EASA PART 66

Course Notes

Faculty of Transport Engineering Technologies

School of Aeronautical Engineering

Electrical Fundamentals
Module 3
 Amendment and Annual Review Record

Amendment Incorporated Date Annual Completed by Date

No by Review
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

3.1 ELECTRON THEORY __________________________________ 3

3.2 STATIC ELECTRICITY AND CONDUCTION _________________ 10
3.3 ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY___________________________ 11
3.4 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY _________________________ 16
3.5 DC SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY _________________________ 20
3.6 DC CIRCUITS _______________________________________ 34
3.7 RESISTANCE AND RESISTORS _________________________ 38
3.8 POWER ___________________________________________ 62
3.9 CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITORS ______________________ 66
3.10 MAGNETISM ______________________________________ 80
3.11 INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTORS________________________ 98
3.12 DC MOTOR AND GENERATOR THEORY _________________112
3.13 AC THEORY _______________________________________143
3.14 RESISTIVE, CAPACITIVE AND INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS _______153
3.15 TRANSFORMERS __________________________________177
3.16 Filters ___________________________________________191
3.17 AC GENERATORS __________________________________196
3.18 AC MOTORS ______________________________________204

2
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
3.1 ELECTRON THEORY
Matter
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and
may be classified in a number of ways.
States of Matter
There are three normal states of matter:
Solid: A solid has definite mass, volume and
shape.
Liquid: A liquid has definite mass and volume but
takes the shape of its container.
Gas: A gas has definite mass but takes the
volume and shape of its container.
Chemical Classification
From a chemical view we again have three divisions:
Elements: An element is a substance which cannot
by any known chemical process be split
into two or more chemically simpler
substances. Eg: Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Copper, Iron, Aluminium, carbon.
Compounds: A compound is a substance which
contains two or more elements
chemically joined together. Eg: Water
Hydrogen and Oxygen, Salt (Sodium
and Chlorine), Sulphuric Acid
(Hydrogen, Oxygen and Sulphur).
Mixtures: A mixture consists of elements or
compounds which are brought
together by a physical process. Eg:
Salt and Sand, Earth and sawdust,
Carbon and Iron Filings.
However, material may also be classified according to
the particles it contains; this is the atomic view of
matter. This view gives us a better understanding of
electrical and electronic phenomena and is the view we
shall concentrate upon.
3
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Molecules particles closely bound together. These three

particles are ATOMS, two of hydrogen and one of
Let us take a piece of matter, for example, a drop of oxygen.
water and see what happens when it is sub-divided into The water is a compound; the oxygen and hydrogen are
smaller and smaller portions. The drop is first cut in half, elements. Every element has atoms of its own type.
each half drop-let halved and so on indefinitely. The There are 92 naturally occurring elements and therefore
resulting smaller and smaller droplets will soon become 92 types of naturally occurring atoms.
invisible to the naked eye, but it is known what happens
if the process could be carried far enough; a point would
eventually be reached where the particles of water are
of such a size that further sub-division would split them
into the hydrogen and oxygen of which they are
composed. These last minute particles of water are
known as molecules and are the smallest particles of
water which can exist alone and still behave chemically
as water. Every material is built-up from molecules and
there are as many different molecules as there are
different substances in existence.
Every molecule consists of atoms. Molecules of
Molecules: The molecule of an element or compound is elements contain atoms of the same types, for example
the smallest particle of it which can normally exist the hydrogen molecule consists of two atoms of
separately. It consists of one or more atoms, of the hydrogen joined together, the oxygen molecule consists
same or different types joined together. of two atoms of oxygen joined together, but the
molecules of compound contain different atoms joined
Atoms: If a water molecule could be magnified together.
sufficiently it would be seen to consist of three smaller

4
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Most molecules contain more than one atom but some
elements can exist as single atoms. In such a case the
atom is also the molecule. For example the Helium
atom is also the Helium molecule.
An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element
which can take part in a chemical change.
The Structure of an Atom
The Nucleus and Electrons: Atoms themselves are
also composed of even smaller particles. Let us take an
atom of hydrogen as an example. A hydrogen atom is
very small indeed (about 10 –10 in diameter), but if it
could be magnified sufficiently it would be „seen‟ to
consist of a core or nucleus with a particle called an
electron travelling around it in an elliptical orbit.
The nucleus has a positive charge of electricity and the
electron an equal negative charge; thus the whole atom
is electrically neutral and the electrical attraction keeps
the electron circling the nucleus. Atoms of other
elements have more than one electron travelling around
the nucleus, the nucleus containing sufficient positive
charges to balance the number of electrons.
Protons and Neutrons: The particles in the nucleus
each carrying a positive charge are called protons. In
addition to the protons the nucleus usually contains
electrically neutral particles called neutrons. Neutrons
have the same mass as protons whereas electrons are
1
very much smaller only of the mass of a proton.
1836
The Fundamental Particles
Although other atomic particles are known, the three
fundamental ones are:
Protons: The proton has unit mass and carries a unit
positive charge.
Neutron: The neutron has unit mass but no electrical
charge.
5
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

1 Particle function
Electron: The electron has only unit of mass but
1836
it carries a unit negative charge. Thus although we have Protons: The number of protons in an atom determines
92 types of naturally occurring atoms, they are all built- the kind of material:
up from different numbers of these three fundamental
particles. E.g. Hydrogen 1 proton
Thus our picture of the structure of matter is as shown Helium 2 protons
below. Lithium 3 protons
Beryllium 4 protons
Copper 29 protons
Uranium 92 protons
The number of protons is referred to as the atomic
number, thus the atomic number of copper is 29.

Neutrons: The neutron simply adds to the weight of the

nucleus and hence the atom. There is no simple rule for
determining the number of neutrons in any atom. In
fact atoms of the same kind can contain different
numbers of neutrons. For example chlorine may contain
18 – 20 neutrons in its nucleus.

The atoms are chemically indistinguishable and are

called isotopes. The weight of an atom is due to the
protons and neutrons (the electrons are negligible in
weight), thus the atomic weight is virtually equal to the
sum of the protons and the neutrons.

6
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Electrons: The electron orbits define the size or volume
occupied by the atom. The electrons travel in orbits
which are many times the diameter of the nucleus and
hence the space occupied by an atom is virtually empty!
The electrical properties of the atom are determined by
how tightly the electrons are bound by electrical
attraction to the nucleus.
Ions
A neutral atom contains an equal number of positive
charges (protons) and negative charges (electrons).
Atoms however do not always exist in the neutral form
and it is possible for atoms to gain and lose electrons.
An atom (or possibly a group of atoms) which loses an
electron has lost one of its negative charges and is
therefore left with an excess of one positive charge; it is
called a positive ion. An atom that gains an electron has
an excess of negative charge and is called a negative
ion.
Electrical materials
Materials which allow an electric current to flow easily
are known as conductors and those which prevent the
flow of an appreciable current are known as insulators.
Conductors and insulators are used in electrical circuits
to provide paths for and to control the flow of, electric
current. Practically all normal materials are either good
conductors or good insulators. There are, however, a
few materials which fall between these two categories
and these are called semiconductors. Semiconductors
will be studied in detail when we begin the electronics
phase of the course.
The best electrical conductor is silver, but for most
purposes its high cost is prohibitive so copper is the
standard conductor material. Aluminium is an
alternative, but it is not such a good conductor. Brass,
which is harder than copper, is commonly used for
terminals, switches etc. Tungsten and nickel are used in
the construction of lamps and thermionic valves.
Electron distribution
The atoms of a solid have electrons rotating in orbits
around the positive nucleus. This is true of gases and
7
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
liquids as well. These orbiting electrons exist in energy
shells or levels.
To calculate the maximum No of electrons that can exist
in a shell the formula 2n2 can be used, where 'n' is the
shell number.
The potential energy (energy of position) increases with
distance out from the nucleus. The outermost occupied
energy level is called the valence shell. This is a higher
energy level than the energy levels of electrons in the
other shells since the electrons are rotating further from
the nucleus.
The electrons in the valence shell can most easily pass
from one atom to another and thus constitute an electric
current. Furthermore, the valence electrons are the
ones that go into chemical reactions, or combinations,
with other atoms.
When an outside influence such as an electronic field or
addition of heat is applied a valence electron may
acquire sufficient energy to jump through a forbidden
(energy) gap and on into the conductor band where it is
free of any influence of the positive nucleus and
becomes a carrier of electricity, ready to take the place
of another electron that has just left its own atom, in the
same manner.
Ionisation
If the amount of external energy is large enough the
valence electron can gain sufficient kinetic energy
(energy of movement) to be removed completely from
its atomic orbit and may not be replaced by another
accelerated electron. This process is known as
ionisation, since an atom which now contains one more
proton than can be neutralised by the remaining
electrons is a positive ion. Gas-filled devices such as
Neon tubes make use of this process. In a solid where
8
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

atoms are close together, simple ionisation does not Insulators

occur as with individual items.
Energy levels
The energy levels, measured in electron volts in which
orbiting electrons exist comply with a law of physics
which states that energy can be given to electrons only
in discrete amounts (quanta) which means that there
are energy values that an electron cannot acquire. From
this it can be deducted that there is a forbidden energy
gap between each of the allowed energy bands K to O.
The width of the forbidden energy gap between the top
of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction
band determine the electrical conducting properties of
materials.
Elements with 6 to 8 valence electrons cannot have
electrons-in the conduction bands because the forbidden
gap is to large. Sulphur and rubber elements are
insulators.
Semi-conductors
The elements Germanium and Silicon have four
electrons in their valence shells. In conductivity they lie
between good conductors and good insulators, ie; they
are semi-conductors.

Conductors

Elements with 1 or 2 electrons in their outer orbits

readily transfer them from atom to atom, because there
is an overlap between the valence and conduction
bands. Silver and copper elements are good conductors.

9
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

3.2 STATIC ELECTRICITY AND Unit Of Charge

CONDUCTION
The charge on an electron is very small, therefore a
If electrons are removed from one material and placed more practical unit of charge called a Coulomb, has been
on another or if they are moved from one region of a chosen:
material to another we have a separation of charge. The
material or area receiving electrons becomes negatively One Coulomb = 6.29 x 1018 electrons
charged and the material or region having lost electrons,
positively charged. If these accumulations of charge
remain stationary after their transfer then the build up
of charge is referred to as static electricity.

Fundamental Law of Electrostatics

It is observed that if negatively charged bodies are

made to approach each other there is a force of
repulsion between them and similarly with two positively
charged bodies. If however a positively charged body is
brought close to a negatively charged body they attract
each other. Hence:

Like Charges Repel, Unlike Charges Attract.

10
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
3.3 ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
Voltage
Voltage is the electrical equivalent of mechanical
potential. If a person drops a rock from the first storey
of a building, the velocity it will reach when dropped will
be fairly small. However, if the rock is dropped from the
twentieth floor, it will have reached a much greater
velocity on reaching the ground. On the twentieth floor
the rock had much more potential energy.
The potential energy of an electrical supply is given by
its voltage. The greater the voltage of a supply source,
the greater its potential to produce a current flow. Thus,
a 115 volt supply has 115 times the potential to produce
a current flow than a 1 volt supply.
Potential
If one coulomb of electrons is added to a body and one
joule of work has been done, then the body will acquire
of potential of – 1 volt. If the electrons had been
removed, then the body would have acquired a potential
of +1 volt. The unit of potential is the volt.
Potential Difference
When charges move from one point to another, it is not
the actual values of potential at those points which are
Important, but the potential different (pd) through which
the charge has travelled. Just as lifting weight in the
gymnasium, the height above sea level is not important,
but the distance between the gym floor and the height
of one‟s body. In cases where an actual level of
potential is required, the zero of potential is taken as
Earth and whenever the potential at a point is given, it
means the difference in potential between the point and
the earth‟s surface.
If one coulomb of electricity requires one joule of work
to move it between two points, then there is a potential
difference of 1 volt between them
If a current flows round a circuit, then a potential
difference must exist between any two points in that
circuit and each point in the circuit must be at a different
potential. However because there is very little
opposition to current flow in conducting wires, very little
potential difference is required to push the current along
the wires and it is normally assumed to be zero.
Whenever the opposition to current flow is not
negligible, then a potential different exists across that
component to push the electrons through the device.
11
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
The converse is also true, if no current is flowing, then
no potential difference exists. The larger the potential
difference the larger the current.
Electromotive Force – emf
To make use of electricity by provision of an electric
current, the potential different must be maintained.
That is, the positive and negative charge must be
continuously replenished. A cell (or battery) uses
chemical energy to maintain the potential difference.
Another device used for this purpose is the generator,
which uses electro-mechanical energy to maintain the
potential difference. The potential difference across the
terminals of the source (cell, battery or generator) when
it is not supplying current, is called Electromotive Force
(emf), since this is a measure of the force available to
push electrons around the circuit. In a circuit with a
current flowing, the potential difference across the
terminals of the source is always less than the emf and
is referred to as the terminal voltage.
Current
The SI unit of current is the ampere (A). Although it is
known that electric current is a flow of electrons, this
flow cannot be measured directly.
Movement Of Charge
Although electric current is referred to as the flow of
electrons through a conductor, it should be noted that
more exactly, any movement of electric charge
constitutes an electric current. Thus, passage of
electricity may occur through a:
Conductor such as metal, due to the movement of
the loosely held outer electrons of the atoms.
Vacuum or gas, due to the movement of electrons.
Gas, due to the movement of the ionised gas
molecules.
Liquid, due to the ionisation of certain molecules,
particularly those of acids and salts in solution (e.g.
Electrolytes).
12
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The ampere may be defined in terms of the mechanical Conventional Flow

units of force and length, a more helpful picture is that
of moving electrons. When a current of one ampere is An applied emf causes directional flow. Using
flowing in a conductor, one coulomb (6.29 x 1018 conventional flow the charge carriers are considered to
electrons) of charge passes any point in the conductor be positive, that is they leave the positive terminal of a
every second. supply and return to the negative terminal.
This form of flow was decided upon before anybody
knew exactly what „current flow‟ was, however it is still
The ampere is thus a measure if the rate of flow of
widely used in Britain and will be assumed throughout
electrons.
the course, unless stated otherwise.
The Coulomb and the Ampere
Electron Flow
Since:
It is now known that current flow is a movement of
One coulomb = 6.29 x 1018 electrons negatively charged particles i.e. electrons. Electrons
flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.
One ampere = a rate of flow of 6.29 x 1018 electrons This form of flow is referred to as electron flow and is
per second, used extensively in the United States.

