Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing 3.1

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Manual of
Soil Laboratory Testing
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Volume 3: Effective Stress Tests
K. H. Head. MA(Cantab), C.Eng, FICE, FGS
for
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Cl International
[i,:!b!I E.., Limited
PENTECH PRESS
london
Foreword
This book, which completes the present series on soil laboratory testing, is an extensive review
of the tests that invoke the effective stress concept-the fundamental principle in the science of
soil mechanics for the prediction of stability and deformation.
The tests described are mainly those that are carried out in the triaxial apparatus. It will be
seen that a significant increase in the diversity of applications has taken place with this
equipment since it was the subject of special consideration by Bishop and Henkel in their
notable work on which laboratories have relied for so long.
The Rowe cell, which introduced pore pressure control in consolidation testing, is the other
apparatus to which reference is made. Here, for the first time, comprehensive details are set
down, not only of the many uses that may be made with this equipment, but also the very
important calibrations which are essential in order to analyse the results correctly.
With the increasing complexity in effective stress testing, selection of the most appropriate
technique requires a clear understanding of the test objectives so that the attention given to
these aspects, including a description of the principal theoretical models on which results may
be analysed, makes the book as important to those who apply the test results as to those who
execute the tests.
It is with pleasure and confidence therefore that I commend this book to all who are
interested in geotechnology in the knowledge that the reader has the benefit of the same
thoroughness in presentation, clarity in arrangement and accumulated experience already
evident in the preceding Volumes 1 and 2.
I. K. Nixon
August 1985
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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The author wishes to acknowledge the generous support and assistance provided by many
individuals towards the preparation of this book. The follpwing contributed valuable
comments and suggestions on the early drafts, or provided other useful information: Dr
W. ~. Anderson, Dr J. H. Atkinson, Dr E. N. Bromhead, Mr A. M. Coatsworth, Mr P. P.
Constantine, Mr P. E. Denton, Mr F. Evans, Prof. T. H. Hanna, Mr R. E. V. Haydon, Dr
D. W. Hight, Dr C. C. Hird, Mr N. B. Hobbs; Dr A. N. James, Mr G. P. Keeton, Mr J. R.
Masters, Mr M. N. McNair, Mr R. M. Nisbet, Mr I. K. Nixon, Mr D. C. Procter, Dr I. C.
Pyrah, Prof. P. W. Rowe, Dr G. C. Sills, Mr 1. M. Turner, Dr P. R. Vaughan.
Word-processor typing was diligently undertaken by Mrs Pat Paterson and some of her
colleagues at ELE International L t d . ·
Most of the drawings were prepared from the author's sketches by Mr Simon Fisher ofELE
Marketing Services Department, under the direction of MrMike Cryer. The remainder were
... done by Mr D. M. Roberts .
Many of the photographs were supplied by ELE Marketing Services Department.
Photographs from other sources are acknowledged individually; contributors were: Imperial
College Soil Mechanics Laboratory; Laing Design and Development Centre; Soil Mechanics
Ltd.; University of Manchester; Wykeham Farrance Engineering Ltd.; and the author.
Laboratory test data were obtained from the soil mechanics laboratories of Soil Mechanics
Ltd. (Bracknell and Doncaster): the University of Sheffield; the University of Manchester.
Instrument calibration data were provided by the RC.S. Calibration Laboratory of ELE
International Ltd.
The library facilities of Soil Mechanics Ltd. were kindly made available to the author.
Reference was also made to the libraries at Imperial College, the Institution of Civil Engineers,
and ELE International Ltd.
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Preface
'This volume completes the series on soil laboratory testing, and the chapter numbering follows
consecutively from Volume 2. It covers relatively complex tests in most of which the
measurement of pore water pressure is an essential feature. These measurements enable the
. 'effective' stresses, which are fundamental to the understanding of soil behaviour, to be "
determined. The scope of this volume is therefore considerably wider than that of Volume 2,
and it is intended not only for technicians and supervisors responsible for executing laboratory
tests but also as a work of reference for geotechnical engineers and designers, and for
undergraduate and post-graduate students. I hope that teachers also will find it to be of value.
The format differs in some ways from that of the previous volumes. The general arrangement
is explained in the Introduction, and can be considered in four parts dealing with Principles
and Theory; Equipment; Triaxial Test Procedures; Consolidation Testing. The sections on
theory are not intended to take the place of a text-book on theoretical soil mechanics, several
of which are quoted from among the numerous works that are available.
In presenting the widely-used 'basic' triaxial tests I have tried to show that some generally
accepted practices (especially with regard to sample saturation) may not necessarily be the
most appropriate in all circumstances. In complex tests of this kind it is not practicable to
cover every eventuality by written procedures; often a decision based on the engineer's
judgement is necessary. From the 'basic' tests many other types of triaxial test have been
developed, out of which I have selected those that I have found to be most often needed in
practice.
I have included reference to the 'critical state' concept as one criterion offailure in strength
tests. Although it may not be used very often in routine work an understanding of the principle
provides an aid to the appreciation of idealised soil behaviour, which has been well covered by
other authors. I have introduced the use of stress paths as a method of presenting triaxial test
results, which I suggest is more explicit than the conventional Mohr-Coulomb relationships.
Stress paths are also used in simplified illustrations of the critical state concept, and in the
presentation of the 'SHANSEP' approach to soil strength testing. With the development of
automatic logging and control facilities I believe that increasing use will be made of this type of
approach. It enables tests to be designed to simulate more closely the stress 'history' of the soil
in -situ (past, pres en t and fu ture), which often differs radically from the conditions imposed by
routine tests.
Consolidation testing of clays and silts in the Rowe hydraulic cell has now become a routine
method in many laboratories, although little has been published hitherto on detailed test
procedures. The guidance I have given is combined with an attempt to bring together the
relevant theory and empirical methods of analysis. The review of several procedures for
continuous consolidation testing is derived from the available literature on the subject. I have
included suggestions for modifications to the design of consolidation cells to allow for various
requirements in tests of this kind, which are likely to become more widely used.
Modem soil testing, in common with many other processes, is already making use of
electronic instrumentation and micro-processors. However, in this book I have described the
use of manual observation and recording of data because I believe this is the only way to learn
and understand the principles and procedures. Reference to the use of automatic data-logging
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PREFACE
facilities and automatic control for certain tests is included and these capabilities undou btedly
offer extensive scope for futm€.developm~ITts ..
Many individuals have contributed to the production of this book; their names are listed
under Acknowledgements and are too numerous to detairseparately but I a"lrl very grateful to
them all. During and since my employment with ELE International Limited i have continued
to receive.encouragement and support from Mr D. 1. D. Beatty and his colleagues. Once again.
I am particularly indebted to Mr 1. K. Nixon for his thoroughness in . reading and
commenting on the original drafts. Writing and putting together this volume has taken far
longer than I expected w hen I began. The fact that it has at last been completed is a tribute to
the continuing and devoted support of my wife during that time.
Finally, I hope that this book will be- well used, and I shall welcome comments or
suggestions from those who use it.
K. H. Head
Cobham, Surrey
August 1985
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Contents ."
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EFFECfIVE STRESS TESTING-PRINCIPLES, THEORY AND

APPLICATIONS . 743
15.1 Introductiol'l 743
15.2 Definitions II 745
15.3 Effective stress theory 747
15.4 Shear strength theory 758
15.5 Theory relevant to triaxial tests 766
15.6 Saturation and use of back pressure 787
15.7 Applications of laboratory tests 796
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!,,]6 !I TEST EQUIPMENT 798
)16:1 Introduction 798 ..
16.2 Test cells 799
16.3 Pressure systems 809
16.4 Axial loading systems 812
16.5 Conventional measuring instruments 815
16.6 Electronic instrumentation 827
16.7 Accessories, materials and tools 850
16.8 Preparation and checking of equipment 858
17 CALIBRATIONS, CORRECfIONS AND GENERAL PRACfICE 870

17.1 Introduction 870
17.2 Calibration of measuring instruments 872
17.3 Calibration of cells and accessories 878
17.4 Corrections to triaxial test data 889
17.5 Corrections to Rowe cell test data 903
17.6 General laboratory practice 905
18 ROUTINE EFFECfIVE STRESS TRIAXIAL TESTS 911

18.2 Test equipment 912
18.3 Pre-test checks 919
18.4 Preparation of test samples 928
18.5 Comments on triaxial test procedures 935
18.6 Test procedures 940
18.7 Analysis of data 958
19 FURTHER TRIAXIAL SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS 971

19.1 Scope 971
19.2 Multistage triaxial test 971
19.3 Undrained compression tests 975
19.4 Tests on partly saturated soils 981
19.5 Triaxial extension tests 987
19.6 Tests with decreasing confining pressure 995
) 20 TRIAXIAL CONSOLIDATION AND PERMEABILITY TESTS 1001

20.2 Isotropic consolidation tests 1005
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20.3 Anisotropic consolidation tests' ,.I!I' 1013

20.4 Measurement of permeability • 1017
21 SOIL DEFORMATION TESTS 1028

21.2 Elasticit.y theory in soils 1029
21.3 Factors affecting strain measurements 1036
21.4 Suggested practice 1040
• 21.5 Ko tests, apparatus and samples 1041
21.6 Tests for determining Ko 1045
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22 SPECIAL TRIAXIAL TEST PROCEDURES 1054

.. 22.1 Scope 1054
22.2 Lubricated ends for triaxial tests 1054
22.3 Tests on fissured clays 1062
22.4 Residual strength from triaxial tests 1064
23 STRESS PATHS IN TRIAXIAL TESTING 1076

23.1· Introduction 1076
23.2 Characteristics of stress path plots 1082
23.3 Derivation and use of stress paths 1091
23.4 Test for pore pressure coefficient B 1102
23.5 Stress path cell 1113
23.6 The SHANSEP principle 1119
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24 ROWE CELL CONSOLIDATION AND PERMEABILITY TESTS 1129
24.1 The Rowe consolidation cell 1129
24.2 Theory 1143
24.3 Preparation of equipment 1154
24.4 Sample preparation 1157
24.5 Cell assembly and connections 1164
24.6 Consolidation tests 1175
24.7 Permeability tests 1190
25 CONTINUOUS CONSOLIDATION TESTS 1197

25.2 General principles 1197
25.3 Apparatus 1201
25.4 Constant rate of strain (CRS) test 1208
25.5 Constant rate of loading (CRL) test 1213
25.6 Constant pore pressure gradient (CG) test 1215
25.7 Constant pressure ratio (CPR) test 1216
25.8 Restricted flow consolidation (RFC) test 1218
25.9 Back pressure control (BPC) test 1222
25.1 0 Comparison of tests 1224
APPENDIX: UNITS, SYMBOLS, REFERENCE DATA 1226

,. C.1 Metrie (S1) units 1226
. C2 Symbols 1226
C.3 Sample data 1226
CA Miscellaneous data 1226
INDEX 1234
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Summary of test procedures described in Volume 3
Test designation Section
Chapter 18
Triaxial compression:
Consolidated-undrained (CU) 18.6.1,2,3,5: 18.7.1,2,3,5
Consolidated-drained (CD) 18.6.1,2,4,5; 18.7.1,2,4,5
Chapter 19
Triaxial compression:
Multistage 19.2
Unconsolidated-undrained (UU) 19.3.2
Consolidated quick-undrained (C-QU) 19.3.3
Consolidated constant volume (CCV) 19.3.4
Consolidated-undrained (partly saturated) 19.4.3
Softening due to saturation 19.4.4
Drained (partly saturated) 19.4.5
Triaxial extension:
Reducing axial stress 19.5.3
Constant axial stress 19.5.4
Triaxial with decreasing confining pressure:
Drained 19.6.2
Undrained (partly saturated) 19.6.3
Chapter 20
Triaxial consolidation:
Isotropic, vertical drainage 2Q21
Isotropic, horizontal drainage 2Q22
Anisotropic (general) 2Q3.1
Anisotropic (Ko) 2Q12
Triaxial permeability:
With two back pressure systems 20.4.1
With one back pressure system 20.4.2
With two burettes 20.4.3
Very small permeabilities 20.4.4
Chapter 21
Elastic moduli:
Young's modulus
Poisson's ratio
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21.4.2
Coefficient of earth pressure at rest:
Undrained Ko 21.6.1,3
Drained Ko 21.6.2,3
Chapter 22
Use of lubricated end caps 22.2
Fissured clays 22.3
Residual strength 22.4
SUMMARY OF TEST PROCEDURES DESCRIBED IN VOLUME 3
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Test designation Section
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Chapter 23.
Use of stress paths 23J
Pore pressure coefficient B 23.4
Stress path cell 23.5
SHANSEP principle 23.6
Chapter 24
Consolidation in the Rowe cell:
Vertical (one way) drainage 24.6.2
Vertical (two way) drainage 24.6.3
Radial drainage to periphery 24.6.4
Radial drainage to central well 24.6.5
Cyclic loading 24.6.7
Permeability in the Rowe cell:
Vertical 24.7.2
Horizontal 24.7.3
Chapter 25
Continuoos consolidation:
Constant rate of strain (CRS) 25.4
Constant rate of loading (CRL) 25.5
Constant pore pressure gradient (CG) 25.6
Constant pressure ratio (CPR) 25.7
Restricted flow (RFC) 25.8
Back pressure controlled (BPC) 25.9
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Introduction to Volume 3
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SCOPE ."
The significance of the shear strength of soils was introduced in Volume 2. Determination of
shear strength in the triaxial apparatus was described in Chapter I} but with reference only to
the total stresses applied to a test sample. This volume extends theosooope of shear strength
testing of soils to cover the concept of 'effective stress', which is offundamental importance in
soil mechanics. Effective stress cannot be measured directly, but is determined indirectly by
measuring the pressure of the fluid within the pore spaces of the soil (the 'pore pressure') as well
as the total applied stress.
Measurement of pore pressure is an essential feature of many of the tests described in this
volume. These comprise various kinds of triaxial compression and extension tests for
measuring soil strength and deformation characteristics; consolidation tests (one-dimensional
and three-dimensional) for determining soil compressibility and rate of consolidation; and
measurement of permeability.
TRIAXIAL TESTS
A considerable proportion of this volume is concerned with the measurement of soil strength.
The 'strength' of a soil, unlike that of other materials such as concrete or steel, is not a unique
property but varies within wide limits depending on the conditions imposed, whether in-situ or
in a laboratory test.
The triaxial test offers the most satisfactory way of measuring the shear strength of soil for
many engineering purposes. The triaxial test principle is versatile, and procedures can be
related to numerous types of practical problems. Its outstanding advantages are the facilities
for the control of the magnitude (though not the orientation) of the principal stresses; the
control of drainage; and the measurement of pore water pressure. Information derived from
these tests can provide data for the understanding of basic soil behaviour as well as soil
properties for use in design.
The triaxial apparatus can also be used for the measurement of other soil properties such as
consolidation characteristics and permeability.
CONSOLIDATION TESTS
Compressibility and time-dependent consolidation properties of clay soils were described in
Volume 2, Chapter 14, with reference to the standard oedometer consolidation test. Data
obtained from consolidation tests are of greater fundamental value when pore pressures are
measured, so that effective stresses can be determined. This facility is one feature of the
advanced type of consolidation test apparatus which is now widely used, and which also
provides control of drainage and enables large samples to be tested.
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INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 3
SYNOPSIS OF CHAPTERS
This voluKle can be thought of as comprising four parts, as follows.
Th~ first' part is Chapter 15, which. covers the pribciple of effective- stress and other
theorefic'ci(b'onc.epts that are necessary for a proper understanding onne tests described later. ",
It includes 11 summary of some practical applications of the various tests.
The second part consists of Chapters 16 and 17, covering test equipment and its calibration
and use, Chapter 16 describes the eq uipmen t used for all types of tri~xial test dealt with in this.
volume, including preparation of apparatus for test and pre-test checks. Conventional
measuring equipment and electronic instrumentation are covered, and ,',D outline of
recommended j3Pod laboratory practice is given. Chapter 17 deals with the calibration of
measuring instruments and other equipment, including hydraulic consolidation cells.
Grouped together inthis chapter are details of corrections which have to be made to observed
data in order to allow for varioas experimental factors, relating to both triaxial apparatus and
consolidation cells.
The third part, Chapters 18 to 23, gives details of triaxial test procedures. Chapter 18 deals
with the two types of test most widely used, the consolidated-undrained (CU) and the
consolidated-drained (CD) compression tests, which are regarded here as 'basic' procedures.
From them many other test procedures have been developed, of which those that are most
likely to be of use in commercial practice are described in Chapters 19 to 22. The principles of
presenting test data in the form of stress path plots are given in Chapter 23, and their use in
defining a test loading sequence is indicated. The SHANSEP approach to soil strength testing,
which attempts to reproduce the stress history and future stress changes in the soil, is
introduced, and a recent modified procedure for use with standard equipment is included.
The fourth part is devoted to consolidation testing. Chapter 24 is a self-contained chapter on
the Rowe hydraulic consolidation cell which provides for control of effective stresses and
measuremen t of pore pressure. Several types of consolidation test are described, using vertical
or radial drainage, as well as tests for measuring vertical and horizontal permeabilities.
Chapter 25 provides a review of recent developments in continuous consolidation testing and
makes reference to the ASTM controlled-rate-of-strain test. It concludes with indications of
likely future developments.
REFERENCES TO OTHER SOURCES

None of the tests given in this volume are as yet covered by British Standards, although some
are proposed for inclusion in the next revision of BS 1377 :1975. In the USA the only published
ASTM Standard relevant to the tests in this volume is ASTM Designation 04186-82,
'Standard test method for one-dimensional consolidation properties of soils using controlled-
strain loading', to which reference is made in Chapter 25.
The recognised standard work on triaxial testing to which extensive reference is made is the
book by Bishop and Henkel, 'The Measurement of Soil Properties in the Triaxial Test' (1962
edition, reprinted 1972). Some of the items of equipment which they developed and described
are still in use today, and detailed descriptions are not repeated here. Some of the triaxial test
procedures described in this volume are based on their methods, suitably adapted to conform
to the author's presentation.
Textbooks on the theory and applications of soil mechanics are sligge~ted ~n Section 15.1.1.
Throughout the book references are also made to other works, to' numerous papers in
Geotechnique, in the Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers .(Geotechnical
Division), in International Conference Proceedings and in other jourflals. .
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Chapter 15~'·~':
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Effective stress
testing-Ptinciples, theory and
applications
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15.1 INTRODUCTION
15.1.1 Scope
The concept of effective stress is the most significant principle in the branch of engineering
science known as soil mechanics, and is the basis on which modern soil mechanics has been
built up. The principle of effective stress in soils is set out in this chapter; its historical
development is outlined and its practical importance is explained. Most of the chapter deals
with theoretical aspects of effective stress relevant to laboratory tests for the measurement of
the shear strength of soils in various types of triaxial test.
In commercial practice most effective stress tests are carried out on samples of soil that are
fully saturated, whether in the natural state or as a result of a laboratory-controlled process.
The emphasis in this chapter is on soil behaviour in the saturated condition, but reference is
also made to partial saturation and to the consequent theoretical and practical difficulties.
The aim of this chapter is to explain in simple terms some of the physical theories relating to
the mechanical behaviour of soils when they are subjected to shearing or compression. The
theoretical concepts presented are those needed for an understanding of soil behaviour in the
laboratory tests described in subsequent chapters. For a more complete presentation of
theoretical soil mechanics reference should be made to textbooks such as those by C. R. Scott
(1980) and Lambe and Whitman (1979).
15.1.2 Presentation
After the brief historical outline given below, definitions of the terms used in this volume are
summarised in Section 15.2, The principle of effective stress is stated in Section 15.3, followed
by explanations of the pore pressure coefficients which need to be understood in laboratory
tests. In Section 15.4 the shear strength of soil is discussed and the criteria used for defining
'failure' are reviewed, including reference to the 'critical state' concept. The idealised behaviour
of typical soil types in triaxial tests is described in Section 15.5, together with the derivation of
data necessary for properly conducting the tests, which are tabulated for reference. The use of
back pressures in triaxial and consolidation testing, and the need for obtaining full saturation
of test samples, are discussed in Section 15.6.
This chapter concludes with a brief outline summary, in Section 15.7, of some of the
applications of laboratory tests to practical engineering problems. This is presented only by
way of illustration, because selection of test procedures appropriate to in-situ conditions is
beyond the scope of the laboratory technician and should be controlled by an experienced
geotechnical engineer.
743
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744 EFFECTIVE STRESS TESTING-PRINCIPLES, THEORY AND APPLICATIONS
15.1.3 Historical Note
The principle of effective.st~~s, though basically very si~ple, is offundamental significance in

soil mechanics. Many of the eminent engineers of the past (including Coulomb, Collin and Bell
who were referred to in Volume 2) had failed to grasp this principle, which is possibly why the
development of soil mechanics as a branch of engineering scient::e was delayed until as late as
the 1 9 2 0 s . · _ .
However, at least two scientists of the nineteenth century seem to have realised some of its
implications. Sir Charles Lyell (1871) appreciated that the pressure of deep water does not
consolidate the sand and mud of the sea bed. In 1886 Osborne Reynolds demonstrated the
dilatancy of dense sand by compressing a rubber bag full of satur'!ted sand. He observed a
large negative pressure in the pore water and the resulting high strength, most of which was
lost on releasing the negative pressure to atmosphere.
The significance of pore pressure in soils, and the principle of effective stress, were first fully
appreciated by Karl Terzaghi about 1920. He realised that the total stress normal to any plane
was shared between the grain structure and the pressure of the water filling all or most of the
void spaces between the grains. The effective stress was defined as the difference between the
total stress and the pressure of the water in the pore spaces, which he called the 'neu tral stress'
and is now generally known as the pore water pressure. Terzaghi found that the mechanical
properties of soils (notably strength and compressibility) are directly controlled by the effective
stress, that is to say they are related entirely to the solid phase of the soil. He first used the
effective stress equation (J' = (J - U in 1923, and published the principle in 1924 which marked
the beginning of a true understanding of the shearing behaviour of soils.
The effective stress principle was clearly stated by Terzaghi in English at the First
International Conference on Soil Mechanics held at Cambridge, Mass., USA (Terzaghi, 1936).
The first part of the statement defines effective stress; the second part defines its importance.
(1) The stresses in any point ofa section through a mass of soil can be computed from the total
principal stresses (J l' (J 2 and (J 3 which act at this point. If the voids of the soil are filled with
water under a stress u the total principal stresses consist of two parts. One part u acts in the
water and in the solid in every direction with equal intensity. It is called the neutral stress
(or the pore pressure). The balance (J'l = (J 1 - U, (J~ = (J 2 - u, (J3 = (J 3 - u, represents an
excess over the neutral stress u and it has its seat exclusively in the solid phase of the soil.
This fraction of the total principal stress will be called the effective principal stress.'
(2) 'All measurable effects of a change of stress, such as compression, distortion and a change
of shearing resistance, are exclush,e1y due to changes in the effective stresses.'
From 1921 to 1925 Terzaghi carried out and published results of 'consolidated-undrained'
shearbox tests on clays which were normally-consolidated, from which he obtained values of
the effective 'angle of internal friction', denoted by cp', ranging from 14° to 42° (Terzaghi, 1925 a
and b). The first triaxial tests on clay, both drained and undrained, with measurement of pore
pressure were carried out in Vienna under Terzaghi's direction by Rendulic from 1933
(Rendulic, 1937). The results of these tests gave direct evidence of the validity of the principle of
effective stress in saturated soils. Tests in the USA by Taylor (1944) provided similar evidence.
A detailed historical survey of Terzaghi's work is given by Skempton in 'From Theory to
Practice in Soil Mechanics' (1960). Terzaghi presented his concepts in London in the James
Forrest Lecture to the Institution of Civil Engineers (Terzaghi, 1939), and in his address to the
Fourth International Conference (1957).
The first triaxial tests to be carried out in Britain with measurement of pore water pressure
were probably those on saturated sand at Imperial College reported by Bishop and Eldin
(1950). These were followed by tests with pore pressure measurement on samples of
undisturbed clay from the site of a dam, the results from which were the first of their kind in
Britain to playa major part in a foundation design (Skempton and Bishop, 1955). Many
developments in analysis and design using the effective stress principle, and in the design of
15.1 INTRODUCTION 745
testing equipment, were made at Imperial College during the next few years. Following the
publication o~The Measurement of Soil Properties in the Triaxial Test' (Bishop and Henkel,
1957), effective stress testing began to be used as standard procedure in commercial
. labor.atories. The second ed\tion (1962) of that book is still widely used" The conference on
Pore Pres~u.re and Suction in Soils (London, 1960) proviqed a furtper stimulus for the ,.
recognition of these ·procelOlures. Today most soil testing laboratories of significance
throughout the world, including 'site laboratories on many important earthwork projects, are
e<fUipped to carry out effective stress triaxial tests .
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15.2 DEFINITIONS
Most of the terms used in this volume, except the basic terms defined in Volume 1, are defined
below. Some of these definitions supplement those found in Volume 2. The symbols generally
used are also shown.
SOIL SKELETON The assembl,i}ge of solid particles which can transmit stresses through
the points of intergranular contact.
POROSITY (n) The volume of voids between solid particles expressed as a fraction of the
total volume of a mass of soil. .
VOIDS RATIO (e) The ratio of the volume of voids (water and air) to the volume of solid
particles in a mass of soil.
DEGREE OF SA TURA TION (S) The volume of water contained in the void space between ~.
soil particles expressed as a percentage of the total volume of voids.
FULLY SATURATED SOIL A soil in which the void spaces are entirely filled with water
(i.e. S = 1, or 100%).
PARTLY SATURATED SOIL A soil in which the void spaces contain both free air and /'
water. Also termed 'partially saturated' by some authors.
PAR TIAL SA TURA TION The state of saturation in a partly saturated soil.
TOTAL STRESS (u) The actual stress in a soil mass due to the application of an applied
pressure or force.
NEUTRAL STRESS (u) The term originally used by Terzaghi for the pore water pressure./
PORE PRESSURE (u) The pressure of the fluid contained in the void spaces.
PORE WATER PRESSURE (u w ) The hydrostatic pressure of the water contained in the /
void spaces; often referred to as pore pressure; abbreviated p.w.p.
PORE AIR PRESSURE (u a ) The pre,ssure of the air in the voids of a partly saturated soil;
generally greater than the pore water pressure.
EFFECTIVE STRESS (0") The difference between the total stress and the pore pressure>
u' = u - u
INTER-GRANULAR STRESS The stress carried out by the soil skeleton, in terms of the
total area of cross-section. Approximates closely ttihe effective stress.
INTER-PARTICLE STRESS The stress transmitted by solid particles at their points of
contact.
EXCESS PORE PRESSURE (u - uo) The increase in pore pressure above the static value
U o due to the sudden application of an external load or pressure. Also referred to as the excess
hydrostatic pressure.
DISSIPATION Decay of excess pore pressure due to drainage of pore fluid.
=,~~~~kW;";~~ ~",y.&U!"'$ ",""",W ,.,f#l_"'",~* ..
~~ ---,~--,~",", '---~"',~,~-- .. - -
PORE PRESSURE DISSIPATION (U) The ratio of excess pore pressure lost.after a certain
time due to drainage (Ui - u) to the initial excess pore pressure (Ui - u o ) at any instant during '.
consolidation. It is usually expressed as a percentage, and is also. referred to as the degree of
consolidation.·..··
U· - U
U = - '- ( x 100%)
Ui - Uo '.
CONFINING PRESSURE (0-3 or o-h) The all-round pressure applied to a test sample in the
cell chamber of the triaxial apparatus.
VERTICAL (AXIAL) STRESS (0- 1 or o-v) The stress applied to a test sample in the vertical
(axial) direction.
PRINCIPAL STRESSES The normal stresses which act on pri?!cipal planes, i.e. the three
....
mutually perpendicular planes on which the shear stresses are zero.
MAJOR PRINCIPAL STRESS (O-l"or 0-'1) The largest of the three principal stresses. In
...
triaxial compression, 0- 1 = 0- v and 0-'1 = o-~. In triaxial extension, 0- 1 = 0- h and o-~ = o-/,.
MINOR PRINCIPAL STRESS (0- 3 or 0-3) The smallest of the three principal stresses. In
triaxial compression, 0-3 = o-h and 0-3 = o-/,. In triaxial extension, 0-3 = o-v and 0-3 = o-~.
INTERMEDIATE PRINCIPAL STRESS (0-2 or o-~) The principal stress which is
intermediate between 0- 1 and 0-3'
DEVIATOR STRESS (0- 1 - 0-3) The stress due to the axial load applied to a triaxial test----/
sample in excess of the confining pressure; positive for compression, negative for extension.
SHEAR STRENGTH The maximum resistance of a soil to shear stresses on a potential
rupture surface within the soil mass.
F AlLURE Failure in shear occurs in a soil when its shear resistance is exceeded, resulting in
relative sliding of soil particles along a surface of rupture. Failure can also be defined as a
state at which stresses, or strains, reach a critical or limiting value .
.BACK PRESSURE (u b ) The pressure of water applied to the pore fluid in a test sample...
NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED A normally consolidated soil has never been subjected
to a greater pressure than the present overburden pressure.
OVER CONSOLIDATED CLAY A clay which in the past has been consolidated under a
pressure greater than the present overburden pressure, usually by overlying deposits which
have since· been eroded away.
PRECONSOLIDA TION PRESSURE The maximum effective pressure to which an
overconsolidated clay was subjected.
OVERCONSOLIDATION RATIO (OCR) The ratio of the preconsolidation pressure to
the effective overburden pressure.
ISOTROPIC CONSOLIDATION Consolidation under the influence of an all-round
hydrostatic pressure, in which the vertical effective stress (o-~) an.d the horizontal effective
stresses (0-;') are equal.
ANISOTROPIC CONSOLIDATION Consolidation under stresses in which the vertical
effective stress is different from the horizontal effective stresses.
Ko CONDITION Vertical compression or consolidation in which th~re is no lateral
displacemen 1.
COEFFICIENT OF EARTH PRESSURE AT REST(K o) The ratio·ofthe horizontal to the
vertical effective stress in a mass of soil in equilibrium under its own weight.
K 0 =o-h-
0-'v
15.3 EFFECTIVE STRESS THEORY 747
15.3 EFFECTIVE STRESS THEORY
] 5.3.1 Principle of Effective Stress
SOIL CONSTITUENTS "1
In Volume 1, Section 1.1.5, soil was defined as an assemblage of discrete particles, together with
variable amounts of water and air. The solid particles are in contact with one another, forming
an uncemented skeletal structure, and the spaces between (hem. form a system of
interconnecting voids or 'pores' (Volume 1, Section 3.2). In ~ saturated soil- the voids ar.e •
completely filled with water; in a dry soil they contain only air. Ifboth air and water are present
the soil is said to be 'partly saturated', and the condition is that of 'P'lrtial saturation'. The
interaction between the soil structure and the pore fluid, whether w,ater or a combination of
water and air, is responsible for the behaviour of a soil mass, esp~cially its. time-~ependent
properties. Saturated soil is considered below and in Section 1'5.3.2; partly saturated soil is ..
discussed in Section 15.3.3.
SIGN CONVENTION FOR STRESS AND STRAIN

Stress is defined as intensity ofloading, i.e. force per unit area (Volume 2, Section 12.2). Normal
stresses act normal (perpendicular) to a given plane of section, and shear stresses act
tangentially to the plane. The sign convention adopted for normal stresses is that compressive
forces and stresses are positive, because soils cannot usually sustain tensile stresses. It follows
that compressive displacement and strains are also positive, and therefore changes that show
decreases in length, area or volume are measured as positive changes.
In the pore fluid between soil particles, pressure is positive and suction is negative.
STRESSES IN DRY SOIL

In a mass of dry soil, forces are transmitted between particles at their points of contact. The
resulting local inter-particle stresses are very much higher than the stresses applied to the soil
mass. However, these inter-particle stresses are of interest only in special studies of the
interactions between particles. For most practical purposes the soil is treated as if it were a
continuum, and the intergranular stress on a plane of section is defined as the mean stress on
the total area of section. This assumption is satisfactory as long as the dimensions of particles
are considerably smaller than the test sample.
TRANSMISSION OF NORMAL STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL

In a saturated soil that is in equilibrium under an applied load the total stress (a) normal to a
given plane is carried partly by the solid particles at their points of contact and partly by the
pressure of the water in the void space, referred to as the pore water pressure (u w )' This is
illustrated by the cross-section ofa triaxial test sample shown in Fig. 15.1 (a). The cell confining
pressure a applies a total stress a normal to the sample boundary. The pressure U w of the water
in the sample voids (which is less than a) is a hydrostatic pressure and acts equally in all
directions. It exerts a pressure of U w normal to the sample boundary. The difference between
the two stresses, a - uw , is transmitted across the boundary Fig. 15.1 (b) and is carried by the
soil skeleton.
The difference between the total stress and the pore water pressure is known as the 'effective
stress' and is denoted by a' (or sometimes by G). The equation defining effective stress is
a' = a - Uw (15.1)
This equation, the most fundamental in soil mechanics, was first stated by Terzaghi in 1924
(see Section 1501.3). Although the principle is very simple, it is of the utmost importance and
must be properly understood. The significance of effective stress is emphasised by Terzaghi's
0: .
. t r l'~..·,
--
"-''''
: ~
aturated ,L?'
'- t;..... -
oil
applie d - uw -
.
---
~J
ample
-- p/l ..... - /r~

confin rng
press Ire
a
a ....- U
w
..... - p are water
-: ~ r~ ~-
p essure
-
o I Uw
(0 -u w ) carried by
soil ske,Leton
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.1 Total stress and pore water pressure in a triaxial test sample
second statement that all measurable effects of a change of stress are due exclusively to changes
in the effective stresses. When dealing with the engineering behaviour of soil the effective
stresses, and changes in effective stresses, must always be considered.
Effective stress is sometimes defined as being equal to the 'intergranular' stress, i.e. the stress
transmitted between solid particles. While this may be useful as an aid to visualising the
physical significance of effective stress, it is only an approximation. However, within the range
of stresses generally applicable to soils the approximation is very close.
CO M PRESSI BILITY
The change in volume of a soil subjected only to normal stresses is governed by the change in
effective stress, not total stress. The relationship between volume change (expressed as
volumetric strain, .1 V/V) and change in normal effective stress is given by the equation
.1; = -C • .1(j' (15.2)
where .1 V is the change in volume, V the initial volume, C. the volume compressibility of the
soil skeleton, and .1(j' the change in effective stress. The minus sign appears because
mathematically an increase in stress produces a decrease in volume.
A change in volume is always accompanied by a change in effective stress, even when the
applied total stress remains constant, if the pore pressure changes due to drainage. This point is
illustrated by the Terzaghi model of the consolidation process described in Volume 2, Section
14.3.2. In the spring and piston analogy shown in Fig. 14.4, the load applied to the piston
represents the total stress, which sets up a pressure in the water in the cylinder (equivalent to
the excess pore pressure). Opening the valve represents drainage, which causes a gradual
increase of the load carried by the spring (the effective stress) with a corresponding downward
movement (change in volume).
Relative volume compressibilities of the soil structure, solid grains and water are indicated
in Table 15.1. These approximate values show that a soil of 'low' compressibility is about 100
times more compressible than water, and at least 1600 times more so than the constituent soil
particles. For most practical purposes the compressibilities of water and the solid particles can
be neglected.
TRANSMISSION OF SHEAR STRESS IN SATURATED SOIL

