gb/s),
extremely short data access times (< 50
µs), and tremendous search capabilities
for finding unindexed information in
databases (> 100 Gb/s). As the
insatiable demand for more storage
capacity persists unabated, optical data
storage continues to play a dominant
role. Some of the major advantages
that optical storage offers over other
main-stream data storage technologies,
such as magnetic disc systems and
solid state memories (flash memories),
are capacity, removability, long life
time of the data medium, and the
ability to mass-produce media for
content distribution, maintaining low
cost per GByte.
Since the invention of holography, the
possibility of storing information by
using holographic techniques has
fascinated many researchers. Earlier
works were focused primarily on
analog images and pictures. The
introduction of holographic channel
codes and the digital signal processing
in holography opened a new paradigm,
holographic data storage. Although
conceived decades ago, HDS has made
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
recent progress towards practicality,
primarily because of the rapid
technological advancements in various
optoelectronic components such as
spatial light modulators (SLM),
charged-coupled devices (CCD),
complimentary metal-oxide
semiconductors (CMOS), and the
development of high optical quality
and low shrinkage photopolymer
recording materials. In the past few
years, researchers have demonstrated
experimentally a data density as high
as 350 Gbits/sq. in. and a sustained
optical data transfer rate as high as 10
Gbits/s separately in different optical
systems. These scientific and research
progresses made in the last few years
are expected to make HDS systems as
commercially viable in the near future.
Once such a system is commercially
realized as a portable device, this
technology has the potential to
outperform any contemporary optical
storage technologies such as DVD
(Digital Versatile Disc) or BD (Blu-ray
Disc).
1.2 Concepts of holographic data
storage and content-addressable
search
There are two versions of the
holographic storage technology which
are currently being pursued by
different groups throughout the world,
namely page-based and bit-based
holographic storage. In page-based
volume holographic storage, the
information bearing object beam which
is passed through an SLM or a data
mask, interferes coherently with a
reference beam inside a thick storage
material forming a stationary
interference pattern (Fig 1.1(a)). The
recording material stores the
interference pattern as a change in
certain optical properties (such as
absorption, refractive index and/or
thickness) of the photosensitive
medium. The remarkable attributes of
July 2010
the page-oriented volume HDS are
achieved by recording information
throughout the volume of the recording
medium and by transferring data in
parallel rather than serially. By
exploiting the Bragg selectivity,
multiple such data pages can be
superimposed in the same location of
the recording medium by changing the
properties such as spatial position,
angle, wavelength, and phase etc. of
the reference beam, which is referred
to as multiplexing. When the
multiplexed volume holographic
memory is illuminated with the
appropriately indexed reference beam,
the corresponding object wave is
reconstructed. A lens can be used to
image the reconstructed object wave
onto a detector array (CCD or CMOS)
(Fig. 1.1(b)). This object wave is
further processed to get back the
original information and is also used to
determine the system properties.
A unique feature of the page-based
HDS systems is the associative
retrieval or content-addressable search.
In this technique, the multiplexed
volume holographic memory is
illuminated with the object beam
which may contain a full or partial
search data pattern (Fig. 1.2). This
reconstructs simultaneously all the
reference beams previously used to
record multiplexed data pages. The
amount of power diffracted into each
reconstructed beam is proportional to
the similarity between the input search
data pattern and the recorded data
pages. These reconstructed beams are
focused onto a detector array to form
the correlation peaks and the intensity
at each correlation peak is used to
determine the amount of similarity
between the search data pattern and the
recorded data pages. Since the search
data pattern is simultaneously and
optically compared with all the
recorded pages (of a single location)
47
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

by using a single exposure, volume faster than the conventional sequential

holographic systems can potentially data search.
perform parallel data search much

L1
Signal
beam

Recording
media

SLM Reference
beam

(a)

Detector
array
L2

Recording
Reference media
beam

(b)

Fig. 1.1 (a) Recording of holographic data pages, (b) Reconstruction

with appropriately indexed reference beam. L1, L2: lens and SLM:
spatial light modulator.