Then one ampere = one coulomb per second

13
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Resistance
An electric current is a flow of free electrons through a
conductor. The size of current flowing through a
conductor for a given applied voltage depends on:
The number of free electrons.
The opposition to free movement of the electrons
caused by the structure of the material.
These two factors taken together give an effective
opposition to current flow which is called resistance. To
simplify matters it is usual to ignore the second factor
and equate good conductors to a large number of free
electrons and poor conductors to fewer free electrons.
Hence, a good conductor is a material which has low
resistance, i.e. a large number of free electrons, and
allows a large current to flow. Conversely a poor
conductor has a high resistance, i.e. few free electrons
and allows only a small current to flow for the same
applied voltage. Because the value of the current
flowing is determined by the resistance in the circuit,
current flow can be controlled by varying the resistance.
Even the best conductors have resistance.
Factors Affecting Resistance
The four factors that affect the resistance of a wire
conductor are:
Material (ρ). Some materials conduct better than
others.
Length (l). Resistance is directly proportional to
length thus if the length is doubled (other factors
remaining constant), resistance is doubled.
Cross Sectional Area (A). Resistance is inversely
proportional to A. Thus if the cross sectional area
is doubled, resistance is halved.
Temperature. Temperature affects the number of
free electrons and hence resistance.
Units of resistance
Resistance is measured in ohms, symbol (omega).
The resistance of a piece of material is one ohm if a
potential difference of one volt applied across it causes a
current of one ampere to flow.
14
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Conductance and conductivity

Also, the conductance (G) of a material is the reciprocal

of its resistance and is:

The conductivity of a material is the reciprocal of its

resistively. It is given the Greek symbol (sigma) and
has the units Siemens per metre (S/m).
Thus at 0 C copper has a conductivity of;

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

Conductance and conductivity are rarely used in the

course, but a mention is required.

15
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
3.4 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY
Very large amounts of electrical energy lie dormant in
the atoms of every speck of material in the universe.
Whilst the atoms remain electrically balanced however,
this electricity cannot be put to any practical use. What
is needed is some form of external energy that will
separate the electrons from their nuclei. In this way, the
external energy that is applied will give rise to electrical
energy.
There are six sources of external energy that are
capable of separating the electrons from their nuclei;
these are friction, pressure, magnetism, heat, light and
chemical action.
By Friction
Static electricity that is the separation and build-up of
charge is an everyday phenomenon that is often caused
by friction – the physical stripping of electrons from one
body and depositing on another. Early examples in
science were the rubbing of a glass rod (which loses
electrons and gains a positive charge) with a silk
stocking! (Gains electrons, receives negative charge)
and the rubbing of an ebonite rod (receives negative
charge) with cats fur (becomes positively charged).
Everyday examples are:
Combing the hair (dry). The comb attracts the
individual hairs and the hairs repel each other and
stand on end.
Removing a shirt (especially nylon). The shirt
crackles and sparks may be seen, the shirt is also
attracted to the body.
The receiving of „electric shock‟ from cars (also
aircraft) when touching them on the outside. Here
the charge has been produced by the friction of air
passing around the vehicle.
The rapid collection of dust by records. The dust is
attracted by the charge built up on the record
produced by friction of handling and playing.
Lightning flash is a result of the build up of static
electricity in clouds.
Although not used to produce electricity for any aircraft
systems, static electricity is generated by friction as the
aircraft moves through the air and will therefore be
considered at various points throughout the course.
16
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
By Pressure
Certain crystals and semiconductors produce an emf
between two opposite faces when the mechanical
pressure on them is either increased or decreased (the
polarity of the emf is reversed when the pressure
changes from an increase to a decrease). This emf is
known as the piezoelectric emf.
This effect is used in a number of devices including
semi-conductor strain gauges and vibration sensors. As
the mechanical pressure on the crystal is altered, a
varying voltage which is related to the pressure is
produced by the crystal.
The voltage can be as small as a fraction of a volt or as
large as several thousand volts depending on the crystal
material and the pressure.
Aircraft systems employing the piezoelectric effect
generally only produce very small emf‟s, the very high
voltages produced by materials such as Lead Zirconate
Titanate are used in ignition systems for gas ovens and
gas fires.
By Magnetism
Magnetism itself is not used as the direct source of
external energy. In a manner which will be studied in
great detail later in the course, large amounts of
electrical energy are produced by machines called
generators.
Energy is used to drive the generator, which when it
turns, makes use of the properties of magnetism to
produce the external energy necessary to break the
electrons away from their nuclei and so make it possible
for electric current to flow.
By Heat
The Seebeck Effect – The Thermocouple.
When two different metals are brought into contact with
one another, it is found that electrons can leave one of
the metals more easily than they can leave the other
metal. This is because of the difference in what is
known as the work function of the two metals.
17
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Since electrons leave one metal and are gained by the
other, a potential difference exists between the two
metals; thus the emf is known as the contact potential
or contact emf.
If two metals, say copper and iron, are joined at two
points as shown in the diagram above, and both
junctions are at the same temperature, the contact
potentials cancel each other out and no current flows in
the loop of wire. However, Thomas Johann Seebeck
(1770 –1831) discovered that if the two junctions are
kept at different temperatures, there is a drift of
electrons around the circuit, that is to say, current flows.
The magnitude of the voltage produced by this method
is small – only a few millivolts per degree centigrade –
but it is sufficient to be measured.
The current flow is proportional to the difference in
temperature between the „hot‟ junction and the „cold‟
junction.
Each junction is known as a thermocouple and if a
number of thermocouples are connected in series so that
alternate junctions are „hot‟ and the other junctions are
„cold‟, the total emf is increased; this arrangement is
known as a thermopile.
On aircraft, thermocouples are used for temperature
measurement and will be examined in more detail at a
later date.
By Light
The Photovoltaic Cell or Solar Cell.
A photovoltaic cell generates an emf when light falls
onto it. Several forms of photovoltaic cell exist, one of
the earliest types being the selenium photovoltaic cell in
which a layer of selenium is deposited on iron and any
light falling on the selenium produces an emf between
the selenium and the iron.
18
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Modern theory shows that the junction at the interface

between the two forms, what is known as a semi-
conductor p-n junction in which one of the materials is
p-type and the other is n-type.

The most efficient photovoltaic cells incorporate semi-

conductor p-n junctions in which one of the regions is a
very thin layer (about 1 m thick) through which light
can pass without significant loss of energy. When the
light reaches the junction of the two regions it causes
electrons and holes to be released, to give the electro- INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
voltaic potential between the two regions.

A better understanding of this action will be obtained

later in the course when semi-conductor materials and
devices are studied.

By Chemical Action

The final method of producing electricity is by chemical

action. It is the particular kind of chemical action that
takes place in „electric cells‟ and „batteries‟ which is put
to practical use in the production of electricity.

19
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
3.5 DC SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
To study electrical principles further we require a source
of emf. Although an emf can be produced by any of the
six methods discussed above, large amounts of useable
power can only be produced chemically or by
generation. Generation requires a more in depth study
of magnetism and therefore cells and batteries will be
studied first.
On an aircraft the battery may be used for engine
starting, but far more importantly, the battery is the
source of emergency power when the generator fails.
Although aircraft battery systems and servicing will be
studied at a later date, battery principles and battery
construction will be studied now and will not be
repeated.
Principles
A Cell is a portable device which converts chemical
energy into electrical energy. A group of interconnected
cells is known as a battery. Cells operate on a principle
of the exchange of charges between dissimilar metals.
Cell & Battery Symbols
The circuit symbols for cells and batteries are shown
below. To identify the polarity of the terminals, a long
thin line is used to represent the positive terminal and a
short thick line the negative terminal. Sometimes the
terminal voltage is indicated.
Construction & Chemical Action
In cells, an electrolyte separates two charge collecting
materials called electrodes, to which external
connections are made. The electrolyte pushes electrons
onto one of the plates and takes them off the other. This
action results in an excess of electrons, or a negative
charge, on one plate and a loss of electrons, or a
positive charge, on the other plate.
20
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Electrolytes are chemical solutions manufactured to
allow the generation and free movement of both types of
ions, and are normally acid or alkaline pastes or liquids.
The action of the electrolyte in carrying electrons from
one plate to the other is actually a chemical reaction
between the electrolyte and the two plates. This action
changes chemical energy into electrical charges on the
cell plates and terminals.
With nothing connected to the cell terminals, the
electrons would be pushed onto the negative plate until
there was no more room. At the same time the
electrolyte would take electrons from the positive plate
to make up for those it had pushed onto the negative
plate. Both plates would then be fully charged and the
movement of electrons would cease.
If a wire were connected between the negative and
positive terminals of the cell, electrons on the negative
terminal would leave the terminal and travel through the
wire to the positive terminal. The electrolyte would
carry more electrons across from the positive plate to
the negative plate. Whilst the electrolyte is carrying
electrons you would see the negative plate being used
up and you would see bubbles of gas at the positive
plate.
Primary & Secondary Cells
In a primary cell, current will continue to flow until
chemical action had dissolved the negative plate into the
electrolyte, at which point the cell would be exhausted
and of no further use.
In a secondary cell, the chemical action that takes place
whilst the cell is producing a current flow is reversible,
enabling the cell to be re-used. The process of reversing
the chemical action is referred to as charging and entails
passing a current through the cell in the opposite
direction to the discharge current.
21
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Cell Emf
The size of a cell has no bearing on the emf that it will
produce, the generated emf being determined solely by
the materials used in its construction. Another point to
note is that the potential difference, or voltage
measured across the terminals of a cell, is not the same
as the emf generated by the cell. The terminal voltage of
a cell depends on the:
Internal resistance of the cell.
Size of the discharge current.
Charge state of the cell.
As a general rule, whenever a cell is providing current,
the terminal voltage will be less than the cell emf. The
difference between the cell emf and its terminal voltage
is directly proportional to the discharge current.
All sources of electricity have internal resistance which
affects the terminal voltage; this will be examined in
more detail later in the notes.
Cell Capacity
The amount of electrical energy that a cell can provide
from new to the end of its useful voltage on load is
called the cell capacity and is quoted in Ampere-hours
(A-h).
Capacity varies with the amount of current drawn from
the cell; the greater the current the lower the capacity,
therefore capacity is normally quoted at a standard rate.
The 1hr rate is the internationally accepted standard for
Nickel Cadmium cells, with 10 hr or 20 hr rates being
used for Lead Acid cells.
A cell quoted at 40A-h at the 10 hr rate will provide 4
Amps continuously for 10 hours.
A battery quoted at 40A-h at the 1 hr rate will provide
40 Amps continuously for 1 hour.
A 40 A-h cell will only be able to provide a discharge
current of 80 amps for approximately 20 minutes, not
30 minutes as may be expected by calculation. Similarly,
it will be able to supply a discharge current of 20 amps
for longer than the expected 2 hrs.
22
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The capacity of a cell is also affected by its age, the
older a cell, the lower its capacity; therefore the only
way of determining actual capacity is to measure it.
Interconnection of Cells
Cells may be connected in series, parallel or any
combination of the two in order to form a battery. When
cells are connected to form a battery they should be of
similar construction, and have the same terminal
voltage, internal resistance and capacity.
Series Connection.
Parallel Connection.
When connected in parallel:
The battery voltage is the same as the
voltage of a single cell.
The battery resistance is equal to the parallel
total of the cell resistances.
The battery capacity is equal to the total of
the individual cell capacities.
These rules can also be applied when connecting
batteries together in series, parallel or any combination
of the two.

When connected in series:

The battery voltage is the total of the
individual cell voltages.
The battery resistance is equal to the total of
the individual cell resistances.
The battery capacity is the same as the
capacity of a single cell.

23
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Lead acid batteries
Lead acid cells have a nominal voltage of 2 Volts,
therefore a typical 24V aircraft battery would consist of
12 cells connected in series. The active material in the
Anode (positive plates) is Lead Peroxide (Pb02) and in
the Cathode (negative plates) and the, Spongy Lead
(Pb). The electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid (2H2SO4).
Conventional Construction
When chemical action only takes place on one side of a
positive plate it tends to buckle.
The plate arrangement is then inserted into a composite
material container which is fitted with a lid. The inside of
the container is ribbed to provide additional support for
the plates, which are raised clear of the bottom of the
container to prevent shorting by any sediment that
forms.

There are two forms of Lead Acid battery construction,

conventional and solid block, often referred to as a
Varley type battery.

In the conventional battery the plates consist of lead

grids into which the active materials are pressed. The
positive and negative plates are then interleaved and
connected to a lug that forms both a mechanical support
and the terminal.

Cells are generally constructed with an additional

negative plate, making both outside plates negative.
This ensures that chemical action takes place on both
sides of each positive plate.

24
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

To provide further support for the plates and to ensure
they cannot touch separators are fitted, these were
originally cedar wood but modern batteries use micro-
porous plastic materials.
Each cell is fitted with a special non spill valve that
allows gasses to escape, but prevents the spillage of
electrolyte, this valve can be removed for checking and
adjusting the electrolyte level.
required, all the space inside the cells being used for the
plates.
All of these advantage result in a battery that is
stronger, less susceptible to vibration damage and has a
higher capacity to weight ratio than its conventional
counterpart.

The electrolyte used is sulphuric acid diluted with pure

distilled water, the specific gravity of the electrolyte
used is determined by the manufacturer, however, it is
generally lower than 1300.

Solid block type construction

In the solid block type battery the electrolyte is

completely absorbed into a compressed block consisting
of porous plates and separators.
The plates are completely supported and therefore a
more porous active material paste can be used, this
gives better absorption and an enhanced electrochemical
activity.
The support given to the plates means practically no
distortion and no shedding, therefore no sludge gap is

25
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Chemical action gradually lowers the battery capacity until it is

discharged.
When the lead acid battery is delivering current, the
sulphuric acid breaks up into Hydrogen ions (H2) that
carry a positive charge and Sulphate ions (SO4) that
carry a negative charge. The SO4 ions combine with the
lead (Pb) plate and form lead sulphate (PbSO4). At the
same time they give up their negative charge, thus
creating an excess of electrons on the negative plate.
The H2 ions go to the positive plate and combine with
the oxygen of the lead peroxide (PbO2) forming water
(H2O), during this process they take electrons from the
positive plate. The lead of the lead peroxide combines
with some of the SO4 ions to form lead sulphate on the
positive plate.

The result of this action is a deficiency of electrons on

the positive plate and an excess of electrons on the
negative plate.
When a circuit is connected to the battery, electrons flow
from the negative plate to the positive plate. This
process will continue until both plates are coated with
lead sulphate. The lead sulphate is highly resistive, and
it is mainly the formation of the lead sulphate which
During charging, current is passed through the battery
in a reverse direction. The SO4 ions are driven back into
solution in the electrolyte, where they combine with the
H2 ions of the water, thus forming sulphuric acid. The
plates are thus returned to their original compositions.
The sulphuric acid is effectively used up as the battery is
discharged, and returned to the electrolyte as it is
charged, a test of the specific gravity of the electrolyte

26
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

will give a good indication of the state of charge of the and can therefore be used to determine the battery‟s
battery. state of charge.