A fluid cannot provide resista'nce to shear. Shear stresses in soil are transmitted entirely by
Table 15.1. APPROXIMATE VOLUME COMPRESSIBILITIES
Volume compressibility
2
Material m /MN relalire to water
Soil particles 1.5-3.0. x 10- 5 0..03-0..0.6
Water 0..0.005
Soils: low compressibility 0.0.5 100

high compressibility 1.5 30.0.0.
friction forces at the points of intergranular contact, i.e. by the soil skeleton itself. Therefore
re~islance to the shear stress along a given plane depends tln the effective stress normal to
that plane, not on the total normal s~ress. The Coulomb equation (Volume 2, Section 12.3.6,
Equation (12.7)) which gives the maximum resistance. to shear (r J) on a plane of failure was
modified by Terzaghi to the form .•
r! = c' + (a - UlI') tan ¢'
i.e. r! = c' + a' tan ¢t (15.3)
in which r J is the shear stress on the plane (in terms of effective stress), a' the effective stress
normal to that plane, U w the pore water pressure, c' the apparent cohesion, and ¢' the angle of
shear resistance, the two last items being the effective stress parameters for the soil.
Shear stresses imposed on a soil can cause changes in the effective stress when there is no
change in volume. This occurs for example when drainage of pore water is prevented during an
undrained compression test on a saturated sample. But the shear strains resulting from the
shear stresses cause deformation of the soil, and the sample undergoes a change of shape.
Changes in effective stress are always accompanied by deformation of the soil structure.
Deformation may consist of volumetric strain (under drained conditions, referred to above
under Compressibility) or shear strain, or a combination of both.
Results of shear strength tests carried out in the triaxial apparatus can be interpreted in
terms of either total stress or effective stress. The latter prdvides the more fundamental
treatment, for which the Mohr-Coulomb failure theory is represented by Equation (15.3).
Effective stresses cannot be measured directly but are obtained from values of tota! stress and
pore water pressure as measured in the tests to be described. Data obtained from these tests
enable pore pressure changes to be related to changes in the applied stresses by using the
experimental coefficients described in the next section.
15.3.2 Pore Pressure Coefficients in Saturated Soil
TOTAL STRESS AND PORE PRESSURE CHANGES

The relationship between pore pressure changes and changes in total stress in a soil can be
expressed in terms of the pore pressure coefficients A and B which were defined by Skempton
(1954). Their meaning and function are explained below by considering the stress system of a
triaxial compression test on a saturated soil.
An element of soil in a triaxial test sample is initially under zero all-round pressure and the
internal pore water pressure is zero (Fig. 15.2 (a». In a triaxial test stresses are applied to the
sample in two stages.
(1) The all-round pressure, i.e. the cell pressure, is increased by AO' 3 (Fig. 15.2 (b» (an isotropic
stress increase) which causes the pore pressure to rise by Au,.
(2) An additional axial stress increment (deviator stress) of (AO' 1 - AO' 3) is applied (Fig.
15.2 (c», which causes a further pore pressure increase of AUd' The total resultant change in
0 /::'03
.
(/::'0,- /::'03) /::'0,
.. •+ •t •
-o B
• +
u=o - + /::'03E}
- /::'U c ' ' - + B- ..
/::'~B
_3 /::'U _
t t tt ttt
(a) (b) fe} Cd)
Horizontal stress: /::, 03 + o = /::'03
Vertical stress: /::'03 + (/::'0, - /::, 03) = /::'0,
"
Pore pressure: /::,u c + /::'Ud = /::'u

Fig, J 5.2 Stresses applied to an element of soil in a triaxial test sample: (a)'initially,
(b) cell pressure increment, (c) increment of deviator stress, (d) resultant change
pore pressure is equal to

~u = ~ue + ~Ud
The component of pore pressure change ~ue due to the isotropic stress change is related to
that change by the coefficient B, defined by the equation
flue = B. ~(J3 (15.4)
(Fig. 15.2 (d)).
The component of pore pressure change ~Ud due to the increment of deviator stress depends
on the coefficient B and also on coefficient A, as explained later.
The coefficients B and A are discussed under separate headings below. These coefficients
apply to both increasing and decreasing stresses, but their values for a stress change of a certain
magnitude might depend on the sign of that change.
COEFFICIENT B IN SATURATED SOIL

In a saturated soil from which no drainage is permitted, the compression of the soil structure
under stress is the same as the compression of the water in the voids, assuming that the
compressibility of the soil grains can be neglected (see Table 15.1). In an element of soil of
volume V, the volume of the void spaces, and therefore of the water (Vw),is equal to n V, where n
is the porosity (Volume 1, Section 3.3.1).
An increase in the isotropic stress of ~(J 3 causes an increase in pore water pressure of ~uC'
and the change in effective stress from Equation (15.1) is equal to .
~(J3 = ~(J 3 - ~ue
The compressibility of the soil skeleton as a whole is denoted by Cs ' and from Equation (15.2)
the resulting unit volume change of ~ V/Vis equal to - C e . ~(J3' i.e. it depends on the change of
effective stress. '
Therefore ~V = -CsV~(J3
= -Cs V(~C73 - uc )
Denoting the compressibility of water by C w , the unit volume change of the water in the
voids, ~ Vw/Vw , due to the increase in water pressure ~ue is equal to - C w ' ~uc,
i.e. ~VW = -CwV... ~uc
and since V", = n V,

/1Vw =·~CwnV/1uc
.",-
.A
. ., ..
If the solid particles are incompressible,.AV ~lJd./1 V", are equal,
• . •. .... .~~, :'1<":.~:.:...· •
I.e.
Re-arranging,
-CsV(/1O'3 ..... Au~1:<::;
'... -C w nV/1uc
..
i
/1u = .' /10' 3 (15.5)
c 1 nCw
+C-
s
Comparing with Equation (15.4), the coefficient B is defined by the relationship
B=--- (15.6)
nCw
1+-
C.
o ..
Referring to the values given in Table 15.1, the ratio Cw/C s is very sfnall and therefore the" ,
value of B for a satutated soil is very close to 1; for practical purposes B = 1 for 100% .
saturation. This is the same as saying that the increment of total stress dO' 3 ~ carried entirely by
the pore pressure inc~ement /1u c if no drainage is permitted.
COEFFICIENT A
The shear stresses induced in a soil sample by the application of a deviator stress tend to cause
the sample to change its volume. Loose sands and soft clays tend to collapse, and dense sands
and stiff clays tend to expand (dilate). In a saturated soil this causes water to be expelled from
or sucked into the soil if flow of water is allowed. If it is prevented, the attempt to change
volume results in a change in pore water pressure. In loose or collapsing soils this leads to a
positive change (increase) in pore pressure (+ /1u d ); in dense or dilatant soils it leads to a
negative change (decrease) (-/1u d ). This behaviour is accounted for in a simple manner by .
means of the pore pressure coefficient A, which is applied as follows.
If a saturated soil behaved as a perfectly elastic material, the pore pressure change dUd
according to elastic theory would be related to the deviator stress change (dO'l - dO' 3) by the
equation
dUd = j(/1O' 1 - dO' 3)
For soils generally, for any value of B the equation would be
dUd = jB(/1O' 1 - dO' 3)
However, soils do not usually behave in an elastic manner, and this equation has to be re-
written
/1u d = A . B(/1O' 1 - /10'3) -(15.7)
where A is a coefficient, to be derived experimentally, which relates pore pressure changes to
changes of deviator stress. The value of A depends on the type of soil and the amount of shear
strain to which it is subjected, and generally lies in the range - 0.5 to + 1.0.
GENERAL PORE PRESSURE EQUATION

The combined effect of the stress changes illustrated in Fig. 15.2 is found by adding together the
two components represented by Equations (15.4) and (15.7):
du = /1uc + /1u d ~ B . dO' 3 + A . B(/1O' 1 - /10'3)
i.e. /1u = B[ /10' 3 + A (/10' 1 - dO' 3)] (15.8)
For the special case of a fully saturated soil, i.e. B = 1, Equation (15.8) becomes
~ = A0'3 + A(AO'I - A0'3)·
Au (15.9)
In att.i·a~}itte~t·inwhich 0'3.PC,u;.~insconstant
becomes •
.' ~..
:.... .
,"
(A0'3 ='0) and .
• •
when B = 1, Equation (15:9)
Au = A(AO'I - Aq3)
and the coefficient A at any instant is defined by the equation
Au
A=---- (15.1 0)
AO'I - A0'3
•
where (AO'I - A0'3) is the change of deviator stress (equal to the applied deviator stress
«0' 1 - 0'3) in a normal compression test), and Au is the corresponding pore pressure change
(from the start of loading in a compression test).
COEFFICIENT A J
At failure, often the most significant condition in a triaxial test, the value of A is denoted by A f'
i.e.
AUf
Af = -----''--- (15.11)
(AO'I - A0'3)f
where is the pore pressure change from start of l:'~~ to failure, i.e. AUf = Uf - Uo, and
AUf
(0-1 - is the deviator stress at failure ('peak' value).
3) f
(J'
The value of A f depends not only on the type of soil but also on its previous stress history.
Some typical values from compression tests are summarised in Table 15.2. It is related to the
overconsolidation ratio (OCR), i.e. the ratio of the maximum stress to which the soil has been
subjected in the past to the present in-situ pressure. A typical relationship is shown in Fig. 15.3,
in which an OCR of 1 represents normally-consolidated clay. Above a certain OCR the value
of A f becomes negative, which means that at the point offailure the tendency to dilate is strong
enough to reduce the pore pressure to a level below that at the start of the compression test.
15.3.3 Pore Pressure Coefficients in Partly Saturated Soil
EFFECT OF PARTIAL SATURATION

A soil that is partly saturated consists of a three phase system, containing water and gas (ail ')r
water vapour) between the solid particles. The analysis of partial saturation is much more
Table 15.2. TYPICAL VALUES OF PORE PRESSURE COEFFICIENT A J
Volume change
Type of soil due to shear AJ
Highly sensitive clay large contraction +0.75 to + 1.5
Normally consolidated clay contraction +0.5 to +1
Compacted sandy clay slight contraction + 0.25 to +0.75
Lightly overconsolidated clay none 0 to +0.5
Compacted clay gravel expansion - 0.25 to +0.25

Heavily overconsolidated clay expansion -0.5 to 0
(After Skempton, 1954)

normally
consolidated,lightly
" toverconsolidated
+1.0
J heavily
overconsolidated ~
values
of
.-
At !II
.
+1).5
-0.5
1 2 4 8 16 "'32
,. overconsolidation ratio
Fig. 15.3 Typical relationship of Ar to overconsolidation ratio
complex than for full saturation for two main reasons:

(a) gas is highly compressible;
(b) the pressures in the two fluids are not equal.
Item (a) obviously has a very important effect on the compressibility of soil. Item (b) is a
result of the effect of surface tension of water.
The word 'air', as applied to the voids between solid particles in soil, is used in this book to
signify a gas, usually air or water vapour or a mixture of both.
At an air:-water interface the meniscus effect results in the pore air pressure (u D ) being always
greater than the pore water pressure (u w )' The significance of the two pore fluids in terms of
engineering behaviour is related to the extent to which the voids are saturated, and on this
basis partly saturated soils can be divided into two categories.
(1) Soils with a relatively high degree of saturation, in which the water in the voids is
continuous and air exists as isolated pockets or bubbles.
(2) Soils with a low degree of saturation, in which the air is continuous and water is present as
thin layers around and between the solid particles.
The critical degree of saturation between these two conditions is generally about 20"10 for
sands, 40"10-50"10 for silts and 85% or more for clays (Jennings and Burland, 1962). Below the
critical value, collapse of the grain structure of a loaded cohesive soil can occur on wetting
(Burland, 1961).
MODIFIED PORE PRESSURE EQUATION

The determination of effective stresses in partly saturated soils requires the measurement of
pore air pressure as well as pore water pressure. The expression for effective stress (Equation
(15.1)) was amended by Bishop apd Henke! (1962) to take pore air pressure into account as
follows. ..
~ I-
cr' = (cr - u,,) + x(u" - uw ) (15.12)
in which the coefficient Xis a constant which depends on the degree of saturation and the type of
soil. It varies from 0 for dry soils to 1 forJull saturation, in the manner indicated in Fig. 15.4 for
some typical soils. For soils in which the degree of saturation exceeds 90"10, it can be assumed
that X = 1 for practical purposes.
typical for clays Ilililt

1.0 i i' 'i,' ....
'!II ;-
coefficient
X
..... .
'boulder clay'
O.8J I ! 7'0/Z
compacted
0.6 I 1 ,/ //1/ I 1day shale
0.4
1 1
//1/
x--100
S
'/
0.21"71
oV 0 20 40 60 80 100
deg ree of satu ration S%
Fig. 15.4 Relationship between coefficient X and degree of saturation for several
. soil types
Equation (1S.12) was re-written by Jennings and Burland (1962) in the form
(J' = (J - [xu w + (1 - X)uaJ
= (J - u* (1S.13)
where u* is considered as an 'equivalent pore pressure', representing that part of the stress in
the soil taken by the fluid pressure in the pore space.
Measurement of pore air pressure is beyond the scope of this book, but some understanding
of the nature of a two-fluid system is desirable when testing partly saturated soils
(Section 19.4).
COEFFICIENT B IN PARTLY SATURATED SOIL

For a partly saturated soil containing air and water in the pore spaces, the composite pore fluid
as a whole is very much more compressible than water alone, and the value of B is less than
unity. An isotropic total stress increment !l(J3' is then carried partly by the pore pressure
increment and partly by an increment of effective stress CT'3 in the soil skeleton.
The value of B depends to some extent on the compressibility of the soil skeleton as well as
on the degree of saturation, both of which determine the overall compressibility of the
composite pore fluid (denoted here by Cf). Using th.e same reasoning as in Section 1S.3.2, and
replacing C w by Cf' Equation (1S.6) defining tb~:G<:?ejficient B becomes
1 .. :.. '
B= ~'" ,•• (lS.14)
nC··
1 + ---.l •
Cs
In saturated soils (S = 100"10), as explained above, Cf is negligible compared with Cs and
hence B = 1. At the other extreme, in dry soils CfiC. becomes very large indeed because air is
1.0 saturated
•
B ".
valu~
." 0.8 .' ..
0.6
0.4 ....
;
0.2
o 0 20 40 60 80 100
degree of saturation S%
Fig 15.5 Relationship between pore pressure coefficient B and degree of saturation
vastly more compressible than the soil structure, and therefore B can be taken as zero when
S = O.
For partly saturated soils B lies between 0 and 1. The relationship between B and the degree
of saturation S is not linear, but is typically of the form shown in Fig. 15.5. Compacted soil at
'optimum' moisture content and dry density generally has a B value in the range 0.1 to 0.5.
Other aspects of partly saturated soils are discussed later.
OVERALL COEFFICIENT Ii
When considering pore pressures in earth dams or embankments the relationship of pore
pressure to total major principal stress, cr H is significant. It is then convenient to re-write
Equation (15.8) in the form .
!!.u = B[4tt; - (1 - A)(!!.cr 1 -!!.cr3)]
hence //
-~
!!.cr 1
[
= B 1 - (1 - A) 1 - - (!!.~)J
!!.cr 1
(15.15)
The right-hand side of Equation (15.15) is denoted by the symbol E. This is called the 'overall'
pore pressure coefficient, and depends on the principal stress ratio.
If the ratio of the major and minor principal effective stresses is denoted by K,
" .._--- / K = L\cr3 = !!.cr 3 - !!.U
L\cr~ L\cr 1 - L\u
Hence
!!. cr 3· = K + !!.U (1 - K)
!!.cr 1 !!.cr 1
Substituting in the right-hand side of Equation (15.15) and re-arranging modifies that
equation to
Llu 1 - (1 - A) - K) -
.. - =B =B .. (15.16)
• Llo- I ·1 - B(l .-:- .4)(1 .~K) ... •
A laboratory iest' for the determination orB qtri-bi!'c~riiedout by 'maintaining the ratio of
principal effective stresses 0-'3/0-'1 at a constant v.alue.k. The selected value of K depends on the
required factor of safety again failure, and is intermediate between Ko, the coefficient 01 earth
pressure at rest (Section 15.6.5) and K f' the ratio at failure. For the specified ratio, .
Llu = BLlo- 1 (15.17)
The test is described in Section 23.4.
For maI1.Y compacted soils placed on the wet side of the optimum moisture conte~t, typical
values of B range from about 0.6 to 0.8. The value tends to increase as the stresses ~ncrease.
COEFFICIENT A
For a partly saturated soil the product A. B in Equation (15.7) is replaced by the coefficient A,
giving the equation
Llu = B. Llo- 3 + A(Llo- 1 - LlO".l) (15.18) .i
In a triaxial test on partly saturated soil, A is defined in the same way as A for saturated soil,
and the value at failure is denoted by Af' If A is to be calculated from A, the value of B
appropriate to the pressure range during the compression test should be used.
15.3.4 Stresses in a Soil Element
SOIL IN THE GROUND

An element of the soil of unit cube in its natural state in the ground at depth z below the surface
is indicated in Fig. 15.6 (a). The soil is saturated and in equilibrium, and the static water table is
at a depth h below the surface. Above the water the mass density of the soil is the bulk density,
p. Below the water table the total mass per unit volume is the saturated density, Psat.
The major total principal stress on the soil element 0- 1 acts vertically and is denoted by 0-v'
The intermediate and minor principal stresses, 0- 2 and 0-3' are equal and act horizontally, and
are denoted by o-h (Fig. 15.6 (b)).
The total vertical stress 0- v acting on the element is equal to the weight (force) of the column
of soil supported by its unit area (Fig~ 15.6 (a»;
i.e. (Iv = hpg + (z - h)psat 9 (15.19)
where 9 is the acceleration due to gravity. If the soil element lies below layers of soil of differing
densities, the contributions of all layers to the total vertical stress are summed when
calculating o-V'
The pore water pressure U w within the soil element is equal to the pressure of the head of
water (z - h) above it
i.e. Uw = (z - h)Pwg (15.20)
The effective vertical stress O'~ is
O'~ = O'v - Uw
i.e. O'~ = hpg + (z - h)Psat 9 - (z - h)Pwg

= [hp + (z - h)(Psat - Pw}Jg (15.21)
The horizontal effective stress 0';' is related to the vertical stress by the coefficient of earth
,.
(1, • -.. f?,,:.,,:;
~.
".,'
¥
P 03
. "..
(12
". vJater table z
-.---
- - - -.. ----
--
(1, = (1v
Psat (12 = (13 = (1h
(8) (b)
"1,rl
fv .(1~' fv'
(1h-Ed (1h~ = Ko (1v:O
(c)
Fig. 15.6 Stresses on a soil element in the ground: (a) representation of in-situ
condition, (b) principal stresses, (c) effective stresses
pressure at rest, Ko, (Section 21.1.3) in the equation

UI. = Ko"~
(Fig. 15.6 (c)). The pore water pressure Uw acts equally in all directions, and the total horizontal
stress is therefore
Uh = "I. + Uw
= Kou~ + U w (15.22)
The mean total principal stress, p, is equal to !(u 1 + u 2 + U 3),
i.e. p = -Hu v + 2"h) (15.23)
The mean effective principal stress p' is given by
p' = p - Uw
or p' = t(U'l + 2(3)

= -iu~(1 + 2Ko) (15.24)
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
In practice the following units are used:
Depths z, h metres.
Mass densities p, Psat' Pw Mg/m3.
Pore water pressure U w kPa.
Density of water Pw = 1 Mg/m 3.
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m/s2 can often be taken as (10) m/s2.
Stresses uv , uh"etc. kPa.
The stresses calculated from the above e~ations are in kPa without further correction, i.e.
O'v = (lO)[hp +(z - h)Psat] kPa,-
u'" = (10)(z -h).. kPa
.~
O'~ = (l0)[J1 + (z - h)(Psat - 1)] kPa
O'~ = KoO'~ kPa
•
O'h = KoO'~ + u'" kPa
-. .EFFECT O~ SAMPLING
When the soil element is remo.ved from the ground as part of a sample the confining stresses are
relieved and virtually reduced to zero. The change in the applied stress induces a change in the
pore pl'essure: which can be calculated theoretically from Skempton's equation
Au = B[A0'3 + A(AO'J - A0'3)] (15.8)
Since the soil is satUi'ated, B = 1, and the value of A for a normally-consolidated clay may be
up to about 0.5 for 'the small strains envisaged.
Substituting the above stress values,
= 0 - O'h = -O'h
A0'3
AO'J = 0 - O'v = -O'v
Hence Au = -O'h + A( -O'v + O'h)
= -AO'v - (1 - A)O'h
The pore pressure Ui in the sample is then theoretically equal to (u w + Au)
i.e. Uj = Uw - AO'v - (1 - A)O'h
in which O'v, uw ' O'h are derived from Equations (15.19), (15.20) and (15.22). The resulting pore
pressure is negative and provides a 'suction' imparting an internal effective stress which holds
the soil structure together. The negative pore pressure in a sample, even if it can be measured
accurately, does not necessarily indicate the value of the mean effective stress in-situ.
In practice a sample undergoes some deformation in being removed from the ground and
some additional change in the effective stress is inevitable. Due to the relief of stress, dissolved
gas can escape from solution and form bubbles-the presence of organic matter usually
aggravates this tendency. If gas is released the sample is no longer fully saturated and there is a
change of volume. For the reasons given in Section 15.6.2 it is desirable to counteract these
reactions before carrying out an effective stress test in which pore pressures are to be measured.
Pore pressure changes in the sample due to re-application of stress may not be equal in
magnitude to those which occurred when stresses were relieved. Consequent1y~ re-imposition
of the mean in-situ total stress p = 1(O'v + 20'h) as an isotropic stress in the triaxial cell will not
necessarily bring the sample back to the in-situ condition of effective stress. Suitable
adjustment of the back pressure may be necessary to achieve this.
.'
15.4 SHEAR STRENGTH THEORY
'"
15.4.1 Shear Strength of Soil
MEANING OF SHEAR STRENGTH
- The shear strength of a soil is measured in terms of a limiting resistance to deformation offered
by a soil-mass or test sample when subjected to loading or unloading. The limiting shearing
15.4 SHEAR STRENGTH THEORY 759
resistance, corresponding"to the condition generally referred to as 'failure', can be defined in ""
.. ',-+,
several differen t ways, which are reviewed ill Section 15.4.2. Cr~teria of failure commonly used
as a basis for stability calculations in foundation design ate not necessarily the same as a ..;
criterion that is relevant to fundamental properties of soils in general. .
Shear strength .is ;not <J "Imique property of a soil but depends on many factors: The shear
strength of a test sample is measured in the labbratory by subjecting it to certain defined
conditions and carrying out a" particular kind oftest. Failure can occur in the soil as a whole, or
within limited narrow zones referred to as failure planes. Some of the factors on .which the.
strength of soil as measured ina laboratory test depend are as follows.
(a) Mineralogy of grains.
(b) Particle shape, size distribution and configqration.
(c) Voids ratio and water content.
(d) Previous stress history. ..
(e) Existing stresses in-situ.
(f) Stress changes imposed during sampling.
(g) Initial state of the sample.
(h) Stresses applied prior to test.
G) Method of test.
(k) Rate at which loading is applied.
(I) Whether or not drainage is allowed during the test.
(m)Resulting pore water pressure.
(n) Criterion adopted for determining the shear strength.
Items (a) to (e) are related to natural conditions which cannot be controlled but can be assessed
from field observations, measurements and geological evidence. Items (f) and (g) depend on the
quality of sampling and the care taken in handling and sample preparation, but (g) can be
controlled with remoulded or compacted samples (e.g. density and moisture content). Testing
methods, items (h) to (1), can vary considerably and determine (m). Certain triaxial test
procedures are recognised as normal practice and many of these are described in this volume
(Chapters 18 to 22).
Regarding item (n), several criteria for determining the point of failure are given in Section
15.4.2. The traditional criterion most often used is the maximum axial stress which a sample
can sustain, referred to as the 'peak' deviator stress. This condition is not necessarily related to
basic soil properties.
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
Relationships between stress and strain in soils are discussed in Section 21.2.1.
SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS

For the specified failure criterion it is necessary to be able to relate the shear strength T on a
potential failure surface to the stress normal to that surface, denoted by Un (total stress) or u~
(effective stress). This is made possible by using the Mohr--Coulomb relationship with the •
relevan t shear strength parameters for the soil, which can be related either to total stresses or to
effective stresses.
In terms of total stress the parameters are the 'cohesion', c, and the 'angle of shear resistance',
cp. The relationship between T f and Un whenfaiIure occurs on the plane is given by Coulomb's
equation
Tf = C + u,. tan cp (12.7)
in terms of total stresses (Volume 2, Section 12.3.6).
The parameters e and cP are not fundamentalp'rope'Pties of a'particular soil but depend on
other factors of which moisture content and voidsr:ati.q are the most significant. They are used
onl)i.iu total stress analysis where pore pressure are,notmeasured. The parameters are written
as e u, CPu to indicate undrained loading, and can be'deteFmined from quick-undrained triaxial
tests (Volume 2, Section 13.6) on undisturbed samples. In practi<;e, Rquation (12.7) is used
mostly for saturated clays for which CPu = 0 and e = eu' the undrained shear strength in terms
of total stresses. .
To take account of effective stresses on a plane offailure the Coulomb equation as modified
by Terzaghi (Section 15.3:11 iii used:
TJ = e' + (O'n - u w ) tan cp'
i.e. TJ = e' + 0" tan cp' (15.3)
This equation is in accord~hce with the fundamental principle that changes of shearing
resistance are due only to changes in the effective stresses. .
Equation (15.3) is offundamental importance in the analysis of shear strength in soils. It can
be represented by a Mohr-Coulomb envelope using effective stresses in the same way as was
described in Chapter 13 for total stresses. The 'angle of shearing resistance', cp', relating to
effective stresses (which are analogous to intergranular stresses) is a measure of internal friction.
between the grains, which is present in all soils. The shear strength parameters e', cp', can be
obtained from a set of triaxial compression tests by plotting the Mohr circles of effective stress
representing the selected failure condition and drawing the envelope to them.
The shear stress on the failure plane at failure, TJ (the shear strength of the soil) for a
particular test, is derived as shown in Fig. 15.7. The value of TJ is given by the ordinate of the
point P at which the Mohr circle of failure (in terms of effective stresses) touches the strength
envelope, denoted by PQ. Since PQ = PC cos cp'
TJ = t(O", - O'~)fcOS cp' (15.25)
For simplicity the shear strength is often assumed to be equal to half the compressive strength,
Le. the radius TC, denoted by t J, where
tJ= t(O", - O'~) f (15.26)
shear
stress (1,' f
/failure plane
Mohr - Coulomb
fa
7'
failure envelope
,
(13 f
"X
4'
~- -------
t'f
c' r (I'
(13' f Q C (1,' f effective

stress
(1,'- (l3')f
t- ..J
Fig. 15.7 Derivation of soil shear strength
i\r,;Jf;,?__~,-,-,~--~,",~,-,,,,,,~""'~-"'''''''''''·~l,.~~J:.;.V'~iI(_?wrv'fjl';W'W''~~-.lW!~...;,ws¥r:fi'!?ei'M.tIEtr.@tt~l:§a1i;~n,.;~~~,rhlt••,.,
TOTAL STRESS AND EFFECTIVE STRESS RELATIONSHIPS

Shear stress is denoted above by r in tenris of total stress, and r' in terms of effective stress.
Although these are equ!l,··~ince the pore'water cannot transmit shear, the consistent use of
dashed symbols is to be. recommended when referdng to effective stresses so as to avoid the
possibility of confusion. When writing stress equations, .adherence to one of the following
conventions helps to clarify thinking and to avoid ambigujties.
(1) :When considering total stresses, use only plain.symbols for stresses (no dashes).
(2) For effective stresses, use only dashed stress symbols.
(3) If a combinatioI1 of plain and dashed symbols is used in an equation, the pore pressure
must appear. •
DRAINEri' AND UNDRAINED CONDITIONS
In terms of effective stress the shearing behaviour is fundamentally similar for all soil types.
The differences that are observed between sands and clays, for instance, are essentially only of
magnitude, not of kind, and are due to their widely differing drainage characteristics quantified
by permeability. Volume changes in response to changes of stress require movemen t of water
into or out of the soil void spaces. The time scale required for such movement can vary by a
factor of about 106 , depending on the soil permeability. In comparison the time scale during
which loadings cause shear deformation in-situ can vary from a few seconds (for transient
earthquake shocks) to several decades or even centuries (e.g. beneath a large foundation on a
thick clay stratum), a variation factor of 109 or more. Within an intermediate time scale, such
as for typical short-term construction loading conditions, the drained state can usually be
assumed for sands and the undrained state for clays. But under the transient loading of an
earthquake shock there is not enough time for even a sand to dissipate pore pressures by
drainage, and the undrained condition applies. At the other extreme, as a clay gradually
consolidates during a period of many years under a foundation loading or in an embankment
it behaves as a drained material.
In laboratory tests on clays either undrained or drained conditions can apply, depending on
the test duration. Drained conditions usually apply in tests on sands, but the undrained state is
also possible with very rapid loading in special test procedures.
15.4.2 Criteria for Determining Shear Strength
Five different criteria of 'failure', from which the shear strength of a soil is determined, are
discussed below. They are illustrated in Fig. 15.8, which is a composite diagram not relating to
a specific soil type.
(1) Peak deviator stress.
(2) Maximum principal stress ratio.
(3) Limiting strain.
(4) Critical state.
(5) Residual state.
The first three of these criteria are discussed below. Criteria (4) and (5) are related to
fundamental soil properties, and are described in Sections 15.4.3 and 15.4.4 respectively.
(1) MAXIMUM DEVIATOR STRESS

The maximum or 'peak' deviator stress criterion is the one that is traditionally associated with
'failure' in the testing of soil samples. It is the condition of maximum principal stress difference
(Fig. 15.8 (1)). If the vertical and horizontal total principal stresses are, denoted by 0' 1 and 0'3
respectively, -the peak deviator stress is written (0'1 - 0' 3) i' and the corresponding strain is
denoted by f-j. In an undrained test the pore pressure at that strain is denoted by UJ' from
,.
deviator
PEAK(1)
stress( )1
1 . ""'~
,t ~
RESIDUAL (5)
shear strength constant
LIMITING STRAIN (3)
~f strain displacement E
J... -MAXIMUM STRESS RATIO (2)
,
a'
-,
a3
.D. V constant (drained)

.D.u constant (undrained)
or
±.D.u
Fig. 15.8 Idealised failure criteria for soils
which the principal effective stresses at peak can be calculated. In a drained test the pore
pressure remains constant at the initial value, and only 0"'1 varies while 0"3 remains constant.
(2) MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS RATIO

If the principal effective stresses 0"'1,0"3 are calculated for each set of readings taken during an
undrained test, values of the principal stress ratio 0"'d0"3 can be calculated and plotted against
strain as shown in Fig. 15.8. The ratio is equal to 1 at the start of the test because at that point
0"1 = (J 3 and therefore (J~ = 0"3' The maximum value of the ratio occurs at about the same
strain as the peak deviator stress in many undrained tests on normally consolidated clays.
The maximum stress ratio criterion (2) is preferable to the peak stress criterion in some ways
because it can provide a better correlation of shear strength with other parameters, or between
different types of test. It is particularly useful for clays in which the deviator stress continues to
increase at large ~trains. Hean also be used as a criterion in multistage undrained triaxial tests.
The stress ratio isnot ~edfor. drained tests, except perhaps to quote the value at 'peak'
deviator stress, because the effective stress changes are equal to the total stresses changes, and
the stress ratio curve is the same shape as the deviator stress plot.
(3) LIMITING STRAIN

This criterion is not often used except in multistage drained triaxial tests. However, for soils in
': ~ich a very large deformation is needed to mobilise the maximum shear resistance, a limiting
·.itrain condition might be more appropriate than a maximum shear stress. 'Failure' is then
. defined by a strain such as Cjim in Fig. 15.8 (3), and the corresponding Mohr circles can be drawn
. Jor deriving an envelope.
.,
15.4.3 Critical State
STRE£S, ST~AIN AND VOLUME CHANGE

The relationship between shear strength and density (or voids ratio) in sands was outlined in
Volume 2, Section 12.3.7. These principles were extended by Roscoe, Schofield and Wroth
(1958) and others at Cambridge University, to provide relationships between shear strength,
principal stresses and voids ratio for soils when sheared under drained or undrained
conditions. This has led to a unification of the observed shear strength and deformation
characteristics of soils into a coherent whole within the concept of the 'critical state', which
provides a fundamental approach to the understanding of idealised soil behaviour. It depends
on basic properties Of the soil constituents, and applies to both 'cohesive' and 'non-cohesive'
soils which were treated separately in Volume 2, Chapter 13, in terms of total stresses only. A
detailed account of this principle is beyond the scope of this book, and the reader is referred to
textbooks that cover the subject, such as. Schofield and Wroth (1968) and Atkinson and
Bransby (1978). However, the following simplified explanation is offered to provide a basic
understanding from the standpoint of laboratory testing.
LOOSE AND DENSE SANDS

Curves relating shear stress, volume change and voids ratio to displacement in the shearbox
test, similar to those shown in Volume 2, Fig. 12.20, are re-drawn in Fig. 15.9 (b), (e) and (d), for
loose sand (L) and dense sand (D), sheared under a given normal stress (J~.
In the Coulomb plot relating shear resistance to normal stress (Fig. 15.9 (a)), the sharp rise to
the peak strength at P for dense sand is represented by DP, giving a peak angle of shear
resistance cP~. The shear strength then falls to C and the angle reduces to cPc. In contrast, the
angle of shear resistance of the loose sand rises slowly to a maximum value cP~ after a very large
displacement without first attaining a peak value. For both samples the condition at C is
marked by a flattening of the volume change or voids ratio change curves (diagrams (e) and
(d)), indicating that shearing is then taking place at constant volume. Both samples have
reached the same density, and therefore the same voids ratio (the 'critical voids ratio', eel. The
condition at C is known as the 'critical state' for that applied normal stress.
The shear strength at the critical state is a fundamental property of a particular soil and
depends only on the effective stress, not on the initial density. In contrast, the 'peak' strength is
dependent on the initial density (i.e. voids ratio). The angle of shear resistance at peak is made
up of two components: the frictional constant value cP~, and a variable dilatancy component
related to initial voids ratio. The latter is positive for sands that are initially more dense than
the critical density (eo less than eJ, and negative for sands that are less dense (eo greater
than eJ
CLAYS
The relationships between shear strength, principal stresses and deformations in normally-
cOflsolidated clays under drained conditions are similar to the relationships referred to above
for loose sands, and the relationships for overconsolidated clays are similar to those of dense
sands. For clays generally the critical state is the condition in which the clay continues to
deform at constant volume under constant effective stress. The critical state concept represents
idealised behaviour of remoulded clays, but it is assumed to apply also to undisturbed clays in
triaxial compression tests .
•~
I
7
7
~(br
an I
·
ef
C
I
.L
'
'.&~<
C-
~
ec-- C
dense
(c) -D1 - -eo
I Do (~
o an' a' oI f
-6 V t swelling C
V
+6V C
(e) V l contracting
Fig. 15.9 Shear characteristics of dense and loose sands.' (a) Coulomb plot, (b) shear
stress against displacement, (c) voids ratio changes during shear, (d) voids ratio change
against displacement, (e) volume change against displacement
The critical state in relation to the stress-strain characteristics of n~rmally-consolidated

and overconsoJidated clays is indicated below. This concept is illustrated further in terms of
stress path presentation in Section 23.3.2.
NORMALLY-CONSOLIDATED CLAYS
The stress-strain and volume change relationships from a drained test on a normally-
consolidated clay are represented by the curves marked (NC) in Fig. 15.1 0 (a) and (b). At the
critical state, denoted by C in diagram (a), the shear strength is practically the same as the
'peak' strength. The critical state is marked by the start of zero rate of volume change
(~V = constant) in diagram (b). .
In practice the critical state may sometimes be limited to a narrow zone in which a surface of
shear failure occurs. When the sample as a whole deforms at constant volume, the term
'ultimate' condition may be applied ..
OVERCONSOLIDATED CLAYS
The stress-strain and volume change curves for the same clay as referred to above, but in an
overconsolidated condition, are marked (OC) in Fig. 15.l0(a) and (b). This sample was first
.,.
15.4 SHEAR STRENGTH THEORY - .... ~
_..:t'-o
765
-: ~:i~,~~}~:~.
shear
::\~~.
peak
stress
. . ....
Tf OVERC~~IDATED
'. ;~'.~;':'~~~.~;",:'~;
"'.. ' ,>"':.:"
residual
Tc
RI T=const.mt
r. ~~":
:~'~ ~I--NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED

/1 .
// I I REMOULDED
/
(a) strain displacement €
-~V e
l:::. V =cons!.a,[lt_
,
, normally
volume
' /consolidated
change
NC~
€
,
~V = constant
OC-
overcon~olidated
+~V
(b) ,
On p~ 0'
(c)
Fig. 15.10 Shear characteristics of clays in drained triaxial tests: (a) stress-strain
relationships, (b) volume change against strain, (c) voids ratio/effective stress
relationship
consolidated to a higher effective stress p~ (diagram (c» and then allowed to swell back to the
effective stress applied to sample (NC), denoted by (j~. The overconsolidation ratio (OCR) is
equal to p~/(j~.
The stress-strain curve rises sharply to a pronounced peak at P, which requires only a small
strain. The peak strength can be up to several times greater than the critical strength, on
account of the dilation component of shear strength referred to above. Dilation, and
consequent ingress of water, continues beyond the peak as the resistance to shear decreases.
The critical state is reached at C 1 after which further deformation continues at constant
volume. The shear strength at C 1 was referred to by Skempton (1970) as the 'fully softened
strength', and is equal to the peak or critical state strength of the normally-consolidated clay.
The water content in this state is equal to that of the normally-consolidated clay at the critical
state.
In practice this condition gives an effective strength envelope corresponding to the ¢' value
at peak, with c' = O. The fully softened (critical state) strength is a limiting value applicable to
first-time slides in London Cla-y,and possibly in other similar overconsolidated clays.
The behaviour of overconsolidated clays is discussed further in Section 15.5.4.
15.4.4 Residual State

...:-.:..'"
,,<ii, '.,.
:
The concept of the residual state is theoretically applicable to an~biisbtir.jt is of practical
significance only in clay soils J:yecause of the nature of clay mineral pa-qic4,);t;~~sbeen widely
recognised, if not always fully understood, for at least 20 years (£kemPill~964).
If the shear displacement of a clay is continued under'constant norfl1~"~ss beyond the
critical state condition, the shear resistance continues to decrease until a~onstant value is
reached, as shown at (5) in Fig. 15.8. This represents the 'residual' conditIon, and the con'stant
value of shear resistan.fe is known as the 'residual strength'. It requires a very large shear
displacement to achieve-typically 100 to 500 mm, but perhaps over 1 m-unless the clay has
been sheared previously, either naturally or artificially. The gradual reduction of strength
beyond the critical value, from C to R (Fig. 15.10 (a», is due to re-orientation of the plate-like
clay particles adjacent to the surface of shear, until they lie parallel to the plane of shear giving
the characteristic 'polished' appearance. The residual condition therefore oc.s::urs only within a
narrow shear zone. The residual angle of shear resistance is denoted by ¢~, and c~ is often taken
as zero.
Residual strength is applicable to in-situ conditions where there have already been large
displacements on shear surfaces, such as those caused by landslides or tectonic earth
movements (see Section 22.4). The measurement of residual strength in the shearbox apparatus
was described in Volume 2, Section 12.7.3.
15.5 THEORY RELEVANT TO TRIAXIAL TESTS
15.5.1 General Principles
FEATURES OF THE TRIAXIAL TEST

The basic features of the triaxial test apparatus were described in Volume 2, Section 13.6. The
principle of the 'quick-undrained' triaxial compression test described in that chapter is
indicated in Fig. 15.11 (a). The vertical and horizontal stresses (11 and (13 acting on the sample
are shown in Fig. 15.1·1 (b). Three sets of readings are observed during this test (in addition to
time);
cell confining pressure (held constant)
axial load (deviator stress)
axial deformation (strain).
It is assumed that the reader is already familiar with the principles and operation of this test.
F or carrying out effective stress triaxial tests, two additional features are needed in the cell;
provision for measurement of pore water pressure
provision for drainage.
Details of the equipment are given in Chapter 16, but the main features are outlined below to
provide a basis for describing test principles.
It
Pore water pressure is generally measured at the base of the sample. is assumed that
drainage takes place from the top ofthe sample, which is the procedure norman, reterred to in
this book, as shown in Fig. 15.11 (c). Alternatively drainage can be taken from the base, as well
as measuring pore pressure (see Chapter 16). Drainage from the top is preferable because pore
pressure is then measured at the end remote from the drainage surface which provides the
opportunity for useful checks during several stages of the test.
The drainage line may be connected either to a burette open to atmosphere, or to a
controlled source of pressure (independent of the cell pressure system) to provide a 'back
•_ _ 'W' 'i'!~iI!':o;t'@~,_1~rolt_~.Wo/~0._r"""
15.5 THEORY RELEVANT TO TRIAXIAL TESTS 767
(a, - ( 3 ) lapPlied axia~

load" ....
t t ..
....--
_
_II ~,e
II-cont;n;n9
pressure
- a3
-
-II ~,e
-
II - a3
_II'"'b~ 11_
_II 11-
. '"
'b~
-
i(\t;;;JL .....:-
(a)
, a"
(c)
,a, ,
%.
"~~4ff,.tv~measurem
i%Y#/. pore pressure
•
- r;D '- ",-U
=0 -
- a,-
- a3 --I;r~
1
'u/ -<1
3
a/= <13- U
t t - ~~porepressure
+ +
(b) (d)
Fig. 15.11 Principles of triaxial compression tests: (a) application of stresses, (b)
representation of principal stresses, (c) usual arrangement for effective stress tests, (d)
representation of total and effective stresses
pressure', usually incorporating a volume-change gauge to measure the movement of water

out of or into the sample.
The immediate connections to a sample set up in the triaxial cell are shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 15.12, to which reference is made in describing the test principles. The
following valve designations are used to enable the principles to be easily visualised, and these
designations are used consistently throughout this volume.
Valve 'a' is connected to the apparatus for measuring pore pressure (Section 16.5.6).
Valve 'b' isolates the drainage line connected to the top end of the sample from the drainage
or back pressure system when the 'undrained' condition is required.
Valve 'c' is connected to the cell chamber pressurising system.
Valve 'd' is a spare connection to the sample base.
Valve 'e' is the cell chamber air bleed.
The load ring for measuring the externally applied axial load, and the dial gauge for
measuring axial strain, are similar to those referred to in Chapter 13. The axial stress caused by
the application of the external axial load is referred to as the deviator stress.
The stresses on the sample are represented diagrammatically in Fig. 15.11 (d).
CATEGORIES OF TEST
Triaxial compression tests for the determination to the shear strength properties of soils can be
divided into three main categories:
(1) Quick-undrained (QU) tests, in which no attempt is made to measure pore pressure and
only total stresses ,ate. considered.
..'
•
-~'- ~
drainage line
I body
to
cell pressure
system
~~(spare)
~: press~re
•
to drainage or a to pore
back pressure system apparatus
multispeed drive unit
Fig. 15.12 Connections to triaxial cell for effective stress tests
(2) Undrained tests, in which no drainage is permitted during the application of the deviator
stress. There is no dissipation of excess pore pressure, which varies during the test and is
measured. .
(3) Drained tests, in which drainage is permitted and measured, and no excess pore pressure
develops during the application of the deviator stress.
Tests of the first category were described in Volume 2, Chapter 13. This volume deals with
tests of categories (2) and (3).
Undrained tests with pore pressure measurement can be carried out in three ways:
(a) By allowing no drainage during the application of confining pressure either prior to or
during axial compression. This is referred to in this book as an 'Unconsolidated-Undrained'
(UU) test.
(b) By allowing drainage to consolidate the sample under the confining pressure, and then
applying compression quickly without allowing further drainage. This is referred to as a
'Consolidated Quick-Undrained' (C-QU) test.
(c) By allowing drainage to consolidate the sample after applying the confining pressure, and·
then preventing further drainage during compression, which is applied slo.lyenough to '..
enable pore pressures to equalise so that they can be measured with reasonable accuracy. This
is the 'Consolidated-Undrained' (CU) test.
Drained tests are carried out by consolidating the sample under the confining pressure, and
allowing further drainage during the compression stage. This is the 'Consolidated-Drained'
(CD) test. Long time periods are needed with soils of low permeability to allow for
consolidation and dissipation of excess pore pressures developed during compression.
The drainage conditions relating to these tests are summarised in Table 15.3.
In this volume the CHand CD tests on saturated soils are treated as 'basic' effective stress,
Table 15.3. DRAINAGE CONDITIONS DURING TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TESTS
Application of
cOlifillillg Application of.. . Parameters
Type of test pressure deL'iator stress . Remarks obtained· "
•
Quick-undrained No drainage No drainage Rate of strain usually 2~,~ per Total stress c.' 1>,;
(QU) minute, giving failure in
about 10 minutes
Unconsolidated- No drainage No drainage Rate of strain slow enough Total and effective
undrained (UU) to allow pore pressure stresses c., 1>. and
equalisation and c', 1>'
measurement
Consolidated Full drainage, No drainage Rate of strain as for QU test. Total stress c.' 1>.
quick-undrained usually Usually three different cell
(C-QU) consolidated under pressures for compression.
in-situ effective
stress
Consolidated- Full drainage, No drainage Rate of strain slow enough Effective stress c',
undrained with three samples to allow pore pressure 1>'
pore pressure usually equalisation and
measurement (CU) consolidated under measurement
different effective
cell pressures
Consolidated- Full drainage, as Drainage allowed Rate of strain must be slow Effective stress Cd'
drained (CD) for CU test enough to prevent pore 1>d
pressure build-up
and are covered in detail in Chapter 18. Some of the more usual variations on these procedures,
including extension tests, are outlined in Chapters 19 to 22.
15.5.2 Test!' ~n Saturated Soil
UNDRAINED TESTS ON SATURATED SOIL (UU TEST)

This is similar to the QU test except that it is run slowly enough to allow for the measurement
of pore pressure. The procedure is given in Section 19.3.2.
The following description of the principles relates to.a sample of saturated clay. Throughout
the test, drainage from the sample is prevented~in the arrangement shown in Fig. 15.12, valves
'b' and 'd' remain closed. The pore water pressure at the base of the sample is measured by the
device, connected to the celJ base at valve 'a' and described in Chapter 16, which permits no
movement of water from the sample. Since the water and the soil grains are virtually
incompressible, and the sample contains no air, there can be no volume change in the sample
under applIed stresses. .' " •
When a ceil confining pressure is applied to 'tbe'iample the additional stress is carried
entirely by iQe water in the voids, and the pore pressuref~:seen to rise by an amount practically
equal to t~ cell pressure increment in accordance with,J::quation (15.4) with B = 1. Increasing
• , the total stress does not alter the effective stre~, arid ifl an ensuing compression test the
" :. measured shear strength does not depend on the tot~ls!ress. Several samples tested under
different confining pressures all give practically the same peak deviator stress at failure. Mohr
circles of total stress (such as circles (1), (2), (3) in Fig. 15.13) give the familiar horizontal
envelope (cPu = 0) characteristic.of~t~ys,cthe cohesion intercept C u being the total
shear strength.
shear
stress
1 la, - a,),
"'"
c10 =0
u
o •
/~
"I
effective)
"~ / @
stresses \ total stresses
O'3'f 0'3 O'1t' O'lf principal stresses 0'&0"
"
Uf(2)
Uf(3)
Fig. 15.13 Mohr circles of total and effective stress for undrained tests on saturated
soil
It
Measurement of pore pressure during the compression test enables the changes in pore
pressure due to the increasing deviator stress to be measured and plotted, as represented in Fig.
15.14 (a) and (b). At any point the pore pressure coefficient A can be calculated from the change
of pore pressure from the initial pore pressure uo, and the deviator stress, using Equation
(15.10). Values of A are plotted against strain as shown in Fig. 15.14 (c). At failure the deviator
stress attains the peak value (0'1 - 0'3) J' and the measured pore pressure is denoted by UJ'
Hence from Equation (15.11),
__
U:!.-J_-_U-=-o_
AJ =
(0'1 - (3)J
The Mohr circle of effective stress at failure is shown by (e) in Fig. 15.13, and is found to be
virtually the same circle for all values of total stress. Hence it is not possible to derive an
effective stress envelope from this type of test. To obtain several effective stress circles
consolidated-undrained (CU) or consolidated-drained (CD) tests are necessary.
It should be noted that the deviator stress at any instant is the same whether expressed in
terms of total stress or effective stress, because the pore pressure cancels out:
= (0'1 - u) - (0'3 - u) = (0'1 - 0'3)
(a'; - 0'3)
The undrained shear strength Cuof normally -consolidated clays (for which cPu = 0) is found
to increase uniformly with decreasing water content, which decreases uniformly with
increasing depth below the ground surface if one-dimensional consolidation applies. The
undrained shear strength therefore increases with increasing depth, and it is found that for a
particular clay the ratio cula~ is constant, where a~ is the vertical effective stress at the depth
considered. Different clays give different values for the ratio, and Skempton (1957) showed that
the ratio is related to the plasticity index (PI) of the clay by the equation
111
c~ = 0.11 + 0.0037 (PI) (15.27)
av
This relationship applied only to saturated normally-consolidated clays. A more complex
theoretical relationship has been derived for overconsolidated clays (Atkinson and Bransby,
1978).
15.5 THEORY RELEVANT TO 1:.R1AXIAL TESTS 771
NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED CLAY OVERCONSOLIDATED CLAYja \

deviator devi~tor"
stress stres~ . , .
(0.c.03~
.
..!t" • .•
":.:;'"
..-.'. '
(01- a3)
(8) 'P strain E

p
(d) 't' strain E .,.
pore
Uf+- -t
------ I U oIp~~negative
uot-, ,--
(b) ,
I
f:
I>
(e)
4.A
1.0-1 +0.5
-t Af - .
o5-r-;4~
. (01 - 03 ) 0
A
(c) \:13 II>
-0.5-1 positive I negative
f
(f)
Fig. 15.14 Typical plots of deviator stress, pore pressure change and coefficient A
against strain from undrained triaxial compression tests on saturated soils: (a), (b), (c);
normally-consolidated clays; (d), (e), (f); overconsolidated clays
CONSOLIDATED-UNDRAINED TEST ON SATURATED SOIL

This is referred to as the CU test, and is one of the basic procedures described in Chapter 18.
The sample,here assumed to be of normally -consolidated saturated clay, is consolidated to the
desired effectiv.~:~tr~ss before applying the deviator stress and loading to failure.
To illJow fo{ co.nsolidation the drainage line from valve 'b' (Fig. 15.12) is connected either to
an open burette, or to a back pressure system set at a pressure U b which is less than the pore
pressure in the sample, U 1, after raising the cell pressure. If drainage is to atmosphere, ub = O.
Changes in effective stress are illustrated in Fig. 15.15, in which voids ratio e is plotted
against the effective confining pressure, 0"3' Initially the sample has a voids ratio eo and is under
zero stress, but typically it has a small negative pore pressure ( - uo) (point 1). Application of a
confining pressure O'3"causes-anincrease:in~pox:epJ:essureto U j with no change in voids ratio,
and the effective stress is then(a3 ~ ud (point A).
voids O'3 -u 1 )
~. -;
ratio
e ....
eo
~~.
'-':0<$>/
~I!$ /,' undrained ,.

compression
eb
~
-U'" ..
[ ......
\
( O'3- U j)
drained
compression
ed
0 ..............
O'~-Ub)
effective stress 0'3'

o
Fig. 15.15 Voids ratio changes plotted against effective confining pressure during
isotropic consolidation and compression (undrained and drained)
Consolidation is started by opening valve 'b' (Fig. 15.12). Water drains out of the sample
into the back pressure system until the pore pressure equalises with the back pressure. This
requires some time because of the low permeability of clay. The sample has by then been
consolidated to a higher effective stress, equal to (0'3 - ub) and the voids ratio eb is less than eo
(point C in Fig. 15.13). The sample is therefore more dense and more stiff than originally.
When consolidation is complete, valve 'b' is closed to prevent further drainage and the
confining pressure remains unchanged. A compression test is then carried out slowly enough
to enable pore pressure to equalise and to be observed. During compression the volume, and
therefore the voids ratio, remain constant, but the pore pressure increases and the effective
stress decreases. At failure the pore pressure is denoted by U J and the effective confining
pressure is (0' 3 - U f) (point U in Fig. 15.15). When continued compression causes no further
change in pore pressure, the poin t U represents the critical state for that effective stress, and lies
on· the 'critical state line' (Section 23.3.2).
The deviator stress at failure is higher than that for the unconsolidated sample, as shown by
the Mohr circle of total stress for peak deviator stress marked (5) in Fig. 15.16 (a), compared
with circle (1) taken from Fig. 15.13. The Mo hr circle of effective stress at failure is plotted as
circle (8) in Fig. 15.16 (b). Additional samples consolidated under higher cell pressures, giving
higher initial effective stresses, provide additional effective stress Mohr circles as represented
by circles (9) and (10). Values of A and A J can be obtained for each sample, as described for the
UU test.
A straight line envelope drawn to these circles gives a slope 4/ and an apparent cohesion
intercept ct. These are the effective stress parameters which can be used in Equation (15.3), and
which have extensive applications to practical problems. The effective stress circle (e) in Fig.
15.13 is shown for comparison as circle (4), and represents the condition of zero consolidation.
Strength parameters derived from Mohr circles of total stress from these tests have little
application in practice.
shear
stress· '." o
T
.. -"
": ~.:
cu I 0 u ::;:: 0
'
/
..... "'"
>;% '\
' i
{
::> .....
n......
'"" '"" "..., ... \
I
(a) total stresses (J' '"

..
. ~.
T I Uf I
~
c'
(b) effective stresses a'
Fig. 15.16 Mohr circles diagrams for undrained triaxial compression tests all
saturated soil ill terms of (a) total stresses, (b) effective stresses
DRAINED TEST ON SATURATED SOIL

This is referred to as the CD test, and is the second of the two basic procedures described in
Chapter 18.
The sample, assumed to be of normally consolidated saturated clay, is consolidated by the
cell pressure exactly as described above for the CU test (line AC in Fig. 15.15). But during the
compression stage, further drainage is allowed to take place by leaving valve 'b' open (Fig.
15.12). The applied rate of strain must be slow enough to prevent the development of a
significant excess pore pressure, that is to ensure that the pore pressure in the sample remains
equal to the value immediately after consolidation. Changes in effective stresses are then equal
to changes in total stresses. The voids ratio decreases as water drains out of the sample, and the
volume of that water is equal to the sample volume change.
At failure (point D in Fig. 15.15) the voids ratio has decreased to ed but the effective confining
pressure remains unchanged at (0"3 - u b ). If compression continues at constant volume the
point D lies on the 'critical state line' (Section 23.2).
The general form of stress-strain and volume change curves during drained compression of
a normally-consolidated clay are indicated in Fig. 15.17 (a) and (b), and of an overconsolidated
clay in Fig. 15.17 (c) and (d). In each case the volume change curves reflect the shape of the pore
pressure change curves seen in the undrained test (Fig. 15.14).
A set ofthree identical specimens consolidated to three different effective stresses gives a set
of Mohr circles of effective stress at failure as.shown inFig~15.18. The en vel ope to these circles
is inclined at an angle cPd' and gives an apparent cohesion intercept of Cd' These are the drained
NOR~ALLY CONSOLIDATED CLAY OVERCONSOLIDATED CLAY

