© @ Qo! SPRY © @ © Figure 426 Example of sparse network Ifinstead node 1 is ordered last then the [G] matrix has the structure: Rooen xooko wom eo xMoCO eee ‘After processing the first row the structure is: xooKo xoxeos xxooe oO ‘When triangulation is complete the upper triangular matrix now has less fill-in, ° mo ° 0 1 0 ‘This illustration uses the standard textbook approach of eliminating elements below the diagonal on a column basis; instead, a mathematically equivalent row-by-row climination is normally performed that has programming advantages [5]. Moreover symmetry inthe [G] matrix allows only half of it to be stored. Three ordering schemes hhave been published [8] and are now commonly used in transient programs, There is a tradeoff between the programming complexity, computation effort and level ofNumerical integrator substitution 97 ‘optimality achieved by these methods, and the best scheme depends on the network topology, size and number of direct solutions required, 4.8 Numerical errors and instabilities ‘The trapezoidal rule contains a truncation error which normally manifests itself as chatter or simply as an error in the waveforms when the time step is large. This is particularly true if cutsets of inductors and current sources, or loops of capacitors and voltage sources exist. Whenever discontinuities occur (switching of devices, or ‘modification of non-linear component parameters, ...) care is needed as these can initiate chatter problems or instabilities, Two separate problems are associated with discontinuities. The frst is the error in making changes at the next time point after the discontinuity, for example current chopping in inductive circuits due to turning OF device at the next time point after the current has gone to zero, or proceeding on a segment of a piecewise linear characteristic one step beyond the knee point. Even if, the discontinuity is not stepped over, chatter can occur due to error in the trapezoidal rule, These issues, as they apply to power electronic circuits, are dealt with further in Chapter 9. ‘Other instabilities can occur because of time step delays inherent in the model. For example this could be due to an interface between a synchronous machine model and the main algorithm, or from feedback paths in control systems (Chapter 8), Instabilities can also occur in modelling non-linear devices due to the sampled nature of the simulation as outlined in section 4.5. Finally “bang-bang' instability ean occur due to the interaction of power electronic device non-linearity and non-linear devices such as surge arresters, In this case the state of onc influences the other and finding the appropriate state can be difficult. 49 Summary ‘The main features making numerical integration substitution a popular method for the solution of electromagnetic transients are: simplicity, general applicability and computing efficiency. Iis simplicity derives from the conversion of the individual power system ele- ments (ie. resistance, inductance and capacitance) and the transmission lines into Norton equivalents easily solvable by nodal analysis. The Norton current source rep- resents the component past History terms and the Norton impedance consists of a pure conductance dependent on the step length. By selecting the appropriate integration step, numerical integration substitution is applicable to all wansient phenomena and to systems of any size. In some cases, however, the inherent truncation error of the trapezoidal method may lead to oscilla: tions; improved numerical techniques to overcome this problem will be discussed in Chapters 5 and 9, Efficient solutions are possible by the use of a constant integration step length throughout the study, which permits performing a single conductance matrix