Charge and Discharge Characteristics Voltage & Specific Gravity Characteristics

During discharge the plates are converted into lead The voltage and specific gravity figures for a lead acid
sulphate, the water content of the electrolyte increases, battery are:
the internal resistance of the cell increases and the Fully charged and still connected to the charging
terminal voltage decreases. board charge:
By passing a current through the battery in the opposite 2.5 to 2.7 Volts 1270 to 1280 SG
direction these effects are reversed. The plates are Fully charged and off charge:
converted back to their original form, the water content
of the electrolyte decreases, the internal resistance 2.2 to 2.5 Volts 1270 to 1280 SG
decreases and the terminal voltage increases. The Fully Discharged:
process of recharging takes approximately 8 to 10
1.8 Volts 1150 SG
hours.

During most of the charge and discharge cycle the The battery will be damaged if allowed to go below the
battery terminal voltage remains constant at 1.95V, it above discharged values.
therefore gives no indication as to the battery‟s state of
charge.

The specific gravity of the electrolyte however changes

at a regular rate as the battery is charged, or discharged

27
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Common Lead Acid Battery Faults
Careful treatment of lead acid batteries prevents
damage and early failure, however, some common faults
associated with lead acid batteries are:
Sedimentation is the collection of discarded active
material from the plates at the bottom of the cell.
Sedimentation may result in shorting of the plates
and complete loss of capacity, slight shedding is
normal in a well maintained battery.

Sulphation is the formation of hard, permanent

lead sulphate on the plates and appears as random
greyish white patches. Sulphation causes an
increase in the internal resistance of the battery,
leading to possible overheating and buckling of the
plates. Sulphation is caused by continually
undercharging the battery or by discharging below
1.8 Volts or 1150 SG and if severe there is no cure.
However, if mild, it can sometimes be cured by
giving the battery a long low charge.

Buckling is twisting and bending of the plates.

Because the active material is squeezed out of the
plates the capacity of the battery may be reduced,
if severe it can lead to internal shorting of the
battery. Buckling is caused by excessive charge
and discharge currents being imposed on the
battery and by the effects of sulphation.
There is no cure for buckling only prevention.

28
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Nickel Cadmium Batteries
Construction
The plates of a nickel cadmium battery are made by
sintering a nickel plated steel screen with nickel carbonyl
powder. The resultant plaques are then impregnated
with the active materials, Nickel salts on the positive,
cadmium salts on the negative. The plaques are then
placed in electrolyte and subjected to a small current to
convert them to their final form.
a good barrier material, it prevents metal particles from
shorting the plates whilst allowing current to flow.
The cellophane also acts as a gas barrier, preventing
oxygen given off by the positive plate during
overcharge, from passing to the negative plates where it
will combine with the cadmium, reducing the cell voltage
and producing heat.

After washing and drying the plaques are cut into plates,
each one having a nickel tab welded to it. The plates are
then stacked alternately to produce a cell.

Whilst producing the stack a continuous separator is

wound between the plates to prevent them shorting.
Terminals are then welded to the plates and the stack is
inserted into its container, which is sealed and pressure
tested.

The separator used is normally a triple layer type, one

layer of cellophane, two of woven nylon cloth.
Cellophane is used because it has a low resistance and is

29
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
The electrolyte, a solution of potassium hydroxide and
distilled water, with a SG of between 1240 and 1300, is
then injected into the cell under a vacuum. Fitted to the
top of each cell is a special vent that allows the escape
of gas but prevents electrolyte spillage.
In a typical Ni-Cad battery the cells are mounted in a
metal case that incorporates 2 venting outlets, carrying
handles, a quick release connector and a lid. Each cell is
separated from its neighbour by its moulded plastic case
and electrically connected by nickel plated steel links
between the terminals.
Chemical Action
As the battery discharges, hydroxide ions (OH) from the
electrolyte combine with the cadmium in the negative
plates and release electrons to the plate. The cadmium
is converted to cadmium hydroxide during the process.
At the same time, hydroxide ions from the nickel
hydroxide positive plates go into the electrolyte carrying
extra electrons with them. Thus electrons are removed
from the positive plate and delivered to the negative
plate during discharge.
The composition of the electrolyte remains a solution of
potassium hydroxide because hydroxide ions are added
to the electrolyte as quickly as they are removed. For
this reason the specific gravity of the electrolyte remains
essentially constant at any state of charge.
It is therefore impossible to use the specific gravity as
an indication of the charge state of the battery.
When the battery is charged, the hydroxide ions are
caused to leave the negative plate and enter the
electrolyte. Thus the cadmium hydroxide of the negative
plate is converted back to metallic cadmium. Hydroxide
ions from the electrolyte recombine with the nickel
30
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
hydroxide of the positive plates, and the active material
is brought to a higher state of oxidation. This process
continues until all the active material of the plates have
been converted.
If charging is continued, the battery will be in
overcharge, and the water in the electrolyte will be
decomposed by electrolysis. Hydrogen will be released
at the negative plates and oxygen at the positive plates.
This combination of gases is highly explosive.
Charge and Discharge Characteristics
During charging and discharging the electrolyte acts only
as an ionised conductor, transporting electrons from one
plate to the other, its specific gravity remaining
constant.
On discharge the terminal voltage initially falls rapidly
and then remains constant for most of the discharge
cycle, dropping rapidly again when the battery is nearly
fully discharged.
When charged, the terminal voltage initially rises rapidly
and then settles to a gradual increase. A second rapid
rise takes place as the battery reaches the fully charged
condition, at this time gassing takes place, hydrogen
being released at the negative plates, oxygen at the
positive plates, this combination of gases is explosive.
Prolonged gassing should be avoided as it reduces the
water content of the electrolyte and causes overheating
of the battery, a slight amount of gassing, however, is
necessary to ensure charging is complete.
The terminal voltage remains constant for most of the
batteries life and the specific gravity of the electrolyte
remains unchanged, the only way of determining the
state of charge of the battery therefore, is to carry out a
full charge followed by a capacity test.
During discharge the plates absorb electrolyte to such an
extent that the level may disappear from view. As the
battery is charged, the electrolyte is forced back out of
the plates, a point to note when topping up the cells.
31
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Advantages & Disadvantages
A Nickel Cadmium battery has the following advantages
over a Lead Acid battery:
They have a longer life
The terminal voltage remains almost constant
during the discharge cycle
They can be charged and discharged at much higher
currents without causing cell damage
They can be discharged to a very low voltage
without causing cell damage
But have the following disadvantages:
They are far more expensive to buy and maintain
Each cell has a lower voltage, therefore more cell
are required to produce a battery.
They are more susceptible to thermal runaway.
Thermal Runaway
Batteries loose heat by conduction and radiation.
Provided the rate of heat loss is greater than the rate at
which heat is generated there is no problem.
Should the battery not be able to loose heat quickly
enough its temperature will start to increase. As the
battery temperature increases the internal resistance
decreases causing the circuit current to increase. This
increase in current leads to an increase in chemical
activity within the battery, this generates more heat and
the cycle repeats.
Nickel Cadmium batteries are very susceptible to
thermal runaway which can result in the battery boiling,
or even being totally destroyed.
Small Alkaline Cells
Hermetically sealed Ni-Cad cells are produced in the
same size and shape as their primary counterparts. They
are small, portable and maintenance free, but have the
added advantage of being rechargeable.
32
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The plates are constructed in a similar manner to the

larger Ni-Cad cells, the separator being a thin porous
material. The electrolyte is fully absorbed by the plates
and separator in a similar manner to the Varley type
cell; with steel or plastic being used for the case.

Special vents are fitted to each cell; these allow the

escape of gas but prevent the entry of oxygen and
electrolyte leakage.

The nominal voltage of a fully charged cell is 1 25 volts INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
and these can then be interconnected to form batteries.
A 10 hour rate capacity is generally used with an end of
life voltage of 1.1 volts, it is possible to discharge the
cells further but damage will occur if allowed to go below
1 volt.

Charging should be carried out using a constant current

at the 10 hour rate, total charge taking approximately
14 hrs, the end of charge “on charge” voltage being 1 45
volts. Overcharging should be avoided; it produces heat
and shortens the long term life of the cell.

33
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

3.6 DC CIRCUITS the conductor.

So far you have been introduced to the concepts of Hence we may write:
electric current (as a movement of free electrons
through a conducting material), to voltage (or potential) Where:
and potential difference and to the resistance to current V = the potential difference in Volts
flow by any conducting material. The relationship which I = the current in Amperes
exists between these quantities was discovered by a R = the resistance in Ohms
physicist called Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854) and is
now referred to as Ohm’s Law. Transposition of Ohm’s Law

This is the most fundamental law of electricity and By transposition it is seen that Ohm‟s law may be
electronics. Ohm‟s law states “For a fixed metal written in three forms:
conductor, the temperature and other conditions
remaining constant, the current through it is thus resistance may be calculated if V
proportional to the potential difference between its and I are known.
ends”.
Mathematically this is expressed as:
thus current may be calculated if V and R
are known.

Thus the ratio:

thus voltage may be calculated if I and R
are known.

And this ratio is called the resistance of

34
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
The Ohm’s Law Triangle
One simple way of memorising Ohm‟s law is the Ohm‟s
law triangle – see below.
V
I R
By covering up the unknown quantity, the relationship
between the remaining two is directly observed. You
may check this against the equations in the above sub-
chapter. This is not necessary if you are able to
remember one form of the equation and derive the other
two directly by transposition.
Electrical Measuring Instruments
Quantities of electrical current, voltage and resistance
are measured using instruments called meters.
Until the advent of electronic displays and semiconductor
components, meters comprised a movement, working on
the motor principle, driving a needle across a scale.
These types of meters were called 'moving coil meters'
or 'analogue meters'. Moving coil meters will be studied
in some depth later in this course, because the principle
behind their operation is the same as the principle
employed in many aircraft instruments.
Modern meters are referred to as a 'digital meters' or
'Digital Multi-meters' more commonly abbreviated to
DMM's. Digital meters are cheaper and, arguably, more
reliable and more robust and generally considered more
accurate than their analogue counterparts.
It is essential that you are confident in the use of both
types of meter. There are instances where a digital
meter cannot be used, leaving no choice but to revert to
an analogue meter.
Connecting Meters to a Circuit
Irrespective of whether the meter is digital or analogue,
the way that it is connected to the circuit under test is
the same.
35
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Voltmeters
Voltmeters are used to measure emf's and more
commonly potential differences. The two probes of the
meter are therefore connected in parallel to the two
points between which the potential difference is
required.
If the potential at A with respect to B is required, the red
lead is connected to point A, the black lead point B.
If the potential at B with respect to A is required, the red
lead is connected to point B, the black lead point A.
If it is required to measure a potential between any
point on the circuit and ground or Earth, the red lead is
connected to the point and the black lead is connected
to ground or Earth.
Ammeters
Ammeters are used to measure current flowing in the
circuit; as such they need to be inserted in series with
the circuit under test so that the current to be measured
flows through the meter. This means the circuit must be
broken.
To connect an ammeter, the power must be
switched off. The circuit is broken at the point where
the current is to be measured; the meter is then
inserted into the circuit ensuring that the pola5ity is
correct for conventional current flow.
Once the meter is connected, circuit power may be
restored and the measurement taken.
To disconnect the meter, the circuit power must
again be switched off. Once the meter is removed
from the circuit, the circuit must be reconnected.
36
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Ohmmeters semiconductor type devices are present. (this will be

discussed in a later module).
The use of ohmmeters is somewhat more involved. Most When making resistance measurement, care must be
importantly when measuring resistance the circuit taken to ensure the correct
power must be switched off, power is derived from
within the instrument.

Secondly, great care must be taken to ensure there are

no parallel paths that would affect the measurement.
This is generally best confirmed by removing the
component or device, or by disconnecting one end of it
from the circuit concerned. Thirdly, it is essential that
an analogue meter is zeroed before it is used.

To measure resistance, the meter is simply connected

across the component or device to be measured. The
polarity of the leads is not important unless

37
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

3.7 RESISTANCE AND RESISTORS area of one square metres (i.e. between the faces of a
one metre cube).
Resistivity
Typical values of at 0 C are:
The factors affecting the resistance of a conductor of a Silver 1.5 x 10-8 - m
given material at constant temperature are related by Copper 1.6 x 10-8 - m
the expression:
Manganin 41 x 10-8 - m
Carbon 7000 x 10-8 - m

Changes of Resistance with Temperature

The resistance of all materials changes, with changes in

temperature. The resistance of all pure metal increases
with temperature whereas the resistance of electrolytes,
insulators, carbon and semi-conductors decreases with
increasing temperatures.

The constant depends on whether the material itself is a
good or a poor conductor; this constant is called
„resistivity‟ of the material.
Resistivity has the
symbol ρ (Rho) and is measured in Ohm meters and
is defined as „the resistance between the ends of a piece
of material one metre long which has a cross sectional
If it is assumed that the resistance change is in
proportion to the temperature change, then the ratio
provides an indication of the material behaviour. It is
necessary however, to relate the change of resistance to
its initial value. A large value resistor will change its
value more than a small value resistor for the same
temperature change.

38
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Suppose the resistance of a material at 0ºC (to) is Ro

and at same other temperature (t) the resistance is Rt
the change of resistance is Rt - Ro.
But the change of resistance is per unit value of the
original resistance is given by:

This resistance change has been brought about by a

temperature change t equal to t - to (to being 0º).
Hence the change in resistance, caused by a 1ºC change
in temperature is:

The graph is reasonably linear for many materials over a

moderate temperature range (0º - 200ºC).
This ratio is called the temperature co-efficient of The units are ºC because the ohms cancel out in the
resistance. calculation.

Temperature Co-efficient of Resistance

The temperature co-efficient of resistance is defined as:
The Fractional change in resistance, from 0ºC, per
degree temperature change and may be represented
graphically as shown below.
Materials whose resistance increases with increasing
temperature have a positive temperature co-efficient
of resistance.
39
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Materials whose resistance decreases with increasing Resistors

temperature have a negative temperature co-
efficient of resistance.
Some materials have very small temperature co-
efficients of resistance and are used where it is
important that the resistance does not change with
temperature. Examples are Manganin and Eureka.
Resistor Type Old Symbol New Symbol
Fixed resistor
The electrical component used to introduce resistance
into a circuit is called a resistor. Resistors can be fixed
or variable. Symbols used in circuit diagrams are shown
below:
The physical size of a resistor does not give any clue to
the resistance value of the component. This value must
be marked on individual components. Two codes are
currently used to indicate resistor values: a Colour Code
and a Letter and Digit Code.