48
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
L3
L1
Signal
beam
SLM
Fig. 1.2 Content-addressable searching with a partial search data
pattern. L3: lens.
This kind of parallelism is necessary
for high-capacity correlation
calculations, such as associative
retrieval, pattern recognition, target
tracking, and navigation. Over the
years, researchers have demonstrated
the parallel retrieval of up to 2030
correlation spots from a single location
in a crystal.
Holographic optical disk systems are
also used as a high speed search engine
for image and video data.
Several different recording
architectures for the page-based HDS
systems have been explored since HDS
was proposed by van Heerden. These
different suggested holographic storage
concepts have been investigated in
detail by many research groups and
companies. Designs vary by
holographic multiplexing methods,
recording material characteristics, cost
and size of available components, and
the desire for compatibility with the
July 2010
Correlation
Detector
Recording
media
existing data storage formats. The
book entitled “Holographic Data
Storage” by Coufal et al. provides an
introduction to the field of holographic
data storage and includes important
articles that describe the fundamental
issues concerning HDS systems. It also
describes the state of the technology
and the most significant demonstration
platforms at the end of the 1990s. A
few other important review articles are
“Holographic data storage” by Ashley
et al., “Holography for information
storage and processing” by Burr et al.,
and “Holographic data storage
systems” by Hesselink et al.. These
articles also discuss the fundamental
issues underlying holographic data
storage and provide new insights for
the development of a holographic disk
drive.
Currently there are significant
interests in three different HDS
architectures. The first architecture is
the angle-polytopic, which utilizes the
traditional two-beam angle
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
multiplexing to overlap many
megapixel hologram in “books” at a
single location, and then uses polytopic
multiplexing to further overlap
neighboring books to achieve high
storage density. The second
architecture is the collinear
holography, which uses a single
recording beam containing both the
signal and the reference beam
components. The holograms are
recorded in a medium with a reflective
substrate. Multiplexing is achieved by
exploiting fine x, y shift selectivity to
densely overlap the holograms. There
are two competitive arrangements for
the reflection type coaxial holographic
storage systems: the optical layout
developed by OPTWARE, which is a
so-called collinear or “split-aperture
system” and the “common-aperture
system” developed by the European
consortium named ATHOS (Advanced
Technology for Holographic Storage).
A comparison of these two coaxial
arrangements has been performed by
Kárpáti et al.. The third architecture is
a concept based on the counter
propagating beams to record reflective
volume gratings for HDS. Multiplexing
is again achieved by exploiting fine x,
y shift selectivity. A comparison of the
different HDS architectures with
regard to their beam overlap,
efficiency of material consumption,
diffraction efficiency, and crosstalk
characteristics has been done by
Przygodda et al., and Ayres and
McLeod.
In contrast to the page-oriented
holographic memories that generally
rely on plane-wave hologram
recording, in a bit-based holographic
storage, which is also referred to as
microholographic storage, data are
recorded bit-wise as microscopic-sized
reflection holograms. Strong
localization of the grating like index
modulation is achieved by using a
July 2010
sharply focused diffraction limited
laser beam for writing. When the write
beam is overlapped with its retro-
reflected or counter propagating part, a
reflection grating is created in a
microlocalized volume element
comparable to the joint volume of the
two beams. Microholographic storage
promises a relatively straightforward
compatibility with traditional optical
disc formats due to similarities in their
basic architecture, while the page-
based approach requires the
development of a completely new
format. However compared to the
page-based holographic storage,
microholographic storage is still in the
early stage of development.
In the year 2007, Inphase Technologies
(USA), a Bell Labs spinoff, launched
the first holographic disk drive (page-
oriented) named TapestryTM300R. The
device stores 300 GB on a single
holographic disk at a transfer rate of
160 Mb/s. The recorded data pages are
of 1.48 Mb size and each holographic
disc contains 4.4 million such pages
[www.inphase-
technologies.com/downloads/pdf/prod
ucts/2007TapestryProductBrochure.pdf
]. Other companies such as STX
Aprilis Inc., USA and Optware Japan
are also developing their own
holographic disk drive prototypes.
1.3 Research overview
Research activities during the past few
years are mainly concentrated in the
areas of developing suitable storage
material for HDS with the especial
attention to photopolymer recording
materials, two-dimensional data
encoding and efficient data retrieval
techniques, system architectures and
design tolerances, content-addressable
data search and optical correlators.
New and improved methods have been
developed to optimize the performance
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
of HDS systems in terms of storage
density, data transfer rate, and data
access time. In addition, issues related
to product development and
commercialization of HDS systems is
also tackled.
In the area of storage material,
significant research work and advances
have been reported on photopolymer
based recording materials. The main
interests being on polyvinyl alcohol
(PVA)/ acrylamide polymers and poly
(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)
materials. Besides these, recording
material such as polymers based on
sol-gel matrix, photorefractive
polymers and photorefractive crystals
and other recording materials have also
been investigated. A better
understanding of the grating formation
through the development of new and
improved models for hologram
recording in the photopolymer
materials grabbed much attention of
the researchers.
In the field of two-dimensional data
encoding and retrieval techniques,
sophisticated schemes such as
employment of purely phase-
modulated binary data pages, the
implementation of amplitude-based
gray-scale and sparse-gray-scale data
pages, and the realization of hybrid
ternary- and hybrid multinary
modulation have been investigated.
Methods for the detection of purely
phase-modulated data pages and
hybrid multinary modulation coded
data pages were also introduced.
Several new error correctible two-
dimensional modulation codes, signal
processing and data detection schemes
for distortion, crosstalk, misalignment,
tilt, interpixel interference
compensation, and equalization
techniques have also been proposed.
July 2010
With regard to the addressing schemes
in the reference beam arm, several new
multiplexing approaches have been
proposed such as shift multiplexing in
thin media, speckle multiplexing based
on random phase encoding and fibers,
phase-code multiplexing, polytopic-
angle multiplexing, collinear
multiplexing methods, and other
innovative multiplexing techniques.
Noteworthy contributions were
demonstrated in various holographic
disk and holographic drive related
issues such as design of tracking servo
control system, design of track pattern,
design and tolerances of high
numerical aperture and high-resolution
objective lenses, media tilt detection
and tolerances and formatting for
intelligence control. Several other
important topics of HDS systems such
as effects of aberrations and recording
material shrinkage, thermal expansion
of the recording media, erasure of
holograms in photorefractive and
photopolymer materials, optimization
of geometrical size and shape of the
aperture used in the hologram plane,
parallel copying of holograms,
development of simulation models of
HDS systems, exposure scheduling and
angular interval scheduling for
multiplexed holographic memory,
multilayered holographic storage, dual-
channel holographic memory,
encrypted holographic memories, and
other miscellaneous issues were also
investigated.
Finally, significant advancements in
the area of associative retrieval and
volume holographic correlators were
also reported. For content-addressable
searching with angular multiplexing
method, several new data encoding
schemes are introduced in order to
reduce the error probability. However
for phase-code multiplexing method,
techniques to overcome the
51
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
shortcoming and to perform true
associative data searches are proposed.
Investigations were also performed to
study the reliability of associative
recall. In the direction of volume
holographic correlators, sophisticated
methods such as the use of Walsh
transform, speckle modulation, wavelet
transform, interleaving, gated localized
holography etc. are developed to
perform efficient and high speed
optical correlations.
1.4 Motivation for the present work
Despite the vast research activities
over the last four decades or so, it is
believed that there is still enormous
scope for improvement and
enhancement of the performance of
HDS systems both from the
perspectives of storage density and
associative recall. The initial HDS
products/prototypes fall far short of the
promised capabilities of the HDS
technology. In order to realize the
promised features we need to make
better use of the inherent potential of
volume holography.
The Fourier transform (FT)
configuration or the 4f architecture is
the most widely used configuration for
HDS systems. In this architecture, the
recording material is placed near the
back focal plane or the FT plane of the
objective lens. Recording of data in a
holographic storage device is
conducted by converting an electronic
input data stream into a two-
dimensional data page. By use of an
SLM, a facsimile of the data page is
imprinted onto an incident collimated
laser beam to form a signal wave. A
data page for holographic storage
typically uses binary encoding, in
which pixels of the SLM encode two
distinct states: ‘OFF’ and ‘ON’
corresponding to binary data bit ‘0’
and ‘1’, respectively. In the vast