if<
deviator deviator
stress stress
..
"!
'r
strain
..
E
(c)
(a)
~~~R
10
E
f'c,V
f'c, V = constant
V
V (-) dilation
contraction t E
(b) f'c,V
V lcontraction
(d) (+)
Fig. 15.17 Typical plots of deviator stress and volume change against strain from
drained triaxial compression tests on saturated soils: (a) and (b): normally-
consolidated clays, (c) and (d): overconsolidated clays
strength parameters; and can be used in the effective stress Equation (15.3). The value of ¢ d for
the critical state is identical to the corresponding value of ¢' obtained from CU tests.
The shearing behaviour of overconsolidated clays is discussed in Section 15.5.4.
15.5.3 Tests on Pardy Saturated Soil
UNCONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED TEST ON PARTLY SATURATED SOIL

Application of a cell pressure increment 0"3 to a partly saturated sample, for instance of
compacted clay, causes the pore pressure to increase by an amount less than 0" 3' the value of B
being less than 1. Consequently there is an increase in effective stress equal to (1 - B)O" 3, and an
increase of strength with increasing values of 0" 3'UP to the point at which the sample becomes
saturated (as discussed below). The value of B can be calculated from the observed pore.
pressure changes, using Equation (15.4).
The presence of air in the void spaces gives the sample considerable compressibility.
Changes in volume r~sulting from the application of deviator stress can be determined from
measure~nts of the volume of water m~ving into or out of.the cell chamber. Measuremen~ of
pore water pressures enables values of A to be calculated, m the same way as for A by usmg
Equation (15.10). The general form of curves relating deviator stress, pore pressure and volume
change to strain for a compacted clay is indicated in Fig. 15.19.
Mohr circles offailure in terms of total stress for a set of partly saturated samples are shown
in Fig. 15.20 (a). The deviator stress at failure increases with increasing cell pressure at low
pressures. At higher confining pressures the air in the voids becomes more compressed, and
.
.. • shear
,. "'I'stress
,"
.. "
:
. 7
"
Cd ,........- .,/
effective stress a/ ':4"

t (a,- a)f t ""
'" (a3- u b) (a,-ub)
Fig. 15.18 Mohr circle diagram for drained triaxial compression tests in terms of
effective stresses
:3
deviator a'~3lt
stress
pore ff strain f
pressure
Uo
-+-
Uf
~bUI':o-U' L::'uandA
negative
€
b.V
V
-[b.vVl-
(-)
f
(+)
·',C'. ,'"
Fig.15.19 Typical plots of deviator stre~s, pore pressure change and v,olum£'~lJilnge
against strain from undrained 4:riaxiai-e-.ompression test on partly saturated sinfi.e.g.
, """compacted clay)
776 EFFECTIVE STRESS TESTING-PRINCIPLES, THEORY AND APPLIcATIONS
.
shear
stress
T
mean linear
- - '-
Q'f
'"
<~
envelope
(8) 03 01f total stresses 0
I
®
~"v___Ht.otal stress
I circle}
\1
c'l? l
(b)
~
(03- Ut)
t
(01f- Ut)
effective stresses 0'
Fig. 15.20 Mohr circles diagrams Jor undrained tests on partly saturated clay in
terms oj (a) total stresses, (b) effective stresses
more air passes into solution in the water. At a pressure high enough to dissolve all the air the
soil becomes fully saturated, and further increases of cell pressure give little further increase in
strength. The resulting failure envelope in terms of total stress is curved and becomes less steep
at higher confining pressures as indicated in Fig. 15.20 (a). There is no unique value of the total
stress parameters cu, cPu, but over a limited range an envelope approximating to a straight line
can be fitted. Total stress parameters derived in this way have limited application in practice.
CONSOLIDATED-UNDRAINED TEST ON PARTLY SATURATED SOIL

A set of effective stress Mohr circles spread widely enough to define a satisfactory failure
envelope can be obtained by consolidating separate samples to different effective stresses
before compression, as described above for saturated soils.
Common practice is to saturate the samples first, making B close to unity, usually by the
application of a back pressure. The advantage of saturation, and the use of a back pressure, are
discussed in Section 15.6. Samples are then consolidated under various effective stresses as
outlined above.
,.,.,'; '. Mohr circles of effective stress enable the effective stress parameters c', cP' to be derived (Fig.
15.20 (b)). Total stress parameters are less important, and Mohr circles of 'total' stress can be
'."._: 'I confusing and are best omitted.
DRAINED TEST ON PARTLY SATURATED SOIL

The consolidated-drained test is similar to that for a saturated soil, except that air as well as
water drains out of the sample during consolidation and perhaps during compression. But if
the consolidation pressure is high enough, and the initial degree of saturation is also fairly
high, the air will be forced.into solution befqre the compression stage begins.
. Normal practice for the CD test is to saturate the sample before consolidation, usually by
• the application of back pres"sure. This gives the advantages referred to in Secti9n 15.6, plus the
'. fact that only water, and no air bubbles, drain out of the sample if the back pfessure is
maintained. The drained (effective stress) parameters Cd, <Pd' are obtained.· .-
15.5.4 OvercolISolidated Clay
OVERCONSOLIDATION
•
An overconsolidated clay ispne that has been consolidated iI1the pasi und~r,an effective stress
p~ greater than the present effective overburden stress Po. Part of a normal consolidation curve
duriIfg deposition and. cqnsolidation to p~ is represented in F~g. 15.21 by the curve AEC.
Subsequent reduction of the vertical effective stress, for example by erosion of some of the
overburden, causes the soil at a certain depth to swell back under the lower stress Po to the
overconsolidated condition represented by the point B. The overconsolidation ratio (O~R) at. ."
B is equal to p~!po. The overconsolidated clay denoted by B has a lower voids ratio, a higher
density, and is stiffer, than the normally-consolidated clay under the same effective stress
represented by A.
DRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH

In the laboratory an effective stress P'J' greater than Po but appreciably less than p~, is applied to
the sample, which as a result is consolidated to the point D in Fig. 15.21. This is also
represented in Fig. 15.22 (d), where effective stresses on the (y' axis represent stresses normal to
the plane of shear failure. The stress-strain curve from a consolidated-drained test is
represented in Fig. 15.22(a) (using t = !(O"t - 0"3) for the ordinate) by curve D. The
corresponding volume change due to shear is indicated in diagram (c).
Curve E in diagram (a) represents the strength of the clay when normally-consolidated at the
same effective stress P'J. The excess of the peak strength in curve D over the maximum strength
of curve E indicates the 'dilatancy component' of shear strength referred to in Section 15.4.3.
e
voids OCR atA,E,C,F = 1
ratio
OCR at 8 = Pc' fpo'
E OCRatD = pc'/p,'
1')0"
~Ci/
1 CoI')
8' .s01t(y.
1 CillO ...--preconsolidation
field / . I') fc stress
conditio~ swelling I"'" .... •
I I ....
..... ...... F
I
'consolidated I
for lab. test I
I
Po' p,' Pc' P2' a f
effective stress
Fig. 15.21 Overconsolidation ratio (OC R) in terms of voids ratio/effective stress plot
0 1- 0 t
3
/
t=--
2
..,..... :-- , I -
~
,'. ''',
strain € ., Po' P'l' ~' 0'

(8) (h~ '" I
e
+-
/:::.v
..•.
1. )V-; "v = constant
Of
~C
... ....
.......... ........F
(c)
++
(d)
Po' Pl'
Fig. 15.22 Relationships during a drained shear test on overconsolidated clay: (a)
Pc' P2' 0'
shear stress on failure surface against strain, (b) shear stress against normal effective
stress, (c) volume change against strain, (d) voids ratio against effective normal stress
The form of the effective strength envelope is represented in diagram (b). For effective
pressures less than the preconsolidation pressure P~ the envelope is slightly curved, giving a
cohesion intercept c/. For pressures exceeding P~ (e.g. Pl, point F) the envelope is the saine as for
the normally-consolidated clay, inclined at an angle ¢' and passing through the origin if
produced backwards. The point C corresponds to the stress p~.
When a'soil is taken from the ground the stresses are removed and even a normally-
consolidated clay has a slight degree of overconsolidation. As a result, tests carried out under
effective confining pressures less than the mean in -situ effective stress often indicate a cohesion
Intercept.
UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH

...
Stress-strain characteristics from an undrained test on an overconsolidated clay are indicated
in Fig. 15.14 (d), and diagrams (e) and (f) indicate changes in pore pressure and A value. When
the pore pressure returns to its initial value U o as a result of dilatancy, the pore pressure change,
and the value of the coefficient A, are zero. If the initial pore pressure Uo is not high enough,
continuing dilatancy might cause the actual pore pressure to fall to zero and then become
negative, as shown in Fig. 15.14 (e). This is very undesirable, and is avoided by using a back
pressure as explained in Section 15.6.
15.5.5 Triaxial Consolidation
PRINCIPLES
Consolfdution of a test sample is carried out in a triaxia' c~ll before starting a con~oli1i'atoo
..,~. >
drained or a consolidated-undrained compression or extension test. t~ual ,rressure is appLied

to all faces of the sample, and the consolidation is therefore described as \sotropic'. Drainage
of excess pore water usually takes place from the upper end of the sample; as indicated in Fig.
15.23 (a). The rate of consolidation of low-permeability soils can be increased by fitting filter-
paper side drains to allow drainage from~ the radial boundary, as shown in Fig. 15.23 (b).
Usually the impervious lqyer is omitted so that drainage takes place from the top end as well..
(Fig. 15.23 (c)). Measurement of pore water pressure is usually m"ade at the base, which is~
therefore a non-draina~ sJ4fface.
Triaxial consolidation tests can also be carried out ·specifically for the determination of
consolidati~n ,.properties, using either isotropic conditions, or anisotropic conditions in whK:h
drainage
----,
-- drainage
porous
.,.
drainage
porous
disc
I~IWW~ disc_ 11i%J!j~..%:!a1 ..
...
Q)
::::l_
(/'J
(/'J
Q)
....0. - t t tI
OJ
OJ
-- -~-
.:1I=im
_
p
_ layererVious
OJ t.~t t
....
C1l 1
- -_li_ n_
.!:c -
i.i=
c_
e()
(' t t I
-
pwp measurement
(a) (no drainage) (b) (c)
back
pressure
Ub .-.-;: Ub Uo pore pressure
t m i l ..
_ r"""""""""i"""";""""", _
confining
pressure
-11 i 1-
U3
-I t t 1- C1l
~I> (f)1: (5) i(t= 0)

-L I-
t I pwpU
t 1"'(U -Ub)"1
O
o
(d) (e) (t = '(0)
Fig. 15.23 Consolidation of triaxial test sample: (a) vertical drainage from upper
end, (b) drainage from radial boundary, (c) drainage from end and radial boundary, (d)
representation of usual test conditions, (e) pore pressure isochromes during
consolidation with vertical drainage
the axia~ stress differs from the radial stress in a fixed ratio. These tests are desoribed in~
Section 20.2. .. . • .•
.
The follo\\'ing theoretical principles relate to isot,ropic cons~lidation an~ the derivation of
factors needed fOr a!~iaxiarcompression or extension test. The principles of consolidation, and
the 'delayed time effects in soils of low permeability, are'expJained in Volume 2, Section 14.
". ..:.~
PORE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

."
,#~
A cylindrical test"ampie of clay provided with top end drainage is represented in Fig. 15.23 (d).
Immediately befor~ consolidation the internal pare W'tlter pressure, under a confining pressure
0'3' is uo, and is uniform throug'J.out the' hi:litght of the sample as indicated by the line 'i' in
diagram (e). Beyond the drainage valve 'b' (see also Fig.i5.12), which is close<,i, is a pres~ure
system maintained at a constant pressure,,!'b less than uo. •
~Consolidation of the sample is started ey opening valve 'b' and almost immediately the ... '
excess pressure (u o - u b ) in the top porous disc falls to the value Ub' as does the pressure at the .'
top surface of the sample. l:he pore pressure distribution through a vertical section of the
sample is then as indic&l.ted by curve (1) in Fig. 15.23 (e). Because ofthe low permeability of clay,
water can drain out only slowly. The excess pore pressure within the sample therefore
decrease.') slowly as water drains out, the longest delay to pore pressure change being at the
base. Pore pressure distril5utions (isochrones) at successive intervals are represented by curves
(2), (3), (4), (5) in Fig. 15.23 (e). The theoretical final condition of a uniform pore pressure equal
to ub (curve f) may never be fully achieved, but a small residual excess pore pressure at the base
of up to 5% of the pressure dissipated ~(i.e. 0.05(uo - Ub» is usually acceptable at the end of
consolidation. This represents 95% dissipation of the excess pore pressure.
During consolidation the distribution of pore pressure within the sample is not uniform, nor
linear with depth, but is often assumed to be parabolic. If the pore pressure measured at the
base at any time after the start of consolidation is denoted by u, the mean pore pressure Ii
within the sample is approximately equal to
Ii = iu + !u b (15.28)
For many practical purposes, if the excess of U over Ub is not large, a linear distribution is
assumed for which
Ii = !(u + ub ) (15.29)
The percentage pore pressure dissipation, U%, at any time is, for convenience, related to the
base pore pressure and is given by the equation
U - Ub 0
U= x 100% (15.30)
Uo - Ub
CALCULA TION OF CV
o The coefficient of consolidation Cv (Volume 2, Section 14.3.8), can be determined from the
consolidation stage data by using a procedure similar in some respects to the square-root time
curve fitting method described in Section 14.3.7. The volume of water draining out of the
sample during consolidation (equal to the sample volume change for a saturated sample) is
recorded and plotted against square-root time (minutes) as indicated in Fig. 15.24. The initial
part of this plot, to about 50010 consolidation, is approximately linear for all drainage
conditions. The straight line portion is extended to intersect the horizontal line representing
the end of consolidation at the point X. The end of consolidation should represent at least 95/~
dissipation ~fthe excess pore pressure. At X the value of Jt
100 is read off, which multiplied by
itself gives the time representing theoretical 100% consolidation, t 1 00'
~ square-root time
.. "
..
sample
voW me
(..Jt,; )2 =t,oo
change
bV
~ .. '
endof
consolidation
Fig. 15.24 Derivation of theoretical tlOo from volume change square-root time
consoiidation curve for a triaxial sample
The value of Cv can then be calculated from the equation

nD2
c =-- (15.31)
v ),t 100
where D is the diameter of sample, L the length of sample, and ), a constant depending on
2
drainage boundary conditions. In SI units, D is measured in mm, C v is expressed in m /year,
and t lOO is usually measured in minutes. Therefore
n ( -D- )2
WOO
C
v
=_ m 2 /year
/,(t 1 00/60 x 24 x 365.2)
2
1.652D m 2 /year (15.32)
= At lee
Values of A are given in Table 15.4 for five different drainage boundary conditions, both in
Table 15.4. FACTORS FOR CALCULATING c,. AND TIME TO FAILURE
Values of;, t J I~oo (for r = 2)

Values of 11
drained undrained
Drainage conditions LID = 2 LID = r test test
from one end 0.75 r2/4 8.5 0.51
from both ends 3.0 4 r2 8.5 0.51
I
.r
from radial boundar~ :;;,iy 32.0 64 64 12.7 . 1.43
from radial boundary and one end 36 80 3.2(1 + ]-)' 14.2 1.59
+ 2r)2
I
from radml boundary and two ends 40.4 100 4(1 15.8 1.77
".
terms of any L/D ratio (denoted by r), and for samples of the usual proportions (I' = 2). For
drainage from the radial boundary only, ;. is independent of r.
Equation (15.32) forms the basis of the data'summarised in Table 18.5, Section 18.7.2, for'
calculating CV' The value of"t'v derived in this way shoulq be used only for the estimation of time
to failure in the triaxial" test, as described in Section·15~·~:6.
CALCULATION OF COMPRESSIBILITY
"
The coefficient of volume compressibility for isotropic consolidation, denoted here by mv;, is
the change in volume per unit volume, Ll V/V, for a unit change of effective stress; i,e.
m .=
VI
_ Ll V
V
ILl(I'
I (15.33)
.~n SI units, with Lla' in kPa,

LlV x 1000
--- m 2 /MN , ·(15.34)
mvi = - V A ,
u(J
The coefficient mvi is similar to, but not the same as, the coefficient of volume
compressibility, m v , derived from oedometer consolidation tests (V olume 2, Section 14.3.1 0). A
typical approximate relationship is given by the equation
mVi = l.5m.,
15.5.6 Time to Failure in Compression Tests
DISSIPATION OF EXCESS PORE PRESSURE DURING COMPRESSION

In a triaxial compression test on a saturated soil, an excess pore pressure i~ induced by the
increasing deviator stress in accordance with equation (15.7). A fully drained test on clay must
be run slowly enough to allow this excess pore pressure to dissipate, by the provision of
drainage, before 'failure' is reached. In an undrained test the excess pore pressure is allowed to
build up and enough time must be allowed to enable this pressure to equalise throughout the
sample if representative measurements are to be made. These time effects are discussed below.
The drained compressive strength, with 100% dissipation of excess pore pressure, of a
sample of normally-consolidated clay is denoted by Sd' The undrained strength, with zero
dissipation of excess pore pressure, is denoted by SUo For similar samples starting at the same
initial pore pressure and effective confining pressure, Su will be less than Sd' A similar test
allowing partial dissipation of pore pressure will give a measured strength between Sd and Su. If
the percentage pore pressure dissipation is V%, the deviator stress at failure, «(Jl - (J3)1' is
given by
V
«(Jl - (J3)1 = Su + 100 (Sd - su) (15.35)
The theory of consolidation was applied to the problem of the dissipation of excess pore
pressures in triaxial compression by Gilbert and Henkel (1954). They showed that the average
degree of dissipation at failure, (j 1 %, can be expressed in the form
(j J3
-L = 1 - - - (15.36)
100 417cvt1
where Lis the length of sample (= 2h in Bishop and Henkel), Cv the coefficient of consolidation,
t 1 the time to failure, and lJ a factor depending upon drainage conditions at the sample
boundaries.
Values of lJ are quoted by Bishop and Henkel, and are summarised in Table 15.4 for five
• drainage conditions. For end drainage the sample proportions are immaterial, but for radial
drainage the value of 1] is based on the length being twice the diameter.
TIME TO FAILURE IN DR"INED TESTS
• .';'* . - ;.. ., • •
A theoretical degree of dissipation pf95% of the excess pore pressure is generally acceptable for
deriving the drained strength parameters. Putting U j = 9S% in Equation (1S.36), and re-
arranging, the time required to failure in a drained test is equal to
13
tj = (lS.37)
O.2'1 Cv
By combining Equations (15.37) and (15.31), the fflne required for failure, t j, can be
calculated directly from t100 without first having to determine Cv (although Cv is usually
calculated as well). .
tj
sr 2
)..J
= [-;;-;j t lOO (1S.38)
For the normal type of sample in which r = 2, this becomes

20;,)
tj = ( --;;j t lOO (1S.39)
Values of 20)..11T.'1 are included in Table 1S.4 under t fit 100' For other values of r the factor can
be calculated from Equation (1S.38).
TIME TO FAILURE IN UNDRAINED TESTS
Guidance on the time required to failure in undrained tests, based on 95% pore pressure
equalisation within the sample, was given by Blight (1964). The relationship between t j and Cv
depends on whether or not side drains are fitted.
For tests without side drains, Blight's equation is t f = 1.6H 2 /c v and putting H = L12:
t j =0.413 (1S.40)
Cv
Substituting for Cv from Equation (1S.31),

0.413
tj'=-T (15.41)
reD
and putting LID = r as above,
t f = 0.127r 2 ;,t 100
From Table 1S.4,).. = r2/4 for drainage from one end; therefore
tj = 0.0318r 4 t 100 (15.42)
For the normal sample in which r = 2,
tf = 0.127 X IblOO = 0.508t100
For tests with side drains and drainage from the radial boundary only in the consolidation
stage, the corresponding relationships are as follows. From Blight's equation
0.017S13
tj =
Cv
0.0175).. 13
i.e. tj = ' - 2 t 100 (15.43)
1T. D
Putting L/D = 1', and ), = 64 (from Table 15.4)

0.01751'2 x -64
tf = 1f.
. WI'
•
~100
'. I.e.
.. = 0.3565r t
tf
2 100 (15.44)
If r = 2, this gives t f = 1.43t 1 00'
For the condition of drainageofrom one end and the radial boundary during co~olidation~t
is reasonable to increase the above factor by the ratio 14.2/12.7 (see Table 15.4); therefore for.
this case
tf = 1.43 X
14.2
-2-tlOO = 1.59t 100
..
1 .7.
Similarly for drainage from both ends and the radial boundary, from Table 15.4
15.8
tf = 1.43 x 12.7 = 1.77t 100
Values of the factor relating t f to t100 for undrained tests, for samples in which r = 2, are
included in Table 15.4. For other values of 1', the factor is calculated from Equations (15.42) or
(15.44).
15.5.7 Estimation of Compressive Load
The theoretical peak deviator stress which a sample can sustain, and hence the axial load
required to cause failure, can be estimated for a particular value of effective confining pressure
if the peak <p' value is assumed. An estimate of this kind provides a guide to the selection of the
capacity of load ring to use for the test (see Section 18.3.6).
In the Mohr-Coulomb diagram, Fig. 15.25, the circle represents the 'peak' failure condition
under an effective confining pressure (T3' It is required to express the value of the deviator stress
«(T1 - (T3), denoted by x, in terms of (T3 and <p'.
Since OA is a tangent to the circle centre C, and OC = «(T; + (T3)/2 then
sin <p' = AC = x/2 x

OC (T'l + (T3 (T'l + (T3
2
T a,'+a/
-2-
o
a'
3 c a' , a'
x= [2 si~ 0'1 a' I x =( a,'- a3') I

~-SIn0~ 3 • •
Fig. 15.25 Estimation of peak deviator stress from shear strength-parameter </>'
15 ..5 THEORY RELEVANT TO TRIAXIAL TESTS 785
But since x = CT~ - CT 3,

CT~ = x + CT3 •
Therefore .' sin 4>' = x
x
+ 2CT3 . '~ .
2 sin 4>' CT
Hence 3 (15.45) • 0,
x = 1 - sin 4>'
The axial force P required to produce this stress is equal to A. x, where A is the cross-
sectional ar~a of the sample at failure. This is greater than the initial area A o, due to the effect of
barrelling. Allowing for an area increase of 20% (which corresponds to a strain of about 17%)
gives A = 1.2A o, and the axial force P is equal to 1.2Aox, i.e.
. 2 sin 4>' ,
P = 1. 2A o 1 -sm . 4>' CT3
III .
If A is in mm 2, 3 is in kPa, and P is in newtons, this relationship becomes

. CT
2.4 sin 4>' Ao ,

N (15.46)
P = 1 - sin 4>' 1000 CT 3
This equation is the basis from which the graphs (Fig. 18.9, Section 18.3.6) are derived.
15.5.8 Influence of Type of Test
SATURATED CLAYS AND SANDS

Comparing the results of the tests described above with those obtained from the total stress
'quick-undrained' test described in Volume 2, Chapter 13, it can be seen that the measured
strength of a soil is very much dependent upon the type of test used. For instance a saturated
clay, in terms of total stress only, gives an~p.~!~.!.1~.c9ile~iQI1c" equal to half the undrained
compressive strength, and a 4>u of zero. But when related to effective stresses an appreciable
value of 4>' is obtained (though not as high as a typical 4>' for sand), with a cohesion intercept c'
considerably smaller than CU' Pore pressures, and therefore the effective stresses, are unknown
in the 'quick' test.
The converse effect can be seen in a saturated (not dense) sand if tested under undrained
conditions. For confining pressures above a certain value, the measured compressive strength
is independent of confining pressure, i.e. 4> .. = 0 just as for a saturated clay. But if the applied
pressure is below that value,.J)gre pressure decrease during compression is limited by the
liberation of water vapour as the sample tries to dilate. An envelope with 4> .. > 0 is then
06fiilfleOwifruiithis range of confinlngpressure; as indicated in Fig. 15.26 (Bishop and Eldin,
1950; Penman, 1953). The shear strength would be zero under a negative pressure equal
(J
Pa = atmospheric pressure
Fig. 1526 Mohr circles from undrained triaxial tests on a saturated sand
."""&;""~~"ilj""~~~ _ _ ;.t.\P..r~""""'''~J.~'''",,,"~'';;_ _ _._JWI<~''''''''' __
"""""'~.""""_'<=""""""'''"'''' ~~_.~-"~,.-...,---.."~,.",--.-.....=,..,...-----.- ..
"",,,,,,,,~,~, ...
~
e\O'Qe
ee{\
\iV.V.~ ~
D .
.
(D')
cu
0'
c'kV
~ u,- 0-3h 0-&0-'
l!. Ut
l!. Ud
J l!. Uc =
.
l!. Ud :a.At B (
B..ll 0-3
= l!.u c + l!.Ud
Fig. 1527 Mohr circles Jrom three types oj test on normally-consolidated soil
(- Po), where Po is atmospheric pressure, and the 'cohesion' intercept is theoreticany equal to
Po' tan cPu·
In many respects stress-strain, pore pressure and volume change characteristics of loose
sands are similarto those of normally consolidated clays. Dense sands behave in ways similar
to overconsolidated clays.
COMPARISON OF MEASURED STRENGTHS

For identical samples of a normally-consolidated soil the relationship between results
obtained from undrained, consolidated-undrained and consolidated-drained tests, all carried
out at the same confining pressure u 3 , is illustrated by the Mohr circles shown in Fig. 15.27.
The effective stress circles at failure must all be tangential to the Mohr-Coulomb envelope
defined by the soil parameters c', cP'.
The total stress circle at failure for the unconsolidated-undrained test is denoted by Uu.
From setting up the sample to the point of failure the pore pressure change ~u J is made up of
two components, the first (~uc) due to the application of the confining pressure and the second
(~Ud) due to the deviator stress. The effective stress circle at failure, UU', is displaced from the
total stress circle to the left by a distance equal to
~uJ = ~uc + ~Ud
where ~uc = B.~U3 (15.4)
and ~ud=Af·B(Ul-U3)f (15.7)
The consolidated-undrained test circle of total stress is denoted by CU. The only pore
pressure change is that due to the deviator stress (~Ud) because the excess pore pressure caused
by the application of the confining pressure is dissipated during the isotropic consolidation
stage. The effective stress circle CU' is displaced by only ~Ud and is therefore larger than UU'.
In the drained test, circle D, there is no change in pore pressure after consolidation, so the
effective stress circle coincides with circle D, which is therefore the largest of the three circles.
UNDRAINED AND DRAINED PARAMETERS

For the failure criterion of peak deviator stress the effective stress parameters c', cP' from CU
tests, and Cd' cPa from CD tests, are not identical because of the different nature of the two types
of test.
.
In a drained test the sample volume changes and ifit dilates at failure additional work must
be applied against the confining pressure. This appears as the dilatancy components of shear . !I'
.;;resistance mentioned in Section 15.4.3, and gives an increase in the measured strength. The
. :'>opposite applies to a soil that contracts at failure. However, the differences between c', cp' and
'.' ';c.~;?><l are significant only in highly dilatant soils such as heavily overconsolidated c~ays, and
~: :"fotma.ny applications they can be treated as being equaL
.,.
15.6 SATURATION AND USE OF BACK PRESSURE
15.6.1 Principles
REASON FOR SATURATION

.""
In t~iaxial .compr~.ssion tests on saturated soils, standard equipmeIJ..t:~md ~roce~u;es are
readily avaIlable for the measurement of pore water pressure. But wilen dealIng WIth partly
saturated soils there is the added complication of the pore air ptessure v:'hich differs from the
pore water pressure. Measurement of pore air pressure presents difficulties and although
satisfactory procedures have been developed for research projects, the complexities are not
worthwhile for general acceptance in routine commercial testing at the present time. In the
majority of effective stress triaxial tests carried out in practice these difficulties are avoided by
saturating the sample as the first stage of a test. .
There are exceptions in which the achievement offull saturation by the normal procedure is
not necessary, or even desirable. However, when the primary purpose of the test is to measure
the shear strength at failure in partly saturated soils, saturation is normally carried out as a first
step. Even with soils that are nominally fully saturated initially, the degree of saturation is
usually checked as a routine procedure, and further saturation is applied if necessary. Detailed
procedures are described in Chapter 18.
PRINCIPLE OF SATURA nON

Saturation is effected by raising the pore pressure to a level high enough for the water to absorb
into solution all the air originally in the void spaces. At the same time the confining pressure is
raised in order to maintain a small positive effective stre-ss in the sample. Several ways of
achieving this are described in Chapter 18, Section 18.5.2. Ideally the two pressures are raised
simultaneously and continuously, maintaining a constant difference between them.
The most usual method in practice is to apply a 'back pressure' to the pore fluid
incrementally, alternating with increments of confining pressure. The back pressure is always a
little less than the confining pressure to ensure that the effective stress remains positive. The
value of the coefficient B can be checked each time the confining pressure is raised.
MAINTAINING SATURAnON
Once a sample has been saturated, the elevated pore water pressure should if possible be
maintained at that level. Reduction of pore pressure below about 150 kPa could lead to the
dissolved air coming out of solution again in the form of bubbles. For a drained test the
drainage line should be connected to a back pressure system in which a pressure of at least
200,kPa is maintained throughout the test. oW
DIFFUSION OF AIR INTO WATER

Saturation by the application of back pressure not only dissolves air contained in the sample,
but also eliminates any air bubbles in the drainage line. and pore pressure connections which
could not be flushed out. Lee and Black (1972) invesHgated the diffusion of bubbles into the
.~
-"?i"w$@'wem'W'mFtg'W$W_~~C-.{ff'i3'f'?kes~_!;w:ttwa\nl+."n-;tSl':"'£&f OM 'W' N n W :riW~~ mnT% !i~~W.~~~$I_
6
initial temperattJ~~ approx; 20°C 0',.
length 5
of bubble
mm
. pressure range 140 to 550 kPa
3 ~ o\\u'oe
o\~((\e\e
2
\(\\e~(\~~ ~1 ~~
o1 1 1' day I
1 w'eek
I
1 month
I
I
2 3 4
10 10 10 '-0 105
time to dissolve (log scale) minutes
Fig, 15.28 Rates oj diffusion oj air into water under pressure in small-bore tubes
pore water under an applied back pressure, The time required for solution of bubbles in
drainage tubes depends on their initial length and the tube diameter. Large bubbles are
reduced to smaller bubbles before they are absorbed. Bubbles in a small bore tube take much
longer to dissolve than bubbles of similar size in a large bore tu be because there is less surface
area of air in direct contact with water. The time effect for absorption of bubbles in tubes of two
diameters, as reported by Lee and Black, is summarised by the graphical relationship shown in
Fig. 15.28. The rate of diffusion is little affected by normal temperature variations, or by water
pressure over the range 140-560 kPa.
Bubbles must be eliminated from drainage lines in small-bore tubes because they can
obstruct the flow of water.
15.6.2 Advantages of Applying a Back Pressure
The advantages of using an elevated back pressure to obtain full saturation are summarised as
follows.
(1) Air in the void spaces within the sample is forced into solution under the applied pressure
when full saturation is reached. There is then no separate air phase in the voids which might
otherwise give erroneous pore pressure measurements.
(2) Any air trapped between the membrane and the sample is also dissolved.
(3) In a sample that dilates during shear, water can be freely sucked in during a drained test
without the movement being impeded by an airlock due to air bubbles.
(4) For a similar sample in an undrained test, initial application of a high enough back.
pressure can prevent the pore pressure falling below atmospheric as it tries to dilate, and
therefore the measured pressure remains positive. In practice the pore pressure should not be
allowed to fall below about 150 kPa.
(5) Any air bubbles remaining in the pore pressure and back pressure systems are eliminated,
improving the response time of the former and avoiding the risk of air bubbles impeding
drainage to the latter.
(6) Reliable measurements of permeability can be made on soils that are initially partly
saturated if saturation is first achieved by applying a back pressure.
15.6 SATURATION AND USE OF BACK PRESSURE 789
15.6.3 Solubility of Air in Water in the Sample Voids

"
ENTRY OF WATER FROM BACK
-
PRESSURJ:.
..
SY'STEM
". .
The introduction of additional air-free\vaterunder.pressure into' the voids of a partly-
saturated soil sa'Jllple increases the- degi~eof.~aturation when equilibrium is established,
, because the pressure causes some~of the air to be absorbed into solution. The theoretical
additional pressure (back pressure) flUb required to increase the degree of saturation from an
initial value So to a final value S is given by the equation
(S - So)(1 - H)
flUb = [Po] 1 _ S(l - H) (15.47)
(Lowe and Johnson, 1960) in which [Po] is initial absolute press~re, and H is Henry's
coefficient of solubility (approximately 0.02 cm 3 of air per cm 3 of water at 20° C) (HeWY, 1803).
To obtain full saturation (i.e. S = 1), Equation (15.47) becomes
I-H
flUb = [Po] ~ (1 - So) (15.48)
Putting H = 0.02,
flUb = 49[po] (1 - So);. (15.49)
. . ...
If the initial. pressur~ [Po] is a~mospheric, substituti~g
one 'standard atmosphere' of
101.325 kPa In EquatIOn (15.49) gIves •.
Ub = 4965(1 - So) kPa ." (15.50)
This relationship is shown graphically in Fig. 15.29, curve (a), and is summarised in Table 15.5.
The two curves below curve (a) are for final saturation values of99.5% and 99.0% (i.e. S = 0.995
and 0.990 in Equation (15.47».
2500rl---------r--------~--------~
pressure
required
kPa
•
80 90 100%
initial degree of saturation So
Fig.1529 Pressures required for saturation of soil thaUs initially partly saturated:
curve (a) with applied back pressure, curve (b) with confining pressure only
790 EFFECTIVE STRESS TESTING-PRINCfPLES, THEORY AND APPLICATIONS
Table 15.5. THEORETICAL PORE PRESSURES FOR SATURATION
, """';';:'~"'" '"'. '. Theoretical pore pressure rei?uired

Initialdtgree:bt:,'>:·/f/:/;.'·L.;. " " ."",":';.>' ....
s(/iuratio;Z~.;~j':,-:.~~;~:·'wit~G,/.i'pressure • '~jn:g pressure only
~o% ;..,,,,,,~tJi~;,~;··~.: kPa ' .: ..... kPa
"
.
;.~ ,.40
'190, '-';'.', .. ' '. '.
.' 0
95 250 267
:90 500 • 563
85 750 894
80 990 1266
75 1240 1690
70 1490 2170
•
PRESSURISING AT CONSTANT WATER CONTENT.
The degree of saturation of the voids in a partly satur:at6'i1i sample can be increased by raising
the confining pressure so as to increase the air pres~tUte.without introducing additional water.
The theoretical increase in pore air pressure, !lua; n'eechid to achieve 100% saturation (S = 1) is
given by the equation quoted by Bishop and Henl<.el:
1"- So
!lu a = [Po] - - (15.51)
SoH
(Bishop and Eldin, 1950). Substituting for [Po] and H as above,
Ua = 5066 ( --s;;-
1 - So) kPa (15.52)
This relationship is included in Fig. 15.29, curve (b), and in Table 15.5. It is evident that an
increase of air pressure alone, without the introduction of additional water, requires
appreciably higher pressures to give full saturation if So is less than about 95%. When a partly
saturated sample is subjected to an increase in confining pressure only, the increase in the pore
air pressure is likely to be less than the confining pressure increment, and very much less in soils
that are stiff or have a 'cemented' structure. Saturation by increasing the confining pressure
alone is therefore practicable only for relatively soft soils with a fairly high initial saturation.
15.6.4 Pressure and Time Required for Saturation
TRADITIONAL APPROACH
When attempting to saturate a sample by the application of back pressure, the two factors of
interest are:
(a) the pressure needed,
(b) the length of time required.
When using this procedure (described in Section 18.6.1, method 0)), the degree of saturation is
monitored by observing pore pressure response to each confining pressure increment and
calculating the value of B from Equation (15.4). The back pressure is increased in stages until a
satisfactory B value is achieved. Traditionally a value of B = 0.97 is accepted as representing
virtually full saturation.
Monitoring of pore pressure enables each stage to be held for as long as necessary to ieacb
equilibrium. The two factors referred to above are thus established by trial, but so~\iftlesa
stage might be cut short prematurely for practjcai reasons if)t would ·otherwi~C)·~J'j·tQ.an
excessively long time period. Some advai:lcei~tation of the pressure aIt~,.:9-m.~]!felyto be .
needed for back pressure sa~unuion6f certain types of soil can be obtain~d;tl'<tni'the data
outlined below. . . ' -.' .' - , ';~.'.
PRESSURE REQUIRED
The theoretical pressure required for saturation can be obtained from Equation (15.50), or
from Fig. 15.29, which also indicates pressures required for degrees of final &aturationofjust
below 100% derived from Equation (15.47). In practice the back pressures needed tor
saturation of undisturbed samples may not be quite as high as those indicated.
Provided that the pressures applied are enough to achieve the saturation objective, their'
values are immaterial. The effective stress required for the compression stage is obtained by
consolidation and is equal to the difference between the confining pressure and cell pressure at
the end of consolidation, irrespective of their actual values.
TIME REQUIRED
When pressurised air-free water is introduced into the void spaces in a sample there is an
immediate increase in the degree of saturation due to the compression of air in accordance with
Boyle's law. If the pressure is maintained the degree of saturation increases further as air
dissolves in the water but this process takes time owing to the slow rate of diffusion of small
bubbles of air in confined spaces. The time element here is governed by diffusion, not by the
effect oflow soil permeability. The time factor was investigated by Black and Lee (1973), and
some of their findings are outlined below. These data were derived by Black and Lee from tests
on 71 mm diameter samples of clean sand, although similar time effects have been observed in
clayey soils.
The time required for saturation under the appropriate back pressure (referred to above)
depends on the initial degree of saturation of the sample, and whether a degree of saturation of
100"10 is to be obtained or whether a slightly lower value is acceptable. Theoretical times for
final saturation values of 99.0, 99.5 and 100"10 are plotted graphically in Fig. 15.30 The time
required appears to be greatest when the initial saturation lies in the range -{5%-85%. It
decreases dramatically when the initial saturation exceeds 95%, and also decreases towards the
dry end of the scale where the air voids are larger and interconnected and allow easier access
for the penetration of inflowing water. There is a substantial saving of time if 99.5% or 99.0"10
saturation can be accepted. .
In practice, the theoretical times to achieve 100"10 saturation often exceed one day, and can
extend to several weeks. A compromise then has to be made on the grounds of practical
expediency by accepting less than 100"10 saturation. Recommendations are suggested in
Section 15.6.6.
15.6.5 Saturation Criteria
SOIL CATEGORIES
Instead of using the traditional arbitrary B value of about 0.97 as a criterion for saturation in
all instances, it would be more realistic to relate the required B value to the properties of the
soil. The relevant factor is whether a degree of saturation of less than 100"10 will have a
significant effect on the pore pressure response, or whether at say 99.0"10 saturation the soil will
still behave as if fully saturated.
For soft soils the value of B at 100"10 saturation is close to 1.0, and a B value of 0.97 is
obtained at about 98% saturation. Hence the commonly accepted 'saturation' requirement
'<+. _ _ ~""_=_--'_"'._"='_"""'_""'~~_~''''''''' SM11$w ...... 'W¥t .... U'.. '1';;& q$!"!,~cif.",,,-
change of scale
,
II .. _ ... -._ ... ,
,;
time
iminutes) 1051 I" [7 .... :.1~3?~9.2.L<> to '>."
to r~'ach
equilibrium
(log scale)
104 b--..,c
•
... 1031 :::>'Iv 7< II 1" ' ,
102 1 ~V7LT-11I~_~J ~ ~ II
10 I ,£ II III
o 25 50 75 80 85 90 95 100
initial degree of saturation So 0/0
Fig.15.30 TIme required for saturation under appropriate back pressure, related to
initial degree vf saturation (after Black and Lee, 1983)
J!O
.. " ...
(B = 0.97) is easily obtainable in soft sotls, but this may not be high enough to justify the
assumption of full saturation. In stiff soils the B value at saturation can be significantly less
than 1.0, and could be little over 0.9 for very stiff materials. In these instances it is theoretically
impossible to achieve B = 1 even at 1000/0 saturation, and considerable well-intentioned time
and effort could be wasted in the attempt.
Soils were divided into four categories by Black and Lee (1973) for the study of saturation
effects, as follows:
Soft soils: soft normally-consolidated clays
Medium soils: lightly overconsolidated clays
compacted clays and silts
Stiff soils: overconsolidated stiff clays
average sands
Very stiff soils: very stiff clays
very dense sands
soils consolidated to a high effective stress
compacted clays with a stiff structure
soils with a cementing agent, even if only very weak.
Most clays when subjected to small pressure increments show high stiffness; therefore the
applied pressure increments should be of reasonable magnitude, e.g. 50 or 100 kPa.
,.
!" •
Typical values of Bat 1000/0 saturation and just under, for each of the above categories of
soil, are summarised in Table 15.6. The data are also presented graphically for initial degrees of
saturation ranging from 85% to 1000/0 in Fig. 15.31.
SUGGESTED CRITERIA
The data given above provide a basis for estimating a criterion for saturation of a particular
soil that is realistic and relevant to pore pressure measurement in a triaxial test. For practical
purposes a degree of saturation of less than 1000/0 is acceptable if several successive equal
Table 15.6. VALUES OF B FOR TYPICAL

SOILS AT AN.,D NEAR FULL SATURATION
Dewee oj'soturatioll
Soil ('£~tI'Y(".\' 100"" 99.5"" 99.0""
soft
medium
0.9998
0.9988
0.992
0.963
0.986
0.930
..
stiff 0.9877 0.69 0.51
very stiff
.... 0.913 0.20 0.10
(After Black and Lee, 1973)
B
1.0,
value
~
-~~-===il
change
i
of scale---. 1:::::::=:;::>'1
.
0 9877
0 913
0.91 ,,,c ,I II 11 .
0.71 I II V J I
85 90 99 99.5 100%
degree of saturation So
Fig. 15.31 Typical values of pore pressure coefficient B related to degree of
saturation and soil stiffness (after Black alld Lee, 1973)
increments of confining pressure give identical values of B within the range referred to above.
The effective pressure should remain constant for each increment. If the pore pressure response
increases with additional cell pressure increments the sample is not saturated (Wissa, 1969).
Another check, if sensitive volume measurements can be made, is to observe carefully the
tendency for water to flow into the sample when the back pressure is increased. When the
sample is fully saturated the volume of inflow is equal to the increase in volume of the sample as
measured on the cell pressure line (Chapter 18, Section 18.5.2).
15.6.6 Recommended Saturation Procedures
GENERAL COMMENT
Saturation by the application of back pressure is often accepted as normal practice for effective
stress triaxial tests in which measurement of shear strength at failure is the main objective.
Table 15.7. APHiICATIONS

- .......
OF LABORATORY TESTS TO FIELD PROBLEMS
----------.------~--.~,.~,~~:-~,-----------~.~.~~--------.-------------------------------
.t:i·~'ul Trpe qt:~. '..;. Type of'
Field' prohlem -pel:fe{1: . Ul1li-J.I':~~r:-'· :·:.,')?urameter.s test • commellts
. ~ !I:'~ .-
Foundations of
structures (stability)
on soft intact clay end of totatstress 'C U ' </>. = 0 QU or CU numerous
construction triaxial uncertainties: .
on fissured clay Cu ,</>. = 0 QU or C-QU errors maybe self~
triaxial compensating in
• some case.s
(settlement) immediate 'elastic E. elastic modulus
long term consolida tion (unloading
111,. oedometer rate of settlement
--amount of curve) Ce , Cs ' consolidation not reliable from
settlement p; lab. tests
Earth retaining end of tO,lal stress Cu QU triaxial

structures construction
• long term effective stress c', 4>' CU orCD
triaxial
short or long Ko zero lateral
term deformation
Embankments: fill during effective stress Cd' </>d CD (partly partial

construction saturated) consolidation
represen ts stage
construction
short or long total stress c.' 4>. = 0 UU or CU effect of water
term triaxial content on Cu
settlement mt" C,,: triaxial isotropic or
consolidation anisotropic
long term effective stress Cd' 4>d CD triaxial
gravelley soils long term effective stress Cd' 4>d large shear-box
(drained)
foundation during effective stress 4>', c' = 0 CU with A
construction values
Natural slopes:
first·time slides long term effective stress Cd' 4>d CD or CU
triaxial
previously failed residual 4>; multi-reversal
slopes (including strength shear box or
soils that have ring shear
experienced
solinuction)
Cut slopes: during total stress Cu QU triaxial
construction (extension and
compression)
first·time slides long term . effective stress C', </>' CU triaxial
previously failed residual 4>; multi-reversal
slopes (including strength shear box or
solinuction) ring shear
Earth dams during.. total stress Cu QU or CU

consir~ction triaxial
during' . pore pressure B special stress
construction effects path test
drawdown, short term effective stress C', </>' CU or CD
pervious soils triaxial
permeability k triaxial
permeability
.
•
Table JS.7-ClJI1tinued
Field prohlenl"
Type or
wiulysis
.
Parameters
T.lpe at
test Comments
impervious soils effective stress c',4;' CU triaxial

(saturated)
pore pressure B special test
effects
Tunnel linings long term total and Ko zero la teral

effective stress deformation
Temporary
excavations:
intact clay (base during total stress QU or CU
heave) construction triaxial
extension (0',
decreasi ng)
fissured clay during effective stress c',4;' CU or CD
construction triaxial
Sheet pile retaining immediate total stress c. QU or CU
walls triaxial
long term effective stress c',4;' CU or CD
with pore triaxial
pressure
Settlement analysis in short or long amount of C" p; oedometer consolidation test

soft clays term settlement
Settlement analysis in medium to rate of Cv'Ch large hydraulic consolidation cell
laminated soils long term settlement (Rowe cell)
Settlement analysis in medium to amount of E., E' triaxial compression with local
fissured soils long term settlement strain measurements; oedometer
consolidation test
However, this practice may not be suitable for all soils or in-situ conditions. Ideally the
procedure used should attempt to follow the conditions imposed on the soil in the ground, but
this is not always practicable.
SUGGESTED PROCEDURES
Some general guidelines on when and when not to use normal saturation procedures are
outlined below.
(1) A degree of saturation of as close as possible to 100% is desirable for effective stress tests on
the following soil types, and the procedure given in Section 18.6.1 is appropriate.
(a) natural soils that will become saturated in the ground (e.g. under a dam);
(b) compacted soils, compacted at about optimum moisture content;
(c) any partly saturated soil in which changes in pore pressure before failure (i.e. at small
strains) are significant.
(2) The saturation procedure referred to above is not necessary for effective stress tests under
the following conditions, but use of a back pressure on the drainage line is advantageous:
(a) soil that is virtually saturated initially (but a check on the B value should be made);
(b) drained tests from which only the shear strength parameters at failure (peak) are
significant;
(c) soils compacted wet of optimum moisture content.
(3) For the following soil types, saturation should not be exactly as described in Section 18.6.1,
but the procedure should be modified as suggested below when it is necessary to achieve or
verify full saturation.
1/1
(a) Overconsolidated clay. The differential between confining pressure and applied back
pressure might need to be greater than the suggeste.1 normal differential. in order to •.
I1}aintain an effect~e stress high enough to pre...;ent swelling whi.ch could r{}Suit ,in
dis'tll1'bance of the soil structure. Anisotropic stress applicati0n withK 0 greater than 1 may
be !TIore appropriate to represent the in-situ conditions. .
(b)Sbft:, normally-consolidated soil. The suggested pressure differential might cause
premCiture consplidation, and a lower differential would be needed. This will require care in
the measurement of the confining pressur<! and back pressure, so as to determine their
difference accurately. Measurement of small differential pressure is discussed in Section
1~~2 . .
(c) Residual soils. Some soils might need to be treated in the same way as overconsolidated
• clays to prevent them from excessive swelling.
(4) For soils of high permeability (e.g. sands), saturation can be effected relatively quickly by
passing de-aired water through the sample. This can be aided by the application of a vacuum,
but care is needed to avoid disturbance to the soil structure.
(5) For stiff and very stiff soils, it is virtually impossible to achieve B = 1. Saturation should be
checked by determining the value of B at two successive back pressures, or by observing the
flow of water into the sample, as outlined in Section 15.6.5.
(6) Soils that have a relatively low initial degree of saturation should not be subjected to the
cycles of effective stress imposed by a saturation process using incremental pressures, as this
might progressively alter the soil structure. Cell pressure and back pressure should both be
increased continuously, apJiYing a differential pressure and a rate of pressure increase
appropriate to the type of soil.
15.7 APPLICATIONS OF LABORATORY TESTS
Recommendations for the application of laboratory tests to the many different kinds of
practical problems which can arise are beyond the scope of this book. However, some
examples of the applications of many of the strength and compressibility tests described in this
volume, and of some tests from Volume 2, are summarised in Table 15.7. This is intended only
for general information and not as a comprehensive .:teck-list of test requirements for each
type of problem mentioned. Only the engineer who is fully aware of the in-situ conditions and
restraints is competent to select the appropria.te tests, and this requires judgement based on
experience.
REFERENCES
Atkinson, J. H. and Bransby, P. L (1978). The Medu./IIics ()f Soils. McGraw-Hili, London.
Bishop. A. W. and Eldin, G. (1950). 'Undrained triaxial tests on saturated sands and their significance in the general
theory of shear strength'. Geotechllique, 2:1: 13.
Bishop, A. W. and Henkel, D. J. (1962). The Meusurement (!f Soil Properties ill the Triaxial Test (second edition).
Edward Arnold. London.
Black, D. K. and Lee, K. L (1973). 'Saturating laboratory samples by back pressure'. J. Soil Mechunics & FoU/ull}tio;1
Divisioll-ASCE, Vol. 99, No. SMI, Paper 9484, pp 75-93.
Blight, G. E. (1964). The effect of non-uniform pore pressures on laboratory measurements of the shear strength of
soils'. Symposiulll Oil Laboratory Shear Testillg ()F Soil.~, pp 173-184. ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 361.
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, USA.
BS 1377: J 975. 'Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes'. British Standards Institution, London.
Burland, 1. B. (1961). Discussion, P/'()c. 51h 1m. COllt: Soil Mechallics alld Foundatioll Engineering, Paris, Vol. 3.
pp 219-220.
Henkel, D. J. and Gilbert, G. D. (1954). 'The effect of the rubber membrane on the measured triaxial compression
strength of clay samples'. Geolecillliqlle, 3:1 :20.
15.7 APPLICATIONS OF LABORATORY TESTS 797
. '" oil
Hcnr}:w."O 802). 'Experiments on the quantity of gases absorbed by water at different temperatures and under
drffl!rel1'\press,rr~'. Phil. 7hlm. Rural S()ci~tr oj' LOlcll'".. 1803, Paper Ill. .
J(;iln~.~{.:J.. :\,:;.~(~li.ld Burland. J. B. '(1962). 'Limitations .to the use of effective stresses in partly saturated soils'.
G';(it~:lt#i,!il''4t.'0a2 : 1 1 5 . ' . .
lam~i~?W\)i:id Whitman: R. V. (1979). Soil M;'('/u;lIics (SI version). Wiley. New Ybrk. •
Lec;':&\:~;<Ur~'tiiik, D. K. (1972). Time to dissolve an air bubble in a draiilline·. J ..soil Mechallics & FOlllu/atioll
ElIl.ji;lef;;·i/lilfJ1r.ASCE, Vol. 98, No:SM2, Paper 8728, pp 181-194.
··;!.;ow·e,:1. tmdJ,ohnson, T. C. (1960). 'Use of back pressure to increase degree of saturation of triaxial iest specimens'.
~.. :':.ASCE Renew't'h Cont: (Ill Shear Strenyth oj' Coilesire SOils, Boulder, Colorado, USA, pp 819":836.
·':tyell. Sir Charles (1871). Stllt#t>nts' Elemellts oj' Geoloy.l'. pp 41-42. London .
. 'P'en'man, A. D. M. (1953). 'Shear characteristics of a saturated silt, measured in triaxial compression'. GeotecllllilJue,
3:8:311.
':. Pore Pressure and Suction in Soils (1960). Conference organised by the British National Society of ISSFME.
Butterwort hs, London.
Rendulic, L. (1937). 'Ein Grundgesetz der Tonmechanik und sein experimenteller Beweis'. Bauillgellieur, Vol. 18,
pp 459-467. .
Reynolds, O. (1886). 'Experiments showing dilatancy, a property of granular material'. Proc. Royal I/lst., Vol. II,
pp 354-363.
Roscoe, K. H., Schofield, A. N. and Wroth, C. P. (1958). 'On the yielding of soils'. Geoteclllliljue, 8:1 :22.
Schofield, A. N. and Wroth, C. P. (1968). Critical State Soil Mechallics. McGraw-Hill, London.
Scott, C. R. (1980). A/I IlIIroiluctio/l to Soil Mec/u/Ilics lind Fou/ldations (third edition). Applied Science Publishers.
Skempton, A. W. (1954). 'The pore pressure coefficients A and B'. Geotechl1ique, 4:4:143.
Skempton, A. W. (1957). 'Discussion on planning and design of the new Hong Kong Airport'. Proc./lls!. Cir. Eng.,
London, Vol. 7, pp 305-307.
Skempton, A. W. (1960). 'Significance of Terzaghi's concept of effective stress'. Contribution to From Theory to
,. Practice ill Soil Mechallics. John Wiley & Sons.
. Skempton, A. W. (1964). 'Long-term stability of clay slopes'. Fourth Rankine Lecture. Geotec/lIli£jue, 14:2:77.
Skempton, A. W. (1970). 'First-time slides in over-consolidated clays'. Geotecillliljue, 20:3:320.
:. Skempton, A. W. and Bishop, A. W. (1955). 'The gain in stability due to pore pressure dissipation in a soft clay
.. foundation'. Trans. 5th Congo Large Dams.
Taylor, D. W. (1944). Tenth progress report on shear strength to US engineers. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
USA.
Terzaghi, K. (1924). 'Die Theorie der hydrodynamischen Spannungserscheinungen und ihr erdbautechnisches
Anwendungsgebiet'. Proc. 1111. Congo App. Mech., Delft, pp 288-294.
Terzaghi, K. (l925a). Erdhaumecitallik auf bodeIlPitysii;alisc/lel' Grundlage. Deuticke, Vienna.
Terzaghi, K. (I 925b). 'Principles of soil mechanics'. Engilleering News-Record, Vol. 95.
Terzaghi, K. (1936). 'The shearing resistance of saturated soils and the angle between the planes of shear'. Pmc. /st 1111.
COIlf.' Soil Mechallics & Foundation Ellgilleering, Cambridge, Mass., USA, Vol. I, pp 54-56.
Terzaghi, K. (1939). 'Soil mechanics-a new chapter in engineering science'. J.llls(. Cir. Eng., London, Vol. 12, No.7,
pp 106-142.
Terzaghi, K. (1957). Presidential Address, Fourth Int. Conf. Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering London, Vol.
3, pp 55-58.
Wissa, A. E. (1969). 'Pore pressure measurement in saturated stiff soils'. J. Soil MeciJwlics & FOllndation Dil'isioll
ASCE, Vol. 95, No. SM4, Paper 6670, pp 1063-1073.
';.. ',:.'~".
Chapter 16 ....
,;,. .
..•.:;
'".",'
Test equipment
16.1 INTRODUCTION
16.1.1 Scope
For the purpose of this chapter, equipment required for effective stress tests is divided into the
following categories. Descriptions of those items under each category that are more commonly
used are outlined in the sections indicated.
(1) Cells or confining chambers in which samples are mounted and tested (generally referred to
as the 'cell'); Section 16.2.
(2) Means of applying regulated pressures to the sample, internally or externally ('pressure
systems'); Section 16.3.
(3) Apparatus for applying axial load to the sample (such as a 'loading frame'); Section 16.4.
(4) 'Conventional' measuring devices for determining the applied forces and pressures, and for
measuring the resulting deformation and other changes imposed on the sample; Section 16.5.
(5) Principles of electronic instruments and their applications to soil testing are outlined in
Section 16.6.
(6) Miscellaneous small accessories, tubing and fittings, materials, and tools; Section 16.7.
Reference is made in this chapter to a number of items which have been covered in Volume 2,
especially those used for triaxial tests, and further details are given where necessary. The
emphasis is on equipment for effective stress triaxial compression tests. Consolidation test
equipment is listed for completeness but is described in more detail in Chapter 21. Brief
mention is included of some items of a specialised nature, such as those used mainly for
research purposes. Historical notes outlining the development of some of the major items of
equipment are included to illustrate progress made in the development of the test procedures.
Guidance on preparing and checking test apparatus is given in Section 16.8. Outline notes
on general laboratory practice, and the calibration of measuring devices, are covered in
Chapter 17, with references to Volume 2 where appropriate.
16.1.2 Conventional and Electronic Instruments
In this book procedures are generally presented in terms of conventional measuring

instruments, e.g. micrometer dial gauges and pressure gauges. However, in many laboratories
these are gradually being replaced by electronic devices which transmit data electrically via an
electronic processing unit, usually for display in digital form. The electric signals can also be
recorded automatically for subsequent processing, either manually, or automatically by a
programmed micro-computer. Electronic instrumentation is described separately in Section
16.6, together with notes on the associated power supply and readout units. Automatic data-
Jogging is also referred to, and the application of the micro-computer to automatic processing
of data and control of many kinds of test is indicated.
Even where electronic instruments are used almost exclusively, the author believes that
798
16.1 INTRODUCTION 799
VALVES
===0= ~ .~.~ ,,-

on/off non-return three-port
I/~\J
#
o o
pressure
gauge
differential
pressure
gauge
\
control
-
cylinder
./
(rotary pump) mercury twin-burette

manometer volume
change gauge
-
1 y o
11
displacement
transdCIC;~r.
dial gauge
• ::/f/'
load
pressure mercury transducer
transducer null
indicator
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::,::::::::::::,::::::::::::::)
porous disc or
drainage layer
---............
impermeable
o
O-ring
~
~
bleed
flexible diaphragm seal plug
Fig. 16.1 Symbolic representation of common items of equipment
operators should first become familiar with test procedures and measurements using
conventional instruments:
16.1.3 Symbols
In the description of triaxial test equipment and ancillary systems, frequent reference is made
to the book by Bishop and Henkel (1962). Where appropriate the letter symbols assigned to
valves are generally consistent with those used in Part II of that book.
In the diagrams, certain items are represented by the symbols shown in Fig. 16.1.
16.2 TEST CELLS
16.2.1 Types of Cell
The pressure vessel in which a sample is mounted for carrying out various kinds of strength or
compressibility tests is referred to as the 'cell'. It may also be called the 'pressure chamber' or
'chamber', especially in the USA.
Several types of cell are used for different types of effective stress tests on soils, as follows.
(1) Plain bearing piston-loading triaxial cells for carrying out strength tests on samples
800 TEST EQUIPMENT
subjected to a conijning pressure, referred to as 'standard' triaxial cells. Several different sizes
were referred to in'Vglume 2, Section 13.7.~.
~: .
. .
..
(2) Triaxial cells fitted'with linear ball bushipgs iI1 the eell top t~. minimise piston friction and·
" maintain alighmeflt, as used in the USA "'" .' '. "
(3)' Triaxial cells fitted with·a. rotating bush to' reduc~pis'ton fricii~n (,rotating bush' ceIIs),as
developed by Imperial College, London. .
(4) Special cells to facilitate tests in which no lateral yield'is' permitted ('K 0 cells').
(5) A special type of cell developed at Imperial College for a wide variety of purposes,
especially stress-path tests (the 'Bishop-Wesley cell').
(6) Cells without a loading piston, for triaxial consolidation tests ('triaxial consolidation
cells').
(7) Consolidation cells using a hydraulic loading system (,hydraulic consolidation cells' or
'Rowe cells'), as developed at Manchester University.
~"
The main features of standard cells, type (1) and (2), are described in Section 16.2.2. Cells of
types (3) to (5) are more specialised and are described in Section 16.2.3. Consolidation cells,
types (6) and (7), are covered in Section 16.2.4, but hydraulic consolidation cells of different
sizes are described in greater detail in Chapter 24.
16.2.2 Standard Triaxial Cells
GENERAL FEATURES
Triaxial cells and their necessary fittings for various types of effective stress tests are described
below. Special features relating to larger cells (i.e. for samples of 100mm diameter and
upwards) are referred to separately.
Details of a typical cell are shown in cross-section in Fig. 16.2. The main components are:
(1) Cell base
(2) Cell body and top
(3) Loading piston
(4) Loading caps (top and base)
(1) Cell base

The base is machined from corrosion-resistant metal or a sufficiently hard plastic material.
Three outlet ports are necessary for pressure and drainage connections, but some cells are
fitted with a fourth outlet which can be blanked off when nO.t in use. The outlet ports are shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 16.3, as follows.
(i) Cell chamber connection for filling, pressurising and emptying the cell (valve c).
(ii) Connection to sample top ,cap, for drainage and application of back pressure to the
specimen (valve b). . ' .
(iii) Connection to base pedestal for pore pressure measurement (valve a).
(iv) Additional connection to base pedestal for drainage, or inflow of water in permeability
measurements (valveilk.'~
Each outlet terminates at a serewed socket on the edge of the cell base, into which~an be fitted
a valve, or a blanking plug if the line is not used. Each valve is connected to the appropriate
pressure line. Valve designations a, b, c, d are used consistently throughout this book.
The cell chamber port (i) may be of a larger bore than the others to permit reasonably rapid
filling and emptying of the cell. Ports (iii) and (iv) leading to the base pedestal are of small bore
in order to enclose the smallest practicable volume of water in the pore pressure measuring
system (see Section 16.5.6).
16.2 TEST CELLS 801
post and b~acket for

strain dial gauge
stem ., I i oil filler -..alve
orplug'\: .'.
piston bushing_ I r ....;,.
~I
air bleed plug f!i'ff1
tie-rods------l
O-rings II I II . CfM
It I I i TOPCAP
drainage line I I I ..1\

I I I cell fluid
porous discs II I lIe '·?:,ll. I I membrane
Fig. 16.2 Details of a typical triaxial cell

'--'P:-"I;Mtl'",
The top surface of the pedestal may be either smooth, or machined with shaIIow radial and
circular grooves. A grooved pedestal improves the drainage communication from the porous
disc which is placed between the sample and the small bore outlet, but a smooth surface makes
for less likelihood of trapping air under the disc.
When a porous disc of high air entry value (see Section 16.7.3) is needed, a more positive seal
can be formed if the disc is of smaller diameter than the pedestal and bonded into a recess with
epoxy resin. The usual arrangement for 38 mm diameter samples is shown in Fig. 16.4 (a), and
for large (e.g. 100mm) diameter samples in Fig. 16.4 (b). If neither pore pressure measurement
nor drainage is needed at the base, a solid perspex or aluminium alloy disc is placed on the
pedestal instead of a porous disc..
The base pedestal of some cells can be fitted with adaptors which enable one cell to be used
for samples of several diameters. Care must be taken not to trap air, or excess water, between
the adaptor components when setting up. For tests requiring accurate measurements of pore
pressure it is better to use a cell which an integral base pedestal that is compatible with the
sample diameter without having to use adaptors.
The cylindrical side of the pedestal should be polished smooth and free from scratches and
deformities to ensure a watertight seal with the rubber membrane.
802 TEST EQUIPMENT
~a:'./ pore pressure
-.
small-bore
nylon tube
\4 iI I pedestal
connection
to top cap recess for
sealing ring
------blanking plug
when line notin use
back pressure
/
Fig. 16.3 Triaxial cell base outlet ports
flat-head screws al grooves

levelled off
with filler porous disc
(a) (b)
Fig. 16.4 Triaxial cell base pedestals: (a) 38 mm diameter, (b) 100 mm diameter
The back pressure port from valve b leads to a gland in the cell base (Fig. 16.2) which is
connected by a length of small-bore nylon tubing to the sample top loading cap (see (4) below).
(2) Cell body and top

Several types of cell body were described in Volume 2, Section 13.7.2, together with comments
on their care and use. The cell body and top usually consist of a single unit.
A bracket fitted to the cell top forms a seating for the stem of the strain dial indicator or
transducer (Fig. 16.2). The ce1l top is fitted with an air release valve, and an additional plugged
hole is often provided for inserting oil into the cell (see below). If the plug is replaced by a valve,
connection'l-n be made to a pi\essurised oil supply for replenishing the oil during a test when
necessary. . . .
. The cell body expands when pressurised, but this volume change can be allowed for by
calibration against pressure (see Section 17.4.4).
(3) Loading piston

The loading piston (also referred to as the 'ram' or 'plunger') is machined to a close tolerance
16.2 TEST CELLS 803
in the bush in the ceil top, and pistons should not be interchanged with other: cells (see Volume
2, Section., 13.7.~). For effective stress tests, which are usuallY of long du~tion,a layer of .
castor oil )0-15mm thicl< should be inserted to fl.oat on.to~· of the watvE'iJ1 She cell. The Y"
reduces bo-th le~a1s.e past. ~he piston and piston friction by- providing lubrication.
Measuremenf ofleakage is ..described in Section 17.3.2, and the effect o{ piston friction is
discussed in Section 17.4.5. When the cell is not pressurised the piston should fa)l slowly under
its own\veight.
The piston is fitt~d with a fixed or adjustable collar to prevent it being forced out if the cell is
. pressurised when not in position in a load frame. A rubber O-ring on the collar forms a seal
.. against leakage when in this position. Alternatively an external bracket can be used as a piston
restraint, but the strain dial bracket should not be used for this purpose unless designed for the
job.
The lower end of the piston may have a coned recess, or may be fitted with a hemispherical
end, depending on the design of the top loading cap (see below). The piston diameter should
not be less than about one-sixth of the test sample diameter.
Some cells used in the USA are fitted with linear ball bushings to reduce piston friction.
(4) Loading cap

The load from the piston is transmitted to the sample through the top loading cap, several
types of which are shown in Fig. 16.5. A solid cap (Fig. 16.5 (a)) is used for simple undrained
tests. Grooves are sometimes provided for O-rings. Fer effective stress tests a perforated cap,
fitted with a gland for connecting a length of nylon tubing leading to the gland in the cell base,
is used (Fig. 16.5 (b)). The underside of the cap may have a shallow circular groove connecting
O-ring
seal
flat
end
hemispherical end
an
seating in
groove
conical recess
(a) (b) (e) (d)
.r<:,.:. drainage
line
loose land screw

sliding
fit
(e) (f)
Fig. 16.5 Triaxial sample top loading caps: (a) solid, (b) perforated with drainage line,
(c) halved ball seating, (d) hemispherical ended piston seating, (e) provision for
maintaining alignment during consolidation, (f) for large diameter sample
~~.-""",,."""."'''~'
804 TEST EQUIPMENT
with the drainage hole, or it may be smooth. A porous disc is placed between the sample and
top cap.
The illustrations in-Fig. 16.5 (a) and (b) show a ball-bearinglitted between the coned en9 of;
thepi-ston arid a similar recess in the cap. This arrangement automatic~lIy c.orrects a sm'all mis-.·,
alignment while loading is graduallyapplied, but may give an uncertain start t6 the siress/;>:,
strain curve. This may be improved at small loads by using a halved steej ball andflatended.i!ir ,~~ "
piston (Fig. 16.5 (cll, as suggested by Bishop and Henkel, but it needs more'cate in aligning the:;~ "".
sample. The usual commercial compromise is the hemispherical-ended piston shown il'1:fig.
16.5 (d), which eliminates the need for a separate ball. The top cap should be allowed totilt;by
at least 6°, to prevent bending moments in the piston. ,'," .
An arrangement which maintains alignment as the sample is consolidated before the
application of an axial load is shown in Fig. 16.5 (e). The tubular guide is a sliding fit on the
piston. When first.set up the piston is held in place so that it projects into the guide but is clear
of the balL After consolidation the piston is brought down into contact with the ball in the
usual way.
A typical top cap for large diameter samples (100 mm diameter and upwards) is shown in
Fig. 16.5 (f), together with the usual type of hemispherical-ended piston. The cap must be deep
enough to spread the locally-applied load uniformly across the sample area.
Specially designed top caps are needed for axial extension tests. A simple arrangement for a
38 mm diameter sample, where the upward applied load is not large, is shown in Fig. 16.6 (a).
The short length of rod screwed into the cap is a sliding fit in the hole bored into the bottom of
the piston and acts as a guide during consolidation. The piston is then lowered far enough to
engage and tighten the screwed portion at the end of the rod, thus locking the cap to the piston.
A better arrangement which avoids subjecting the sample to torsion is the suction cap device
shown in Fig. 16.6 (c). A short length of thick-walled rubber tubing of internal diameter equal
to that of the sample is fitted around the top cap. The inside wall is smeared with silicone
grease. A tapered cap fixed to the cell piston is lowered into the rubber sleeve while water is
drawn out through a connection to the control cylinder on the pore pressure panel. Contact
between the two caps is established when all the water is removed, and this can be felt from the
handwheel of the control cylinder.
An arrangement described by Bishop and Henkel for a 100 mm diameter top cap is shown in
Fig. 16.6 (b). The ball joint virtually eliminates restraint on the top surface of the sample
without introducing backlash in the transition from compression to tension. The applied
extension load must be limited to the working load of the joint.
cell
cell piston
piston
threaded
threaded
locating
drainage
conn
screwed
stud fixed
... totopcap
~ J I
top cap
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 16.6 Top.caps for axial extension tests: (a) simple screwed connection, (b) ball
joint for large diameter samples, (c) suction device (used at City ~iversity, London)
16.2 TEST CELLS 805
•
.'
.
Fig. 16.7 Triaxial cell with rotating bush

(courtesy Imperial College, London)
For triaxial tests with 'lubricated ends', special end caps or adaptors with smooth, highly
polished surfaces are necessary. Details are given in Section 22.2.
16.2.3 Special Triaxial Cells
ROTATING BUSH CELL

Piston friction can be virtually eliminated by using a cell top fitted with a rotating bush. The
principle was developed at Imperial College (Bishop, Webb and Skinner, 1965) for use at cell
pressures up to about 7000 kPa. The piston is of honed stainless steel and passes through a
honed bronze bush which is continuously rotated at 2 rpm by a worm drive. Castor oil is used
on top of the water in the cell to provide lubrication. The worm drive is connected to an electric
motor with speed reduction gear by an extendable drive shaft fitted with a universal joint at
each end. The cell and part of the drive shaft are shown in Fig. 16.7.
Ko CELL
This type of triaxial cell is fitted with a piston ofthe same diameter as the sample, to ensure that
volume changes measured on the cell pressure line are equal to the changes in sample volume.
The cell is shown in Fig. 16.8. Connections to the cell, and other details, are similar to those on
ordinary cell!J.
BISHOP-WESLEY STRESS PATH CELL

••
A hydraulically loaded triaxial cell was developed at Imperial College for readily reproducing
a wide range of stress path conditions in the laboratory, and is described by Bishop and Wesley
(1975). The cell is shown in Fig. 16.9, and the principal features are illustrated in simplified form
in Fig. 16.10.
. .. '
The cell top and perspex cell wall are similar to those of a conventional triaxial cell. The
806 TEST EQUIPMENT
. II
'.'
Fig. 16.8 Triaxial cell for Ko tests
pedestal is connected by a ram, through which passes a drainage connection, to a piston in a

pressure chamber. The ram moves vertically, guided by a linear motion beCiring. Two
Bellofram rolling seals are used, the upper one to contain the cell fluid and the lower one to seal
the pressurising fluid in the lower pressure. chamber. The region between the rolling seals,
which includes the linear bearing, is open to atmosphere.
Axial load is applied by pressurising the lower pressure chamber, but the triaxial cell
pressure has to be taken into account when calculating the preswre required to produce a
given axial stress in the sample. The axial load is measured by a submersible load transducer in
the cell. Two vertical extension rods connected to the loading ram enable axial displacements
to be measured with both a dial gauge and a transducer. Cell pressure, pore pressure and lower
chamber pressure are measured by pressure transducers. A back pressure system ifneeded can
be connected to the base of the sample. Volume changes are measured by volume-change
transducers connected into the back pressure or cell pressure line. -
The system has many advantages over alternative possibilities, and is self-contained,
requiring no loading frame. It can be used for many types of test, and can apply axial extension
as well as compression. Details of operation are given by Bishop and Wesley (1975). Maximum
w.orking values are as follows:
Lower chamber pressure 2380kPa
Corresponding axial load (zero cell pressure) 7kN
Cell pressure l030kPa
Specimen diameter 38mm
- - - - - - . - - - - - -..---.•--.---- ... -- .... --~- ...
16.2 TEST CELLS 807
.. ._" .
,.
'.".
Fig. 16.9 Bishop-Wesley stress path cell
Normal constant pressure systems can be used for providing the pressures. A motorised
variable-speed differential drive for two mercury-pot systems was described by Bishop, Green
and Skinner (1973), and enables various means of control to be applied. Three pressure
controllers (Section 16.3,5) linked to a computer provide a self-contained and versatile system
for tests following any desired stress path, or for strain control. Similar control facilities are
possible by using the 'ADD' controller (Section 16.6.9) linked to standard laboratory air/water
pressure units.
16.2.4 Consolidation Cells
TRIAXIAL CONSOLIDATION CELL

This type of cell, also known as a pore pressure dissipation cell, has no piston for axial loading.
The only stress applied to the sample is the isotropic confining pressure from the cell fluid. The
cell normally accommodates a sample 100 mm diameter and 100 mm high.
Base and top cap connections to the sample are similar to those provided in a standard
triaxial cell. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 20.3 (Section 20.2.1).
808 TEST EQUIPMENT
AXIAL LOAD
electri~!1 connection to transducer", 6~aXial screw ;:tdj'ustmer.lt
..
strain transducer ~I
strain dial gauge
k[ ! I I ] ~ I l' load transducer
cell chamber
rspex cell wall
rods for displacement

measurement ., [ - - - CELL PRESSURE
Bellofram seal I 1- t: Iii&l I I -loading ram
i,",d " linear bearing
crosshead attached
to ram •
__ I
.~ .""t:,~'i
iiiii; , I _PWPOR
DRAINAGE
,
Bellofram sea
::..!.-.-.. LOADING PRESSURE
Fig.16.1O Simplified diagram showing principal features of the Bishop-Wesley cell
HYDRAULIC CONSOLIDATION CELL

Hydraulically loaded consolidation cells (Rowe cells) are described in Chapter 24. The three
usual sizes of cell are shown in Fig. 16.11. They are used for the determination of the
consolidation properties of soils from tests in which pore pressures are measured, and back
pressures applied if required, in ways similar to those used in effective stress triaxial tests.
An adaptation of this type of cell, without the hydraulic loading diaphragm, can be used in a
load frame for constant-rate-of-strain continuous consolidation tests, as described in
Chapter 25.
16.3 PRESSURE SYSTEMS 809
' .. ;
.-
.,
.... ",
H ydr~ulil1. c~:fsolidation cellstRq,:Ve'cells) for nomil1al sample diameters
io • ., :"\'~
..;
.<t 75mm'.l~~·in~1, 250mm
..
."" ,.'
",.:.,...
~::;~ -
16.3 PRESSURE SYSTEMS

.
~,. . ...
'~. ~
16.3.1 Choice of Pressure Systems
Five types of..s·Y~tem for applying and maintallllllg pressures for laboratory tests were
described in Vcfume 2, Section 8.2.4. The three that are the most suitable for use in effective
stress triaxial tests are:
Motorised compressed air system
Mercury pot system
Motorised oil-water system
The first is the most generally convenient and economical system for routine testing, and is
usually referred to in this volume. However, for most applications either of the other two
systems could be substituted. The main features of the three types are compared in Table 16.1.
Some further comments are given in Sections 16.3.2 to 16.3.4 below.
Pressures should be controllable and should remain stable to within the following limits:
Pressures less than 200 kPa: within 1 kPa
Pressures exceeding 200 kPa: within 1%.
16.3.2 Motorised Compressed Air System
One ofthe earliest applications of compressed air for maintaining a pressure supply for triaxial
tests was referred to by Spence (1954), in w.hich pressure regulation was effected in two stages.
The single-stage pressure regulator valves commonly used today give a very stable source of
constant pressure even if there are fluctuations in the supply line pressure.
The principle of the motorised compressed air system was described and illustrated in
Volume 2, Section 8.2.4 (2). The maximum working pressure is usually limited to 1000 kPa,
which is high enough for most routine tests. When a higher pressure is necessary on a
particular pressure line an oil-water pressure system can be substituted. Consumption of air is
low and one compressor can serve numerous pressure regulators.
Bladder cells should be drained periodically and re-filled with freshly de-aired water,
because bladders can never be perfectly impermeable to air. At the same time the bladders
should be inspected for wear, especially at the connection to the air inlet, and renewed if
necessary. The connecting clip should be checked and replaced if showing signs of corrosion.
l
~ ______ ...... ~"" .. ~_.,<."'_""'" __
. ""~~.m"""'H"-"" _ _ ""'_·""'''' ____ ~'''''4_~~_.''''''''''-"' ~.,,_~_,~--".--~'--'---------'-------'-'
810 TEST EQUIPMENT

!iI.
.. .
Table 16.1. COMPARISON OF PRESSURE S.:VSTEMS
• DislIdral1!lIge.1 •
two compressors and stand-by

generator desirable f0r long-
term tests
Mercury pots 0-1000. can be highest accuracy and stability; limited volume capacity: high
(mercury/water) extended to 1700 visible indication that pressure cost of mercury lor each
is maintained; simple principle additional line; potential
hazard from leaking mercury
(for ~recautions see Volume 2,
Section 8.4.4. and Volume I,
Section 1.6.7) .
Motorised oil/water 0-1700. can be self-contained one unit needed for each
extended to 3500 pressure line; expensive
For long-term tests a standby air compressor is necessary to allow for the possibility of
mechanical breakdown. The ideal arrangement is to have two identical compressors in the
system, each with automatic starter operated by a pressure-control switch. During anyone
month one compressor is in active use and the other is on standby. Their roles are alternated
monthly, enabling the inactive one to be serviced.
An automatically self-starting petrol or diesel generator is needed to supply electric power
to the compressor in order to maintain pressures in the event of mains supply failure. It is also
desirable to maintain the power supply to any compression machines which may be running.
In practice this means maintaining the supply to all the laboratory power lines, and this factor
will determine the necessary generator capacity. The batteries supplying the starter motor
should be checked regularly for state of charge and acid level, and the standby system should
be given a trial run at regular (e.g. monthly) intervals.
16.3.3 Mercury Pot System
This type of system was developed at Imperial College, London, during the 1950s and was
described in detail by Bishop and Henkel (1953 and 1962). The principle was outlined in
Volume 2, Section 8.2.4 (3).
The maximum pressure attainable with the double-pot system shown in Fig. 8.10(b)
depends upon the ceiling height of the laboratory, unless a stairwell in a multi-storey building
can be used. Some typical limits are as follows:
Ceiling height (m) . 2.75' 3.05 3.35
Maximum pressure (kPa) 56Q < .. ' 640 720
The addition of a fixed third uppeE pot (with its associated lower pot) enables the pressure
range to be extended to 1090 kPa with:~ ~room of3.35 m Where there is greater headroom
higher pressures are possible, but the'useot pressures in excess of 1000 kPa may need specially
designed pots, tubing and connectors,eMaximum pressures attainable with one-, two- and
three-pot systems for ceiling heights up to 6 m are indicated graphically in Fig. 16.12.
A control cylinder (rotary hand pump) of the type described by Bishop and Henkel (see Fig.
16.24) is needed in order to prime the upper pots with mercury before starting a test, and when
necessary during a test (see Fig. 16.58). The control cylinder used for this purpose is usually
16.3 PRESSURE SYSTEMS 811
2000.----------r---------,,---------,---__~--,__,
maximum f
attainjlple Q)
pressure • OJ
c:
."
I ~
kPa. ,III
1500 7
)/
.<
til
•• Q)
l·~·;1
til·
,'
c~
Q)
....
~~~ / c..
.c:
o'~ ,!:,?
~~ .c:
1000 1
. '
....
17 "
•
o'\.':>
;-4':>-\C
I
e{\" :;>/
Q)
7,,\'Q OJ
c:
" co
~
Q)
~
:::l
til
500 I ,,c til
....Q)
c..
co
E
..
' ~
'-
o
c:
O,I--------~--------4---------~-------+~
2 3 4 5 6
available headroom metres
Fig. 16.12 Maximum pressures attainable from mercury-pot pressure system related
to ceiling height
mounted on the same panel as the pressure gauge used for checking the setting of the pots. One
control cylinder can serve two or more pressure systems, but it should not be the same cylinder
as used on the pore pressure panel.
Two independent mercury-pot systems are needed for most effective stress triaxial and
consolidation tests.
Preparation of this type of system is given in Section 16.8.2.
16.3.4 Motorised Oil-Water System
This type of system, for pressures from 100 to 3500 kPa, was described in Volume 2, Section
8.2.4 (4). Pressures of less than 100 kPa must be obtained either by using another type of
system, or by connecting to header tanks of water placed at suitable heights. A pressure of
100 kPa requires a head of water of about 10.2 m. However, a more recent oil-water system can
pr~)\:ide pressures over the full range from 0 to 1700 kPa .
.Nthough one unit can provide a given pressure for up to three lines, two of these units are
.. ,rieeded for most effective stress tests because the pressures supplied to two lines must be
• eiild3pendently controllable. However, Dr Penman at the Building Research Establishment
developed a special modification of this apparatus to provide two independent pressures. A
second dead-weight cylinder was added, s.upplied by excess oil from the first, and requiring
only the one pump. A further modification was to substitute spring-loading for dead weights
for use on board ship for off-shore testing. The spring stiffness was found to be very critical
(Penman, 1984).
~.'~'~'''''-_>=-~>hI-.,"""''''_~' __
~~'~<=''',",,, ___ ''~''~'''''~-='~~''''_~~' _ _ ''-'_ --.----.~---------- ---~.-~-
812 TEST EQUIPMENT
/ ~
pressu re outlet
pressure CYlinder~
", ..
". -.
'v..,:-"
to test cell
..
. ;
'linear b€aring piston -pressure