Fixed resistor with fixed Fixed resistors

tapping point
Fixed resistors may be:
Variable resistor
Wire wound: Special resistance wire is wound onto a
Resistor with pre-set former. The wire wound resistor can dissipate heat
adjustment easily and is therefore used when larger currents are
expected (the larger the current the greater the heat
Voltage divider produced). These resistors are usually larger than other
(potentiometer) types; The student should note that size does not
indicate resistance value, but depends upon the heat to
Pre-set potentiometer be dissipated.

40
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Carbon Composition, Metal Oxide and Metal
Film: Resistors made from carbon composition or
from metal films and oxides are usually small.
They are therefore used where the currents are
kept small.
known as bands 1 – 4. Bands 1 and 2 give the first two
numbers of the resistor value, band 3 gives the
multiplication factor, i.e. the number of zeros, the fourth
band gives the tolerance, which indicates how close the
actual value may be to the stated value.

Certain resistors remain very close to their stated value,

Colour codes
despite temperature changes. These are called „high
stability‟ resistors and this is shown by a fifth band
The current method of colour code marking of resistors
coloured „pink‟.
is the Band System.
Colour First band Second Third band Fourth
(or body) band (or spot) band
First (or tip) Multiply by Tolerance
figure Second
figure
Black 0 0 1 -
Brown 1 1 10 +1%
Red 2 2 100 + 2%
Orange 3 3 1000 -
Yellow 4 4 10,000 -
Green 5 5 100,000 + 0.5%
Blue 6 6 1,000,000 + 0.25%
Violet 7 7 10,000,000 + 0.1%
Grey 8 8 - -
White 9 9 - -
Close to one end of the resistor are four coloured bands Gold - - 0.1 + 5%
(there may appear to be only three, in this case the Silver - - 0.01 + 10%
forth band is „no colour‟ – see diagram below). They are No colour - - - + 20%

41
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

ones. The number of resistor values required to cover a

High value resistors given range of resistance depends on the tolerance of
the resistors being used. An example of resistor
High value resistors may have three significant figures. Preferred Values for 10% is given in the table below.
If the colour code is used here, the first three bands
represent figures, the fourth band is the multiplier and 1 10 100
the fifth band is the tolerance. 1.2 12 120
For example, a resistor of value 249,000 + 1% would 1.5 15 150
be coded as shown below:
1.8 18 180
2.2 22 220
First band Red is 2
Second band Yellow is 4 2.7 27 270
Third band White is 9 3.3 33 330
Fourth band Orange is 3 zeros 3.9 39 390
Fifth band Brown Tolerance + 1% 4.7 47 470
5.6 56 560
Note: To avoid possible confusion, the fifth band is 1.5 6.8 68 680
times to 2 times wider than the other bands. 8.2 82 820

Note that the upper and lower tolerance resistance limits

Preferred values and tolerances of each preferred value cover the complete range:

In practical electrical circuits the precise value for a eg 2.2K + 10% = 1.98K to 2.42K
resistor is not usually critical. It is more economic to 2.7K + 10% = 2.43K to 2.97K
produce large tolerance resistors than low tolerance 3.3K + 10% = 2.98K to 3.63K

42
School of Aeronautical Engineering

43
School of Aeronautical Engineering

44
School of Aeronautical Engineering

45
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Letter & Digit Codes The tolerance letter is added on the end.

In this code the numbers are printed on the body of the eg 1M5 B is 1.5M + 0.1%
resistor to indicate its value. In addition, letters are 2K2 N is 2.2K + 30%
used to indicate the multiplying factor (eg, M ) and the
tolerance as shown below. Other markings may also be used in the code to
represent date of manufacture. They are placed after
Multiplying Factor Tolerance % the value and tolerance markings.

X1 R (resistor) 0.1 B 5 J Power Rating

X103 K K 0.25 C 10 K
X106 M M 0.5 D 20 M Resistors are rated according to their resistance value
X109 G G 1.0 F 30 N and also to the rate at which they can dissipate heat.
X101 T T 2 G Rate of heat dissipation is measured in watts. (The watt
2
will be discussed later in the course). The higher the
wattage rating the more current it can carry.
The position of the multiplying letter is also used to
indicate the decimal point position

eg 470R is 470
4K7 is 4.7
R47 is 0.47
4R7 is 4.7

46
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Potentiometers
A variable resistor arranged so as
to control voltage in a circuit is
called a „Potentiometer‟ and
controls the potential difference
between two points in a circuit.
It is used to „tap off‟ part of the
supply or signal voltage for connection to a load.
Rheostats
Variable resistors can be made to
vary either current or voltage. A
variable resistor arranged to
control current is called a
„Rheostat‟ and controls the
current by varying the resistance in the circuit.
Voltage Dependent Resistors
Some components do not obey Ohm‟s law, in that the
current flow through them does not vary linearly as the
applied voltage is varied. These elements are known as
non-linear resistors or non-linear conductors.
Transistors, diodes and voltage dependent resistors all
fall into this group.
The current through a voltage dependent resistor
increases at a progressively rapid rate as the voltage
across it increases; such a device is used for protecting
circuits against voltage surges or as a voltage stabiliser.
Thermistors
Insulators and semi-conductors behave in a different
way when the temperature is increased this is because
their resistivity decreases (their temperature coefficient
of resistance is negative).
One example of this effect occurs in a thermistor. A
thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose
resistance alters with temperature; a negative
temperature coefficient (n.t.c.) thermistor is one whose
resistance reduces with increase in temperature. A
thermistor is used in the cooling-water temperature-
measuring circuit of a car or lorry; it is inserted in the
cooling water and connected in series with the battery
47
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

and temperature gauge. As the water temperature extreme ends is the sum of the individual potential
rises, the resistance of the n.t.c. thermistor resistance differences.
falls and allows more current to flow through the
temperature gauge; this causes the gauge to indicate
variations in water temperature.

Resistors in Series

Components are said to be in series when they are

connected end-to-end providing only one path for the
current. Thus the same current passes through all the
components (including the power supply). See diagram
below.
Hence E = V1 + V2 + V3

But from Ohm‟s Law V = IR therefore E = IRTOTAL

So V1 = IR1 V2 = IR2 V3 = IR3

Thus IRTOTAL= IR1 + IR2 + IR3

When a current flows through a resistor (or a component = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
having resistance) there is a potential difference
between its ends. Thus where two or more resistors are So RTOTAL = R1 + R2 + R3
connected in series the potential difference between the

48
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Kirchhoff’s Second Law It should also be noted that within the resistor network:

This law states that in any closed circuit the sum of all Route PRQP 4 – 1 – 3 = 0
the potential differences (voltage drops) is equal to the Route PQRP 3 + 1 – 4 = 0
total applied voltage in that circuit. Route RSQR 6 – 7 + 1 =0
Thus the potential difference across R2 is given by: Route RQSR -1 + 7 – 6 = 0

VR2 = 9 – 7 = 2V

Example of Kirchhoff’s Second Law

There are four possible routes around the circuit shown

and whichever one is taken, Kirchhoff‟s law is true.

Note that Q is at a higher potential than R. Also a

potential drop is positive and a potential rise is negative:
Route MPQSNM 3+7–10=0
Route MPRSNM 4+6–10=0
Route MPQRSNM 3+1 + 6 –10=0
Route MPRQSNM 4–1+7–0=0
49
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Voltage Division RTOTAL = 12 + 6 + 36 = 54

In a series circuit Ohm‟s law applies for each 54 36V and 1 36/54V
component. However, since the current is common to
all components we have: 12 = 36/54 12 = 8V across AB

V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3 And 6 = 36/54 6 = 4V across BC

Therefore V1 R1, V2 R2, V3 R3 And 36 = 36/54 36 = 24V across CD

i.e. Vn Rn The Potential Divider

Hence the voltage drops across each
resistor can be calculated from the
ratio of the resistance values.
It should also be noted, that for any
given applied voltage we may derive
any smaller voltages we wish by
inserting resistors of the appropriate
values in series. The following example
shows how voltages of 8V, 4V and 24V
can be derived from a 36V supply.
A device which employs voltage
division and which is commonly used
in electrical and electronic circuits is
the potential divider. Here two or
more resistors are used to divide a
given input voltage to achieve a
specified output voltage. See
diagram.
The potential divider is also known as
a voltage divider or scaling circuit.
Note that if current is drawn from the output then the
effective resistance of the circuit changes and the output
voltage vOUT changes.
50
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Voltages Relative to Earth positive terminal result in positive voltages. It should be

It is very common in electrical circuits to have an earth
connection. This earth connection has no effect on
potential differences across components; however it
does affect the values of the potentials or voltages at
points in the circuit.
noted that due to static build up on the airframe, the
earth connection (airframe) of an airborne aircraft is
unlikely to be at zero potential with respect to the
ground.

You should also note that earth connections, for example

to the chassis of equipment or the airframe of an
aircraft, are often used as the current return lead in an
electrical circuit.

The earth is a reference point and considered to be at

zero volts. Potential differences between earth and the
negative terminal of the supply result in negative
voltages and potential differences between earth and the
51
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Internal Resistance
As mentioned earlier in the section on batteries, every
source of electricity, such as a cell or generator has
resistance to current flow called internal resistance.
Cells (and batteries): The internal resistance is
mainly due to the resistance of the electrolyte. This
varies considerably with temperature and
concentration of the electrolyte.
Generators. Internal resistance is mainly the
resistance of the wires which form the internal
windings.
Electronic Power Supplies. Here the internal
resistance is due to the resistance of components
within the power supply.
When the source forces electrons around a closed circuit
they must pass through the internal resistance of the
source, thus causing a drop in voltage within the source
itself, i.e. the source has to do work to push current
through it.
This loss of potential or „voltage drop‟ may be referred to
as lost volts, since they are not available in the external
circuit, thus the terminal voltage is less than the emf by
the value of the lost volts when current is drawn from
the supply.
CLOSED
TERMINAL VOLTAGE = EMF – LOST VOLTS
CIRCUIT
Loss of potential only occurs when current flows from
the source. If therefore the external circuit is open, no
current flows and the terminal voltage is equal to the
emf.
OPEN
TERMINAL VOLTAGE = EMF
CIRCUIT
The Size of the „lost voltage‟ is determined by the
internal resistance and the current flowing (Ir).
52
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

For a given emf the larger the external resistance, the In the diagram below:
smaller the current and the smaller the „lost volts‟. Thus V total = V1 = V2 = V3 and I total = I1 + I2 + I3
if the internal resistance is much smaller than the
external resistance the „lost volts‟ is very small and the (By Kirchhoff‟s first law)
terminal voltage is almost equal to the source emf.

Resistors in Parallel

Components are said to be in

parallel when they are
connected in such a way as to
provide alternative paths for
current flow. From Ohm‟s law:
The characteristics of such a
parallel combination are:

The voltage across each component is the same.

and
The current through each component is determined
by the resistance of that component
Ohm‟s law applies to each component connected in
parallel.

53
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Hence the three resistors shown above may be replaced
by a single resistor of value RTOTAL which may be
computed using the above equation.
Note that the most usual error which occurs when using
this equation is to forget that the calculation on the right
hand side of the equation gives the reciprocal of the
equivalent resistance and therefore needs inverting to
find RTOTAL.
Two resistors in parallel
When we have only two resistors in parallel then the
general equation may still be used. However a simpler
formula can be derived.
Using the general equation we obtain:

To avoid this possible error the equation may be

remembered in the form: Therefore

Equal resistors connected in parallel

Having found RTOTAL it is now possible to use Ohm‟s law
to calculate either V or I, providing one of the two is Where we have two or more resistors of equal value
known. Knowing V (= V1 = V2 = V3 etc) it is now connected in parallel then:
possible to find the current values through the branches
I1, I2, I3 etc (provided of course that R1, R2, R3 etc are
known).
As a check, the total resistance of any parallel
combination of resistors should always be less than the
value of the lowest resistor in the network.
54
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Therefore:
When any numbers of equal value resistors are
connected in parallel, the effective resistance (Total) is
equal to the value of one resistor divided by the number
of resistors.
Effective value of resistors in parallel
If a second resistor is connected in parallel with a first,
the voltage across the second is equal to the voltage
across the first. The first resistor still draws the same
current and the second now also draws current. Thus
the total current drawn from the supply has increased
and therefore the effective resistance (RTOTAL) has
decreased. Since the supply of current is now greater
than either individually would draw, the effective
resistance of the two is less than the resistance of either
individually. This is generally true and for any number
of parallel resistors the effective resistor (RTOTAL) is less
than the value of any single resistor in the parallel
combination. An important point to note here is that the
supply current has increased and unless the supply
wiring can cope with it, it may be damaged (e.g. begins
to melt).
Resistor size and current flow
Ohm‟s law states that the current flowing is inversely
proportional to resistance provided that the voltage
remains constant. In a parallel network the voltage
across each component is the same, therefore the
current through each component is inversely
proportional to its resistance. Simply stated, this means
that the largest current always flows through the
smallest resistor and vice-versa. This is a simple check
that may often be useful in numerical calculation.
55
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Kirchhoff’s First Law
Kirchhoff‟s first law states that at any circuit junction,
the sum of the currents flowing towards the junction is
equal to the sum of the currents flowing away from it.
10A 2A
9A
7A
8A
Current flowing towards junction = 2 + 7 + 9 = 18A
Current flowing away from junction = 10 + 8 = 18A
Resistors in series / parallel combinations
In the previous units we have used Ohm‟s law to solve
combinations of resistors in series or in parallel. It is
possible to solve combinations of resistors in both serial
and parallel by Ohm‟s law provided sufficient information
is given. In some cases, however, solution is not
possible without the use of Kirchhoff‟s laws.
Physical arrangement of resistors
Before we look at some problems it is necessary to warn
you that physical appearances can be deceptive. When
components are mounted they are usually done so in a
manner as to reduce the space they occupy to a
minimum. Care must be taken to decide whether they
are mounted in series or parallel or in a combination of
both.
Thus on the Tag Board above, the resistors may appear
to be in parallel, however, only R3 and R4 are in parallel.
56
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Solution of resistor networks using Ohm’s Law

only

Many problems may be solved by combining series and Replace any simple parallel groups by single
parallel groups of resistors and applying Ohm‟s law. equivalent resistors

Remember that Ohm‟s law involves three quantities – I,

V and R, thus to find any one quantity the other two
must be known or be capable of determination. Where
resistors appear in both series and parallel they may be
reduced to a single effective resistance using a step-by-
step sequence as follows:
Combine any simple series groupings within
branches

57
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Combine any simple series groupings
Replace any simple parallel groups.
Determine the single equivalent resistance.
At this point the total circuit current (Is) may be
found if Vs is given, or Vs found if Is is given.
Having determined Vs or Is, as appropriate, the
current in any branch and the voltage drop across
any resistor can be found by working backwards
through the sequence in the first paragraph of
this section, applying Ohm‟s law at each stage.
58
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The effects of open circuits

An open circuit is essentially a break in the circuit. An

open circuit in a series circuit will prevent the flow of
current through the circuit. With no current flowing in
the circuit there can be no voltage drop across any
resistors and, therefore, the supply potential will be
measured at all points between the positive terminal and
the break. The effects of short circuits

A short circuit is a path for current where a path should

not exist, the path is generally considered to have a low
resistance. If a short circuit is placed across a resistor,
the current will flow through the short circuit rather than
through the resistor.