July 2010
majority of the research performed so
far, the data pages were commonly
displayed by pure amplitude
modulations. The FT of an amplitude
modulated data page gives rise to high
intensity zero-order (dc) spot. Thus the
recording material is illuminated very
inhomogeneouly because of the
presence of the strong dc spot which is
not suitable for hologram recording.
Such non-uniform intensity
distribution in the hologram plane is
undesirable and requires a large
dynamic range from the recording
material. If allowed to be present, these
high intensity spots lead to non-
uniform media usages and result in the
saturation of the recording material
during multiplexed recording. So it is
necessary to uniformize the object
beam distribution in the hologram
plane. Serious efforts have been made
in this direction over the past few years
of research and as a result several
methods have been put forward to
avoid this undesirable effect of the dc
spot in the case of amplitude
modulated data pages. One such
ingeniously simple method is to place
the recording material away from the
FT plane (defocused recording) that
prevents the recording material from
being illuminated by a focused dc spot.
As mentioned earlier, data pages for
holographic storage typically use
binary encoding in which pixels of the
SLM encode two distinct states ‘0’ and
‘1’. The maximum code rate that can
be achieved with binary encoding is
unity when the block size goes to
infinity, which limits the data capacity
of each page. However for many
storage systems (even for CDs, DVDs,
and BDs), the code rate is the best
compromise between the storage
capacity and error correction. The code
rate is usually kept below 1.0, since
larger block sizes suffer a sharp bit-
error-rate (BER) performance loss due
52
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
to the phenomenon of error
propagation. Thus any further increase
in the code rate can only be achieved
by utilizing more channel states and
hence non-binary modulation codes.
The use of non-binary or gray-scale
modulation codes for HDS systems has
been investigated by several authors.
Gray scale encoding increases the code
rate beyond unity, thereby enhancing
the capacity of each page and also
improving the transfer speed. Although
known, the use of gray-scale data
pages for holographic storage has not
been widespread. One possible reason
may be the lack of suitable multilevel
SLMs. Also these earlier studies on
gray-scale encoding are based on
amplitude-modulated SLMs producing
a very sharp dc component at the FT
plane which is not desirable.
The inspiration of the proposed thesis
on holographic digital data storage is
derived from the above mentioned two
different aspects of obtaining a
homogenized Fourier spectrum in the
hologram plane and the utilization of
multi-level data pages for HDS
systems. The two well-defined
motivations can be categorized as -
(1) To investigate and analyze the
defocused volume holographic
recording geometry both from the
point of view of storage density as well
as content-addressable searching. To
perform a comparative study with the
FT plane recording geometry in order
to understand the possible merits and
demerits of both the FT plane
recording and away from the FT plane
recording geometry. To efficiently
exploit the knowledge accumulated
from these studies for further
improving the system performance by
devising new methods.
(2) To develop new methods for gray-
scale data encoding for tweaking the
July 2010
performance of HDS systems. The new
methods should produce ‘homogenized
Fourier spectrum’ which is necessary
for recording highly efficient
holograms in the FT plane (a serious
bottleneck of the previously known
methods of gray-scale data page
encoding). Further to study the
concepts and also to introduce new
ideas for the sparse-gray-scale data
page encoding for holographic
memories, and to explore the read-out
methods and other relevant parameters.
1.5 Objectives of the thesis
Even though considerable amount
of research work has been performed
over the past few decades in
holographic data storage, only a few
studies have been reported in the
literature that fully investigate the
defocused (away from the FT plane)
volume holographic recording
geometry. Also in vast majority of the
holographic storage concepts, data
pages are commonly represented by
pure (binary or gray-level) amplitude
modulations and only a few previous
holographic systems employed the
phase modulations in the signal arm.
The objectives of the current thesis are
the development, implementation, and
investigation of novel approaches for
enhancing the performance of HDS
systems keeping in mind the above
mentioned facts. The major
objectives and goals of the thesis are
• To investigate and evaluate the
defocused recording geometry of
HDS systems. Numerical
evaluation of the BER and the
content-addressable search
capability as a function of size of
the aperture used in the hologram
plane and as a function of position
of the recording material away
from the FT plane. Also to perform
53
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
a comparison with the FT plane
recording case.
• To develop a numerical simulation
model considering photopolymer
recording materials in order to
investigate the effects of recording
material saturation on the BER of
the reconstructed data pages,
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and the
content-addressable searching. To
explore the effectiveness of
defocusing the recording material
away from the Fourier plane in
overcoming this saturation effect
for error free data recovery.
• To introduce and demonstrate new
methods for content-addressable
data search in a defocused volume
holographic content-addressable
memory in order to remove the
high cross-correlation peaks
occurring in the previously known
methods. Also to investigate the
reliability of content-addressable
searching in a defocused HDS
system under realistic conditions.
• To construct new data channel
encoding scheme that utilizes pure
phase modulations for gray-scale
data page based HDS systems.
Suitable phase modulations
produce a homogenized Fourier
spectrum and hence expected to
increase the SNR of the recovered
data pages.
• To experimentally demonstrate the
new data channel encoding scheme
for three-gray-level data page HDS
systems. The primary aim is to
characterize and use a twisted-
nematic liquid-crystal (TNLC)
display as a pure phase-modulator
for the gray-level data page
holographic storage system.
July 2010
• To design and employ new
methods for implementation of
sparse-gray-scale block modulation
codes with a single SLM in phase
mode for HDS systems. To develop
suitable read-out method for the
recovery of data from the phase
information.
1.6 Structure of the thesis and its
contents
The present thesis reports the results
of the investigations on the defocused
volume holographic recording
geometry for HDS systems and on the
application of phase-modulated data
pixels for holographic storage with
gray-level balanced and sparse-gray-
scale modulation codes. We simulate
the defocused volume holographic
recording geometry both with and
without considering the recording
material properties. Subsequently, we
introduce novel content-addressable
data search concepts for the defocused
volume HDS systems. Next, we
introduce the concepts of phase-
modulated data pixels in order to
obtain a dc removed Fourier spectrum
with gray-scale balanced and sparse-
gray-scale modulation coded data
pages.
Chapter 1 contains introduction,
motivation, and the basic concepts of
the holographic data storage and the
content-addressable holographic
memory. It also includes an overview
of the research activities during the
past few years. At last it contains the
objectives, the thesis contents and its
structure.
Chapter 2 explains the basic
principles of content-addressable data
search and BER characteristics of a
defocused volume HDS system. The
chapter also explains the drawbacks of
the 4f recording geometry when the
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
medium is placed at the FT plane of
the objective lens for amplitude
modulated data pages. A detailed
account of the numerical simulation
performed and the discussion of the
results are presented. It shows the
results of our investigations on the
performance of a defocused HDS
system in terms of BER and content-
addressable search capability as a
function of the size of the aperture in
the Fourier plane and as a function of
position of the recording material away
from the FT plane. We have
investigated the BER performance of
the defocused HDS system for various
0
10
-5
10
BER
-10
10
-15
10
0.6
Fig. 3 Plot of BER as a function of aperture size (in the units of Nyquist
aperture); dotted horizontal line shows the acceptable limit of the raw BER.
Chapter 3 presents a numerical
simulation technique to study the
saturation effects of the photopolymer
medium on holographic data storage
and search. Saturation of the
photopolymer material is taken into
account by considering a non-linear
behavior of the index modulation with
exposure as proposed by Piazzolla and
enkins [1996, 1999]. Both Fourier and
July 2010
apertures placed in the hologram plane.
The simulation results show that we
should use an aperture of larger
dimension to decrease the BER while
going away from the Fourier plane
(Fig. 3). Moreover, we have also
studied the correlation properties of a
defocused HDS system by varying the
aperture size and defocusing distance.
We have shown that while going away
from the Fourier plane, the correlation
capability of the HDS system for
amplitude data pages does not vary
significantly compared to that for the
Fourier plane recording (Fig. 4).
0.0f
0.1f
0.2f
raw BER limit
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2
Aperture/DN
off-Fourier plane recordings have been
simulated. We have calculated the
local modulation of the dielectric
constant that describes the recorded
hologram, taking the parameters of the
photopolymer recording material and
the optical process into account. We
further investigated the influence of
this material saturation on the raw BER
and SNR of the reconstructed data
page, and the content-addressability. It
has been found that the material
saturation has serious effects on the
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

