3RD LONG EXAM COVERAGE

I. Combined Loadings
- The cross section of a member is subjected to several of these loadings simultaneously.
- When this occurs, the method of superposition can be used to determine the resultant stress distribution
- Conditions:
o a linear relationship exists between the stress and the loads (elastic)
o the geometry of the member should not undergo significant change when the loads are applied
- The force components should act through the centroid of the cross section, and the moment components
should be computed about centroidal axes
- Normal Force
o The internal normal force is developed by a uniform normal-stress distribution determined from
𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
- Shear Force
o The internal shear force in a member is developed by a shear-stress distribution determined from
𝑉𝑄
the shear formula 𝜏 =
𝐼𝑡
o The neutral axis is perpendicular to the direction of internal shear
- Bending Moment
o For straight members the internal bending moment is developed by a normal-stress distribution
that varies linearly from zero at the neutral axis to a maximum at the outer boundary of the
𝑀𝑦
member. This stress distribution is determined from the flexure formula 𝜎 =
𝐼
o The neutral axis is parallel to the direction of bending/internal moment
- Torsional Moment
o For circular shafts and tubes the internal torsional moment is developed by a shear-stress
distribution that varies linearly from the central axis of the shaft to a maximum at the shaft’s outer
𝑇𝜌
boundary. This stress distribution is determined from the torsional formula, 𝜏 =
𝐽

II. Plane Stress

A. General State of Stress and 2D State (Plane Stress)
- The state of plane stress at the point is uniquely represented by two normal stress components and one
shear stress component acting on an element that has a specific orientation at the point

B. Stress Transformation using Equilibrium equations

- If the normal stress acting in the direction is needed, it can be obtained by simply substituting 𝜃 = 𝜃 + 90°
for 𝜃

C. In-Principal Stresses
- To obtain the orientation 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 of the planes of maximum and minimum normal stress:

- The solution has two roots, 𝜃𝑝1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃𝑝2 . Specifically, the values of 2𝜃𝑝1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝜃𝑝2 and are 180° apart, so
𝜃𝑝1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃𝑝2 will be 90° apart.
- To obtain the maximum or minimum in-plane normal stress acting at a point where 𝜎1 ≥ 𝜎2 :

- This particular set of values are called the in-plane principal stresses, and the corresponding planes on which
they act are called the principal planes of stress.
- No shear stress acts on the principal planes.

D. Maximum In-Plane Shear Stress

- To obtain the orientation of an element that is subjected to maximum shear stress on it sides:

- The roots, 𝜃𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃𝑝 are 45° apart

- An element subjected to maximum shear stress will be 45° from the position of an element that is subjected
to the principal stress.
- To obtain the maximum in-plane shear stress:

- To obtain the average normal stress on the planes of maximum in-plane shear stress:

- Important Points:
o The principal stresses represent the maximum and minimum normal stress at the point.
o When the state of stress is represented by the principal stresses, no shear stress will act on the
element.
o The state of stress at the point can also be represented in terms of the maximum in-plane shear
stress. In this case an average normal stress will also act on the element.
o The element representing the maximum in-plane shear stress with the associated average normal
stresses is oriented 45° from the element representing the principal stresses.
III. Mohr’s Circle
A. Stress Transformation using Mohr’s Circle
B. Absolute Maximum Shear Stress
- In general, the principal stresses will have magnitudes of maximum, intermediate, and minimum intensity.;
𝜎max ≥ 𝜎int ≥ 𝜎min . This is a condition known as triaxial stress.
o Case 1: If both of the in-plane principal stresses have the same sign:

o Case 2: If one of the in-plane principal stresses as the opposite sign of that of the other:

- Important Points:
o The general three-dimensional state of stress at a point can be represented by an element oriented
so that only three principal stresses max, int, min act on it.
o In the case of the plane stress, if the in-plane principal stresses both have the same sign, the
absolute maximum shear stress will occur out of the plane and has a value of abs max = max/2. This
value is greater than the in-plane shear stress.
o If the in-plane principal stresses are of opposite signs, then the absolute maximum shear stress
will equal the maximum in-plane shear stress; that is abs max = (max-min)/2.
IV. Theories of Failure
- Ductile: failure is usually specified by the initiation of yielding
- Brittle: failure is usually specified fracture

A. Ductile Materials
a. Maximum Shear Stress Theory
 The most common type of yielding of a ductile material such as steel is caused by slipping
 Occurs along the contact planes of randomly ordered crystals that make up the
material
 The slip planes occur at approximately 45 with the axis of the strip.
 The slipping that occurs is caused by shear stress, which acts on planes that are 45 from
the planes of principal stress.
 Henri Tresca – proposed the maximum shear stress theory or Tresca yield criterion
 Used to predict the failure stress of a ductile material subjected to any type of loading
 States that yielding of the material begins when the absolute maximum shear stress in
the material reaches the shear stress that causes the same material to yield when it is
subjected only to axial tension
 To avoid failure, it is required that abs max in the material must be less than or equal to
Y/2.

 If any point of the material is subjected to plane stress, and its in-plane principal stresses
are represented by a coordinate (1, 2)plotted on the boundary or outside the shaded
hexagonal area shown in this figure, the material will yield at the point and failure is said
to occur.

b. Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

 An external loading will deform a material, causing it to store energy internally
throughout its volume.
 Strain energy density – the energy per unit volume of material
 The yielding in a ductile material occurs when the distortion energy per unit volume of
the material equals or exceeds the distortion energy per unit volume of the same material
when it is subjected to yielding in a simple tension test. (redefined by R. von Mises and H.
Hencky)
B. Brittle Materials
a. Maximum Normal Stress Theory
 In a tension test, the fracture occurs when the normal stress reaches the ultimate stress
ult.
 States that a brittle material will fail when the maximum tensile stress, 1, in the material
reaches a value that is equal to the ultimate normal stress the material can sustain when
it is subjected to simple tension.
 If the material is subjected to plane stress:

b. Mohr’s Failure Criterion

 In some brittle materials, tension and compression properties are different.
 Perform three tests on the material:
 Uniaxial tensile test to determine the ultimate tensile stress (ult)t
 Uniaxial compressive test to determine the ultimate compressive stress (ult)c
 Torsion test to determine the material’s ultimate shear stress ult.
  Failure occurs when the absolute value of either one of the principal stresses
reaches a value equal to or greater than (ult)t or or (ult)c in general, if the state
of stress at a point defined by the stress coordinates is plotted on the boundary
or outside the shaded area.

- Important Points:
o If a material is ductile, failure is specified by the initiation of yielding, whereas if it is brittle, it is
specified by fracture.
o Ductile failure can be defined when slipping occurs between the crystals that compose the
material. This slipping is due to shear stress and the maximum-shear-stress theory is based on this
idea.
o Strain energy is stored in a material when it is subjected to normal stress. The maximum-distortion-
energy theory depends on the strain energy that distorts the material, and not the part that
increases its volume.
o The fracture of a brittle material is caused only by the maximum tensile stress in the material, and
not the compressive stress. This is the basis of the maximum-normal-stress theory, and it is
applicable if the stress–strain diagram is similar in tension and compression.
o If a brittle material has a stress–strain diagram that is different in tension and compression, then
Mohr’s failure criterion may be used to predict failure.