Short circuits across series or parallel connected

resistors will result in a decrease in the circuit resistance
In a circuit with parallel paths, an open circuit path will
and an increase in the current drawn from the supply.
cause an increase in the circuit resistance and a
Short circuits may result in the fuse blowing, the circuit
reduction in the circuit current. The change in current
breaker tripping or the circuit burning out if no
flow will cause the voltages measured around the circuit
protection devices are fitted.
to change.

59
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The Wheatstone bridge

You have already solved resistor networks using Ohm‟s

law and Kirchhoff‟s laws. In this unit we are going to
look at a special arrangement of series and parallel
resistors called a Wheatstone bridge.

Construction

The Wheatstone bridge circuit and other similar variants

were widely used in test equipment to determine the
value of an unknown resistor by comparison with other
When the bridge is balanced, the voltage at A is equal to
resistors whose values are accurately known.
the voltage at B and no current flows between A and B.
The normal arrangement in a Wheatstone bridge used
Hence:
for resistance measurement is for two resistors, usually
R1 and R2, to be fixed and of known value and R4 to be
an accurate variable resistor adjusted by means of a
calibrated dial. The resistor R3 is then the unknown
Also:
whose value is to be measured.

Calculating unknown resistances

Dividing (1). by (2). Then:
The current through the galvanometer (G) – a very
sensitive ammeter, is reduced to zero by adjusting R4.
The bridge is then said to be balanced.
60
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

amount of pointer deflection, depends upon the potential

difference across the bridge, which, in turn depends
upon the change in resistance of R3. The galvanometer
can therefore be calibrated to give the appropriate
In calculations it is possible for any of the four resistors indication.
to be unknown. Provided that the bridge is balanced,
the theory remains the same and all that is required is
to transpose the equation to find the unknown.

Uses on aircraft

Whilst the Wheatstone bridge may be used to determine

the value of an unknown resistor, it is far easier to use
an Ohmmeter.

The Wheatstone bridge is however extremely useful for

measuring and displaying remote indications.
On aircraft, Wheatstone bridge circuits are used for the
measurement and display of temperatures, pressures,
positions and quantities.

In each case, the item being measured varies the value

of resistor R3, causing a voltage imbalance that produces
a current flow through the galvanometer. The amount
of current through the galvanometer, and therefore the
61
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
3.8 POWER
Electrical work
Electrical work is done if a quantity of charge
(Coulombs) is moved between two points which are at
different electrical potentials.
The SI unit of work is the „Joule‟. One Joule of work is
done when a charge of one Coulomb moves through a
potential difference of one Volt:
Since one Coulomb is one Ampere second
Electrical energy
Electrical energy is the ability of an electrical system to
do work.
Energy is expended when work is done and the amount
of energy used is equal to the work done. The units of
energy and work are the same, that is Joules and the
same equation is used for both:
The energy a body contains may be determined by
calculating the electrical work done on the body to give
it that energy. Conversely, the work that a body could
do if it used up all its energy may be determined by
calculating how much energy it contains.
This assumes that no energy is lost in the conversion.
In practice energy is often „lost‟ in the form of heat.
No energy is actually destroyed, it is simply converted
into some other form. This is stated in the Law of
Conservation of Energy - energy can neither be created
nor destroyed but merely changed into other forms.
62
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Electrical power
Electrical power (symbol P) is the rate at which work is
done or the rate of conversion of energy by an electrical
system.
The SI unit of power is the Watt which is a rate of work
of 1 Joule per second:
By substituting V = IR in the above formula, two other
expressions for electrical power are obtained:
Power ratings
Electrical equipment can only stand a certain amount of
heat production without damage and the safe power
which a piece of equipment can consume without
damage is its „power rating‟ or „wattage rating‟. Each
component is given a wattage rating and if this is
exceeded the component will overheat.
The more power consumed by a device the more heat or
light it produces in a given time:
A 100w lamp gives more light than a 60w lamp. The
rating 6V 12W on a lamp means that if is connected to a
6V supply, its resistance is such that it develops 12W of
power and that it is intended to work at this rating.
Note: The above bulb consumes 12W only at the correct
voltage. If the voltage is increased more power is
developed and the component may be damaged.
A fluorescent tube of 12W rating produces more light
than a 12W filament bulb because the tube produces
much less heat and is therefore more efficient.
Power ratings of resistors
This power rating has a different meaning from that of a
bulb. In this case we must always keep below the
stated value.
To keep below the stated power value, there are
maximum permissible values of voltage and current,
which may be calculated as follows:
63
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Maximum Current: Carbon resistors of the same resistance value are

commonly available in ratings between ¼W and 2W.

When higher wattage is required wire-wound resistors

may be used, the normal range here is 1W to 200W.

This is the maximum current to avoid damage to the

The Kilowatt Hour
resistor.
The unit of electrical energy is the Joule which may be
Maximum Voltage:
expressed in terms of power as a Watt second.

The Joule however is a very small unit and it is often

more convenient to measure energy used in kilowatt
hours where:
This is the maximum voltage to avoid damage to the
resistor. 1kWh = 1000 watt hours
= 1000 3600 watt seconds
Size and power rating = 3 600 000 J or 3.6 MJ

The surface area and, therefore, the size of a component

is the determining factor of the rate at which heat is
dissipated from the component to its surroundings.
Generally larger components have a higher power
rating.

64
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Maximum power transfer
Every source of EMF has internal resistance. If it is
required to develop the maximum possible amount of
power in an external load, then the load resistance must
be equal in value to the internal resistance of the source.
This may be shown by calculating the power developed
in RLoad for different values of RLoad.
This illustrates that maximum power is developed in the
load when RLoad equals RInternal.
Matching is very important in electronic circuits which
usually have a fairly high source resistance. A typical
example is the „matching‟ of a loudspeaker to an audio
amplifier.
Note:
For a power source with variable internal resistance and
given load (RL), the smaller the internal resistance, the
higher the power transfer to the load. The highest
power transfer is achieved here when the internal
resistance is zero.
Batteries, generators and other power supply systems
are not operated under maximum power transfer
conditions, since to do so would result in the same
amount of power being dissipated in the source as was
supplied to the load, which is wasteful of energy. Thus
power systems are designed to have the minimum
internal resistance to minimise losses in the power
supply.
65
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
3.9 CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITORS
When the voltage applied to a capacitive circuit changes,
then there is a change in the electric flux. The ease with
which this change takes place is a measure of the
capacitance of the circuit.
In dc circuits, capacitance is only effective when the
voltage is switched on and off, but in ac circuits where
the voltage varies continuously, the effect of capacitance
is continuous.
A device used specifically to introduce capacitance into a
circuit is known as a capacitor (sometimes called a
condenser).
Charging a body
A conductor is given a positive charge when electrons
are forcibly removed from the conductor, e.g. by
connecting it to the positive pole of a dc source.
Similarly, when additional electrons are pushed on to a
conductor, it is given a negative charge.
The use of force means that energy has been expended
by the source of dc and this energy is stored in an
electric field.
An electric field is represented by lines of flux whose
direction is the direction of force which would be
experienced by a free positive charge placed in the field.
Lines of electric flux behave in an analogous manner to
lines of magnetic flux.
As the charge on a body increases, it repels further
charge with greater force until eventually the repelling
force equals the charging force and the conductor is fully
charged. The charge on a fully charged body may be
changed by changing the voltage supplying the charging
force, but the conductor will oppose this charge due to
the charge it already possesses.
Any conductor will hold a charge, the magnitude of the
charge depends upon the magnitude of the voltage
applied, but for a single conductor, even a large voltage
produces only a relatively small charge.
66
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
The basic capacitor
If we have two metal plates close together, but
separated by an insulator or dielectric (which could be
air) and we apply a voltage across them, electrons are
removed from one plate and applied to the other and
each becomes charged.
The charge held by the combination may be very large
because of the concentration of the electric field
between the plates. This represents a basic capacitor.
Thus, a capacitor is a device which opposes voltage
change in a circuit through its capacity to store electrical
energy (or charge) in the form of an electric field
Capacitance
If we increase the voltage between the plates, the
charge increases, but the ratio of charge to voltage
remains the same.
This ratio gives the capacitance (C) of the capacitor:
Where the charge (Q) is in Coulombs and the voltage
(V) in Volts, then the capacitance (C) is in Farads (F).
So:
V C 67
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

A capacitor has a capacitance of one Farad when a
charging current of one ampere, flowing for one second,
causes a change of voltage of one volt between its
plates.
The Farad is a huge unit and smaller units are used in
practice:
Material between the plates. This introduces a
constant called the absolute permittivity ( ). With
constant area and distance, if waxed paper is
inserted between the plates instead of air, the
capacitance is multiplied by a factor of
approximately three. The constant is actually the
product of two constants, the permittivity of space
( o) and the comparison of the material with free
space, the relative permittivity ( r)

We may summarise this in equation form as:

Factors affecting capacitance

The factors which affect the capacitance of a parallel-

plate capacitor are:
The units of C‟ are Farads if the units of the other
Overlapping area of the plates (a). The capacitance
quantities are:
increases as the area of overlap increases since a
larger plate area provides more room to Area (a) – square metres (m2).
accommodate the increase charge.
Distance between plates (d) – metres (m).
Distance between the plates (d). The capacitance
increases as the distance between the plates Absolute permittivity ( ) – Farads per metre (Fm-1).
decreases, since the electric field then becomes
more concentrated.
68
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Energy stored in a capacitor
Energy is stored in the electric field of a charged
capacitor. If a dielectric is inserted, extra energy is
stored above that stored in free space, due to the
distortion of electron orbits in the atoms. The energy
stored in given by the equation:
Capacitor construction
Fixed capacitors
Fixed capacitors usually consist of sheets of metal foil
between which is sandwiched the dielectric, or
alternatively the metal, such as aluminium, is deposited
onto both sides of the dielectric.
The characteristics and quality of the capacitor depends
mainly on the dielectric, which may be paper, chemically
impregnated paper, plastics mica or ceramic.
69
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Variable capacitors Electrolytic capacitors

Variable capacitors are usually meter plates with air as
the dielectric. The variation is achieved by varying the
area of overlap of the plates.
Preset capacitors may use air, mica or ceramics as the
dielectric.
Electrolytic capacitors use the metal oxide as the
dielectric which is formed directly on the metal plates.
High values of capacitance can be achieved here with
small physical size. Most electrolytic capacitors must be
connected into circuit with the correct polarity or
damage (possibly including explosion) may result.

70
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Safe working voltage Capacitor symbols

The safe working voltage is the maximum dc voltage The diagram below gives the symbols for capacitors.
that can safely be applied to a capacitor without causing The pre-set capacitor (sometimes referred to as a
the dielectric to break down. padder or trimmer) allows slight variations to be made
about its fixed value.
When breakdown occurs, the electric field is strong
enough to „tear‟ electrons free from their orbits. A
current then flows with the production of a large amount
of heat. The dielectric is commonly burned through
rendering the capacitor unserviceable.

Higher voltage requires thicker dielectrics, but this

reduces capacitance. Thus, a given value of capacitance
requires a larger capacitor (greater plate area) for
greater working voltage.

71
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Capacitors in circuits We know from Kirchhoff‟s second law that:

Capacitors in series

And as:

We can also say:

When three capacitors are connected in series, if one

electron moves from the negative terminal of the cell to
the right hand plate of C3, and one electron moves from
the left hand plate of C1 to the positive terminal of the
Therefore:
cell, one electron will move between C1 and C2 and
between C2 and C3. Thus, the total charge moved is one
electron and the charge on each capacitor is one
electron. Thus we can say:

The three single capacitors may be replaced by a single

capacitor whose capacitance (C) is given by the above
equation, provided its safe working voltage is of a
sufficiently high value to withstand the applied voltage.
72
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Capacitors in parallel
Therefore:

And from this we can say:

And as:

Three capacitors are connected in parallel. If on closing And VSupply = V1 = V2 = V3 we can also say:
the switch S a current (I) flows in the circuit and from
Kirchhoff‟s first law:

Thus, we may replace capacitors in parallel by a single

capacitor whose value is given by the above equation.
We also know that:

73
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Capacitors in series / parallel combinations
When capacitors are connected in series and parallel
combinations, the process of finding the total
capacitance is basically the same as that used to find the
total resistance of a resistor network.
It must of course be noted, that the formulae used for
capacitors in series and parallel are different from those
used for resistors connected the same way.
capacitor instantaneously to equal the applied voltage
(but in the reverse sense) and so preventing further
current flow.
In any real circuit, however, resistance is present in the
form of:
The connecting wires.
Internal resistance within the dc source.
This causes the capacitor to take a finite time to charge.

Where capacitors appear in both series and parallel, they Charging a capacitor
may be reduced to a single effective capacitance using a
step-by-step sequence as follows: In the diagram below all resistances are taken together
Combine any simple parallel groupings within and shown as the single resistor R.
branches.
Replace any simple series groups by a single
equivalent capacitor.
Repeat the process until a single capacitor
remains.

Charge & discharge characteristics

A capacitor opposes voltage change in a circuit, if we

had a perfect dc circuit and a perfect capacitor then only
an instantaneous current would flow, charging the
74
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

With S1 closed and S2 open, the capacitor will charge. This sequence is shown graphically below.
Note that Kirchhoff‟s second law always applies, that is:

The charging sequence is as follows:

On closing S1, no current has yet flowed, the capacitor
plates have no charge on them and hence, there is no
voltage across it. Therefore, the whole of the applied
voltage is developed across the resistor:

The curves are called „exponential‟ curves and it can be

seen that the slopes and are progressively

The initial charging current is equal to the current
through the resistor: decreasing as time increases.
As C charges its potential difference (VC) increases
opposing the applied voltage (E) so that the charging
current is progressively reduced.

Finally the capacitor is fully charged (VC = E) and

current ceases (consequently VR = O).