performance of the HDS system with the correlation properties deteriorate

high raw BER (0.43) and low SNR with the cross-correlation peaks being
(0.16). Defocusing the recording higher in intensity. This simulation
material decreases this saturation and technique can be efficiently used for
improves the raw BER (0.0) (Fig. 5) the improvement and optimization of
and the SNR (4.48) (Fig. 6). Thus the HDS systems that employ the
although defocusing the material away photopolymer recording materials.
from the Fourier plane results in the
improvement of the raw BER value,
8
10
Correlation peak height (a.u.)

7
10

6
10

5
10

0.0f
4
10 0.25f
0.0f
0.25f
3
10
0 20 40 60 80 100

Size of the page in

Fig. 4 Correlation peak height (arbitrary units) vs. the size of the search argument
in percentage with the same page as the stored page (‘□’ for Fourier plane and ‘○’
for 0.25f away from Fourier pane) and with a different page (‘×’ for Fourier plane
and ‘◊’ for 0.25f away from Fourier plane).
0
10

-1
10

-2
10
BER

-3
10

-4
10

-5
10
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Defocusing z/f

Fig. 5 Raw BER as a function of distance of the recording material away from
the Fourier plane for an aperture of 1.4 DN in the hologram plane.

56
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
4.5
3.5
SNR
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.05
Fig. 6 SNR as a function of distance of the recording material away from the Fourier
plane for an aperture of 1.4 DN in the hologram plane.
Chapter 4 introduces a new dc-
filtering based content-addressable
searching method for defocused
volume HDS systems with binary data
pages. Content-addressable searching
with defocused recording usually
results in higher cross-correlation peak
intensities. This new method allows to
perform faithful content-addressable
search both for binary balanced and
sparse data pages. Both numerical and
experimental results are presented.
Subsequently, we explore the
correlation behaviour of the dc-
filtering based searching method when
the recorded data sets possess different
degrees of similarity. Experiment is
also performed for another known
method of searching namely phase-
based searching method. It has been
experimentally found that both phase-
based and dc-filtering based searching
methods can lead to highly ambiguous
search outcomes. Two methods based
on the block modulation codes used to
encode user binary data into
holographic data pages are investigated
to remove the undesired correlation
behaviour from the defocused volume
holographic optical correlation
processor.
Chapter 5 reports the use of phase-
modulated data pixels for HDS systems
July 2010
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Defocusing z/f
with gray-scale data pages. The
inherent drawback of the conventional
amplitude based gray-level data pages
is analyzed and simulation results
showing the advantages of phase-
modulated gray-scale data pages are
described. Construction of phase-
modulated gray-scale data pages and
their recovery, Fourier plane light
homogeneity, BER, storage density,
phase modulation error of the SLM,
and misalignment tolerances are
investigated through computer
simulation. An experimental
demonstration of the newly developed
gray-level phase data page method is
also presented (Fig. 7). Experimental
results of the phase and amplitude
modulation characteristics of a TNLC
SLM, Fourier plane light homogeneity,
and the recording and reconstruction of
phase-modulated binary, gray-scale
data pages and their recovery with the
real-time holographic interferometric
(RTHI) method are presented.
In Chapter 6, we propose a new
method to realize the sparse-gray-scale
modulation codes with a single phase-
modulating SLM for HDS systems,
producing a homogenized Fourier
spectrum for efficient exploitation of
the recording material’s dynamic
range. Construction of three-gray-level
sparse phase data pages with
57
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