transducer
± step control signal digital feedback signal

control .. I
circuit
Fig. 16.13 Prillciple of operation Q{ digital hydraulic pressure controller (after

Mellzies alld SUI/Oil, 1980)
16.3.5 Digital Hydraulic Pressure Controller
This is a self-contained microprocessor-controlled hydraulic servo-system in which pressure is

applied directly to water by means of the displacement of a piston on a cylinder similar in
principle to the pore pressure control cylinder (Section 16.5.6). The original form of the system,
known as the Automatic Programmable Triaxial Test (APTT), was described by Menzies and
Sutton (1980). The screwed rod, fitting in a ballscrew to minimise friction, is rotated by a
stepper motor and gearbox running on a linear bearing. One step of the motor, which is
controlled by a microprocessor, causes a piston volume displacement of 1 mm 3 ; thus the
controller incorporates measurement of volume change. Pressure and volume change are
displayed digitally on the control panel. The principle of operation is shown in Fig. 16.13.
For triaxial compression tests or Rowe cell consolidation tests a separate controller is
needed for each pressure line. Units are available to give maximum pressures of 1000 kPa or
20ookPa.
This controller is a high-precision instrument, particularly suitable for research work. Its
main applications are in conjunction with the Bishop-Wesley triaxial cell (Section 16.2.3 (3));
for special tests (e.g. stress-path tests) requiring feedback control linked to a computer (Section
16.6.9); and in continuous consolidation testing.
16.4 AXIAL LOADING SYSTEMS
16.4.1 Load Frame

A motorised load frame is used to apply axial load to a sample in 'controlled strain' tests, in
which the motor speed provides a predetermined constant rate of displacement, or strain, and
the resulting axial load is measured at selected intervals of strain. Typical load frames for
compression tests on soils were referred to in Volume 2, Section 8.2.3, Table 8.5. A general
arrangement is shown in Fig. 16.14.
For effective stress triaxial tests, the duration of which may run into several days or even
weeks, a drive unit with a multispeed gearbo'l..givi:ng displacement speeds down to about
0.0001 mm/minute is necessary. A steplessly variable speed drive is a useful feature, and is
essential for tests in which the rate of strain is varied by automatic control. A combination of
gearbox and thyristor-controlled steplessly variable drive can give platen speeds as low as
0.000012 mm/minute.
The actual rate of displacement provided by any machine may vary with the applied load,
and can be verified during a test by recording the time at which every set of readings is taken.
The actual rate should not deviate by more than about ± 10"10 of the required value.
16.4 AXIAL LOADING SYSTEMS 813
.. , .
load'frame :~~:.
• adjustable
crosshead
oad ring
1/· I I load dial gauge
strain
dial
:~auge .11 ~. " .
..
adjustable I I •~
bracket
triaxial cell
body
~rainage III
hne- I I orous discs
pore pressure
transducer
pore
pressure
panel and
readout
multispeed motorised drive unit
Fig. 16.14 General arrangement of triaxial cell in load frame
16.4.2 Dead Weight Loading

,~~.
In a 'stress-controlled' test the stress applied to the sample is increased in increments at

appropriate intervals by applying small increments of load, and the deformation resulting
from each increment is observed. A convenient method of applying small stresses under
controlled loading to a sample in a triaxial cell is by means of a yoke hanger supporting slotted
weights, as indicated in Fig. 16.15. For higher stresses a beam supporting a balanced pair of
load hangers may be more suitable.
The upward force on the cell piston from the pressure in the cell can be counteracted by
fitting a separate pan to the hanger on which weights can be placed to exactly counterbalance
814 TEST EQUIPMENT
..
'.
• . 11)->; .
II
1I
brrlr.ket clampe.d. to
str~in df~J 'g'iuge
pi~ton
.. ..
...
1- loading y.oke··
r II II piston
I' II triaxial cell
.;
~. II substantial supporting bench
1. I I weight hanger
Fig. 16.1 5 Stress control for a triaxial test using dead weight loading
the cell pressure; the main hanger weights then represent the net load applied to the sample.
The alternative is to take into account the mass ofthe hanger and weights, the cell pressure and
the piston area when calculating the net applied load.
16.4.3 Lever Arm Loading
A lever-arm device can be used to apply larger compressive loads than can be conveniently
applied by dead weights alone. The knife edges or bearings must be accurately positioned so
that the precise lever ratio is known. Weights should be applied particularly carefully because
the effect of impact loading is magnified by the same factor as the lever ratio. The load applied
to the sample by the hangers and lever-arm alone need to be ascertained with care, e~ther by
measurement or by calculation. The principle is similar to that described for lever-arm loading
of the shearbox, Volume 2, Section 12.5.5, stage 7 (b).
16.4.4 Hydraulic Loading
For one-dimensional consolidation tests iri which pore water pressures are measured,
including tests on large diameter samples, water pressure acting on a flexible diaphragm
provides a loading system which offers' many advantages over lever-arm loading. This
principle is used in the hydraulic consolidation cell (tJ:ie Rowe celi) and is described in detail in
Chapter 24. . ';"~.' :..... :.
16.4.5 Pneumatic Loading
Regulated air pressure acting on a diaphragm, or in a triaxial cell chamber as frequently used
in the USA, is an alternative method of using this principle. Unlike water pressure, an air
16.4 AXIAL LOADING SYSTEMS 815
pressure system cannot be used for measuring volume changes. Compressed air should be used
only in cells or vessels designed and tested for that purpose .
•
16.5
.- ' ..
CONVEl\'TIONAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
.. " .
~;
16.5.1 Categories of Instruments
Effective stress tests for both shear strength and compressibility req¥ire the use of many of the
measuring instruments itemised in Volume 2, Section 8.2, together with additional devices and
assemblies described in this section. Instruments are grouped according to the type of
measurement for which they are used, as follows.
(1) Applied pressure
(2) Axial load
(3) Axial deformation
(4) Lateral deformation
(5) Pore water pressure
(6) Volume displacement.
Only J;onventional' instruments are covered in this section, i.e. mechanical instruments such
as pressure gauges and micrometer dial gauges which require manual observation and
recording. This is to differentiate them from electronic instruments, whether used for
automatic recording and processing or not, which are discussed in Section 16.6.
Calibration of all types of instrument is covered in Chapter 17.
16.5.2 Measurement of Pressure
PRESSURE GAUGES
Pressure gauges used in a soil laboratory were described in Volume 2, Section 8.2.1, Table 8.4,
and some were shown in Fig. 8.3. For most effective stress triaxial tests, gauges of 'test' grade,
250 mm diameter, reading 0-1000 or 1200 kPa, are desirable. Where higher pressures are used,
gauges of the same standard but of the appropriate range are needed. Each pressure system
should have its own gauge permanently connected on line. The use, care and calibration of
pressure gauges was covered in Section 8.3.4. Accurate calibration is particularly important,
and calibration data should be displayed alongside every gauge. The accuracy and
repeatability of gauges should be to within 1% of the indicated reading within the range
10-90"10 of full-scale reading.
Application of vacuum, or partial vacuum, is often needed. For this purpose a smaller gauge
can be used because in most cases an indication of the degree of vacuum, not an accurate
measurement, is sufficient.
PRESSURE DIFFERENCES
In many effective stress tests it is necessary to measure accurately a small difference between
two relatively large pressures. Six ways of doing this are as follows.
(1) Reading the difference between two separate pressure gauges or transducers.
(2) Using a differential pressure gauge.
(3) Using two mercury manometers (up to 100 kPa only).
(4) Using a pressurised mercury indicator.
(5) Enclosing a pressure gauge in a pressure container.
(6) Using a differential transducer.
These methods are discussed below.
816 TEST EQUIPMENT
o
• connection ter
•
'. I~sser'
c,onnection to
greater
pressure
(pressure
difference kPa)
mercury
reservior
pressure connections
(a) (b)
Fig, 16.16 Measurement ofsfilul,l1 pressure differences: (a) differential pressure gauge,
(b)'pressurised mercury indicator
..
(1) Separate gauge readings
The gauges recording the two pressures should be very carefully calibrated against each other,
at the same time as they are calibrated against a standard instrument. The same applies if two
pressure transducers are used, Calibration data must be carefully applied to the readings.
(2) Differential pressure gauge

This type of gauge, shown in Fig. 16.16 (a), has two connections, one for each pressure line. It
gives a direct reading of the difference in pressure, positive or negative, between the two lines
irrespective of the actual pressures. A pressure difference range of ± 25 or 50 kPa is generally
suitable. The overall safe working pressure should be not less than the maximum available line
pressure.
(3) Mercury manometer