75
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Time Constant Proof of time constant

When C is fully charged, then:
It is found that the time taken to charge up the
capacitor depends on the product of capacitance and
resistance. This product is called the „time constant‟ of
the circuit and its value is in seconds, providing R is in The time taken to fully charge at the initial charging rate
ohms and C in farads. is equal to the time constant (TC).
Thus:
Time constant = CR
The time constant is defined as either:
The time which would be taken for the capacitor
voltage to reach its maximum value if it continued But as we know:
to increase at the initial value, or
The time for the capacitor voltage to reach 0.632 of
its maximum value (or 63.2%, this is sometimes
taken as 2/3 in calculations). So:
It is difficult to say at exactly what point the capacitor is
fully charged; however, for all practical purposes it may
be considered fully charged after five time constants:

Time to Fully Charge = 5CR Therefore:

seconds

76
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Discharging a capacitor
On opening S1 and closing S2 (after the capacitor is fully
charged), the capacitor discharges, thus current flows
(in the opposite direction to the original current) and the
voltage across the capacitor falls to zero exponentially.
In this case the voltage across the capacitor falls by
63.2% to 0.368E in CR seconds and takes 5CR seconds
to fall to zero (0.368 is sometimes taken as 1/3 in
calculations).
A capacitor in a dc circuit
It can be seen that although current does flow for a
period of time in a dc circuit containing a capacitor (until
the capacitor is fully charged), the current is eventually
reduced to zero. Thus, a capacitor inserted in a dc circuit
prevents current flow and is sometimes called a dc
blocking capacitor.
Two points should be noted; Current does not flow
through a capacitor, it only appears to, because the
number of electrons arriving at one plate is the same as
the number leaving the other plate.
Alternating current always appears to pass through a
capacitor. The degree of opposition to ac current flow is
determined by a variety of factors which will be studied
later in ac circuits. The study of capacitors in ac circuits
will also provide additional reasons for using them in dc
circuits.
77
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
The effects of open & short circuits
A capacitor is in effect an open circuit, however, if the
connection to a capacitor were to go open circuit then it
would be unable to charge and there would be
absolutely no current flow.
If this occurred in a parallel combination, the total
capacitance of the circuit would decrease; in a series
combination the capacitors would be ineffective because
of the lack of current flow.
When a capacitor is short circuited it is unable to charge,
if one capacitor in a parallel combination is short
circuited it will prevent the other paralleled capacitors
from charging.
In a dc circuit, a shorted capacitor will no longer act as a
dc block and will allow the flow of both dc and ac
current.
The effects of open and short circuited capacitors will be
examined in more detail as there uses in various circuits
are studied.
Safety & testing
A charged capacitor can store a large amount of energy
which it releases on discharge. It is therefore important
to ensure that capacitors, especially large ones, are
discharged before you attempt to touch them.
Particular care is required when servicing faulty high
voltage equipment.
A capacitor can be tested using an ohmmeter. When
connected across a capacitor, the ohmmeter's battery
charges the capacitor. The charging of the capacitor is
indicated by a changing value of resistance, from zero to
infinity as the capacitor charges.
If the charging process is too quick to see, a resistor can
be placed in series with the meter and capacitor to slow
it down (time constant = CR). In many cases it is
necessary to remove the capacitor from the circuit in
order to test its serviceability.
78
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Circuits involving capacitive decay

Consider the circuit shown below; Depending on the
time constant of the circuit, relative to the period of the
square wave applied to it, the response of the circuit can
vary widely. Assuming T is half the period of the square
wave:
If CR is slightly less than T, the waveform in the top
diagram is produced at the output (across C).
If Cr<<T, the square wave is hardly affected, centre
diagram.
If the positions of the resistor and capacitor are reversed
If CR>>T, the circuit is an integrating circuit, since and the voltage across the resistor measured, then the
the output waveform is that of the integral of the square waveform produced will be that of the current, since
wave, that is the area underneath it. This is shown in V=IR.
the lower diagram.
If CR is short enough then a stream of pulses is
produced when a square wave is applied to the input
(shown in the diagram above).
If CR<<T the circuit is called a differentiating circuit,
since the pulses approximate to the slope of the input
waveform as in the centre diagram.
When CR>>T the circuit is called a coupling circuit. A
coupling circuit allows the input waveform to pass to the
output whilst blocking the passage of any dc.
79
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
3.10 MAGNETISM
Everyone has seen and handled a magnet in the form of
a straight or horseshoe-shaped bar of steel or steel-
alloy. The magnet was originally a piece of steel before
it was magnetised.
A material called magnetite is a naturally occurring
magnet (also called lodestone) which was used at sea
for primitive navigation.
A magnet is easily recognised by its ability to attract
pieces or iron and steel; and if suspended freely on a
piece of string, will swing to align with the earth‟s own
magnetic field.
Magnetic theories
Molecular Theory
If we continue cutting our magnet into smaller and
smaller pieces we would eventually arrive at the smallest
piece, which would be a molecule and this molecule
would be a magnet. Thus the molecular theory of
magnetism states that:
All materials contain molecules with magnetic
properties.
In unmagnetised substances, these molecules are
arranged in a random manner and no external
magnetic effect is produced.
When the material is being magnetised, we are
aligning the molecules. The number aligned
increases, as we further magnetise the specimen
and when all are aligned no further increase in
magnetisation is possible and the specimen is said
to be magnetically saturated.
In theory all substances could be magnetised, but in
practice it is impossible to align the molecules of
most substances.
Domain Theory
In domain theory it is assumed that magnetic materials
are composed of tiny individual magnets called domains,
a single domain is very small - about 1012 atoms.
Considering each atom - orbital electrons not only orbit
the nucleus but spin axially on their own axis.
80
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

In non magnetic materials the same number of electrons

spin clockwise as anti-clockwise. In magnetic materials
more electrons spin one way than the other way
The unbalanced spin creates twists called magnetic
moments.
In unmagnetised state the moments of the electrons are
in the same direction in a single domain, but the
domains produce random pockets of magnetism.
It is observed that two north poles repel each other and
likewise with two south poles; however a north pole and
As the magnetic material becomes magnetised the a south pole will attract each other. This is summarised
domains become partially aligned. In fully magnetised in the fundamental law of magnetism:
material all domains become fully aligned.

Magnetic properties Like Poles Repel, Unlike Poles Attract

Magnetic poles
To test a specimen for the presence of magnetism it is
The two regions near the ends of a magnet at which the
necessary to observe repulsion. Attraction simply
attracting forces appear to be concentrated are called
means that the specimen is magnetic but it may not be
the magnetic poles.The pole (when freely suspended)
magnetised. Thus the test for magnetism is repulsion.
which points towards the earth‟s geographic North Pole
is called the North Seeking Pole „N‟ (or north pole for
short) and that which points to the south geographic
pole, the South Seeking Pole „S‟ (or South Pole).

81
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Properties of Lines of Flux

Magnetic field
To make the imaginary lines of flux describe the
The region around a magnet in which it exerts a force is
behaviour of the magnetic field we must give them
called the „magnetic field‟. The magnetic field is three-
appropriate properties. Thus lines of flux have the
dimensional and it may be shown visually by drawing
following properties:
imaginary lines called „lines of magnetic flux‟.

They are imaginary.

Lines of flux
A line of flux is a line indicating the direction in which a
free north pole would travel, if placed in the field at that
point. Alternatively it is the direction in which the north
pole of a compass needle would point. The direction
which would be taken is indicated on the lines of flux by
arrow heads.
Therefore lines of flux emanate from north poles and re-
enter at south poles, see diagram below.
By definition they emerge from a north pole and
re-enter at a south pole.
They are continuous and never ending (thus they
travel inside the magnet from the south to north).
They never cross each other (a compass placed at
a given point can only point in one direction).
They can bend, but resist bending or distortion.
They behave as though elastic (and therefore try
to shorten themselves).
They repel each other sideways (they fill evenly
the volume available – there are no abrupt
discontinuities).

82
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
The Earth’s field
The earth acts as a magnet and the lines of force
produced by it follow the pattern shown in the diagram
below.
If the Earth were completely symmetrical, the north and
south magnetic poles would coincide with the axis of the
Earth. The magnetic poles are, in fact, separated from
the true poles by about 1000 Miles, the north magnetic
pole being in the area 70 - 75 degrees North and
roughly 95 degrees West.
Since the North pole of a magnet is really a North
seeking pole and similarly the South pole is really a
South seeking pole it follows that at the Earth's North
pole there must be a south seeking magnet and similarly
at the Earth's South pole there must be a North seeking
magnet.
Unfortunately before the significance of the Earth's
magnetism was realised, navigators had dropped the
word "seeking" leaving the embarrassing statement that
there is a magnetic south pole at the North pole and a
magnetic North pole at the South pole.
This problem is overcome by defining the North seeking
pole as the Red Pole and the South seeking pole as the
Blue Pole.
83
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Ferromagnetic materials Soft Iron

Ferromagnetic materials can be easily magnetised and
exhibit strong magnetic properties. This group can be
further subdivided into hard and soft magnetic
materials.
Above certain temperatures ferromagnetic materials
behave as paramagnetic materials.
Hard Iron
Hard magnetic materials are more difficult to magnetise
but retain most of their magnetism when the
magnetising force is removed, examples include steel
and nickel alloys such as:
Ticonal - Iron-Cobalt / Nickel / Aluminium /
Titanium and Copper.
Alnico - Iron-Nickel / Cobalt and Aluminium.
Soft magnetic materials become magnetised very easily,
but they loose most of the magnetism when the
magnetising force is removed examples include alloys
such as:
Stalloy
Mumetal
These materials are used for temporary magnets
Paramagnetic materials
Most materials fall into this group. These materials can
only be magnetised with a great amount of effort,
usually resulting in their destruction.
If magnetised the material only exhibits small magnetic
properties examples include:

These materials are used for permanent magnets. Wood.

Glass.
Air.
Water.
Aluminium.
84
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Diamagnetic materials Magnets with same polarity at either end can be

produced using the double stroke method. This entails
This is a small group of materials that actually oppose a stroking the steel from the centre to the end, reversing
magnetising force and if placed in a magnetic field they the direction of the magnet for each end. Such a magnet
will decrease its strength. is said to have consequent poles.

If suspended in a magnetic field, they will swing to adopt

a position at 90 degrees to the lines of flux examples
include:
Copper
Brass
Bronze
Mercury
Bismuth

Production of a magnet

Magnets can be produced in a variety of ways; generally

the method used is determined by the type of magnet
required.

Stroke method

Using the stroke method of producing a magnet, a piece

of steel is stroked by a permanent magnet or magnets.
85
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Induction
The property of magnetism may be induced in a piece of
material that does not normally have that characteristic.
If a piece of soft iron is placed in the magnetic field of a
permanent magnet, the soft iron will assume the
properties of a magnet and become magnetised. This
action is called magnetic induction. It occurs because the
lines of flux tend to flow through the path of least
opposition, and air offers more opposition than soft iron.
When the lines of flux pass through the soft iron, the
molecules of soft iron line up with the lines of force, their
north poles pointing in the direction in which the lines of
If the magnetic field is removed, the soft iron will loose
force are travelling through the iron. The end at which
its magnetism.
the lines of flux enter the soft iron becomes a south
pole, the end at which they leave, a north pole. It should be noted that a piece of soft iron sitting in the
earth's magnetic field will concentrate the lines of flux
and become magnetised.

86
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Use of electrical current Corkscrew Rule

When a conductor carries an electric current, a magnetic Knowing the direction of the current, it is possible to
field is produced around that conductor. This determine the direction of the magnetic field using
phenomenon was discovered by Oersted in 1820. Maxwell‟s Corkscrew rule, usually abbreviated to the
Corkscrew Rule (or sometimes the right hand screw
Oersted found that a wire carrying an electric current
rule).
produces a magnetic field around the wire for as long as
current continues to flow. The direction of the magnetic
field depends upon the direction of the current. The field
is symmetrical around the wire and is represented by
lines of flux drawn as concentric circles around the wire.
By convention current flowing into a diagram is
represented by a cross, current flowing out of the
diagram by a dot. One can liken this to the view
obtained from a dart thrown towards you, or away from
you.

87
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The Corkscrew Rule states: „if a corkscrew is turned so

that it moves in the direction of conventional current
flow, then the direction of rotation of the corkscrew
corresponds to the direction of the magnetic field‟.

Attraction & Repulsion

Two parallel wires, which are close together, each

carrying an electric current, produce magnetic fields
which interact with one another. If the currents flow in
the same direction, the wires experience a force of
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
attraction. If the currents flow in opposite directions,
the wires experience a force of repulsion, see diagram
below.

The force between two such conductors forms the basis

for the definition of the unit of current - the ampere.
88
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Electromagnetism
If a straight wire carrying a current is formed into a
circular loop, the magnetic field is as shown. The field
may be deduced by taking elements of the loop and
looking at the field around each part of the loop.

End rule
The direction of the magnetic field depends upon the
direction of conventional current flow. We can find out
which end of the coil is acting as the North Pole and
which the South Pole is by observing the direction of
current flow at each end. This is called the End Rule or
sometimes, the clock rule, see diagram below.
Production of a bar magnet

If a length of wire is bent into a series of loops, it forms

a solenoid. The direction of the magnetic field around
any small part of it can be obtained by using the
corkscrew rule. If the fields for a series of such loops
are combined, the result will be a field pattern similar to
that of a bar magnet.

89
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Right hand gripping rule
The right hand gripping rule can also be used to
determine the north pole of a coil. The coil is gripped by
the right hand with the fingers pointing along the
conductors in the direction of conventional current flow,
when the thumb is then extended; it indicates the end of
the coil that has a magnetic north polarity.
The magnetic circuit
Magnetomotive force (mmf)
In an electric circuit, a current is established due to the
existence of an electromotive force. In the same way, in
a magnetic circuit, a flux is established due to the
existence of a magnetomotive force (mmf).
The mmf is produced by the current flowing in the coil
and its value is the product of the current and the
number of turns on the coil.
Note that, although mmf is quoted in ampere turns, the
actual unit dimension is in amperes.
90
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Magnetising force It will therefore be seen that a solenoid having 10 turns

per metre carrying a current of 6A will produce the same
The magnetomotive force can be expressed in terms of
strength of magnetic field as one of 12 turns per metre
the length of the magnet. It is then referred to as the
carrying 5A.
magnetising force or magnetic field strength and given
the symbol H.
The magnetising force is a measure of the intensity of Flux & Flux density
the magnetic effects at any given point in the magnetic A magnetising force produces a certain amount of
field.
magnetic flux ( ), measured in Webers.
The magnetic field is represented by imaginary lines of
magnetic flux. The number of lines of flux passing
though a given area is called the „flux density‟.
Flux density is denoted by the symbol B and given the
Note that:
unit Tesla.
The unit of field strength is ampere per metre,
although it may be quoted as ampere turns per
metre.
The length of a solenoid „l‟ is the length along its The unit of flux density is actually Webers per m2, so:
axis and not the length of wire from which the
solenoid is made.