simultaneous balancing of the different holographic simulation model with

phase states in order to remove the dc photopolymer recording material
spot is discussed. The influence of the presented in Chapter 3 can be used as
low-pass aperture size on BER and the an efficient tool for system
read-out method is also discussed optimization. The new content-
extensively. We also explore addressable searching method together
theoretically the potential storage with the modulation code subtleties
density improvement while using low- described in Chapter 4 allows to
pass filtering and sparse-gray-level perform reliable associative search in a
phase data pages for holographic holographic memory. Finally, the
storage and demonstrate the trade-off phase-modulation based gray-scale
between the code rate, the block balanced and sparse-gray-scale data
length, and the estimated capacity gain page methods for HDS systems
(Fig. 8). presented in Chapters 5 and 6 have the
potential to achieve a significant gain
Chapter 7 contains a summary of the in the storage density. Finally, a list of
research contributions made. references cited in the thesis, has been
Concluding remarks on the attained given.
results and the scope of future work in
the area of HDS systems and content-
addressable search are provided. The

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 7 Experimental results for the three-gray-level phase-modulated data page;

(a) Three gray level data page, (b) Four gray level version of (a) to be
displayed as four level phase information, and (c) Retrieved three-gray-level
data page using RTHI.

0.9 Sparsity
Normalized Storage Density

67%
0.8
50%
0.7 24%
12%
0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Aperture size related to Nyquist aperture

Fig. 8 Normalized storage density as a function of the low-

58
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
The research work reported in the
thesis has resulted in the following
publications:
1. Bhargab Das, Joby Joseph, and
Kehar Singh, “Performance
analysis of content-addressable
search and bit-error rate
characteristics of a defocused
volume holographic data storage
system,” Appl. Opt. 46, 5461-5470
(2007).
2. Bhargab Das, Joby Joseph, and
Kehar Singh, “Material saturation
in photopolymer holographic data
recording and its effects on bit-
error-rate and content-addressable
search,” Opt. Commun. 282, 177-
184 (2009).
3. Bhargab Das, Joby Joseph, and
Kehar Singh, “Improved data
search by zero-order (dc) peak
filtering in a defocused volume
holographic content-addressable
memory,” Appl. Opt. 48, 55-63
(2009).
The Author is presently working as a postdoctoral fellow at University of
Massachusetts, Boston. Email: bhargab.das@gmail.com
Instrument of the Issue
Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS)
Dr. Bipul Sarma
Introduction
Microscopy and X-ray diffraction are
the most useful and powerful analytical
techniques for the characterization of
materials. Microscopy is good for local
and surface details of an object
however X-ray is good for global
parameter distribution, sample states
and transitions. X-ray, neutron, or
electron is used in powder diffraction
for structural characterization of
powder or microcrystalline materials.
July 2010
4. Bhargab Das, Joby Joseph, and
Kehar Singh, “Phase modulated
gray-scale data pages for digital
holographic data storage,” Opt.
Commun. 282, 2147-2154 (2009).
5. Bhargab Das, Sunil Vyas, Joby
Joseph, P. Senthilkumaran, and
Kehar Singh, “Transmission type
twisted nematic liquid crystal
display for three gray-level phase-
modulated holographic data storage
systems,” Opt. Lasers Eng. 47,
1150-1159 (2009).
6. Bhargab Das, Joby Joseph, and
Kehar Singh, “Phase-image-based
sparse-gray-level data pages for
holographic data storage,” Appl.
Opt. 48, 5240-5250 (2009).
7. Bhargab Das, Joby Joseph, and
Kehar Singh, “Reliability of
content-addressable data search in
a defocused volume holographic
data storage system,” Appl. Opt.
49, 781-789 (2010).
Crystalline material offers much
stronger signal due to the periodicity of
molecules in the lattice and they have
Fourier transform which can be plotted
or observed as peaks over noise.
However for a liquid or powder or
amorphous sample, molecules within
that sample are in random orientations.
They have a continuous Fourier
spectrum that uniformly spreads its
amplitude thereby reducing the
measured signal intensity.
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

leads to a loss of information in SAXS

compared to crystallography.

Applications range from life science

and biotechnology for proteins, viruses
and DNA complexes to polymers,
emulsions, liquid crystals, fibers and
catalysts.

This can be observed in Small Angle
X-ray Scattering (SAXS). SAXS is a
powerful and nondestructive method
for analyzing nanostructure materials.
Depending on the energy of the
incident particle (electron, neutron)
scattering could be of two types in
particle technology, (a) inelastic and
(b) elastic scattering. In inelastic
scattering process, the energy of the
incident particle is not conserved
however conservation of energy before
and after collision is elastic scattering.
The inelastic scattering process is
called Raman scattering when a photon
is the incident particle. Small-angle
elastic X-ray of wavelength 0.1 to 0.2
nm is used in SAXS. The angle ranges
typically from 0.1 to 10° that carries
information about the shape and size
of macromolecules, characteristic
distances of partially ordered materials,
pore sizes, and relevant data for detail
characterization of materials.
Principles
When X-rays pass through a sample
they scatter. X-rays are waves (typical
wavelength λ=1.54 Å) so they diffract
and interfere like light, sound or
seismic waves. Some samples are
periodic e.g. atoms in a crystal, other
samples consist of a random
arrangement of objects such as
molecules in solution, fat globules in
milk or water droplets in a cloud. But
the general relationship between
scattering angle and size of the object
is,
For example, a protein approximately
25 Å size will scatter X-rays out to
about 2 degrees. If eight protein
molecules clump together to make a
molecule of rough size 50 Å, the X-ray
scattering will now contract inside a
disk of size 1 degree. Intense scattering
over a range of angles means the
structure is ordered on that length scale
but is not be periodic.