Pressures up to lOOkPa can be measured very accurately by using a mercury manometer
(Volume 2, Section 8.3.5). Pressure differences of equivalent accuracy can be determined if each
pressure line is connected to its own manometer. An ordinary mercury manometer should not
be connected between two pressure systems because the glass limbs are not designed for
pressures exceeding 100 kPa. However, if the mercury is contained in suitable nylon tubing it
can be pressurised from both limbs and used under higher pressures.
(4) Pressurised mercury indicator

The author has adapted a perspex mercury pore-pressure null indicator to measure pressure
differentials up to about 15 kPa to an accuracy of 0.2 kPa. An early type of indicator, about
200 mm long, was used, and could withstand pressures up to 1000 kPa. The principle is shown
in Fig. 16.16 (b).
The line at the higher pressure is connected to the mercury reservoir side at A, and the other
line to the top of the capillary tube section at B. Because of the very small bore of the capillary
the movement of the reservoir surface can be neglected over the range of use. A paper scale with
a zero mark at reservoir level is fixed to the side of the capillary. For a 'closed' manometer of
16.5 CONVENTIONAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 817
" this type every 8.1 mm represents a pressure difference of 1 kPa. Markings at every 0.5 kPa are
enough for most p u r p o s e s . . .
Before opening the isolating valves the two p(essure~.should bG...equal. Adjustmerrtto the .~. •
required differential is made by carefully increasing ih~J>ressure applied' to A; or decreasing .;,.
that at B. The valves should be closed when not in use. This device is very sensitive to small .1!0.
pressure fluctuations.
(5) Enclosed pressure gauge

'I . •
An ordinary pressure gauge can be used for measuring differential pressure by'enclosing it in a
watertight container fitted with a perspex face for reading the dial (Lowe and"Johnson, 1960).
The container and gauge casing are filled with water or a suitable oil and connected to the
lower of the two sources of pressure. A connection from the higher pressure is taken into the
container and connected to the gauge in the usual way. The 4lrrangement is shown in Fig.
16.17. The principle depends on the fact that the movement of the Bourdon tube operating the
pointer is related to the difference between the internal and external pressures.
If oil is used as the surrounding fluid the effects of corrosion and deposits of water-dissolved
salts on the gauge mechanism are avoided.
The'container should be properly designed and pressure-tested before fitting the pressure
gauge. Care must be taken to prevent the pressure applied to the container exceeding that
applied to the gauge.
(6) Differential pressure transducer (see Section 16.6.3)
16.5.3 Measurement of Axial Load
LOAD RINGS
Conventional load rings for triaxial compression tests were referred to in Volume 2, Section
8.2.1, and typical rings were shown in Fig. 8.2. The general arrangement of a triaxial cell and
load ring mounted in a load frame is shown in Fig. 16.1.4.
luminium cylinder
thick perspex
window_ L I -aluminium back plate
pressure gauge
gauge race _ _ _ I
chamber filled with
water or oil
.. . gauge indicates
. pressure (Pl-P2) I~_pressurep
. .: .
.~..
,~ .....
;. ..
~
~
'
..
'"
i
(to gauge) 1
=r=--- pressure P2
(to chamber)
P, > P2
Fig. 16.17 Measurement of pressure differences with an enclosed pressure gauge
(after Lowe and Johnson, 1960)
818 TEST EQUIPMENT
• • •
The load ring should be selected with regard to the strength of the sample to be tested,
bearing in mind that compressive strength increases much more rapidly with increasi,p£
effective stress (especially in drained tests) than it does with increasil)£ total stress in,qllick':'~
undrained tests. The ring must be of rrrore"Chan enough capacity to cover the"maxinmmload
. whic;.h the sample ca~.• sustain, but" With... enough s~nsitivity to 'proviae reason~ble
discrimination in the eariy-stages ofloading. Properties of typical load rings were summarised
."
in Volume 2, Table 8.3;' and their care and lise, and the importance of calibration, were
discussed in'Section 8.3.3.
In effective stress tests the use of a mean calibration factor might not be accurate enough. A
calibration chart of the type shown in Fig. 8.26 should then be used for calculating the applied
stress from each load reading. .
To comply with the requirements of BS 1377:1975, Test 21 (the undrained triaxial test
without pore pressure measurement) an axial load measuring device must have an accuracy
'equivalent to Grade B of BS 1610:1964. Briefly, this means that the maximum error must be
within ±2% of the verification load for loads above 20% of maximum capacity, and within
0.4% of full load reading below that level.
16.5.4
DIAL GAUGES
. "'.
Measu.r~ment of Axial Deformation
Micrometer dial gauges ofthe types described in Volume 2, Sections 8.2.1 and 8.3.2 are used for
the measurement of axial deformation in triaxial tests and vertical settlement in consolidation
tests. Gauges reading to 0.01 mm are generally required, with a travel of 12-50 mm depending
on the size of sample and magnitude of deformation expected.
The dial gauge is clamped to a bracket on the loading piston, or on the lower end of the load
ring close to the point of contact with the piston. The stem of the gauge rests on an adjustable
bracket supported by the triaxial cell, as indicated in Fig. 16.14. Movement of the cell relative
to the piston is equal to the movement of the cell pedestal relative to the top cap, i.e. the change
in length of the sample.
VERNIER TELESCOPE
Axial deformation during isotropic consolidation, when there is no load applied to the piston
to maintain contact with the sample, is difficult to measurement in the manner described
above. Bishop and Henkel (1962) refer to the use of a vernier telescope or cathetomctcr
mounted at a fixed point for observing the vertical movement of a scribe mark on the sample
top cap. Its application is mainly for precision measurements in research.
DIRECT MEASUREMENTS ON SAMPLE

Measurements made as described above (sometimes referred as 'end-cap' measurements)
include any deformation due to bedding of the end caps and piston. These errors are small for
samples of compressible soil but can be appreciable for stiff soils. They can be eliminated if
changes in distance between two fixed points on the sample itself, such as the third-points, are
measured. Three examples of ways of achieving this are with the use of:
(1) Demec strain gauge _
(2) Submersible transducer(s)
(3) Electrolytic level.
Method (1) is used mostly for uniaxial tests on concrete or rock cores, but can be used in a
triaxial cell filled with oil as the pressure fluid. Methods (2) and (3) were initially developed for
research purposes, but procedures such as these are now considered to be the only reliable way
of measuring small strains.
. ,".
. ...
~ .
..... .
.~
. : ....,.
• '0: . ' ~.-f
.
,~
'
1;'
.
..,
.
.'
Fig. 16.18 Dernec strain gauge

'.
The Demec strain gauge consists of an inyar bar with a fixed conical locating point at one
end and a pivoting point at the other (Fig. 16.18). The pivoting movement actuates a sensitive
dial gauge, effectively doubling its sensitivity. To take a reading, the assembly is held so that the
gauge points locate into holes on discs set into or bonded on to the surface of the sample at
precisely located positions along the axis. The relative movement of the axial gauge length
defined by the target points is indicated by the dial gauge. This device is suitable for very stiff
soils, rocks and concrete.
Submersible transducers and the electrolytic level are described in Section 16.6.5.
16.5.5 Measurement of Lateral Deformation
A device to detect the lateral deformation (change in diameter) of a test sample may be
necessary for either of the following reasons:
(1) As an indicator to maintain the condition of zero lateral deformation (i.e. no change in
diameter) by a 'null' method which does not require any changes to be measured. The'
instrument used is referred to as a 'lateral strain indicator' or 'Ko ring' because its original
application was for the determination of Ko, the coefficient of earth pressure at rest (see
Section 21.5).
_~ (2) To measure the magnitude of lateral deformation under the application of axial stress, e.g.
for the determination of Poisson's ratio (Section 21.3.2). This incorporates a 'lateral strain
gauge' fitted with a linear measuring device.
(1) Lateral strain indicator (Ko ring)

The Ko ring for use with 100 mm diameter samples as described by Bishop and Henkel consists
of a hinged ring which is spring-loaded to maintain contact between two curved pads and the
surface of the sample it encircles. The principle is illustrated in Fig. 16.19.
The null device, diametrically opposite to the hinge, consists of a sman chamber of mercury
enclosed by a diaphragm. Movement due to a change or fall in sample diameter is doubled by
the hinge and imparted to the diaphragm which causes the mercury to rise or fall in a small
graduated capillary tube. Constant diameter is :tpaintained by adjusting the cell confining
pressure so that the mercury level remains constant. Changes in diameter of 0.02 mm can be
detected. Use of the ring is described in Section 21.5.
The small space enclosing the mercury must be very carefully de-aired under vacuum, and
•. filled with water which is then displaced by mercury. Checks should be made to ensure that no
air remains.
820 TEST EQUIPMENT
small-bore
/ graduated tube
mercury
thin rubber diaphragm
(8) (b)
Fig. 16.19 Lateral strain indicator (Ko Ring~' (a) general arrangement, (b) detail of
null indicator device. .
Lateral strain indicators of this principle are available for samples down to 35 mm diameter,
but the small sizes are very difficult to set up and validity of results from such small samples is
questionable.
(2) Lateral strain gauge

The only practicable way of measuring small changes in diameter of a test sample with any
accuracy is by using some kind of electrical device. Several methods are outlined in
Section 16.6.5.
16.5.6 Measurement of Pore Water Pressure
PRINCIPLE AND DEVELOPMENT

The pressure of the water in the pore spaces of a soil sample cannot be measured directly by a
pressure gauge or mercury manometer because these devices require the inflow of water to
actuate them. Flow of water from the sample would appreciably change the magnitude of the
pressure being measured, and would also introduce a time lag in the attainment of a steady
reading. These difficulties are overcome by using the 'null method' which was first used for this'
purpose by Rendulic (1937). A true no-flow condition is ensured by maintaining a water-' ,.
mercury inter-face in a capillary tube connected to the base of the sample at a constant level by : ',1
adjustment of pressure with a manually-operated screw plunger. The development of this
principle at Imperial ColJege, London, from 1956 is described by Bishop and Henkel (1962).
A simplified form of their 'null indicator' was designed by T. G. Clark, and could be tilted to
allow water to by-pass the mercury when de-airing. It was made of perspex, and is shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 16.20 (a). A modified version used at Imperial College is shown in Fig.
16.20 (b), and an improved version introduced recently (described below) is shown in Fig.
16.20 (c). A type of null indicator that is widely used, and to which reference is made in this
book, is shown in Fig. 16.22. The apparatus for measurement of pore pressures has remained
almost unchanged until the advent of suitable pore pressure transducers.
"I r
'. "
• ,~ .. i:
;,
reservoir reservoir
..
(a) (b)
cell .
mounting
connection
-
(c)
Fig. 1620 Null indicators for pore pressure measurement: (a) early design in
perspex, (b) Imperial College design, (c) Modified design for mounting on cell outlet
COMPONENTS
The essential components of the manually operated type of pore pressure measuring system,
which has become standardised in many countries for routine testing, are as follows. Items (1),
(3), (4) and (7) are discussed below.
(1) Null indicator device
(2) Pressure gauge ('test' grade), usually 0-1000 kPa
(3) Mercury manometer with kPa scale
(4) Control cylinder
(5) Reservoir containing de-aired water
(6) Rigid nylon tubing of small bore, connecting null indicator to triaxial cell base
(7) Mounting panel with valves, connecting tubing, mercury catch-pot
(8) Mercury
Essential requirements for the layout of the above components on a 'pore pressure panel', for
connecting to a null indicator mounted on the triaxial cell, are shown in Fig. 16.21.
Although the manual system is now obsolescent for pore pressure measurement where
electlDhic.instrumentation is feasible, the components listed above are still useful for checking
that the system is air-free and leak-free. The important features are described below.
NULL INDICATOR
A commonly used type of null indicator is shown in Fig. 16.22 (a). The body is of perspex
. blOCks which are bonded together after drilling the bores. The capillary section is 1.5 mm
822 TEST EQUIPMENT
de-aired
~I
",,'panel ~'----ul
~outline water
. .i -, .
reservoir
-~~-- : ..'..
:~ ..;-;:1;. -
.,' ~
-----
I
~ I
~~J
catch-pot
airbleed-
mercury
manometer
"
to null indicator
control
cylinder,' ....
I kPascale
\
I
(de-aired water
supply) • iJ ex
l ~
Fig. 16.21 Essential requirements for a pore pressure panel
diameter, and is connected to a mercury reservoir. For filling, de-airing and flushing the
indicator can be rotated through 90° about the pivot bolt to the horizontal position, where it is
clamped by a wing-nut. Mercury then drops clear ofthe connecting passages, as shown in Fig.
16.22 (b).
The indicator should be mounted as close as possible to the soil sample, so that the volume
of water enclosed between the sample and the mercury in the capillary is as small as possible.
The best place to mount the indicator is therefore on) he .triaxial cell, not on the pore pressure
panel, using a purpose-made bracket. The water must be rigidly contained so that expansion of
the system under pressure is negligible. The conneCting pqrt within the cell base, being drilled
through metal, meets this requirement, but acomp'romiS1 kas to be made in the connection
from cell base to null indicator. The tubing used here IS therefore of small-bore (1 mm) rigid
nylon, and is only long enough to allow a 90° rotation oftheindicator. Expansion of the tubing
connecting the other side of the null indicator to the pore pressure panel is oflittle consequence
because adequate volume displacement is provided by the control cylinder.
An improved type of null indicator, shown in Fig. 16.26 (c), is made of a single acrylic block
and is mounted directly on to the pore pressure outlet from the triaxial cell. A double O-ring
seal allows for rotation, eliminating the need for flexible tubing between the mercury thread
and the sample. The arrangement is seen in Fig. 16.23.
to valve a or a1
on cell base
(small bore 'rigid' nylon tubing I
of minimum practicabl~ length)
-• I
t. to cell base I
~ I
...
1.~~rcuryreSerVoir
to valve k on
pore pressure
panel
mercury
adjustable flushing
null point marker water
from
control
(a) (b) cylinder
Fig.16.22 Commercial type of perspex null indicator: (a) working position, (b) tilted
to allow for flushing
•••
Fig.1623 Modified null indicator (as in Fig. 1620 (c» mounted on pore pressure
outlet from triaxial base pedestal
!
'1
..
824 TEST EQUIPMENT
.
connections to pwp panel
.brass cylinder '

perspex handwheel
.. . ~
'.
screwed stainless steel
Fig. 16.24 Control cylinder (rotary hand pump) (after Bishop and Henkel)
Fig. 16.25 Pore pressure panel, with manometer for accurate measurement of
pressures from 0 to 100 kPa.
'---;!
. It •
. d~H:iired
.. ~
\I\{.ater .,-..r/oZ
,
o·reser~oir~~.···
~':
.. ,"
:;;~
,,'
.: ,
'~~: ~ .~,~~.~~~,
It
''11
control
....Q)
-
Q)
E
o
cylinder
c
C!l
..--vv----.:--to cell
E " \
\
~ I
::J
e
(!) "
I
I~....-from pressure
E system
;; (X):::r=- to null
indicator
lJ II
panel
outlinr __,
Fig. 16.26 Layout oj pore pressure panel shown in Fig. 16.25
Bishop and Henkel (1962) indicate that the volume compressibility of the null indicator
system should be less than about 1.4 x 10- 5 cm 3 per kPa. An alternative requirement is that
.1. v
V<O.4 x 10- 6 x.1.u
where V is the total volume of sample (cm 3 ) and .1.v is the change in volume (cm 3 ) of the pore
pressure device for a pore pressure change of .1.u kPa.
It is essential that the pore pressure measuring system is thoroughly de-aired, so as to
minimise the response time to changes in pore pressure, and is absolutely water-tight with not
the slightest leak.
Setting up and preparation of the null indicator is described in Section 16.8.3. In use the
adjustable datum marker is initially set at the capillary mercury/water interface level
corresponding to atmospheric pressure. As long as the interface level remains unchanged
during a test there will be no movement of water into or out of the sample. A constant level is
maintained by adjustment of pressure with the control cylinder.
CONTROL CYLINDER
The control cylinder (also referred to as the rotary hand pump), based on the original design by
Bishop and Henkel, is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 16.24. The normal type is for pressures
up to 1000 k Pa, and a cylinder of slightly smaller bore is available for pressures up to 1700 k Pa.
l! must-be..accurflteJ;),.made to provide precise control and to be completely watertight at low
and high pressures.
826 TEST EQUIPMENT
MERCURY MANOMETER
The manometer was described in Volume 2, Section 8.3.5. A scale marked in kPa is normally
fitted, but older types may have a centim~tr'es scale (1 mm qiff~ence equals 0.1'28 kPa)..
Provision of a merculY catch-p~ is a necessary safety precautiQn because every operator at •
some time will :f.c!fg~t 10 c1o~e the isolating valve when applying a high pressure.
. ' .
.t~ :~;:. -' . . •
MOUNTING PANEL
A compact system incorporating the essential items for manual measurement of pore water
pressure is shown in Fig. 16.25. This panel includes two olJtlets for external connections if, ..
needed, e.g. to a constant pressure source and the triaxial cell (Fig. 16.26). The panel should be
installed within reach of the compress~on machine or test location, as indicated in Fig. 18.4.
The null indicator is mounted on the test cell, and the length of tubing connecting the indicator
to the panel is not critical. For right-handed operation the panel is best placed to the right of
the cell, so that the null indicator can be closely observed while the control cylinder is being
operated.
Some pore pressure panels include a volume-change gauge, for connection either to the cell
pressure or to the back pressure line (Fig. 16.27). This forms a compact and economical
arrangement but adds complications to the system. The simpler panel shown in Fig. 16.21 is
less likely to cause confusion which may lead to disruption ofa test due to a wrong valve being
opened inadvertently.
16.5.7 Measurement of Volume Change
HISTORICAL NOTE
The original methods devised at Imperial College in 1956 for measuring a small flow of water
under pressure out of a sample or into the triaxial cell depended upon the use of merqlfy to
provide an interface between two liquids. These devices are described by Bishop and Henkel
(1962).
A simpler apparatus, using paraffin as the second liquid, was developed by Bishop and
Donald (1961), and is· described by Bishop and Henkel in Appendix 6, pp 207-208. The twin-
burette unit used extensively today is based on the same principle.
TWIN-BURETTE VOLUME CHANGE UNIT

A typical twin-burette unit is shown in Fig. 16.28, and a diagrammatic section is given in Fig.
16.29. The apparatus consists of:
2 glass burettes, 100 ml, each mounted within a clear acrylic tube.
Valve system for flow reversal and by-passing the burettes.
Paraffin containing red dye.
. .. ;
Two tubes are connected in series in order to facilltate reversing the direction offlow through
the burettes when the cumulative flow exceeds the burette capacity. Flow is reversed by means -.
of the lever-operated plunger valve shown in the lower half of Fig. 16.29. In an improved
version of this valve (Fig. 16.30 (a» the plunger is rotated as it is moved laterally, eliminating
difficulties due to sticking of the O-ring seals. This type of valve enables the direction of flow to
be reversed instantaneously. An alternative method offlow reversal is the use of two three-way
valves connected as shown in Fig. 16.30 (b), both of which must be operated at the same time.
Mounting the burettes within outer tubes avoids them being subjected to a net internal
pressure, therefore their calibration is independent of pressure. It is also an important safety
factor. Connections to the source of pressure and triaxial cell are made to the inner burettes.
Readings should be taken of the interface meniscus inside a burette, not in the ou ter tube.
I- h ,,~
w .6
volume
change
gauge •
-
\
I
\ I
to
triaxial I' :::;; cj_
s~b & back pressure line IJ from
pressure
..Jsystem
L..
Fig. 16.27 Pore pressure panel incorporating volume-change gauge
Recorded data should indicate whether the left-hand or right-hand burette was observed. The
J00 ml burettes have scale markings every 0.2 ml and can be read to the nearest 0.1 ml.
Volume-change gauges with 100 ml burettes provide adequate capacity for triaxial
compression tests on samples up to 100 mm diameter, often without needing reversal of flow.
They are also suitable for permeability measurements. Gauges with smaller burettes, reading
to 0.05 ml or less, are available for use with small samples of low compressibility.
Installation and filling of this item are described in Section lq.8.4.
:e.
16.6 ELECfRONIC INSTRUMENTATION
16.6.1 General
SCOPE
'. .
In this section electronic instruments are described and some of their basic principles are
828 TEST EQUIPMENT
.*~~-
"
.,
' .
"
.:
Fig, 16.28 Twin-burette volume-change gauge
outlined. More detailed information will usually be available from the manufacturer's
operating instructions or handbooks.
The collective term 'electronic instruments' is used here to cover sensitive electronic devices
(known as 'transducers') used for measuring certain physical quantities, and the signal-
conditioning and read-out equipment used with them. Changes in applied physical conditions
induce small changes in an electrical output signal, which are amplified electronically to
provide a measure of those changes. Measurements can be shown in analogue or digital form,
and the more advanced systems use a screen display.
HISTORICAL
The earliest electronic instruments gave a measurement of the modified electrical output on a
. voltmeter which then had to be converted to the appropriate units from calibration data.
Modern systems automatically convert the electrical signa.. to give displays directly in
engineering units (e.g. kPa; kN; mm).
During the last decade many of the conventional measuring instruments which have to be
individually observed for taking and recording readings manually have been giving way to
electronic instrumentation. This development not only allows data from several sources to be
displayed at a central location, but also enables the data to be automatically recorded. A
'scanner' incorporating a timing device automatically selects each output channel.in!ilpid
. ~
16.6 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION 829
paraffin 0····.·
with red dye .••.•...•.•••
•water r~1
tll_ IfJ]iji::;;::::;=-acrylic outertubes
LH
--OFF
from 'RH
to cell
by-pass va Ive
manifold block
(3 ports) ~ =--- .
-~ (by-pass setting)
Fig. 16.29 Principle of operation of twin-burette volume change gauge and flow
reversing valve
sequence without the need for manual switching. More recent developments enable the data to
be processed by a micro-computer and the final test results to be printed out in both tabular
and graphical form (Davison and Hills, 1983).
IMPORTANCE OF CALIBRATION
There is a tendency to accept digitally displayed readings without question as being authentic
and accurate, but their accuracy is no greater than the accuracy with which the measuring
devices were calibrated. This applies whether or not conversion factors and calibration
corrections are built into the electronic circuitry. Calibration of electronic equipment is just as
important as the calibration of traditional instruments.
BASIC TYPES OF TRANSDUCERS

F our basic types of transducer are used in effective stress ~ests on ~oils, or incorporated in
special measuring devices, namely
Pressure transducers
Load transducers
_Displacement transducers
Volume change transducers
-it
830 TEST EQUIPMENT
to burette volume gauge

t t reveq;IAg"
lever
O-ring seals
. -
from pressure system
'(
'I l
(a) ianifold block
t to/from
burettes
from
by-pass valve
~?=tJ II 0' II ~~cell
(b)
Fig. 16.30 Flow reversing systems: (a) rotating plunger valve, (b) use of two three-
port valves
The principles of these devices, together with brief notes on their use and application, are
outlined in Sections 16.6.3 to 16.6.6.
Power supply and ancillary equipment for transducers are described in Section 16.6.7.
Automatic data-logging systems and computer-controlled testing are referred to in Sections
16.6.8 and 16.6.9. Some of the essential requirements and conditions for successful use of
electronic instrumentation are outlined in Section 16.6.10.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

(1) Readings are displayed directly in engineering units, needing no conversion factors.
(2) Transducer outputs can be recorded on paper, magnetic disc or tape for subsequent
analysis (particularly important when a test is left unattended).
(3) Digital display reduces the possibility of errors that can be made when reading gauges.
(4) One display unit can monitor all the data from a test, or data from several tests.
(5) Computer processing of test data can be carried out automatically.
(6) Control of tests by feedback from the computer is also feasible.
16.6.2 Definitions
Some of the. ...

ter}J1s used in ..electronic iflstrumeIjts are defined --below.
'
AID CONVERTER (or ADC) Analogue to digita'l converter. Electronic device'converting a.

continuous electrical input to an equivalent digital output. • •. ".. ..
ADU AutGnomous data-acquisition unit. A programmable interface unit between
transducers and micro-computer which can capture transducer signals at predetermined
intervals and store the data for subsequent processing.
AMPLIFIER. Electronic device for magnifying a current or voltage.
CHANNEL An electrical pathway, usually connected to a transducer.
DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM A system for gathering and treatment of information,
usually measurements from transducers.
DA T A LOGGER A device for gathering and storing data, usually from transducers.
DATA PROCESSOR Means of manipulating information.
DA T A STORAGE Means of storing information .
.*
OJ GIT AL DISPLAY Visual means 'of displaying actual numerical values.
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION In this context, a measurement system based on
electronic components.
HARDW ARE All the electronic and mechanical components that make up a computer
system.
INTERF ACE Means of allowing a computer to communicate with external devices.
LVDT Linear variable differential transformer. A device on which displacement transducers
of high linearity are based.
MICRO-COMPUTER A computer based on a 'microprocessor'.
OUTPUT SIGNAL Electrical value obtained from a measuring device.
PERIPHERAL A device such as a printer or disc drive which is external to the computer.
PROGRAM A set of instructions to tell the computer to execute a sequence of tasks.
READ-OUT Means of displaying measurements.
SCANNER A component, usuaIIy ofa data logger, which sequentiaIIy takes readings from a
number of channels.
SIGNAL CONDITIONING UNIT Device for accepting a range of electrical inputs and
producing electrical outputs within a common range.
SOFTWARE The programs required to operate the computer.
STABILISED POWER SUPPLY Electrical supply which remains constant despite
changing imposed load or electrical input.
STRAIN GAUGE A system of resistances, bonded to or integral with a surface, whose
resistance changes with deformation of that surface.
TRANSDUCER A device which converts a change in physical quantity to a corresponding
change in electrical output.
VDU Visual display unit. A screen similar to a television screen on which instructions and
data can be displayed in words, numbers or in graphical form.
16.6.3 Pressure Transducers
PRINCIPLE
A pressure kansducef2£Ollsists of a thin diaphragm on which electric strain gauge circuits are
bonded or etched, mounted in a rigid cylindrical housing. A porous filter protects the
832 TEST EQUIPMENT
diaphragm, allowing it to be influenced by the pressur~ of water. The resulting diaphragm

deflection, though extremely small, give:trilie to an out-o(:.-'1c:Tlance voltage yvhich is am.plifie~l
and converted to a digital di~p!ay)n pressure units. The response time of the transducer
depends on the vohIme ofwateriaequired to make upfor the small diaphragm·movement, and
the volume displacement per unit change of pressure is knownastfie 'compliance'~ A typical
'stiff' pressure transducer of 1000 kPa capacity has a complianceofless than 2 x 10- 7 cm 3 per
kPa (i.e. 0.02 mm 3 for a pressure change of 100 kPa), which is small enough to allow direct
connection to a soil sample for continuous measurement of pore water pressure. The'
magnitude of the displacement has negligible effect on pore pressure for samples down to
38 mm diameter.
However, the presence of air in the system, or the use of a flexible connection between the
sample and the transducer, increases the compliance of the system considerably. A pore
pressure transducer should therefore be mounted as close to the sample as possible, either
within the base pedestal or on the cell at the outlet from the cell base. Thorough de-airing of the
system, and the absence of even the slightest leak, are essen tial if the very rapid response of a
transducer to changes of pressure is to be relied upon.
The 'stiffness' of the pore pressure system as a whole, in relation to the volume of the test
sample, is usually the important factor. A typical requirement for the volume change of the
enclosed system is given by the relationship
Av
V < 0.4 x 10 - 6 X Au
where Av is the change in volume (em 3) of the enclosed pore pressure measuring system
(transducer and connecting parts) caused by a change in pore pressure of Au kPa, and Vis the
total volume of the test sample (cm 3 ).
The resolution of a pressure transducer is generally rather better than that of a good
pressure gauge of equivalent range. If properly calibrated, its accuracy should be within 1% of
indicated reading over the greater part of its range.
CALI BRA nON

Every transducer must be calibrated against known pressures in order to determine the
relationship between applied pressure and electrical output. Digital readout is normally
displayed in kPa.
Calibration procedures are described in Section 17.2.3.
GENERAL APPLICATION
Pressure transducers are replacing gauges for applications such as measuring pore water
pressure, and in automatic logging systems. However, pressure gauges are still desirable for
continuous visual indications of pressures. A typical electric pressure transducer, fitted to a
triaxial cell, was shown in Volume 2, Fig. 8.17.
A pressure transducer should be fitted in a mounting block with four connecting ports, as
shown in Fig. 16.31. The transducer is screwed into the lower connection (A), with the
diaphragm upwards to reduce the possibility of trapping air. The two side ports (B and C) are
connected to the source of pressure and the test apparatus respectively. The top port (D) is
fitted with a plug and is used as an air bleed.
MEASUREMENT OF PORE PRESSURE

Measurement of pore water pressure is greatly simplified by using a pressure transducer, and
this is now becoming standard practice. Essential requirements were discussed by Bishop and
Green (1969). The transducer mounting block (Fig. 16.31) is fitted directly to the triaxial or
16,6 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION 833
brass block air bleed plug
upper' face
. ,.~' ....:-
.' .4iit;:
~-' .
----3!>-
from
c::=:::[J
..... t=====~:::::l - - ?
to triaxial cell or
pressure test apparatus
system
" i+-pressure transducer

•
.~'
~e to read-out unit
Fig, 16.31 Mounting block for pressure transducer
transducer
triaxial mounting null indicator
cell block
---
to
pwp
panel
additional (valvek)
valve
pressure transducer
- cable to power supply/readout
Fig. 16.32 Location of pressure transducer for measurement of pore pressure
consolidation cell at the outlet port (valve a, Fig. 16.32) from the sample base, ensuring that
the transducer is as close to the sample as possible.
The other side of the block is connected to a second valve aI' thence to a null indicator
and pore pressure panel shown in Fig. 16.21. The panel, which does not become superfluous, is
used for de-airing the system by pressurising and flushing in the same way as for the manual
system (Section 16.8.3), and the null indicator is used for checking. However, one panel and one
null indicator can serve several transducers. The panel and control cylinder can also be used
for checking the transducer calibration, with valve a closed and a 1 open. During a test, valve
a 1 is kept closed and valve a is open.
Use of pressure transducers is necessary for pore pressure measurement where the pore
pressure is changing rapidly, because of its very small response time compared with that of a
manual system. The earliest use of pressure transducers in soil testing was for measuring pore
water pressures in consolidation tests in the hydraulic consolidation cell (see Chapter 24). The
most advantageous first step in the installation of electronic equipment in a soil laboratory is
undoubtedlythere~tofmanual null indicators by pressure transducers and read-out
units, even if conventional equipment continues to be used for the other measurements.
834 TEST EQUIPMENT
Further refinements in the pore pressure measuring. system would be to fit a pressure ".
transducer into the cell base pedestal,. so as to be in direct contact with the sample; or to embed ...
a miniature transducer into the side of the sample, usually <1t the.mid-height. These methods.~ •
have beeR used in research work (Hight, 1982)..A porous cepamic pore pressure probe has been. "
used in commercial testing for measuring the pore pressure. at the mid-height of a foo mm
diameter sample, as shown in Fig. 16.33. The probe is conn~cted to a pressure transducer
outside the cell by two small-bore stainless steel tubes wRich allows for flushing by circulating
de-aired water. Before fitting the membrane a short piece of flanged rubber tubing is bonded to
it (Fig. 16.33 (a)). A hole is bored in the side of the sample (Fig. 16.33 (b)) into which the probe is
inserted, and a watertight seal is formed with latex adhesive (Fig. 16.33 (c)).
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

The most convenient and accurate method of measuring pressure differences is with a
differential pressure transducer. It is based on the same principle as an ordinary pressure
transducer but has two diaphragms, the circuits from which are electrically connected so that
the difference between their outputs is measured. An example of its use is shown in Fig. 25.12.
A differential transducer costs about the same as two transducers of similar capacity.
16.6.4 Load Transducers
PRINCIPLES
In a load transducer the applied load is transmitted to a metal web or diaphragm to which
electrical resistance strain gauges are bonded. The resulting strains in the web cause changes in
the electrical resistance of the strain gauges, and hence small voltage changes, which are
amplified and converted to a digital display in force units (newtons or kilonewtons).
Three types of electrical load measuring instrument for use in place of conventional load
rings with dial gauges were referred to in Volume 2, Section 8.2.6, namely: .
(1) Ordinary load ring fitted with a displacement transducer which replaces or supplements
the usual dial gaug~ (Fig. 8.14). Load rings of this type are available up to 500 kN capacity.
(2) Strain gauge load transducer (Fig. 8.15) in which deformation due to load is measured by
electrical resistance strain gauges.
(3) Submersible load transducer fitted inside a triaxial cell chamber (Fig. 8.16). Compressive or
tensile loads can be measured, and available load capacities are 2 kN, 7 kN, 14 kN and 25 kN.
Instruments of types (2) and (3) are collectively referred to as load transducers.
SUBMERSIBLE LOAD TRANSDUCER

The principle of the submersible load transducer shown in Volume 2, Fig. 8.16 is shown in Fig.
16.34. The chamber in which the triangular web is fitted is filled with oil and is sealed against
the ingress of water by a diaphragm, which m1,lst be treated with care to avoid damage.
The load reading is not affected by changes in cell pressure. Cell pressures up to 1700 kPa
can be used. The arrangement of the twelve strain gauges gives an output reading related only
to the axial component of the applied load. Any transverse component is rejected, and the
effect of eccentricity ofloading is insignificant. The transducer can be used for measuring either
compression or tension within its working range.
The outstanding advantage of the submersible transducer is the elimination of the effects of
piston friction from the load measurements. An early device of this kind, using a displacement
transducerto measure deflection, was described by Bishop and Green (1965). The type shown
in Fig. 16.34 was designed at Imperial College specially for triaxial tests, and can be supplied
with a triaxial cell as a complete assembly. The power supply cable is taken out through the
.~ ~ ~:,-
,.
'".,
Fig.16.33 Pore pressure probe in 100 mm diameter sample: (a)

flanged tubing bonded to membrane, (b) boring hold for inserting
probe, (c) probe fitted, showing twin stainless steel small-bore
connecting tubes (courtesy Soil Mechanics Ltd., Bracknell)
hollow loading piston, and should have enough slack to allow for movement of the piston into
the cell during a test.
CALIBRATION
A transducerised load ring or load transducer needs to be calibrated against an instrument
.com plying witrun:ecognised standard (see Chapter 17), in a manner similar to that used for an
ordinary load ring of similar characteristics.
836 TEST EQUIPMENT
loading piston
accessforwiring - ..
(wiring nqt shown) I 1 'diaphragm
screwed connection
to piston I
. strain gauges
rigid casing bonded to web
central
triangular
(a)
stiffener
angularweb
piston I II K\( .• --===, L=- strain gauges

2 top, 2 underneath,
on each section
of web
(12 in all)
(b)
Fig. 16.34 Submersible load transducer: (a) cross-section, (b) plan on web
The accuracy and repeatability of a properly calibrated submersible load transducer should
be better than that of a conventional load ring. Accuracy to within 1% of indicated load over
the upper 90"10 of its rated capacity, with a repeatability within 0.2%, are to be expected.
Calibration data from load transducers can be incorporated in the program of an automatic
data-logging system.
16.6.5 Displacement Transducers
The most usual type of transducer for measuring displacement is known as a 'linear variable
differential transformer' (LVDT). This device consists of electrical coils in a cylindrical casing,
through the axis of which a metal rod (the 'armature') can slide. Movement of the armature
changes the inductance of the windings, which is measured electrically and converted to a
digital display in units of displacement (mm or pm). Transducers are obtainable for measuring
~. " .. ranges of displacement from a few millimetres to 600mm .
.. . """ ,"::i"
.
.. ...~~"';'CALIBRATION
;.....
.
Displacement transducers should be calibrated systematically, as indicated in Section 17.2.5.
Their response is practically instantaneous. The accuracy and resolution of the LVDT type is
similar to that of a comparable dial gauge, resolution generally being better than 1 part in
10,000. The last digit of a read-out might suggest a resolution 10 times greater than this, but
that digit should be treated with caution.
GENERAL APPLICATJONS.
Displacement transducers (L VDTs) are used for the measurement o( axi'al defor~ation' of
samples in triaxial' clndconsolidation tests.'Transducers are availabre that can be submerged in
oil or water, and therefore used inside a triaxial cell. Miniature transducers can' be fitted to
other measuring devices such as lateral strain gauges (see below) and volume change
transducers (Section 16.6.6).
Principles and applications of two different types of displacement gauge (the electrolytic
liquid level and proximity transducers) are briefly outlined later.
AXIAL DISPLACEMENT
For the measurement ofaxial deformation in triaxial and consolidation tests, transducers with
ranges of 15, 25, 50 and 100 mm are normally used, in the same way as dial gauges .
. A displacement transducer mounted in a bracket for attaching to a triaxial cell was shown in
Volume 2, Fig. 8.13. The mounting bracket must be specially designed for the purpose so as to
clamp the body firmly, but not so tightly as to cause distortion. Otherwise setting up is the
same as for a dial gauge, and correct alignment is essential.
Use of submersible displacement transducers inside a triaxial cell enables the local axial
strain of a gauged length of sample to be measured. A pair of submersible displacement
transducers are mounted diametrically opposite each other on a spring-loaded split collar
local located on a 'target' bonded on to the sample. The transducer spindles rest on a second
collar located at a precisely known distance from the first. This procedure was described by
Brown and Snaith (1974). Small submersible transducers can alternatively be supported by
stainless steel dowels inserted and sealed into the sample.
The weight supported by the sample can be minimised by using displacement transducers
mounted in pairs on a post fixed to the base of the triaxial cell, as indicated in Fig. 16.35. Both
collars then support only the transducer stems (Chamberlain, Cole and Johnson, 1979).
clamps supporting
transducer stems
submersible displacement
transducers
unting post
• •
fixed to cell base