91
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Permeability
The product of o and r is called the „absolute
When an mmf produces a magnetising force (H), a permeability‟ and is denoted by the symbol .
certain flux density (B) is established. For all materials:

The ratio is termed 'the permeability of the material'.

Reluctance
Permeability is an indication of the ability of the flux to
permeate the material. If the material in which the flux
The opposition experienced by a magnetising force to
is established is a vacuum, or free space, then the ratio
the creation of a flux is called „reluctance‟ and is denoted
is called „the permeability of free space' and given the
by the symbol S.
symbol o. This value is considered to be a constant:
The following derivation is for information only:

If a flux is established in any material other than air or

free space, then the flux density will increase.
The number of times by which the flux density increases
is called the „relative permeability of the material‟
denoted by the symbol r. This is not a constant but
varies with different material i.e. steel = 800.

92
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Ampere Turns
Units of reluctance are: .
Weber
Composite paths and airgaps
A magnetic circuit may be composed of paths of
different materials. Such magnetic path is called a
composite path.
The total reluctance of a composite path is equal to the
sum of the individual reluctance's.
In many devices such as transformer motors and
generators the magnetic flux has parallel paths. The
purpose is to reduce the total reluctance given two
parallel paths S1 and S2:
For more than two parallel paths:
BH curves
For any ferromagnetic material there is a definite value
of flux density (B), corresponding to a specified value of
magnetising force (H). These values can be ascertained
from graphs of B against H for each material.
A BH curve can only be obtained using a piece of
material that has never been magnetised before.
Once the material has been magnetised and the curve
obtained, the production of another BH curve, from the
same piece of material, is not possible.
The BH curve is the line O to Q on the hysteresis curve
shown in the next paragraph.
93
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The gradient of the BH curve gives the permeability of

the material. In practice it is found that the magnetic
properties of different specimens of the same material
vary considerably.

The fact that permeability varies for a given material

may also be seen from the shape of the curve, if the
permeability was a constant, the graph of B against H
would be a straight line.

Hysteresis loop

A ferromagnetic material retains some magnetism after

the magnetising force is removed. The BH curve (O to
Q) will therefore only be followed once, on initial
magnetisation.

When a material is subjected to a changing magnetising

force, the flux density is affected by its previous
magnetic history. There is tendency for the magnetic
conditions to lag behind the magnetising force that is
producing them.

This is known as „hysteresis‟ and comes from the Greek

meaning late or lagging.
94
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
If a piece of material is taken through a complete cycle
of magnetising and demagnetising the graph of B
against H is as shown, this diagram is called a hysteresis
loop.
O to Q - Initial magnetisation to saturation at point A
Q to R - Magnetising force is reduced to zero.
O to R/U - Represents remanence. Remanence is the
flux density remaining in the material
immediately after the magnetising force is
removed. It is sometimes called „retentivity‟.
If the material had not been taken to
saturation then this would represent the
remanent flux density.
R to S - The magnetising force is reversed.
O to S/V - Represents the magnetising force required to
reduce the flux density to zero. This is called
the coercivity of the material. If the material
had not been taken to saturation then this
would be termed the „coercive force‟.
S to T - Further increase in the reverse magnetising
force. This causes the material to reach
saturation in the opposite direction.
T to Q - Reversal of magnetising force again
eventually makes the material saturate in
original direction.
The term residual magnetism is used to describe the
useful flux remaining after the magnetising force has
been removed for a considerable time, it is proportional
to the coercivity of the material. This term should not
be confused with remanence or remanent flux density.
The area of the loop represents the energy loss during
each magnetic cycle, or the power dissipated. Its size is
dependent upon the type of material and frequency at
which the magnetising force is switched.
Note:
Soft iron saturates with much less magnetising force
than steel. The remanence of soft iron is less than that
of steel. The area of the loop and coercivity for steel is
much greater than for soft iron. This indicates greater
hysteresis loss and residual magnetism.
95
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Materials with large loops are used for permanent Tabulating the comparisons:
magnets – Ticonal.
Materials with small loops are used for temporary
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
magnets – Stalloy, Mumetal.
Qty Unit Qty Unit
Comparison of electrical & magnetic circuits
Emf Volt mmf Ampere turn
It is useful to compare various electric and magnetic Magnetic
quantities and their relationships. Consider the electric Current Ampere Weber
Flux
and magnetic circuits shown below.
Ampere turns /
Resistance Ohm Reluctance
Weber
Current = emf / Magnetic Flux = mmf /
Resistance Reluctance

96
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Magnetic shielding
Student Notes
The differing values of reluctance of air and soft iron are
made use of in magnetic screening. Air had high
reluctance whilst soft iron has a low reluctance. Thus if
the equipment to be screened is surrounded by soft iron,
most of the flux will pass through the soft iron, rather
than the air inside it, since lines of flux take the path of
least reluctance.

97
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
3.11 INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTORS
In 1831, a scientist called Michael Faraday discovered
that an electric current was produced by the relative
movement of a magnet and a coil, a phenomenon which
is now known as electromagnetic induction.
Electricity from magnetism
If a magnet is moved into or out of a coil of wire and if
the coil is connected to a meter, the meter records a
flow of current as long as the magnet is moving.
The same result is obtained if the magnet is kept
stationary and the loop is moved. The meter therefore
shows that there is a current as long as there is relative
movement between the loop (coil) and the magnet
(magnetic field). Note that energy is not being produced
but simply converted from mechanical energy to
electrical energy.
Factors affecting induced emf
By experiment, the following factors may be noted:
The faster the magnet (or coil) is moved, the
greater is the deflection obtained on the meter.
This shows that the magnitude of the emf is
proportional to the rate of relative movement.
Repeating the experiment using a stronger magnet
results in greater meter deflection for the same
rate of movement. Hence the magnitude of the
emf is proportional to the flux density.
Reversal of the direction of motion produces meter
deflection in the opposite sense. The direction of
the induced emf therefore depends on the
direction of motion.
Using the south pole of the magnet instead of the
north results in meter deflection in the opposite
sense, showing that the direction of the induced
emf depends upon the direction of the magnetic
field.
98
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

If more turns are used on the coil, meter Lenz’s Law

deflection is greater and is proportional to the
number of turns (N).
These results are summarised in two laws, as follows:
Faradays Law
A change of flux in a closed circuit induces an emf and
sets up a current. The direction of this current is such
that its magnetic field tends to oppose the change of
flux. See diagram below.

When the magnetic flux through the coil is made to

vary, an emf is induced in the coil. The magnitude of
the induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of
flux.

The constant of proportionality in this equation is the

number of turns on the coil (N), since the more turns on
the coil, the greater emf. Hence, we may write:
The direction of the induced emf as given by Lenz‟s Law
may be shown in our equation by introducing a negative
sign, but remember that the negative sign is vectorial
and not arithmetic.

99
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Flemings right hand rule
When a straight wire is moved through a magnetic field,
an emf is induced in it, in the manner of the coil and
magnet experiment.
Once again, lines of flux are being cut by a conductor
and if the wire forms part of a closed circuit, a current
will flow; the same effect is observed if the wire is
stationary and the magnetic field moves.
The direction of the induced emf may be determined by
Fleming‟s right hand rule.
The thumb, first finger and second finger of the right
hand are held at right angles to each other, then:
With the thumb pointing in the direction of the
conductor movement.
With the first finger pointing in the direction of the
magnetic field (N to S).
Then the second finger points in the direction of
conventional current flow and thus indicates the
direction of the induced voltage.
Self inductance
When current through a coil changes, the changing flux
induces an emf that opposes the current flow. This emf
is the result of self inductance and is called „back emf‟.
The term „self inductance‟ is often replaced merely by
inductance. The value of back emf is given by:
100
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

dI
Where L is the inductance in Henries and dt is the rate
of change of current. The minus indicates back emf.
The unit of inductance is the Henry and is based on the And as:
equation. If current changing at a rate of 1 amp per
second induces an emf of 1 volt then the inductance is 1
Henry.
Also by transposition of
All circuits have inductance even a straight conductor,
but if a straight piece of wire is formed into a coil the
number of flux linkages increases and so does the
inductance. Mutual inductance

A further increase in inductance is achieved by
increasing the flux density. This depends on the area,
the length of the coil and the permeability of material in
which flux is established, thus:
Where:
If the changing flux in a coil links with the turns of a
second coil, the two coils are said to be mutually coupled
and mutual inductance exists between them.
The unit of mutual inductance is Henry and is defined
as: „If the primary current, changing at a rate of 1 amp
per second, induces a secondary voltage of 1v, then the
mutual inductance is 1 Henry‟, thus:

101
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Coupling factor Energy stored in a magnetic field

If all the flux of a primary coil links with all the turns of a
secondary then 100% coupling exists. Sometimes it is
more convenient to use a coupling factor (symbol k).
Maximum Coupling (100%) is represented by a k value
of 1, thus if flux linkage is 97% the coupling factor is
0.97.
If we consider the theoretical case of a circuit with
inductance only, all of the energy used in the circuit
must go into the magnetic field. It can be shown that
the energy stored in the magnetic field is given by
equation:

Given that mutual coupling depends on k then so does

the mutual inductance. The relationship is given by:
Where L is inductance of coil in Henries and I is current
through it in amps.

Where, L1 and L2 are the individual inductances of the

mutually coupled coils. The value of k depends on:
Purpose of coils involved
Relative positions of the coils
Frequency or rate of change of current
And can be as high as 0.98 or as low as 0.0001.

102
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Spark suppression

If we consider a circuit with a large inductance, possibly

one containing a magnetic relay, at the instant the
switch is opened, the current through the coil is
changing at maximum rate; therefore the back emf
induced in the coil is also at maximum.

This emf is applied to the air gap between the switch

contacts and ionises the air, producing a spark which the
burns the contacts. This increases their electrical
resistance and radiates energy which may cause INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
interference, therefore sparks must be suppressed.

Good design of switch contacts can help, but connecting

a capacitor in parallel with the switch is the best method
of eliminating sparking. When using a capacitor the
energy released by the coil charges the capacitor instead
of ionising air and when the switch is closed again the
capacitor discharges.

103
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Inductors
Coils which are used for their opposition to current
change in a circuit are known as inductances or chokes.
Construction
Inductors with an air core have small inductances and
are used at high frequencies, within radio tuning circuits
or as RF chokes to stop radio frequency currents taking
certain paths in circuits.
Coils for use at high frequency are made of Litz wire
which consists of several thin copper wires insulated
from each other.
Materials based on iron are used where a large
inductance is required. Iron increases the strength of
the magnetic field several hundred times.
Silicon steel and nickel iron are used at frequencies up
to 20 kHz.
Iron cores are laminated. The laminations reduce the
conversion of electrical energy to heat by making it
difficult for currents in the coil to induce currents in the
core. These induced currents are called „eddy currents‟
because they flow in circles through the iron core. If the
laminations are at right angles to the plane of the coil
windings, the core offers a large resistance to the eddy
currents.
Iron based cores can be used at high frequencies if the
material is in the form of a powder which has been
coated with an insulator and pressed together.
Ferrite cores consist of ferric oxide combined with other
oxides such as nickel oxide and may also be used at
high frequencies.
Iron dust and ferrite cores increase the inductance of a
coil considerably. For example, an air cored inductor of
1mH could be increased to 400mH by fitting a ferrite
core.
These cores also have a high resistance, thereby
reducing eddy currents.
104
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Inductor symbols

Air Core:

old symbol new symbol

Iron Core:

old symbol new symbol INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

Iron Dust or Ferrite
Core:

old symbol new symbol

105
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Inductors in circuits
Inductors in series
If it is required to increases the value of inductance in a
circuit, then two or more inductors may be connected in
series. The total inductance then depends on the sum of
individual inductances and the mutual coupling between
them.
With no mutual coupling:
If the coils are positioned so that the mutually induced
emf‟s in each coil aid the self induced emf‟s then the
coils are said to be series aiding, and:
If the coils are positioned so that mutually induced emf‟s
in each coil oppose the self induced emf‟s, the coils are
said to be in series opposing, and:
Thus if the position of L2 reference to L1 can be reversed,
then the total inductance will vary between:
And
Giving a total variation of 4M.
A device which will achieve this is called variometer. It
consists of two coils located one inside the other. The
outer coil (stator) is stationary whilst the inner coil
(rotor) is capable of rotation through 180 degrees. The
coils are mutually coupled and connected in series, in
one position the rotor field aids the stator field, when the
rotor is turned 180º the rotor field opposes the stator
field.
When the coils are at 90 degrees to each other, mutual
coupling is negligible.
106
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Inductors in parallel
The total inductance of inductors connected in parallel is
calculated in the same manner as the total resistance of
resistors connected in parallel:
Or if only two inductors are connected:
As with resistors, when inductors are connected in
parallel the total inductance is decreased.
Note: No mutual coupling can exist between connected
in parallel as this would require the magnetic lines of
flux to cross.
Inductors in a dc circuit
If a circuit contained only pure resistance, then the
current would rise to its full value ( in zero time
when the switch is closed.
In practice, there is no such thing as „pure‟ resistance as
all conductors have some inductance and if this is true
then there can be such thing as pure inductance since
any coil must have some resistance. Therefore, all
circuits can be considered will have inductance and
resistance in series (as shown in the diagram below).
An inductance opposes change in current flow by
producing a back emf and therefore the current cannot
rise to its maximum value instantaneously.
There is no back emf once the current is constant and
therefore the maximum value of current depends only
on the resistance in the circuit.
107
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Hence:

In the above equation E, L and R are constant in a given

circuit; therefore as I increases (the slope of the

On moving the switch to position A in the diagram
above, the current circuit will start to rise.
By Kirchhoff‟s second law:
graph at any point) must decrease.
The current then follows a curve whose gradient is
continually decreasing and which is called an
„exponential curve‟. See below.