This small angle X-ray is powerful

techniques for structural information of
macromolecules between 5 to 25 nm,
and partially up to 150 nm. The
advantages of SAXS are the capability
of delivering structural information for
non crystalline materials which is not
possible for biological macromolecules
and proteins. But due to random
orientation of dissolved molecules may

60
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
Bragg's Law [nλ=2dsinθ], generally
supports measurement of half as
minimum size but does not quantify
the maximum size limit in a diffraction
experiment. This Law also assures that
nano to colloidal size structures would
carry valuable information below 6°
(2θ) in diffraction pattern and SAXS is
specially designed instruments to
measure down to less than 1/1000 of a
degree. This measurement is up to 1-
micron scale structures using x-rays. In
x-ray diffraction, scattered intensity
depends on the Lorentz-Polarization
factor (equal to 1 below 6° 2θ) and the
structure factor, |F2|. The atomic
scattering factor is equal to the square
of the number of electrons in an atom
at low angles {ne2(1/q)}, where q is
4π sin(θ)/λ. Also the intensity of
scattering is known to be proportional
to the number of scattering elements in
the irradiated volume {Np(1/q)}. Now
for small-angle scattering, a of their dimensions like a rod is 1-D, a
generalized rule of thumb that
describes the behavior of scattered
intensity as a function of Bragg size
"d" or "r" that is observed at a given
scattering angle 2θ, where r = 1/q is
I(q) = Np(1/q) ne2(1/q)
This equation is known as power law
and reflects the scattered intensity is
proportional to the decay of the
particle volume with size and the size
(r), of a scattering element is a
component of a physical domain.
Porod's Law: For a smooth surface
particle like sphere, the surface can be
decomposed into spherical scattering
elements. The number of such spheres
is proportional to the surface area for
the particles divided by the area per
scattering element, r2 or 1/q2, while the
number of electrons per particle is just
proportional to r3 or 1/q3. From the rule
of thumb with Np = Sq2 and ne = 1/q3,
yields I(q) = S/q4. This is Porod's Law
for surface scattering to measure the
July 2010
surface area of domains in the nano-
scale. The following equation can be
derived from this law introducing
electron density (ρ) difference between
particle and matrix domain.
I(q) = Ie 2p r2 S/q4
Ie is a constant, S is surface area
There are other general categories of
power-laws that are well defined in
small-angle scattering are,
(a) Surface-Fractal Laws (systems do
not have smooth surfaces)
(b) Diffuse interface Laws (when a
concentration gradient is observed at
an interface in mixing of two liquids or
dissolution of a particle)
(c) Mass-Fractal or Dimensional Laws
(When particles are described in terms
disk 2-D and a sphere 3-D and for a
mass-fractal object such as a polymer
coil the mass is given by the size raised
to the dimension).
(d) Polydispersity of particle size
(systems display dispersion in particle
size)
Guinier's Law: Power-law decays in
scattering do not consider a particle in
the sense by allowing the particle
structure to be averaged with respect to
position and rotation for an isotropic
system. For the determination of
moment of inertia of an isotropic
system one must consider, (i) average
all possible positions in the particle
from which a vector "r" can start and
be within the particle, (ii) determine
the probability that a randomly
directed vector "r" from an arbitrary
starting point in the particle will fall in
the particle. This moment of inertia is
called the radius of gyration (Rg) of the
particle because electron density is
61
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
used as the weighting rather than the
mass density. For a system of disperse
shaped and sized particles the radius of
gyration reflects a second moment of
the distribution of the shape and size
about the mean. The meaning of this
probability p(r), in the vicinity of r =
the particle size, can be graphically
represented by a Gaussian probability
cloud created by the summation of all
possible positions of the particle where
the center of the probability cloud is in
the particle phase. The average size is
now reflected in the radius of gyration
and known as Guiner’s law.
I(q) = Np ne2 exp(-q2Rg2/3)
Depending on the radius of gyration of
different shape and size particle like
sphere, rod, disc, polymer coil etc we
can derive special scattering functions
for I(q) from Guiner’s law.
The instrument
Small angle x-ray scattering instrument
can be two types,
July 2010
(a) Point-collimation instruments:
This instrument is made in such a way
that the x-ray beam scattering is
centro-symmetrically distributed and
the scattering patterns consist of circles
around the primary beam. The
scattered intensity is low and therefore
the measurement time is in the order of
hours or days in case of very weak
scatterers. Using focusing optics (bent
mirrors, bent monochromator crystals)
or collimating and monochromating
optics measurement time can be
reduced. Non-isotropic systems like
fibres, sheared liquids can be
determined using Point-collimation.
(b) Line-collimation instruments:
The beam profile is a long and narrow
line. The disadvantage of this
instrument is the illuminated sample
volume which is much larger
compared to point-collimation and the
scattered intensity at the same flux
density is proportionally larger.
However measurement time is much
shorter compared to point-collimation.
This instrument can be used only if the
system is isotropic. Use of Line
collimation is rare in small-angle X-ray
scattering due to the increasing number
of synchrotron sources which are all
point sources, and due to the
availability of more powerful X-ray
laboratory sources in combination with
new multilayer optics.
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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

This instrument is found in research as

WAXS SAXS quality control. Apart from micro- or
Detector close to Detector far from nano- structures it is possible to
sample. sample. analyze lamellae, and fractal-like
Distortion of Absorption from materials. The method is accurate, non-
reciprocal space intermediate destructive and usually requires only a
mapping. space. Interception minimum of sample preparation.
Thermal effects of appropriate q
when heating range
sample. No ion
chamber for
absorption

Applications:

For the determination of microscale

and nanoscale structure, small angle x-
ray scattering (SAXS) is the most
powerful and used instrument in
current research. The principle of this
instrument is based on averaging
particle sizes, shapes, distribution, and
surface-to-volume ratio. This is
independent of the phase of the
materials. It can either solid, liquid or
can be gaseous particles. Any
combinations of them are allowed.
Applications are very broad and
include colloids of all types, metals,
cement, oil, polymers, plastics,
proteins, foods and pharmaceuticals.
The differences in basic experimental
consequences with wide angle x-ray
scattering (WAXS) are tabulated
below.
References
J. Appl. Crystallogr. 1995, 28, 717-28.
J. Appl. Crystallogr. 1996, 29, 134-
146.
J. Chem. Phys. 2006, 125, 234904-08.
www.wikipedia.org

Letter from Members

Akashi Baruah
Since the day of its birth North-East India Research Group has been a great source of
help as well as inspiration for all the people involved with. I feel proud being a member
of this family. I have been greatly benefited by the research articles sent by various
members throughout my PhD period, as most of the journals are not accessible in our
department. The selfless help of these people is really admirable. Besides sharing of
different thoughts, ideas, experiences and above all the important links help a lot. I have
submitted my thesis and looking for a post-doc and North-East Research group is
helping me a lot. Thanks to all the people in this forum and long-live North-East
Research Group

63
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum
Members Face
Progyashree Goswami, daughter of
Guna Kanta Goswami from Dakhin
Sarbaibondha, Jorhat district, received
----0----
Kalyan Jyoti Borah is working as
senior research fellow (CSIR) in the
Department of Chemical Sciences,
Tezpur University, Napaam, Assam.
He is carrying out his research work
towards the Ph. D degree in the field of
synthetic organic chemistry under the
supervision of Dr. Ruli Borah,
Associate Professor. His areas of
research interest are mainly green
July 2010
her education in Jorhat and then
completed her Master’s of Science
from Dibrugarh University in 2007.
After the completion of her M.Sc.
(Organic Chemistry) she joined as
research fellow at Tea Research
Association, Tocklai, Jorhat for only a
few months and then she moved to the
Natural Products Chemistry Division,
North East Institute of Science and
Technology (NEIST, formerly RRL),
Jorhat, Assam in 2008 December to
pursue her Ph.D. degree under the
supervision of Dr. J C Sarma (scientist-
F). She is being registered as Ph.D.
Student under Gauhati University,
Guwahati.
chemistry and heterocyclic chemistry.
He has published his works in six
reputed international journals. Before
joining Ph. D programme in Tezpur
University he worked as a project
assistant in the Medicinal Chemistry
Division, NEIST, Jorhat for two years.
He is son of Mr Daya Ram Borah and
Mrs Mamoni Borah of Adarsha Nagar
Milanpur, Nagaon, Assam. He did
schooling from Manaha High School
of Morigaon district, Assam and then
completed graduation from Jagiroad
College under Gauhati University and
M. Sc from Gauhati University in
Organic Chemistry in the year of 2002.
His future plan is to absorb in a
research oriented job.
E-mail: borahkalyan@yahoo.co.in
64
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum July 2010

Job, Post doc Etc.

(1) Process Development specialist: Dr Reddy’s Laboratories Ltd.
Hyderabad, India ( Apply in the company site)

Roles & Responsibilities:

• Provide leadership for process development and scale-up of novel or known

forms
• Study the stability and kinetics of transformation of meta-stable forms in
solution, during drying, and in storage.

• Identify the critical parameters to consistently obtain the desired form

• Implement Design Of Experiment for optimization and what-if studies
• Identify scale-up criticalities, provide engineering calculations, and decide on
suitable equipment for scale-up
• Responsible for scale-up and validation of the process and along with Technical
Support engineer
• Recommend appropriate storage conditions and packaging
• Interact closely with Product Development Teams to provide technical guidance
where required
• Complete characterization of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients powder
properties even if there is no specific requirement other than the polymorph

Essential Qualification & Experience:

• Chemical engineer (BTech / MTech / PhD) with 4 or more years experience in

process development and scale-up
• Expertise in crystallization and amorphous form generation
• Knowledgeable on polymorph and powder property characterization
• Ability to interact with cross-functional teams, such as PDTs and manufacturing
• Good communication and interpersonal skills.

(2) Postdoctoral Position in Physics, Chemistry & Nanotechnology

Sungkyunkwan University, Dept. of MSE, National Core Research Center,
South Korea,

Field(s): applied physics, chemical physics, material physics, nanotechnology

Application deadline: Nov 08 (Mon), 2010
Submitted: Sep 08, 2010
Contact: Sang-Woo Kim
E-mail: kimsw1@skku.edu
Phone: +82-31-290-7352
Fax: +82-31-290-7381

Address: School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, SKKU

Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Center for Human Interface

65
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum

Nanotechnology (HINT) (National Core Research Center), Sungkyunkwan

University, Suwon 440-746, Republic of Korea

Job description: NESEL (Nano Electronic Science and Engineering

Laboratory) and HINT (Center for Human Interface Nanotechnology, National
Core Research Center) at Sungkyunkwan University (Suwon, South Korea) is
seeking a postdoctoral researcher in the following fields:

- Synthesis or simulation of graphene

- Study on graphene-metal electrode junctions (ohmic and Schottky contact)

- Fabrication and characterization of functional devices based on grapheme

The initial appointment will be one or two years and can be extended
depending on the performance. This position will be started on January 1,
2011, but the starting date can be flexible. The annual salary ranges from 30
million KRW to 36 million KRW (As of Sept., 25,640 ~ 31,000 USD),
depending on experience and qualification. This amount is enough for a family
to make a comfortable living in South Korea.

Applicants should send a CV including a publication list, a summary of

research plan, and a reference list by email to kimsw1@skku.edu (Professor
Sang-Woo Kim). Review of applications will continue until the position is
filled. For any questions, please feel free to contact Professor Sang-Woo Kim.