(2 or 3 pairs oftransducers
maybe used)
cell_-c
pr::.:~
Fig. 16.35 Measurement of axial deformation using pairs of submersible

tlisp/acemelll transducers (afler Chwnhi'rluin, Cole and Johnsoll, 1979)
-~---~-~~:,';:t,
838 TEST EQUIPMENT
LATERAL DISPLACEMENT
.
Before water-submersible transducers were a~ailable the main difficulty in making electrical
measurements inside the triaxial 'cs:Jl wa'!l adequate insulation. Three of the early ways ..or. ... ~
measuring lateral strain an~ as fQ119W,S. . : ..,.. . : " . - .'
Brown arrd Snaith (1974) used an ordinar.y displacementtransdu2er' fitted to a hillged collar
similar to the Ko ring for triaxial sampiesI5{Jmm diameter of bituminous road base material.
Either air, or transformer oil, was used as the cell fluiC.t, with membranes of neoprene.
El-Ruwayih (1976) used stainless steel strips bent to fit the sample and carrying bonded
electric strain gauges.
A similar arrangement using strips of cast resin was described by Boyce and Brown (1976).
In both these methods a non-conducting cell fluid such as silicon oil was used.
LATERAL STRAIN GAUGE

A radial strain belt similar to the Ko ring described in Section 16.5.5, but fitted with a miniature
submersible displacement transducer in place of the mercury indicator, was developed at the
University of Surrey (Menzies, 1976), Fig. 16.36 (a). A simplified device with no pivoted joints
was produced more recently at Imperial College and is shown diagrammatically in Fig.
16.36 (b). The power supply is led out of the triaxial cell through a sealed gland either in the cell
base or in the top. This apparatus enables lateral strain to be measured very accurately, using
(a)
\ to signal
conditioner
(b)
Fig. 16.36 Measurement of lateral strain: (a) University of Surrey type (courtesy
Wykeham Farrance Engineering Ltd.), (b) Imperial College type (courtesy Imperial
College, London)
~~~~'----
. sealed.
stainless ss ca~sule
steel
container .
A
hinged pads
(c) ,V;;
fixed to sample
<5 :Af,B
--
8 h = displacement of A
electrolytic level relative to B
(a) (b)
Fig, 16.37 Electrolytic liquid level for measurement of small strains: (a) arrangement
of supporting bars, (b) effect of small relative displacement on inclination, (c) detail of
the liquid level. (After Jardine, Symes and Burland, 1984)
standard signal-conditioning units of the type referred to in Section 16.6.7. It can also be used
as a Ko ring, in preference to the mercury null type.
PROXIMITY TRANSDUCERS
A more recent innovation which does away with the need for supporting rings or damps on the
sample is the use of variable impedance transducers (V ITs), as described by Chamberlain, Cole
and Johnson (1979), and by Khan and Hoag (1979). These devices are also known as proximity
transducers. A piece of aluminium foil fitted under the membrane is used as a target by the
transducer head which is fixed to the cell wall, and which senses changes in the gap between
them. The linear range is only 2.5 mm, but the VIT is mounted on a micrometer head which
can be adjusted if necessary during a test. There is no direct contact with the sample, nor are
any wires connected to it. The stated resolution is 2.5 x 10- 4 mm.
ELECTROLYTIC LIQUID LEVEL

This device is a development from an inclinometer used for piles in the field, as described by
Burland and Symes (1982). A modified version for use with 38 mm diameter samples was
described by Jardine, Symes and Burland (1984).
The liquid level consists of an electrolyte sealed itta glass capsule. Three co-planar
electrodes protrude in line into the capsule and are partially immersed in the electrolyte (Fig.
16.37 (c)). The impedance between the central electrode and the outer ones varies as the capsule
is tilted, and changes in output voltage are proportional to the angle of tilt. The unit requires a
signal conditioning system providing an a.c. powersupply of 5 V r.m.s. at a frequency of 4 kHz.
It is sensitive to vibration and to temperature variations exceeding ± 3° C.
The change in length between two pads fixed to the sample or to the membrane is converted
_ _ > _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ .~ _ _ _ = _____ """"""'_ _ _ _~'••a"""':"""4ru'~_L=_"'~~~~~ !J2il,!ii;;;w-·-B@'?iif!"l'iiii:~~~'dL\;',{,;,,~
840 TEST EQUIPMENT
to a change of slope by supporting the device by two arms, as indicated in Fig. 16.37 (a) and (b).
The electrolytic unit is completely sealed in a stainless steel cylinder and can be used in~ide a
triaxial cell. Small strains can be measured very accurately, and the device can also be adapted '~,
to the meas'uremen t of 1a teral strain. Reference is made to its use in the determiIl:Hio.n cifdastic ' ;'
modulus in Section 21.3.1. ~.. . . . .. .•.• '. :.
16.6.6 Volume Change Transducers
DEVELOPMENT
Automatic measurement and recording of volume change was the most difficult to accomplish
of the measurements required for compression tests on soils, and was the last to be developed.
Numerous methods have been tried, the earliest of which was probably that by Lewin (1971) at
the Building Research Station, using a mercury null displacement unit. This device actuated an
electric relay connected to a servo-mechanism which drove a piston to maintain equilibrium,
and also operate a displacement transducer. Mercury-pot devices suspended from springs and
actuating displacement transducers were used by Rowlands (1972), and Darley (1973). A
spring lever fitted with strain gauges, supporting two mercury pots, was described by
Klementev (1974). A device limited to low pressures (up to 16 kPa) using small mercury pots
and the output from an electric balance was described by Marchant and Schofield (1978).
Another approach, based on variable capacitance due to the movement of a column of
electrolyte, was reported by Sharpe (1978). The use of a rolling diaphragm was described by
Menzies (1975).
ROLLING DIAPHRAGM TRANSDUCER

A commercial volume-change transducer based on the use of a rolling diaphragm is shown in
Fig. 16.38. The principle of operation is illustrated in Fig. 16.39. A brass piston incorporating a
Bellofram rolling seal in a pressure chamber is connected to the armature of a long-travel
submersible displacement transducer, readings from which are converted to volumetric units
(cm 3 ). The displacement capacity is 80 cm 3 , but this can be extended by the use of reversing
valves similar to those fitted to the conventional twin-burette gauge. The unit can be used at a
pressure up to 1700kPa. Its resolution is about 0.1 cm 3 •
IMPERIAL COLLEGE TRANSDUCER

A volume-change transducer of the type shown diagrammatically in Fig. 16.40 (a) was
developed at Imperial College, London. This device consists of a hollow thick-walled brass
cylinder containing a 'floating' piston attached to a Bellofram rolling seal at either end.
Movement is measured by an externally mounted displacement transducer. Units of 50cm 3
and 100 cm 3 capacity are available, reading to 0.01 and 0.02 cm 3 respectively. They can be used
at pressures up to 1400 kPa, but a minimum pressure of about 30 kPa is needed to expand the
Bellofram seals.
A very small differential pressure is needed to support the mass of the piston. The error due
to this effect can be eliminated by connecting the pressure gauge between the device and the
triaxial cell, as shown in Fig. 16.40 (b). Changes in volume due to pressure changes are very·
small, and creep effects appear to be negligible. The gauge is not reversible, and at the end of
travel of the piston the unit has to be isolated from the test cell so that the cylinder can be re-
charged or drained, enabling the piston to be returned to the starting position.
One advantage of this type of transducer is that pressurised air can be applied to the lower
end as an alternative to water. The unit then serves as a pressurised air/water interchange and a
separate air/water bladder cell is not necessary. However, the continuous volumetric
movement available is limited to the capacity of the transducer body.
'.
-. '--:~ ' .
Fig. 16.38 Volume-change transducer, rolling diaphragm type
CALIBRA TION
The calibration of volume change transducers is described in Section 17.2.6. Calibration
should be repeated under several pressures covering the normal working range.
16.6.7 Power Supply and Ancillary Units
In order to provide an output signal, electric transducers of all kinds need to be electrically
energised with a stabilised supply, typically 10 V d.c. The output voltage, which may be in the
range - 5 V to + 5 V, or 0 to 100mV, depending on the type of transducer, must be amplified
and suitably conditioned if it is to actuate a digital display panel.
The essential components of a transducer read-out system are as follows.
Power supply unit:
mains voltage input
d.c. output to amplifier and other components
stabilised low-voltage d.c. output to each transducer.
Low-level calibrated amplifier to step up and convert the output signal from each
transducer to give readings in engineering units.
Switching system to connect each output channel to the display unit as required.
Analogue-to~digital converter and amplifier to provide digital signals.
Digital display panel.
0'
842 TEST EQUIPMENT
': f.._1
"~- -,,:·c·able to ;;!

power supply
hO'using for' 'and readout
submersible unit
displacement
transducer .1
transducer armature spindle
Bellofram
rolling seal
piston
clamping studs
bleed plug
from/to
reversing valve
Fig, 16.39 Principle of rolling diaphragm volume-change transducer
All the above are incorporated in a typical 'signal conditioning unit' and the plug-in module
connected to each transducer. One unit may serve several transducers, either of the same type
(e.g. see Volume 2, Fig. 8.19), or of mixed types (e.g. Fig. 8.18). Both these examples are 0[9-
channel units. A 5-channel unit for monitoring reading from drained triaxial compression
tests, displaying axial strain, axial load, cell pressure, back pressure and volume change, is
shown in Fig. 16.41. Smaller units serve one, two or three channels.
A schematic representation ofthe system referred to above is shown in Fig. 16.42. The heavy
dashed outline encloses the components of a typical commercial 'read-out' unit designed for
soil testing. '
A voltage stabiliser on the main input is essential for obtaining reliable data. This appliance
smooths out mains voltage fluctuations which can give very erratic transducer outputs" The
whole system should be one that is designed by specialists for the purpose of testing soils.
16.6.8 Automatic Logging and Data Processing
In addition to providing a display in digital form, test data from transducers can be recorded in
several ways:
Continuous print-out
Punched paper tape
Magnetic tape
Stored in computer memory for automatic processing .
....
..'
'. pre'ssure
,gauge
-
volume
change
transducer
back
pressure
system
• back pressure
-SYStem
(a) (b)
Fig.16.40 Volume-change transducer, Imperial College type: (a) principle, (b) layout
of connection to triaxial cell (courtesy Imperial College, London)
'" Drained triaxial test

mm kN off on
control selector
mm kN kPa
o o o
....
Fig. 16.41
CONTINUOUS PRINT-OUT
Five-channel signal conditioning unit for drained triaxial tests
.. ...!II
This is the simplest method of reco~ding test data, but processing is very time-consuming.
When several transducers are used at the same time, as in effective stress triaxial tests, a
'scanner' provides the switching facility which enables each transducer to be read in turn at
_predetermined time intervals. Electronic scanning is done so quickly that a set of readings can
all be taken virtually at the same instant, and continuously printed. The system can be kept
844 TEST EQUIPMENT
:l~
,-" f!-
o
m z
c
.Ql
(J) Ig
z
I~z
display I~ ::j
basing
readout
TEST
t t t t
measured physical
AREA
quantities from test
Fig. 16.42 Schematic representation of signal conditioning unit
running to obtain readings when the laboratory is left unattended, such as overnight. Data are
abstracted manually when convenient, for producing graphs and performing calculations.
RECORDING ON TAPE
Test data recorded on punched paper or magnetic tape can be retrieved by feeding the tape
into a compatible computer which has been programmed to sort, calculate and tabulate the
results as required. The addition of a plotter enables graphical plots of selected parameters to
be drawn automatically. A multi-channel data-logging system which provides a continuous
paper print-out as well as recording the data on tape (probably the earliest system to be
designed in Britain for commercial soil testing) is shown in Fig. 16.43. Recorded data can
subsequently be fed into a computer for processing and thence to a printer or plotter for
presentation of results.
AUTOMATIC PROCESSING UNIT

An advanced automatic system which remains under fhe operator's conn:o] is the ELE Data
System 4, shown in Fig. 16.44 linked to an effective stress triaxial test. The system comprises an
interface unit, a desk-top computer with screen display, a printer/plotter a.nd.a 'C~ssette tape
player. The arrangement is shown schematically in Fig. 16.45. . ,;. •
The key to this system is the programmable interface unit for scanning W1e transducers,
which enables the computer to be devoted to storage and analysis of test data. The computer
initiates the programmed screen displays which guide the operator, and controls the
printer/plotter which reproduces the results in both tabular and graphical form, ready for
photocopying for insertion into a report. Once a test stage has been started, data are collected
automatically without needing further attention until the stage has been completed.
A more flexible system is the ELE Autonomous Data-acquisition Unit (AD U). The interface
;,·,·t';I.~~-=--""'""~-->~--"'"'-"'_-='__ """=~_"""'" ..~...._~ __ ~"",..~~~""""'" __ ~~._~ c.~_., _____ A __ ,_~ ••• _ _ •• _ _ ___________
16.6 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

845
Jj.
<~-:.
Fig. 16.43 Multi-channel data logger designed Jar soil testillg (Shape Instruments
Ltd.)
.
.,.
,~.J.g. 16.44 ELE Data System 4 automatic data logging system with printer/plotter
linked to an effective stress triaxial test
846 TEST EQUIPMENT
TEST TRANSDUCERS
'"
.....
voltage regulator
and
interface unit standby power
mains
supply
ex:
UJ
.....
:J
0...
~
o printer/plotter
u
o
ex:
S:?
~ casette tape
"------I or disc recorder
Fig. 16.45 Schematic arrangement of Data System components
unit which collects data has its own microprocessor and a large memory for storing test data.
Collection of data can be programmed from most types of micro-computer by the user, in
accordance with the test specification. The 'host' computer can recall stored data for
processing, display and printing out when required. A typical schematic arrangement for one
ADU is shown in Fig. 16.46. Up to six units can be controlled by one computer, and each unit
can collect data from a number of tests running simultaneously.
These systems are designed for use with standard test equipment (ordinary triaxial cells and
Rowe consolidation cells), and with the Bishop-Wesley cell (Section 16.2.3 (3)).
16.6,9 Computer Controlled Testing
The application of micro-computers to effective stress testing allows many kinds of complex
test procedures to be carried out automaticaIIy. This is made possible by using relays and
stepper motors actuated by a process controller linked to the data-acquisition system via "the'
computer. A stepper motor can be used for instance for operating a pressure regulator, andl;l
self-contained motorised air pressure regulator has been developed for automatic contro'l, of
triaxial cell and back pressures. This operates in response to signals fed back from the test·:,':
observations of the computer in a closed-loop system. Programs fed into the computer can ..t;- ,
define the inter-relationship between the various factors measured during a test, including .. ~.
t:: provision for foIIowing many types of stress path. ~.
The ELE ADU system, as well as being an 'intelligent' data acquisition unit as described
above, can incorporate a process controller for automatic control of tests. A schematic layout
is shown in Fig. 16.47. Some examples of automatic control of triaxial and consolidation tests
are referred to in Chapter 23 and Chapter 25 respectively. An ADU linked to a Rowe
consolidation cell is shown in Fig. 16.48.
16.6 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT ATION 847
• l'IIi,
.... ~. dl_
~~~
:::::'
(",>
---'
::::::
.......
':; :;::;; -:::
printer/plotter
test test test Host microcomputer

1 2 3
Fig. 16.46 Autonomous Data-acquisition Unit (ADU) linked to a microcomputer
(ELE International Ltd.)
The GDS pressure controller (Section 16.3.5) is another system designed for automatic
control testing. Three controllers linked to a computer, for tests in the Bishop-Wesley stress
path cell, are shown in Fig. 16.49.
Automatic systems should always allow for manual intervention to over-ride the automatic
functions when necessary, so that the operator remains in full control of the whole procedure.
Proper control can be maintained only if it is possible to obtain up-dated test data, in graphical
and numerical form, at any stage while the test is still in progress.
16.6.10 General Requirements for Electronic Systems
Some of the essential factors on which the reliability of electronic equipment in general
depends were outlined in Volume 2, Section 8.2.6. Further points are outlined below. Some
may be obvious but none should be overlooked.
POWER SUPPLY
The need for a stabilised voltage supply is referred to in Section 16.6.7. A further essential item
for a computer-controIIed system is an uninterruptible power supply unit which continues to
supply power for a limited time in the event of mains supply failure, until a standby generator
can be brought into operation. Interruption of power supply for only a few milliseconds can
cause complete loss of the·program and data stored in a computer. A single unit is available
which provides both voltage regulation and slandby power for up to Onle hour.
LAYOUT
Electric cables .connecting transducers to the power supply/readout u~it should be properly
-scfc;:ened and laid carefully out of the way of normal laboratory activities, while allowing
enough free movement for setting up and dismantling equipment between tests. Readout units
848 TEST EQUIPMENT
ADU
AID converter micro- memory,

processo'r
--C:~7
{~~~ssures
printer/plotter
t t processor
~ i
pressure 6 on/off outputs
keyboard
regulators
stepper motors
PROCESS
CONTROLLER
Fig. 16.47 Schematic layout using the ADU for automatic control of laboratory
tests
Fig. 16.48 The ADU linked to a Rowe consolidation cell

"=""--------'
,;"';lih"....
_ _ _ _ _ _~"_._m~·~~_~_~~,~~,.m.<!.1g';" M '¥1"&!'JIiI'i"'-""Ult"'n-'W?E'5i'lf3"%?'XZ1 '.... . fi'iW ,,-....-n41i"'ffW··~ .• 71 "111$' t ?,q"''i(*'Wi::if'~-%~'i
' .
.., .
.
....: .
.-~
II' .~~ '"
..
Fig 16.49 GDS pressure controllers in use with a Bishop-Wesley stress path cell,
linked to a computer (courtesy Soil Mechanics Ltd, BracknelO
should be conveniently positioned for easy observation and channel switching. Warm air vents
should not be obstructed or placed where ventilation is impeded. The casing should not be
used as a resting place for papers and books. Data-processing equipment should be kept in a
clean area free from dust. When not in use the equipment should be covered.
CONNECTING UP
Transducers must be connected to the correct input sockets on the power supply unit, and
every connection should be carefully double-checked. Plugs on connecting cables should be
pushed firmly into their sockets, and secured in place if necessary.
EARTHING
For safety reasons the casing of a power supply/readout unit shoq~d..be properly earthed. The.
manufacturer's instructions should be followed carefuIJ~ in o'rder to~void an 'earth loop'.
Earthing also cuts out electromagnetic interference from external sources, and prevents the
escape of similar interference from the equipment. -'.
SWITCHING ON
The powersupply/readout unit should be switched on at least 15 minutes before use, to allow
"hotl1-itandthet-ransducers to warm up to their stable operating temperature, When in use for
continuous testing the system should remain switched on overnight.
_ .. _ ••_ •••••__•.. _ _ _.~~_ _ _ _ _~~~~~~i..;.;_:.
850 TEST EQUIPMENT
ADJUSTMENTS
The following adjustments to each channel to be used should be carried out in accordance with
the manufacturer's instructions.
Setting or 'gain' 'control .~
Setting of zero reading

Calibration of transducer
Each transducer should then give a reliable read-out in engineering units.
DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE

An electronic data-acquisition system for soil testing should be one that has been specially
designed for the purpose, otherwise many difficulties will be encountered in its development
and application.
For ordinary fault finding, self-checking diagnostic routines are usually available which
enable the operator to trace a source of error and apply a correction. Any faults beyond the
capability of these routines, and regular maintenance, should be attended to by suitably
qualified and experienced personnel or entrusted to a specialist service organisation.
16.7 ACCESSORIES, MATERI.ALS AND TOOLS
16.7.1 Tubing
The types of tubing generally used for connecting the equipment described in this volume are
summarised in Table 16.2.
Polyethylene tubing is impermeable to water but is not completely impermeable to air. This
is of little consequence for pressure lines filled with de-aired water but migration of air from
partially saturated soils could give errors in volume change measurements over a long period
of time. Nylon tubing on the other hand is impervious to air but allows some migration of
water when there is a difference in vapour pressure between inside and outside. Standard
practice at Imperial College for several years has been to use nylon tubing closely fitted inside
polyethylene tUbing. Difficulties in forming connections make this system too expensive for
general commercial testing.
Table 16.2. TUBING FOR TRIAXIAL EQUIPMENT
Outside diameter Internal diameter Maximum pressure

Material mm mm kPa Main use
Polyethylene 5 3 825 general, for water
Nylon 3 1 8400 pore pressure null indicator

4 2.5 8400 pressurised mercury manometer
5 3.3 8400 oil/water pressure system
6 4 2640
8 5.5 8400 general, alternative to polyethylene
12.5 9.5 1700 compressed air
PVC 3 very low pressure only
Rubber 16.5 6.5 (HOO vacuum
• Copper 5 3.4 13,800 early type of null indicator

16.7 ACCESSORIES, MATERIALS AND TOOLS 851
Some polyethylene tu bing is available in a variety of colours, and colour-coding of pressure

lines makes for easy identification. _ . I
Ii
The flow capacity of a pipework system-increases with increasing internal diameter of the
tubing, but a C'Oupling.or fitting with a smaller bore-will imppse its own limit on the rate of flow ..
.... ... ,-"/ . .
16.7.2 Valves, Couplings and Fittings
VALVES
Valves used in pressure lines and pore pressure systems must be completely watertight and not
displace water when turned on and off. The seals should be incompressible over the range of
pressures to be used. Commercial sleeve-packed cocks (Klinger valves, type AB.10) are
commonly used (Fig. 16.50 (a)). They should be lightly lubricated, and adjustment of the gland
may be needed from time to time. A stock of spare packing sleeves should be kept for
replacement when necessary. The position of the lever gives a clear indication whether the
valve is on or off.
The more compact valves of the type shown in Fig. 16.50 (b) have a transparent acrylic body
which enables air bubbles to be seen. The small rubber O-ring seals can be replaced when
worn.
Ball valves (Fig. 16.50 (c) and (d)) are rather more expensive but generally more reliable than
plastics valves. The PTFE seals need no lubrication.
On-off valves (with two ports) and three-way valves (with three ports) are used. For three-
port valves, several flow paths are possible. The type commonly used for triaxial equipment is
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 16.51, which also indicates the lever positions for the two
settings.
After operating a valve the lever or knob should be set firmly to either the open or the closed
position, and not left somewhater in between.
Fig. 16.50 Typical valves used with effective stress testing equipment: (a) Klinger
cock AB 10, (b) Transparent acrylic valve (ELE Ltd.), (c) Ball valve RB 166 (Automatic
Valve Systems Ltd.), (d) Ball valve 64020713 (Legris Ltd.)
~
(a) (b)
Fig. 16.51 Operation of three-port valves: lower branch (a) closed, (b) open
852 TEST EQUIPMENT
A special reversing valve used with a twin-burette volume change ga.uge is described in
Section 16.5.7.
~Yr.ESp,F COUPLING . -:".

"
The're is available a large variety of tube and:r.{pe co'upling~ for connecting tubing to valves,
junctions and other fittings. For each type there may be seyera] possible screw threads. Factors
to bear in mind when making connections include: -. .
Suitability of coupling for the tubing
Compatibility of male and female threads on the coupling and other component
Correct fitting of coupling on tubing
Proper fitting of seals, which must be in good condition.
Four types of coupling that are probably the most widely used in soil laboratories in Britain,
are described below; they are:
Coned metal couplings
Metal couplings for plastic tubing
Plastic couplings
Quick-release couplings.
CONED METAL COUPLINGS

A coned brass metal-to-metal connector used for copper tubing is shown in Fig. 16.52. The seal
is formed between the coned mating surfaces, which must be undamaged and should first be
lightly smeared with silicone grease. When the mating surfaces have been drawn together one
of them should be rotated to and fro before finally tightening the union nut.
METAL COUPLINGS FOR PLASTICS TUBING

This type of coupling consists of a connector with a male screw thread and a back-up ring (Fig.
16.53 (f)). The action of tightening the thread into a screwed socket clamps the back-up ring
against a collar formed on the tubing, which makes the seal. The collar is formed by using a
flaring tool (Fig. 16.53 (a)), as foHows. A small source of heat (e.g. cigarette lighter or match) is
needed.
(1) Thread the union nut and back-up ring on to the tube the right way round (Fig. 16.53(b»
before starting to form the flare.
(2) Soften the end of the tube by holding it vertically over the flame while rotating it (diagram
(b)). The end will swell and bell out as it softens. Nylon needs a higher temperature than
polyethylene; the amount of heating and softening is determined by trial.
valve orcouplin
union nut
rtubing
brazed to
I"": ~'"----.L I._,coneconnector
connector
coned mating surfaces
Fig. 16.52 Coned connector for copper tubing
'.
'" -
~
,.
flaring
anvil
".~
~
@ ~
(8) (bl (c::)
cO-, . < •
lIP.....
11
back-up ring
(eI) (e) (f)
Fig. 16.53 Metal coupling for plastic tubing: (a) anvil and flaring tool, (b) to (e)
stages in forming a connection, (f) assembled coupling
(3) Immediately lay the tube on the lower half of the anvil, with the softened end protruding
about 5 mm (diagram (c». Place the upper half of the anvil over the tube.
(4) Holding the anvil firmly on the bench, insert the spigot of the flaring tool into the bore of
the tube, press and rotate the tool against the face of the anvil (diagram (d)). The softened
plastic fills the recess in the end of the tool to form the end collar (diagram (e)).
(5) Assemble and tighten the coupling as shown in diagram (f).
PLASTICS COUPLING
A simple and effective method of fitting connections to either plastics or metal tubing is
provided by Plastic on nylon fittings. These do not require flaring of the tube. A stainless steel
grab washer grips the tube and retains it within the fitting, and is held in place by a thrust
washer. A rubber O-ring seal compressed against the tube forms a seal. The fittings are
designed for pressures up to about 1400 kPa. No tools are needed.
Details are shown in Fig. 16.54 (a). The connection is made as follows.
(1) Screw the cap assembly on to the body to half the thread length, without the rubber sealing
ring. ,
(2) Insert the tube, the end of which should be cut off square, until it seats firmly at the end of
the rece~on the body (Fjg. 16.54(b)}. •
(3) Unscrew 'the cap and remove cap and tube from the body; the grab washer should hold the
cap in place on the tube.
(4) Place the rubber sealing ring on the tube (Fig. 16.54 (c» .
. {5,LReplace the tube into the body and screw home the cap making it finger-tight. Do not use a
spanner or other tool; excessive torque may split the nylon.
854 TEST EQUIPMENT
,.
plastictubi
~_1!---body ~,
stainless steel nitrile rubber
grab washer sealing ring
(a)
,. (b) (e)
[courtesy of Pneumatic Engineering and Distribution Ltd, Sidcup, Kent]
Fig. 16.54 'Plasticon' nylon coupling: (a) assembled coupling, (b) seating the tube, (c)
fitting tube into coupling body
16.7.3 Porous Discs
The porous discs which are fitted to the ends of triaxial test samples must be robust enough to
withstand compressive stresses up to about 5000 kPa without deformation, and allow free
passage of water whether loaded or not. The water permeability characteristics of a disc
depend upon the fineness of the material used, which may be sintered ceramic, bronze or
stainless steel. The permeability should be appreciably greater than that of the soil sample.
More significant than permeability is the 'air entry value' of the porous medium. This is the
maximum air pressure which the saturated, surface-dry disc can withstand before air breaks
through the surface tension barrier into the void spaces. The smaller the voids (i.e. the finer the
sintered particles) the greater will be the air entry value. Two grades of porous disc are
generally used, a normal disc of relatively low air entry value, and a 'fine' disc of high air entry
value. The latter are necessary for measurements of pore water pressure in partly saturated
soils (Section 19.4). Typical properties are given in Table 16.3.
Porous discs are available for most standard sample diameters. Discs of slightly smaller
diameters are used when bonding into the cell base pedestal, as explained in Section 16.2.2, Fig.
16.4. Porous inserts of 5-lOmm diameter are used for bonding into the cell base when
lubricated ends are used (see Section 22.2.5). Similar inserts are fitted into the base of the
hydraulic loading consolidation cell (Chapter 24).
Before use, porous discs should be boiled for at least 10 minutes in distilled water to expel
most of the air from the voids, and then kept under de-aired water until required. Any
Table 16.3. TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF POROUS MEDIA
Porosity Water permeability Air entr), value

Material and designation % mls kPa
Ceramics:
UN! A 80KV 3 X 10- 4 ('low')
UNI A 150 KV 5 X 10- 7 ('medium')
Aerox 'Cello ton' grade VI 46 3 X 10- 8 210 ('high')
Doulton grade P6A 23 2 X 10- 9 150
Kaolin dust, pressed and fired 39 4.5 X 10- 10 520
Filter paper:
Whatman No, 54 1.7 x 1O-~
• under 0" = 30kPa
to
FlowaJonglength 3 x 10- 7
under cr' = 1000 k Pa
":'""",,,"iii0&,"-~~"-'---'----' --,-~ -------. --, .--,--,---------,---, "----~----,--- ----, ----

"-
rema!ning .air is rehio'\led~!'r.fi~ti9~ in place. by_ p:essurising for several hours, foIlowe~ by
flushmg wIth freshly,d.~~~~<:tt.eP'i):l~veral times If necessary.
After use, discs sh~Y~W.ashed;iii~distilled water, brushea witha l1a.tllral or nylon bristle'
brush to remov'e:~s:tl.'fer.itlflt'SojI;and.t:henJ)Oiled.A ,!,ire brush or steelwo6tshould not be used.
A clogged disc ,that dol~-~lowfree penetration of water should be discarded. A simple
check for dogging is to t.r~~wing through it. Properties of clogged discs were described by
Baracos (1976).:'1',.: " '
•
16.7.4 Membranes, O-Rings and Stretchers
Details of rubber membranes used in triaxial tests, and a method for measuring the extension
modulus, were given in Volume 2, Section 13.7.4.
The thickness of a few membranes from each batch received should be checked with a
micrometer, so that the appropriate correction can be determined (Section 17.4.2). Membranes
should be stored in a cool dark place after lightly dusting with french chalk. ,
Before use a membrane should be carefully checked for flaws and leaks. A positive leak test
can be made by sealing the membrane on to a solid and a drainage end cap with rubber 0-
rings, and inflating with air through the drainage lead while holding it under water. If air
bubbles are visible before the membrane expands to abou t 1i times its initial diameter it should
be rejected.
As a general rule a fresh membrane should be used for every effective stress triaxial test.
Membranes should be soake~ fn water for at least 24 hours before use, in order to reduce
absorption of water from the sample and to lower the water permeability of the membrane.
Two membranes, separated by a layer of silicone grease, should be used for tests of long
duration.
Two rubber O-rings of the correct size should be used to seal the membrane to each of the
sample end caps. Before use they should be carefully inspected for local weaknesses. After use
they should be wiped clean, dry and free from grease, and stored as for membranes.
A procedure for making latex rubber membranes in the laboratory is described by Menzies
and Phillips (1972). This is worthwhile only when membranes of non-standard shape or size
are required.
A suction membrane stretcher (Volume 2, Fig. 13.60) is needed for each sample diameter. In
addition a split cylindrical O-ring stretcher (Fig. 16.55) is necessary for fitting O-rings to a top
cap with a drainage connection.
16.7.5 Drainage Materials

SIDE DRAINS FOR TRIAXIAL SAMPLES
Side drains of filter paper are fitted around a triaxial sample in some tests in order to accelerate
the rate of drainage. A continuous porous jacket would appreciably affect the measured
."'lI!
•
- .
'.
Fig. 16.55 Split cylindrical O-ring stretcher
856 TEST EQUIPMENT
cutaway
openings
6mmwide
drainage strips
60r7 mmwide
drainage strips and openings' ..
15mmwide, ;.
-;
7t . / \\ fu\ ....
1. \ II
t 7rf 6+7 f' 6 7 fl Ij 6 7 7
6 6 6 16 6 F 6 6
x
y
15\ \15
7{
f~ 120
~ 315
(8)
(b)
I. 38dia ~I
• AX --r---
,,
76
"
filter paper strips

5mmwidein
I.. 120 ..I
development of curved su rface
4 spirals a, b, c, d
(c)
Fig.16.56 Details of filter paper side drains for triaxial samples: (a) 38 mm diameter,
(b) 100 mm diameter, (c) spiral drain strips for 38 mm diameter. (Dimensions x and yare
equal to sample height to allow overlap with top drainage disc but to prevent contact
with base disc)
compressive strength, and the accepted compromise is to fit drainage strips between the
sample and enclosing membrane.
The material used is a single layer of What man No. 54 filter paper, which does not soften in
water. A sheet of filter paper is cut to the outline shown in Fig. 16.56 (a) for 38 mm and (b) for
100 mm diameter samples. For samples of other sizes, similar proportions are used. Cutting
out is simplified if a template of thin metal is made to the same outline. Using this as a guide,
several sheets can be cut at once with a sharp-pointed knife or scalpel. The filter strips should
not cover more than 50"/0 of the cylindrical surface of the sample. Drains of this pattern
contribute to the measured strength of the sample, and a Gorrection must be applied (Section
17.4.3). .
Side drains of spiral form were used by Gens (1982), and were found to need no correction to
the measured strength, either in compression or in extension. Four spirals offilter paper, 5 mm
wide, are wrapped around the sample at an inclination of 1.4 (vertically) on 1 (horizontally), as
shown in Fig. 16.56 (c). The drainage effect is equivalent to that of the conventional drains
described above. Similar drains fitted at an inclination of 1 on 1.3 have also been used.
DRAINAGE lAYERS FOR CONSOLiDATION TESTS ..