Professor Sang-Woo Kim

School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering
Sungkyunkwan Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT)
Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, South Korea
Email: kimsw1@skku.edu

(3) Research positions in nanoscale characterization of optoelectrnic

materials
At Center for Advanced Photovoltaics, SD State University, USA, Nano Labs
Field(s): applied physics, chemical physics, chemistry, computational physics,
condensed matter, material physics, measurement science technology,
microscopy, nanotechnology, optics and optoelectronics, polymer physics,
semiconductors, solid state physics, surface physics

Application deadline: Nov 05 (Fri), 2010

Submitted: Sep 05, 2010
Contact: Venkat Bommisetty
E-mail: venkat.b@gmail.com
Fax: 605 688 4401

Job description: Nano Labs has multiple openings at research scientist/postdoc

level in following areas.

66
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum

1. Nanocrystalline silicon (material and charge transport)

2. Organic solar cells
3. Scanning probe microscopy based electrical characterization and Scanning near-
field optical microscopy
4. Dye-sensitized solar cells (nanoscale transport/interfaces)

These positions are available immediately for one year appointment with possible
renewal. Successful applicants will be responsible to lead a laboratory and have
opportunities to co-supervise graduate student research. Interested candidates may
send their resume and cover letter explaining how you qualify for a specific position
and include 3 references. Successful candidates should have excellent publication
track record and communications skills.

(4) TATA INNOVATION FELLOWSHIP-2010, Department of

Biotechnology, Ministry of Science & Technology Government of
India

Applications are invited for "Tata innovation Fellowship", a highly competitive

scheme of the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of Science &
Technology, Government of India.

Objective:

1. The scheme is aimed at rewarding interdisciplinary work where major emphasis is

on innovation and translational research with a potential towards commercialization.

Eligibility

The fellowship is open to Indian Nationals residing in India who are below the age of
60 years

The applicant should possess a Ph.D degree in Life Sciences, Agriculture, Veterinary
Sciences or a Master's degree in Medical Sciences, Engineering; or an equivalent
degree in Biotechnology/related areas. The applicant must have adequate professional
experience in the specific area and demonstrated leadership towards innovation

The candidate must have a regular position in a University/ Organization /Institute/

and should be engaged in research and development. If he/she is availing any other
fellowship (national/international), he/she will have to opt for only one of the
fellowships (for example JC Bose fellowship Welcome Trust, Bill & Melinda Gates
Foundation, NIH Senior fellowship Howard Hughes Medical Institute fellowship and
others of similar nature)

67
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum

About the fellowship

The amount of the fellowship will be Rs.20,000/- per month in addition to regular
salary from the host institute.

In addition, each fellow will receive a contingency grant of Rs. 5,00,000/- per annum
for meeting the expenses on consumables, minor equipment, international and
domestic travel, manpower and other contingent expenditure to be incurred in
connection with the implementation of research project under the fellowship.

Host Institution

The Institution where the candidate is working would provide the necessary
infrastructure and administrative support for pursuing the research under this
fellowship. The candidate will continue to work at the place of his/her employment.

Duration

The duration of the fellowship will be initially for three years, extendable further by
two years on a fresh appraisal.

How to apply

Application (one copy) may be sent as per proforma downloadable from DBT
website (www.dbtindia.nic.in) and duly forwarded by the competent authority to Dr.
Meenakshi Munshi, Joint Director, Department of Biotechnology, Biock-2, T Floor,
CGO Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi -110 003, Email :- meenakshi29.dbt@nic.in
latest by 3Oth September, 2010. Other details regarding the fellowship may be seen at
www.dbtindia.nic.in / www.dbtindia.gov.in.

More details please visit : www.dbtindia.gov.in

Click for the details in www.dbtindia.nic.in

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Science information through the lens

Photographs of hot basins in Yellowstone National Park, USA; the oldest national
park in the world. ( Photos by Babita Baruwati)

68
Newsletter of North East India Research Forum

Details about the Northeast India Research Forum

Date of creation of the forum : 13th November 2004

Area: Science and Technology
Total number of members till date: 350

Moderators
1. Arindam Adhikari, Ph.D. 2. Ashim J. Thakur, Ph.D.
CECRI, Kadaikudi, Tamilnadu Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam
Email: arindam_tsk@yahoo.com Email: ajtthax@yahoo.com

3. Utpal Borah, Ph.D. 4. Khirud Gogoi, Ph.D.

Dibrugarh University, Assam, India University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, USA;
Email: utbora@yahoo.co.in Email:khirudg@gmail.com

Editorial Team of N.E. Quest

1. Debananda Ningthoujam, Ph.D. 2. Tankeswar Nath, Ph.D.

HOD, Biochemistry Dept. Tezpur University, India
Manipur University, Imphal, India Email: tankeswar_nath@jubl.com

3. Manab Sharma, Ph.D. 4. Shanta Laishram, Ph. D.

Australia, Indian Statistical Institute, Delhi
Email: mansharma123@yahoo.com shantalaishram@gmail.com

5 Pranjal Saikia, Ph.D. 6. Pankaj Bharali, PhD

Gauhati University, Guwahati National Institute of Advanced Industrial
Email: psjorhat@yahoo.co.uk Science & Technology, Japan
Email: pankaj_rrlj@yahoo.co.in

7. Sasanka Deka, Ph.D.

Delhi University, Delhi
Email: ssdeka@gmail.com
8. Robert Singh Thangjam, PhD
Mizoram University, Aizwal, India
9. Áshim Thakur, Ph.D.
10. Utpal Borah, Ph.D.
11. Arindam Adhikari, Ph.D.
12. Khirud Gogoi, Ph.D.
13. Babita Baruwati, Ph.D.

Cover Page designed by: Anirban, Pune

Logo designed by : Manab Sharma

http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/northeast_india_research/
http://www.neindiaresearch.org/

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Newsletter of North East India Research Forum

LET US KEEP THE WORLD CLEAN AND GREEN

70