For tests in hydr<\ulic consolidation ceH9'(Rc5we cells), drainage to the peripher~ is provided for.;. : ••.•
when required by fitting a layer of yyon porous plastics material 1.5 mm thick (see Chapter'
24). This is -availa1;>ldn sheets,. or in pre-cut lengths ready for fitting.
.... Similar matenarQf 2 mm, 3 mm and other thicknesses is used as top and base drainage
layers; porousJ~~s at pore pressure measuring points, and other purposes where a free-
draining Jayerfjs needed .
.16,7;6 Liquid Materials
The fluids essential for several items of triaxial testing equipment are referred to below.
PARAFFIN
Paraffin (kerosene) with a specific gravity of about 0.8 is used in volume-change gauges of the
glass burette (visual) type. Red dye is added to the paraffin to define clearly the meniscus
between it and the water. The dye, Sudan powder, is dissolved in the paraffin at a concentration
of about 0.02 grams per litre.
The insides of the glass burettes are rinsed with silicone water-repellant before filling to
maintain a meniscus of uniform shape.
MERCURY
Mercury is used in large quantities in mercury-pot constant pressure systems. About 15 kg are
required for each 'two-pot' system of 1000kPa capacity. Small quantities are needed in a
mercury manometer, and in a manual pore pressure null indicator. For all uses a purified
(distilled or double-distilled) grade of mercury should be used.
It is particularly important that the mercury in the null indicator is clean and free from
grease. The small amount (about 1 ml) required can be cleaned by squeezing it through a piece
of chamois leather. Rubber gloves should be worn, and mercury should not be allowed to come
into contact with the skin, or with gold rings and other valuables. Other precau tions relating to
the use of mercury are given in Volume 1, Section 1.6.7, and Volume 2, Sections 8.2.3 (3) and
8.4.4. They should all be meticulously observed for safety and health reasons.
DE-AIRED WATER
Water from which dissolved air has been removed must always be used in the pore pressure
system, and for most tests in the back pressure line, cell chamber and cell pressure system. The
traditional way of de-airing water for this purpose is by subjecting it to vacuum, as described in
Volume 2, Section 10.6.2, methods (1) and (2). A typical vacuum de-airing system was shown in
Fig. 10.18.
A more recent de-airing apparatus is shown in Fig. 16.57. This provides a convenient
continuous-flow system, and water can be pumped out of the vacuum chamber into the supply.
line against atmospheric pressure without having to release the vacuum or interrupt the de-
airing process.
The amount of air contained in water can be determined by measuring the dissolved oxygen
(DO) content, and test kits are available for this purpose. The DO content should not exceed 3
parts per million; a value as low as 1 p.p.m. is obtainable with a very efficient de-airing system.
Distribution pipework from the de-airing tank can be led to a small reservoir serving each
testing location. Water stored in the vacuum tank should be de-aired daily. Water in reservoirs
to which vacuum cannot be applied should be run off and replaced with freshly de-aired water
each day.
De."ionised water should not be used in triaxial cells. De-aired de-ionised water has been
found to be very corrosive towards rubber seals and the like.
~----~-~~':""~'k
858 TEST EQUIPMENT
·~
'--'
I WATER DE-A1RING SYSTEM

MilD! \ j1 1:';1
,I
I
Fig. 16.57 Continuous flow apparatus for de-airing water
16.7.7 Miscellaneous Items
Other items required for the tests described in this volume, which were covered in Volumes 1 or
2, are listed in Table 16.4.
16.8 PREPARATION AND CHECKING OF EQUIPMENT
16.8.1 Scope
General comments on the preparation of pressure systems and associated measuring devices
are given in this section. They are intended to supplement the suppliers' detailed instructions,
which should always be carefully followed. Initial checking procedures for these systems are
also described. Attention is drawn to the importance of regular calib·ration.
Checking routines immediately prior to starting a test are given in Chapter 18, Section 18.3
(for triaxial tests), and Chapter 24 (for tests in the Rowe consoIi9atio~ell).
..'
16.8.2 Mercury Pot Constant Pressure System
...
A mercury double-pot pressure system consisting of two sets of pots connected in series is
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 16.58. The upper suspended pots are designated A and C, and
the fixed lower pots, Band D. Air bleed screws are fitted to the tubing connectors at the top of
the sealed pots. Pot D is connected to a priming panel or pore pressure panel which includes a
control cylinder, pressure gauge, reservoir of de-aired water and an outlet to atmosphere. The
16.8 PREPARATION AND CHECKING OF EQUIPMENT 859
Table 16.4. MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT FOR EFFECTIVE STRESS TESTS

.'
" ..
Item Remarks
Sample preparation equipment

Trimming tools .
}in. a ~eparafe room. prelerably humidified
De-aired water apparatus 10.6.2 see also Section 16.7.6
Small tools 1.2.8

}pairs of spanners are especially important
8.2.5
General materials 8.2.5
General laboratory apparatus 8.2.5 mainly for weighing and moisture content determination
Sundry pieces of:

glassware 1.2.7
hardware 1.2.8 selected item as appropriate
plastics ware 1.2.8
Vacuum system 1.2.5 electric pump and distribution line; or filter pump
on water tap
spension cable
compensating springs
pen to atmosphere
-aired water reservoir
hand
bleedto
I atmosphere
j ,~~~
\
control,
cylinder
Ii I L:=:(X)::::::=- --..
to test apparatus
'. #
.,. .. ~Ch
~
tray with a little water
leaking or spilled mercury
I Fig. 16.58 Double-pot mercury pressure system, connected to pressure gauge alld
control cylinder
I
860 TEST EQUIPMENT
reservoir is initially
water bywindi .
" .
.,',.'"
:.
,p.
h fre~hly de"air~d w:tt~r, and the control cylinder is filled with
,_j:...-"".1.~;. ., ~ "9 •
The . relates to{hefiUint~~ifpreparation of one double~l'ot pressure
• system; a frame and·winch· assembly:has been fixed securely in place in
accordance instructions. Adouble-pot system is described because it is the
type mOst ations to this procedure may be necessary for single-pot or
. triple-pot by the supplier. Two pressure systems are needed for most
effective stress one for applying cell pressure, one for back pressure.
(1) Wind down the supporting the upper pots A and C until they are about 300 mm
above pots Band D.
(2) Remove the top comiections and air bleed screws from pots Band D.
(3) Fill pots Band D with mercury to within about 3 mm of the top (Fig. 16.59 (a». Each pot
needs about 300-350ml (4-5 kg) of mercury.
(4) Replace the air bleeds and top connections to pots Band D.
(5) Pump de-aired water from the control cylinder into pot D and displace all the mercury to
the upper pot C (Fig. 16.59 (b». Release air by opening the air bleed on pot B.
(6) Close the air bleed on pot B and continue pumping water gently so that it passes through
the mercury in pot C and enters the top of pot B. This will displace mercury upwards from pot
B into pot A (Fig. 16.59 (c».
de-aired
water
-mercury
(8) (b)
water
~.-..-
(c) Cd) (e)

Fig. 16.59 (a) to (e) Stages in filling and preparation of mercury pot pressure system
(7) Continue pumping until most of the mercury is in the upper pots A and C, and pots Band
D are full of water (Fig. 16.59 (d)). . . . • . ~ "
(8) Bleed ofT entrapped air by moving the susp~naed po,ts up and down with t-he winch and'
carefully" opening the bleed screws.' .' ." .."
(9) When all the air has been remoV;d~wind up the upper pots to give an eXact reading on the
pressure gauge (e.g. 30 kPa).
(l0) Check that the compensating springs are adjusted correctly by releasing a small quantity
of water from the system, which should momentarily cause the pressure to drop. Close the
release valve immediately and check that the pressure reading returns to 30 kPa when the
suspension spring lifts the upper pots as a result of losing mercury.
(11) If the pressure is not fully restored, the spring is too short and should be lengthened. If the
spring over-compensates and the final pressure exceeds 30 kPa, the spring should be
shortened.
(12) Make further adjustments by trial until pressure compensation is achieved.
(13) The mercury in pot A, which is vented to atmosphere, should be covered with a few
millimetres of water to prevent escape of mercury vapour.
(14) A system consisting of three sets of pots is filled in a similar manner to the above, with the
upper (fixed) pot of the additional pair brought down to the same level as pots Band D.
Before filling a triaxial cell from the system, ensure that most of the mercury is in the upper pots
(Fig. 16.59 (e)). For a large cell it may be necessary to re-prime the system several times by
pumping up the mercury with the control cylinder. It is better to fill a cell from a separate
supply of de-aired water and to use the mercury pots only for pressurising.
16.8.3 Pore Pressure System
(1) Pore pressure panel

The pore pressure panel of the type shown in Fig. 16.21 (Section 16.5.6) must be mounted.
vertically, and should be conveniently close to the apparatus wich which it is to be used, with
the middle of the mercury manometer V-tube about level with the middle of the test sample.
The reservoir is filled with freshly de-aired water. The control cylinder is initially fully wound
in, and all valves are initially closed. Valve designations, most of which correspond to those
used by Bishop and Henkel, are shown in Fig. 16.21.
The panel tubing is charged and de-aired as follows.
(1) Open valves j, n, m and i to allow water to feed under gravity from the reservoir through the
pipework until the water level above valve i is level with that in the reservoir.
(2) Close valve n, and with valve j open wind out the control cylinder to its fullest extent (anti-
clockwise) to fully charge it with water.
(3) Wind in the pump again to exhaust the water.
(4) Repeat steps 2 and 3 until no air bubbles are observed in the water pumped back into the
reservoir.
(5) Fill the control cylinder as in step 2, close valve j and open valves n, m and i.
(6LOperat€.the pump as in stage 4 until no air emerges from valve i.
(7f hiHtbe cylinder as in step 2, close valve i and open valve h.
(~J:~i~'~'the pump to push water into the manometer tube. When all the air has been
.. .
, dlspla:Qed c1os@
.
valve h. Re-fill the cylinder as in step 2 if necessary.
.(9) Open v~ve I and the bleed screw immediately below the pressure gauge.
fI
(10) Wind in the pump steadily until water, without air bubbles, emerges from the bleed screw,
then tighten it (hand-tight; do not use a spanner). Close valve I. Re-charge the cylinder if
necessary.
862 TEST EQUIPMENT
(11) Connect the union joint b~yond valve k to the pressure inlet r on the null indicator, as
shown in Fig. 16.22(ii), Section 16.5.6. Normal tubing can be used, and its length is not critical.
J~ints must be. watertight. Valve a is det~he(ffrom the c~]] and closed, and immersed in'a
'beaker of water:' .
• (~2) Open the'bleed screws on the null indicator (f and g, Fig. 16.22 (a», and slowly wInd in the
pump until water displaces all the air from the right~hand chamber. Close bleed screw g.
(13) Open valve a under water and continue pumping until air is completely expelled from the
null indicator and tubing. Close bleed screw f and valve a, and re-connect valve a to the cell
base.
(14) With valves k, I, m, n open and all others closed, wind in the pump to pressurise the system
to the maximum working pressure, as indicated by the pressure gauge. Leave under pressure
...
· :
,:1i(~'
for several hours, or overnight.
(15) If there is only a small drop in pressure it may be due to expansion of the tubing and
;:-
solution of remaining bubbles of air. Release the pressure and flush the system with freshly de-
aired water, first by discharging from valve i, then from valve a. Leave under pressure again
and repeat until the system is completely air-free.
(16) A large pressure drop after step 14 indicates a leak in the system, which must be traced
either by observation or by isolating and pressurising each section in turn. The whole system
must be made free from leaks.
(17) Removal of air may be made easier by connecting vacuum tubing from a water tap filter-
pump to the null indicator at f (Fig. 16.22 (a)), and drawing de-aired water through the system
from the reservoir. Alternatively the vacuum line can be connected to valve p or 0 (Fig. 16.21),
with valve j closed, and de-aired water drawn in through the null indicator. If a pump-operated
line is used it should be fitted with a sufficiently large water trap. The system is then flushed and
pressurised as described above.
(2) Charging the mercury manometer

Mercury is a potentially hazardous substance, and the precaution given in Volume 1, Section
1.6.7, and referred to in Volume 2, Section 8.4.4 and Section 16.7.6, should be carefully observed.
Items needed for this operation are:
About 200 mm length of flexible tubing to fit on manometer tube
Hypodermic syringe, or small plastics wash-bottle
Mercury-about 20 ml (nearly 300 g) for a manometer of 5 mm bore.
(1) Charge the syringe or wash-bottle with mercury.
(2) Connect the length of tubing to the open (right-hand in Fig. 16.21) arm of the manometer
U-tube.
(3) Connect the other end of the tubing to the syringe or washbottle containing the mercury.
(4) Open valves i and h, and gently pour in the mercury. Allow it to displace water until the
mercury level in both limbs is at the 50 kPa mark.
(5) Remove the temporary tubing, and fit a length of tubing from the open limb to the mercury
catch pot as shown in Fig. 16.21. The end of the tubing must remain open to atmosphere, and
the tu bing should be secured in place so that a sudden spurt of mercury under pressure will not
cause it to jump out of the catch pot.
(6) If the mercury thread is broken by 'bubbles' of water, they can be displaced by rapidly
jiggling the mercury up and down using the control cylinder, with valve i closed and valves m, n
and h open.
The manometer is used for reading negative pressures, and positive pressures up to about
100 k Pa. Valves m and h must be kept closed when the manometer is not in use, and opened
only when the pressure in the system is below 100kPa.
16.R PREPARATION AND CHECKING OF EQUIPMENT 863
(3) C/wl'?]ill{f the I/ull iI/diU/tor

t':·
~:.<
See above regarding precautions to be taken when handling mercury. . ....
A syringe with hypodermic needle is needed, or a wash bottle wi.th.;a capillary'l"la~tic tube: .
charged with mercury'. About I ml (14 g) will be' used. ' .
(I) 'Remove bleed screw g and open' f (Fig. 16.22 (a)) with the null indica tor verticaL'
(2) Insert the syringe needle or wash-bottle tube into the right-hand chamber at 'g and
introduce the mercury, tapping the indicator to help the mercury through, until the reservoir is
charged as in Fig. 16.22 (a).
(3) Replace and tighten bleed screw g without introducing any air. Use a wash-bottle of de-
aired water to completely fill the bleed-screw recess first.
(4) Tighten bleed screw f as soon as excess water has been forced out, and ensure that no air is
trappep inside.
. :cY~' .
(5) T~rn the indicator to the horizontal position. Tap it to enable the mercury to fall into the
reservoir chamber (Fig. 16.22 (b)). A very small back-winding of the control cylinder may help.
(6) If air is visible, flush through with de-aired water from the control cylinder with bleed screw
f open to release the air. A small bubble lodged in the capillary tube below f may be impossible
to expel without turning the indicator upright, but do not allow the mercury level to climb
closer than about 5 mm below the sample outlet in the left-hand chamber.
(7) Further traces of air, or bubbles which refuse to move, can be dissolved by pressurising for
several hours as far as valve a, then flushing through with freshly de-aired water. . .:.
(8) Immerse the cell base, to which the null indicator is attached via valve a, in a tray
containing de-aired water, deep enough to ensure that the aperture in the base pedestal is
submerged. Check that the connections at valve a are tight.
(9) Reduce the pressure in the system to zero and turn the null indicator to the upright
position.
(10) Open valves k, m, nand h, and slightly open valve a. Carefully adjust the mercury in the
capillary tube with the control cylinder to a convenient level a little above the mercury
reservoir leveL
(II) Mark this level with the adjustable datum marker, and read the levels of the limbs of the
mercury manometer. Record this as the initial 'zero pressure' datum for checking the system.
(12) When the system is not in use the null indicator should be left in the horizontal position
(Fig. 16.22 (b)). Immediately before use the mercury thread should be re-set as above.
(4) Checking the pore pressure instal/ation

The installation as far as valve a is checked as follows. All valves are initially closed, The null
indicator is set as in step 11 above, The control cylinder is fully charged with de-aired water, as
in (I), step 2.
(I) Open valves k, I and n. Use the control pump to increase the pressure to the maximum
working value, and observe the change in level of the mercury in the null indicator. Ifit moves
no more than about 15 mm under a pressure of 1000 kPa and remains steady, and the pressure
does not fall after initial small adjustments, the system as far as valve a should be free from
leaks and air bubbles. .
(2) When the pressure is reduced to the initial manometer r.eading the mercury should return
to its original leveL - ;a
(3) If the mercury thread shows excessive or c~tinuing movement when pressure is applied in
step 1, it could be due to one or more reasons, which can be deduced as follows.
(a) Air in the system between the mercury thread and valve a: The rate of rise of the mercury
thread decreases with time until the air is dissolved. A similar delay occurs on reducing the
pressure, but the mercury does not return to its initial leveL
864 TEST EQUIPMENT
(b) Expansion in the connecting tubing or valve sleeves: The rise of mercury continues for a
short time, and the movement is recovera,bJe on reducin~ th.e pr~ssure.
(c) Leakage at valve a or in the connecting tobe Qr jo.iI1ts: .Th~ ·mer~urY..level·rlses ata .•
constant rate and continu~) adjustment Df the control cylinder i'sneed.ed to. maintain
pressure. When .pressure is reduced tiJe mercury does not return to its original level If a .
negative pressure is applied by winding back the cOntrol cylinder, air may be drawn in
through the leak.
(d) Leakage between control cylinder and null indicator: Pressure cannot be maintained
except by continued pumping, and the mercury level returns to its initial mark when the
pressure falls off.
(4) The above faults can be dealt with as follows.
(a) If the presence of air is suspected, the system should be pressutised again for a few hours
aijd then flushed through with freshly de-aired water, as deseribed in (3), step 7.
(b) A very small degree of flexibility in the system is unavoidable and can be allowed for by
the cali bra tion procedure referred to in Section 17.2.7. If expansion is excessive (i.e. if there is
more than about 15 mm movement of the mercury thread under a pressure of 1000 kPa) a
shorter or more rigid length of tubing should be fitted between the null indicator and
valve a.
(c) and (d) The source of leakage must be traced and rectified. Leakage may be due to the
following:
loose connection
badly fitting connection
loose gland on valve
worn gland
perforated or split tUbing.
The slightest leak in the part of the pore pressure system between the sample and the mercury
thread cannot be tolerated.
(5) Cleaning the null indicator

If there is evidence of dirt or grease in the capillary of the null indicator it may be possible to
clean it without dismantling it, as follows. All valves should be closed initially, and the control
pump wound in about half way, the pressure in the system being zero.
(a) Remove the bleed plug f from the null indicator and connect a short length of plastics
tubing to the outlet. Slowly wind in the pump while the connection is being made to prevent
air being drawn in.
(b) Place the other end of the tube under the surface ofa solution of mild detergent in warm
water in a beaker.
(c) Turn the null indicator to the horizontal position with all the mercury in the reservoir,
allowing passage of water over it (Fig. 16.22 (b».
(d) Open valves nand k (Fig. 16.21), and draw detergent solution into the indicator by
slowly winding back the pump.
(e) After a few minutes force out the detergent and flush with cold de-aired water.
(f) Repeat steps (d) and (e) several times if necessary.
(g) Replace bleed plug f without entrapping air, and re-set the zero datum as described
above.
(h) If the mercury itself contains grease or dirt the thread in the capillary tube may be
discontinuous and a sensitive balance is difficult to achieve. The mercury should be drained
out and cleaned, as described in Section 16.6.6. The null indicator should be washed with
~;;t"tj>f _·,gS'TW..........I'fl5iewowsm 2Il~9-'~ !I I _.~~_ .... _ _ _~,~_ _ _ _ _ __

. ..
• warm detergent solution and rinsed with cQJd de-aired water, and then re-charged with
clean mercury as described:above. :":
~- ~ ,-- ......
16.8.4 Volume Change Gauge
COMPONENTS
The arrangement of a twin-burette volume change gauge is shown in Fig. 16.29 (Section
16.5.7). The unit described consists of four components mounted on a panel:
Twin burette assembly
Reversing valve
Manifold block
Two-way valve.
To assemble the unit, or to replace a glass burette, the manufacturer's instructions should be
followed in detail. The burettes themselves are very fragile and should be handled with great
care. All joints and mating surfaces should be lightly coated with silicone grease before starting
assembly.
The fluids used for charging the burettes are de-aired water, and high-grade paraffin
(kerosene), col(.mred by adding a dye (see Section 16.7.6). A 100 ml gauge requi'res about 250 ml
of paraffil}, which is placed in a beaker.
FILLING THE BURETTES

The manifold block, outlet (1) in Fig. 16.29, is first connected to the pore pressure panel (Fig.
16.21) at valve p. The control cylinder is fully charged with freshly de-aired water. All valves are
initially closed. The filling procedure is as follows.
(1) Set the reversing valve to connect the left-hand burette to the manifold outlet (1) (referred
to as the left-hand position). Open bleed plugs Land R at the top of the burette assembly.
(2) Open valve p on the por~ pressure panel and pump water into the left-hand burette. Re-
charge the pump if necessary, and continue pumping until the burette and outer acrylic tube
ar~ completely filled with water. Tap the burette assembly to cause any air bubbles to rise to
the top and out of bleed plug L.
(3) Change the reversing valve to the right-hand position, which connects the right-hand
burette to the manifold outlet. This burette is then filled as in step 2,
(4) Close bleed plugs Land R.
(5) Set the reversing valve to the left-hand position, open valves I, nand p on the pore pressu~e
panel, and apply a pressure of 700 kPa by operating the control pump. Some adjustment may
be necessary initially to maintain this pressure, due to expansion, after which the pressure
should hold for 24 hours. If not the source of leakage must be detected and eliminated.
(6) When the system is proved to be pressure-tight, reduce the pressure to zero'"clos'e al(valves'
and move the reversing valve to its central position. Place a beaker under the outlet from ~alve
o (Fig. 16.21) and open valves 0 and p. • -::.'
(7) Remove bleed plug L, and set the reversing valve to the left-hand position to allow water to
drain out from o. When the water level in the left-hand burette has fallen to the 100ml mark
return the reversing valve to the central position.' . - • ,.".
(8) Using a small funnel pour the coloured paraffin through the bleed plug aperture L until the
burette, and the space above it, is filled. Re-fit and close bleed plug L.
(9) Repeat steps 7 and 8 with the reversing valve in the right-hand position, using bleed plug R,
so as to fill the right-hand burette.
(10) With the control cylinder fully charged with de-aired water and all valves closed, set the
866 TEST EQUIPMENT
reversing valve to the left-hand position and open valve p. Place a beaker under the bleed valve
F at the bottom of the buret'te uni't .
.. (11) Open bleed valve-F sligl1tl/'an'd pump wafer sl9wry"from the control cylinder. Water
entering the left-hand burette wilI"displace para'ffin into the outer tube and'excess wat~r will
bleed from F. Close valve F when the paraffin/water interface reaches the zero mark on the
burette.
(12) Set the reversing valve to its central position and close all other valves.
The volume-change gauge is then ready for use. The two-way valve (2) is connected to a
constant pressure source, and the manifold (1) to the appropriate connection on the test
apparatus. When making these connections the system should be under a slight pressure so
that escaping water prevents air being entrapped.
USE OF VOLUME-CHANGE GAUGE

The burettes are not subjected to a net internal pressure and it is therefore not necessary to
calibrate them against pressure. Readings can usually be estimated to within half a division of
the scale markings, e.g. a burette marked every 0.2 ml can be read to the nearest 0.1 m!.
The main source of inaccuracy is the possible variation in shape of the interface meniscus
between the water and paraffin. For this reason it is important to clean the tubes occasionally
to remove grease and other deposits. The configuration of the meniscus usually becomes
inverted when the direction offlow in the tubes is reversed. This is allowed for by recording the
reading of the inverted meniscus immediately after reversal to provide a new datum for
subsequent readings. Meniscus reading procedures"are indicated in Fig. 16.60.
The paraffin/water interface must not be allowed to pass the 100 ml mark in either burette.
Volume changes in excess of 100 ml can be measured by reversing the direction of flow.
Burettes are emptied by opening bleed plugs Land R (Fig. 16.29, Section 16.5.7) and
draining the outer tubes through bleed valve F. The burettes themselves are drained by
disconnecting the bottom connections.
Clean the burette units by rinsing with warm water. Some detergents may adversely affect
the acrylic plastic tubes.
Take care to re-assemble correctly. Mark each component of every joint before
disconnection. Handle with great care. Check the O-ring seals and replace if necessary.
coloured flow downwards

paraffin
burette
•
outer
tube
water
t
flow upwards '..
uneven (inclined) meniscus'
. " .:..,
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. J6.60 Reading a volume-change burette: (aJ flow upwards - read top of
meniscus, (b) flow downwards - read bottom of meniscus, (c) uneven meniscus - read
the mean value
VOLUME CHANGE T,~ANSDUCER
The automatic volume ~~nge transducer is filled, de-*ired andiniti.a1.ised in accordance with
the manufacturer's instdi(:lions. Toe procedure outlined below related to the type of.g;a:tJge
shown in Fig. 16.39.(SeCtion 16.6.6) connected to the'reversing valve.a~sembly in F"ig,-16.29. "
(1) Set the three-v:,ay va}ve (d~ignated below as A) to the straight-through11O·rizontal.
position, and reversing valve I;e.vet (designated B) to the middle (off) position. .
(2) Allow de-aired water to flewinimd displace air. A pressure of 20 kPa, or the head of water
in an overhead de-aired water storage tank, should be enough. •
(3) Turn valve A to the vertical position and lever B to the 'piston-down' positiQn.
(4) Open the air bleed E and expel air from the upper chamber. ...•..
(5) Turn the whole unit upside-down. "~'7' •• '
(6) Move lever B to the 'piston-up; poslffon (as viewed normally). ". ':..;.-
(7) Open bleed plug F and expel air from the lower chamber.
(8) Return lever B to the central 'off' position.
(9) Turn the unit right way up again.
(10) Check that the system is free from air bubbles.
(11) If bubbles are present, pressurise the unit for a few hours under a pressure of700 kPa with
the lever B in either the 'up' or the 'down' position, then flush through with freshly de-aired
water.
(12) After connecting to the readout unit and allowing time for warm-up, pressurise the system
to about 20 kPa.
(13) Connect the gauge into the system by turning valve A to the vertical position, and set lever
B to the 'down' position. Observe the movement of the Bellofram piston.
(14) When the piston reaches its lowest position, reverse the direction offlow by moving B to
the 'up' position, and allow the piston to move upwards by about 2 mm.
(15) Move lever B to the 'off' position, and set the readout to zero.
(16) The unit is then ready for calibration.
16.8.5 Cell Pressure and Back Pressure Systems Generally
Requirements are less onerous than for the pore pressure system, and adequate checks can be
made using the pressure gauge and volume-change gauge connected into each system. The
systems should be pressurised and left under pressure for several hours. After the initial
expansion there should be no visible movement in the volume gauge readings if the system is
watertight. If a leak is indicated it should be located, if necessary by isolating sections of the line
in turn, and eliminated.
Before starting a test, freshly de-aired water should be drawn into the constant pressure
systems and flushed through the pipework connections to the test apparatus. Pressl!re vessels
(air-water cells or mercury pots) should be charged with de-aired water as appropriate to meet
the immediate requirements of each system. For instance if a triaxial cell is to be filled from the
sys~em, the maximum practicable volume of water should be available. To allow for dhinage
of water from a sample there should be enough capacity available in the back pres~re s)ili;tem
to take in the water. .
16.8.6 Pressure Transducers
A pressure transducer is fitted into a mounting as shown in Fig. 16.31 (Section 16.6.3) with the
diaphragm upwards. A hypodermic syringe can be used to introduce de-aired water into the
868 TEST EQUIPMENT
space immedia tely above the diaphragm without entraF'ping a bubble of air. Care is needed to
avoid damaging the diaphrag1}1. The block is-connected into' the s;,stem and filled With de-aired
water. Visible air bubbles are removed th{ough the bleed'pci"rt .0. With the plug D closed the
: • system is pressuiised for several hours to iheck for lea'b, then flusJted with freshly de-aired.-
:' water. In the pc!re pre~sure system the transducer block"is pressurisedand flushed during step 7
of Section 16'.8.3 (3). The transducer read'ings can then be calibrateg against the pressure gauge.
Pressure should not be applied to or released from a transduc-cr suddenly, and rapid
fluctuations of nressure should be avoided, otherwise damage may be caused to the
diaphragm. For the same reason, suction should be applied carefully, and only if the
transducer is designed to withstand negative pressures.
16.8.7 Calibration
Regular calibration of all measuring devices is an essential factor in maintaining a high

standard of reliability in the laboratory, and must not be neglected. Calibration data should
always be readily available for reference, or displayed alongside fixed items such as pressure
gauges. The date when the next calibration is due should be clearly shown. :
Calibration of measuring instruments such as dial gauges, load rings, and pressure gauges
was described in Volume 2, Section 8.3, and of rubber membranes in Section 13.7.4.
Calibration of other instruments and apparatus referred to in this volume is covered in
Chapter 17.
REFERENCES
Baracos, A. (1976). 'Clogged filter discs'. Technical note, Geotechnique, 26:4:634.
Bishop, A. W. and Donald, I. B. (1961). The experimental study ofpartly saturated soil in the triaxial apparatus'. Proc.
5th Int. Conference on Soil Mechanics & Foundation Eng., Paris, Vol. I, pp 13-21.
Bishop, A. W. and Green, G. E. (1965). The influence of end restraint on the compression strength of a cohesionless
soil'. Geotecl1l1ique, 15: 3 :243.
Bishop, A. W. and Green, G. E. (1969). 'Pore pressure measurement in the laboratory'. Speciality session, Part II, 7th
Int. Con! on Soil Mechanics & Foundation Eng., Mexico.
Bishop, A. W., Green, G. E. and Skinner, A. E. (1973). 'Strength and deformation measurement of soils'. Proc. 8th Int.
COil/ on Soil Mechallics & Foundation Engineering, Moscow.
Bishop, A. W. and Henkel, D. J. (1953). 'A constant-pressure control for the triaxial compression test'. Giwtechnique,
3:8:339-344.
Bishop, A. W. and Henkel, D. J. (1962). The Measurement of Soil Properties in the Triaxial Test (second edition).
Edward Arnold, London.
Bishop, A. W., Webb, D. L. and Skinner, A. E. (1965). Triaxial tests on soil at elevated ceIl pressures'. Proc. 6th Int.
Con/ Soil Mechanics & Foundation Eng., Montreal, Vol. I, pp 170-174.
Bishop, A. W. and Wesley, L. D. (1975). 'A hydraulic triaxial apparatus for controlled stress path testing'.
Geotechnique,25:4:657-670.
Boyce, J. R. and Brown, S. F. (1976). 'Measurement of elastic strain in granular material'. Geotechnique, 26:4: 637-640.
Brown, S. F. and Snaith, M. S. (1974). The measurement of recoverable and irrecoverable deformations in the repeated
load triaxial test'. Geotechnique, 24:2:255-259.
BS 1377:1975. 'Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes'. British Standards Institution, London.
BS 1610:1964. 'Methods for the load verification of testing machines'. British Standards Institution, London.
Burland, J. B. and Symes, M. (1982). 'Simple axial displacement gauge for use in the triaxial apparatus'. Geotechnique,
32:1 : 62-{)5. •
Chamberlain, E. J., Cole, D. M. and Johnson, T. C. (1979). 'Resilient response of !wo frozen &,[lq thawed soils'. Proc.
ASCE, Vol. 105, No. GT 2:25.7. . . .
Darley, P. (1973). 'Apparatus for measuring volume change suitable for automatic 10gg'Tni.· Geotechnique,
23:1: 140-141.. . .•
Davison, L. R. and Hills, J. M. (1983). '/\ data acquisition system for soil mechanics'. Ground Engineering, Vol. 16, No.
I, January 1983, pp 15-17.
EI-Ruwayih, A. A. (1976). 'Design manufacture and performance of a lateral strain device'. Geotechnique,
26:1 :215-216.
Gens, A. (1982). 'Stress-strain and strength characteristics of a low plasticity clay'. PhD Thesis, Imperial College of
Science & Technology, University of London.
Hight. D. W. (1982). 'Simple piezometer probe for the'routine measurement of pore pressure ·in triaxial tests on
saturated soils'. Technical note, Geotechnique, 32:4;)96. .• .
,. Jardine. R. J.. Symes, M. 1. and BurlanEl, 1. B. (l984('I~ measurement ofsoil stiffIlC'sS in the triaxial apparatus'.
G,:otecilllique, 34:3:323. '•..: .~. . .-
Khan. M. H. and Hoag. D. L. (I 979). 'A noncontactihg transducer for m~asurenient of lateral strains'. Canadian _.
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 16, No.2, May 1979, pp409-41 L; .
Klementev, I. (1974). 'Lever-type a'pparatus for electrically measuring volume change'. Geotechnique, 24:4:670-671.
Lewin, P. I. (1971). 'Use of servo mechanisms for volume change measurement and Ko consolidation'. Geotecill1iquc,
21 :3:259-262. .
Lowe, J. and Johnson, T. C. (1960). 'Use of back pressure to increase degree of saturation of triaxial test specimens'.
Proc. Research Coni on Shear Strength of Cohesire Soils, pp 819-836. Boulder, Colorado. ASCE:' ,
Marchant, J. It. and Schofield, C. P. (1978). 'A combined constant pressure and volume change apparatus for triaxial
test at low pressures'. Georechnique, 28:3 :351-353.
Menzies, B. K. (1975). 'A device for measuring volume change'. Georechnique, 25:1 :132-133.
Menzies, B. K. (1976). 'Design manufacture and performance ofa lateral strain deyice'. Geotechnique, 26:3:542-544.
Menzies, B. K. and Phillips, A. B. (1972). 'On the making of rubber meml¥anes'. Georechnique, 22:1: 153-155.
Menzies, B. K. and Sutton, H. (1980). 'A control system for programming stress paths in the triaxial cell'. Ground
Engineering, Vol. 13, No.1, January 1980, pp 22-23, 31.
Penman, A. D. M, (1984). Private communication to author.
Rendulic, L. (1937). 'Ein Grundgesetz der Tonmechanik und sein experimenteller Beweis'. Bauingenieur, Vol. 18,
pp 459-467.
Rowlands, G. O. (1972). 'Apparatus for measuring volume change suitable for automatic logging'. Geotechnique,
22:3:535-526.
Sharp, P. (1978). 'A device for automatic measurement of volume change'. Geotechnique, 28:3:348-350.
Spencer, E. (1954). 'A constant pressure control for the triaxial compression test'. Geotechllique, 4:2:89.

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Volume 3: Effective Stress Tests

K. H. Head. MA(Cantab), C.Eng, FICE, FGS

EFFECfIVE STRESS TESTING-PRINCIPLES, THEORY AND

17 CALIBRATIONS, CORRECfIONS AND GENERAL PRACfICE 870

18 ROUTINE EFFECfIVE STRESS TRIAXIAL TESTS 911

19 FURTHER TRIAXIAL SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS 971

) 20 TRIAXIAL CONSOLIDATION AND PERMEABILITY TESTS 1001

20.3 Anisotropic consolidation tests' ,.I!I' 1013

21 SOIL DEFORMATION TESTS 1028

22 SPECIAL TRIAXIAL TEST PROCEDURES 1054

23 STRESS PATHS IN TRIAXIAL TESTING 1076

25 CONTINUOUS CONSOLIDATION TESTS 1197

APPENDIX: UNITS, SYMBOLS, REFERENCE DATA 1226

Test designation Section

REFERENCES TO OTHER SOURCES

744 EFFECTIVE STRESS TESTING-PRINCIPLES, THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

15.1.3 Historical Note

The principle of effective.st~~s, though basically very si~ple, is offundamental significance in

746 EFFECTIVE STRESS TESTING-PRINCIPLES, THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

] 5.3.1 Principle of Effective Stress

SOIL CONSTITUENTS "1

SIGN CONVENTION FOR STRESS AND STRAIN

STRESSES IN DRY SOIL

TRANSMISSION OF NORMAL STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL

-- p/l ..... - /r~

.1; = -C • .1(j' (15.2)

TRANSMISSION OF SHEAR STRESS IN SATURATED SOIL

Table 15.1. APPROXIMATE VOLUME COMPRESSIBILITIES

Soil particles 1.5-3.0. x 10- 5 0..03-0..0.6

Soils: low compressibility 0.0.5 100

15.3.2 Pore Pressure Coefficients in Saturated Soil

TOTAL STRESS AND PORE PRESSURE CHANGES

Pore pressure: /::,u c + /::'Ud = /::'u

pore pressure is equal to

COEFFICIENT B IN SATURATED SOIL

and since V", = n V,

Comparing with Equation (15.4), the coefficient B is defined by the relationship

GENERAL PORE PRESSURE EQUATION

15.3.3 Pore Pressure Coefficients in Partly Saturated Soil

EFFECT OF PARTIAL SATURATION

Table 15.2. TYPICAL VALUES OF PORE PRESSURE COEFFICIENT A J

Highly sensitive clay large contraction +0.75 to + 1.5

Normally consolidated clay contraction +0.5 to +1

Compacted sandy clay slight contraction + 0.25 to +0.75

Lightly overconsolidated clay none 0 to +0.5

Compacted clay gravel expansion - 0.25 to +0.25

(After Skempton, 1954)

complex than for full saturation for two main reasons:

MODIFIED PORE PRESSURE EQUATION

typical for clays Ilililt

COEFFICIENT B IN PARTLY SATURATED SOIL

15.3.4 Stresses in a Soil Element

SOIL IN THE GROUND

i.e. O'~ = hpg + (z - h)Psat 9 - (z - h)Pwg

pressure at rest, Ko, (Section 21.1.3) in the equation

or p' = t(U'l + 2(3)

MEANING OF SHEAR STRENGTH

SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS

(13' f Q C (1,' f effective

15.4 SHEAR STRENGTH THEORY 761

TOTAL STRESS AND EFFECTIVE STRESS RELATIONSHIPS

15.4.2 Criteria for Determining Shear Strength

(1) MAXIMUM DEVIATOR STRESS