Also:

And:

108
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Time constant

This is an indication of the rate at which the current

builds up (or decays).
We cannot quote the time taken to build up to a
maximum (or decay to zero) since it is impossible to
decide exactly when this point is reached on an
exponential curve.
Although it is not possible to say exactly when the
current reaches its maximum value, for all practical
purpose it can be considered a maximum after 5 time
constants:

The time constant is defined as either: Proof of Time Constant

„The time taken for a current to reach its maximum (With reference to the diagram above)
value if the initial rate of increase were maintained‟. The instant of closing the switch (point A) I = O.
But:
Or

„The time taken for the current to reach 0.632 of its

maximum value (or 63.2%)‟. Hence:

The latter definition arises since it is found that after one

time constant the current has always built up to 63.2%
of its maximum value. The time constant for a series LR
circuit is given by:

109
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

But dI at A is the slope of the graph at A, i.e. AB When dc current is removed

Therefore: The same sort of process occurs when the switch is

moved to position B. The current does not immediately
fall to zero (because the inductor opposes any change in
current flow), but decays exponentially to zero.
And:
Voltage Change

Note that we now have a short circuit and the applied

voltage to zero. Hence from Kirchhoff‟s second law, the
voltage across the inductor must at all times be equal,
E
But AC is the Time Constant and BC = R but opposite in sign, to that across the resistor.
Therefore:

110
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Safety

As the current increases through an inductor, flux builds

up and energy is stored in the magnetic field. On short
circuiting the inductor, the magnetic field collapses and
the energy is returned to the circuit, maintaining the
current as it decays to zero.

If the circuit is open circuited rather than short circuited,

then the collapsing flux will produce a large emf that
may cause sparking across the switch contacts as they
are opened (causing damage to the contacts and INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
producing heat and electromagnetic radiation).

Most importantly the large emf produced can

cause a lethal electric shock on what is normally
considered a safe, low voltage dc circuits.

111
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

3.12 DC MOTOR AND GENERATOR

THEORY

If a conductor is moved at right angles to a magnetic

field, an emf is induced in the conductor. If an external
circuit is then connected to the conductor a current will
flow. The direction of the current flow depends on two
things:
The direction of the magnetic field.
The direction of relative movement between
the conductor and the field.

The direction of conventional current flow can be

determined by using Fleming‟s right hand rule.
The size of the generated emf depends on three factors:
The strength of the magnetic field (B).
The effective length of the conductor in the
field (l).
The linear velocity of the conductor (V).

The three being related in the formula:

112
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Simple single loop generator Induced emf

As the loop rotates an emf is induced in both sides of the

In its simplest form, a generator consists of a single loop conductor. By using Fleming‟s right hand rule it can be
of wire rotated between the poles of a permanent seen that the resultant currents flow in opposite
magnet. directions on each side, but are in the same direction
around the loop.
The rotating part of the machine is called the rotor or
armature and is connected to the stationary external
circuit via two slip rings, thus allowing a current to flow.

113
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
An emf is only induced in a conductor when it is moved
at right angles to a magnetic field, therefore the loop will
also have an emf induced in it when it is moving at right
angles to the field, when moving parallel to the field no
emf will be induced. At any position in between there
will be a proportion of maximum emf induced in the
loop.
The instantaneous value of emf induced in the loop is
given by:
Where:
And is the angle of the conductor with respect to the
field.
As the loop passes the neutral point, the direction of
travel of the conductors through the field reverses. The
conductor that was moving upwards through the field is
now moving downwards, therefore, the emf's induced in
the conductors must change direction as must the
resultant current flow.
Output frequency
As the loop rotates, the emf rises to a max in one
direction, then falls to zero and then rises to a maximum
in the opposite direction before once again falling to
zero.
One complete revolution is one cycle, the loop having
returned to its start position. The number of cycles per
second gives the frequency.
The faster the loop is rotated the more cycles per second
and the higher the frequency. In this simple generator
the frequency depends on the number of loop
revolutions per second.
The output from this generator changes polarity every
time the loop rotates 180 degrees and is therefore of
little use as a direct current generator.
114
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Commutation Although the current now flows in the same direction

through the external circuit, it is still of little practical
In order to make the current flow the same way through use because the voltage and current fall the zero twice
the load, the external circuit must be switched over every cycle.
every time the loop moves past its neutral position. This
is achieved using a commutator. Using several loops and a multi-segment commutator a
more constant output can be produced.
The commutator is used in place of slip rings and
connects the rotating loop to the stationary external
circuit. The commutator has 2 functions:

To transfer current from the rotating loop to

the stationary external circuit.

To the periodically switch the external circuit

to maintain current flow in the same
direction.

The switching takes place when the loop is moving

parallel to the field and has no emf induced in it.

Using a single loop generator and a two segment

commutator, the output will be as shown.

115
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Ring wound generator
The simple construction of the ring wound generator
makes it ideal for explaining the operation of a multi coil
machine.
The rotor consists of a laminated iron cylinder onto
which are wound 8 equally spaced coils. The junction
between each pair of coils is connected to a segment of
the commutator. The number of segments equals the
number of coils, this being true for all dc generator
armature windings.
The brushes are drawn inside for clarity and are
positioned so that when they short circuit a coil, that coil
is moving parallel to the magnetic field and has no emf
induced in it.
The metal used for the rotor has a very low reluctance;
therefore the main field flux flows through it rather than
through the air gap in the centre. The parts of the coils
on the inside of the rotor therefore have no emf induced
in them. The low reluctance rotor creates a radial field in
the air gap, as shown below.
The radial field means that the conductors are moving at
right angles to the flux for a longer period of time and
are therefore producing maximum emf for longer. This
results in a flat top to the output waveform as shown
above.
The 8 coils are split into two parallel paths of four, each
group of four coils being connected in series. Because
one set of four coils is moving up through the main field
and the other set is moving down through the field, the
emf's induced in each set of four coils is in the opposite
116
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

direction, but it is in the same direction with respect to

the brushes.

The emf induced in four coils is as shown below. The emf

in the other four coils is in the opposite direction but in
the same direction with respect to the brushes. It can be
seen that the emf no longer falls to zero and only has a
small ripple on it.

The ring wound generator is no longer used. Although

simple in construction, there are difficulties in winding
the coils through the rotor; also half of each coil has no
emf induced.

117
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Practical dc generator The field assembly consists of a cylindrical frame, or

Construction
The size and weight of generators vary considerably, but
all are constructed in a manner similar to that shown
below.
yoke, onto which the pole pieces are bolted. Generators
generally have at least four pole pieces, although small
machines may have only two.
Wound around each pole piece is a field coil. The yoke
has a low reluctance and provides a path for the main
field of the machine.

To reduce eddy currents the yoke is usually laminated;

the armature core also provides a path for the main field
and is therefore also of low reluctance and laminated.

The armature windings are located in slots cut in the

core, being wedged in with insulation to prevent them
being thrown out by centrifugal forces.

118
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
The coils are normally wound so that they return along
a slot in the rotor that is one pole pitch away (see
diagram).
Pole pitch is a term used to describe the angle between
one main pole and the next main pole of the opposite
polarity.
The emf induced in each side of the coil is again in
opposite directions but assisting around the coil.
This type of winding is called a drum winding and has
the advantage that the coils can be wound and insulated
before being fitted into the rotor. There are two types of
drum winding, Lap wound and wave wound.
The armature windings are connected to risers attached
to the commutator. The commutator is made of copper
segments separated by mica insulation.
The brush gear assembly consists of a holder and
rocker. The holder allows the brushes to slide up and
down without allowing them to move laterally; the
rocker allows the brushes to be rotated around the
commutator so that they can be positioned on the
magnetic neutral axis.
It should be noted that the maximum output power from
a dc generator is governed primarily by the generators
ability to dissipate heat. Methods of cooling vary, a
large, low power generator would normally be cooled
naturally by convection and radiation. Smaller, higher
power generators will need some form of cooling system
that blows or sucks air through the generator.
This may use ram air from a propeller slipstream or
from movement of the aircraft through the air, or a fan
attached to the rotor shaft of the generator.
119
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Lap wound generator

In a lap wound generator the end of each coil is bent

back to the start of the next coil, the two ends of any
coil being connected to adjacent segments of the
commutator (see diagram below).

This form of construction is used on large heavy current

machines. The number of parallel paths for current
always equals the number of brushes and the number of
field poles (see diagram).

120
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Wave wound generator This type of winding is used in smaller machines and is
In a wave wound generator the end of each coil is bent therefore more common on aircraft generators.
forward to be connected to the start of another coil
located in a similar position under the next pair of main
poles (see diagram above).

The ends of one coil are connected to segments two pole

pitches away. This type of machine has two parallel
paths and uses only two brushes, irrespective of the
number of poles (see diagram).

121
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Internal resistance

A dc machine has resistance due to the armature

windings, the brushes and the brush to commutator
surface contact.

This is called internal resistance and can be measured

across the terminals of the generator (for the purposes
of calculation the internal resistance is represented as a
single value in series with the generated emf).

Due to internal resistance, the generators terminal

voltage varies with load current; as load current is
increased the voltage dropped across the internal
resistance increases and the terminal voltage decreases.

122
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Armature reaction
When armature current is flowing, a field is produced
around the armature conductors. The overall field of the
machine is then produced by the interaction between the
main field and the armature field.
The armature field is at 90 degrees to the main field of
the machine and therefore distorts it as shown below.
This distorting of the field is called armature reaction
and has the effect of causing a weaker field at points A
and a stronger field at points B.
The machine is working near to saturation and therefore
the overall effect is a weakening of the field and a
reduction in the generator output.
Distortion of the field also means that the magnetic
neutral axis is moved around, in the direction of
rotation, away from the machines geometric neutral
axis.
When the brushes now short an armature coil, it is no
longer at a point where zero emf is induced in it,
therefore the brushes must be moved. The position they
are moved to depends upon the armature current, the
greater the current the further the brushes must be
advanced.
123
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Armature reaction can be reduced by fitting

compensating windings, these are small windings
connected in series with the armature and fitted into
slots cut in the pole faces of the main fields.

When current flows in the armature it also flows in the

compensating windings producing a field that cancels the
armature field.

With careful design correction is applied for all values of

armature current bringing the magnetic neutral axis
back onto the geometric neutral axis and restoring the
overall strength of the machines field. INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

124
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Reactive sparking Prior to being shorted by the brush, current in coil A is at

a maximum value and, after leaving the brush, current
The diagrams below represent the movement of the will be at a maximum value in the opposite direction.
commutator under the brush. Whilst the coil is shorted by the brush the current must
drop to zero.

The coil, however, has inductance and when shorted a

back emf is produced that tries to maintain current flow.
When the coil comes off the brush this back emf results
in an excess of current that jumps, as a spark, from the
commutator to the brush this is called reactive sparking.

One way of overcoming the problem is to increase the

resistance of the brushes; this reduces the time constant
of the inductive circuit allowing the current to collapse to
zero during commutation. Increasing the resistance of
the brushes produces a power loss and increases the
overall resistance of the machine.

Sparking at the commutator may also be caused by:

worn or sticking brushes

incorrect spring tension
commutator flats
proud mica
125
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

EMF Commutation
Another way of overcoming the problem is to use emf
commutation. The purpose of emf commutation is to
neutralise the back emf that leads to the reactive
sparking.
Interpoles have the same polarity as the next main pole
and are connected in series with the armature.
The interpoles induce an emf into the short circuited
coils that exactly cancels the back emf, thus allowing the
current to fall to zero instantly.

One way of achieving this is to advance the brushes Being in series with the armature means that the
beyond the magnetic neutral axis, this means the coils reactance voltage is always eliminated irrespective of
are under the influence of the next main pole before the value of armature current.
being shorted and will therefore have an emf induced in
them; the induced emf will be off opposite polarity to the
back emf and will reduce it, thereby reducing the current
in the coil and allowing time for it to drop to zero whilst
the coil is shorted.

Unfortunately advancing the brushes is only good for

one value of armature current, if the current increases
the brushes must be advanced further; advancing the
brushes also increases the demagnetising effects of
armature reaction.

A better way of applying emf commutation is to fit

interpoles between the main poles of the machine.

126
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Generator classifications Series generator

Generators are usually classified by the method of The series generator has a field winding consisting of a
excitation used. There are three classifications: few turns of heavy gauge wire connected in series with
the armature.
Permanent magnet.
Separately excited.
Self excited.

A permanent magnet generator has a limited output

power and an output voltage that is directly proportional
to speed of rotation.

A separately excited generator has its field supplied from

an external source. The output voltage is controlled by
varying the field current.

Self excited generators supply their own field current

from the generator output; again the output voltage is On "No-load" there is no armature current and therefore
controlled by varying the field current. This group may no field current. The only voltage generated is due to
be subdivided into three sub-groups: residual magnetism within the field. As the load current
increases the field current increases and the terminal
Series. voltage rises, the increase in voltage more than
Shunt. compensating for the loss due to armature reactance
Compound. and internal resistance.
127
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The voltage continues to rise until saturation of the field The shunt generator has a falling characteristic and is
occurs. used for dc generation on aircraft.

A series generator therefore has a rising characteristic Compound generator

and is generally only used as a line booster.
Compound generators have both series and shunt field
Shunt generator windings and fall into one of two categories:

The shunt generator has a field consisting of many turns Differential compound generators, in which the
of fine wire connected in parallel with the armature. two fields are wound so as to oppose each other.
Cumulative compound generators, in which the
fields are wound so as to assist each other.

The differential type of compound generator is generally

used where a high initial voltage is required but only a
low running voltage. Devices such as arc welders or arc
lighting may use this form of generator.

Cumulative machines can be wound to produce over,

level or under compounding. Under compounding is
more common in aircraft generators, the output voltage
On "No-load" the terminal voltage is a maximum. As the falling as the load current is increased.
load current is increased, the terminal voltage decreases
due to the resistance of the armature and armature
reactance.
128
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Self excitation

For a dc generator to self excite, certain conditions must

be met:

The generator must have residual magnetism.

The excitation field, when formed, must assist the
residual magnetism.

For shunt generators additional criteria need to be met:

The field resistance must be below a critical value. INTENTIONALLY LEFTY BLANK
The load resistance must not be too low.

Due to the above conditions, the only way to reverse the

output voltage of a dc generator is to reverse the
polarity of the residual magnetism. If the field winding
supply or the drive direction is reversed the excitation
will oppose the residual magnetism and the field will be
collapse.

129
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

DC motors The magnitude of the force is dependant upon three

factors:
If a current carrying conductor is placed at right angles
to a magnetic field, a force will be exerted on it, causing The flux density of the field (B).
it to move. The magnitude of the current flowing through the
conductor (I).
The direction of the force and the resultant movement The length of the conductor within the magnetic
depends on two factors: field (l).

Direction of current flow in the conductor.

Direction of the magnetic field.

The direction of the force and the resultant movement

can be found by using Fleming‟s left hand rule as shown
below:

130
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Simple single loop motor
The simplest form of motor consists of a single loop of
wire able to rotate between the poles of a permanent
magnet.
If a current is applied to the loop through slip rings, a
motor torque will be produced, and the loop will start to
rotate.
As the loop rotates past vertical, the current appears to
change direction, this causes the torque to change
direction, so the direction of rotation changes.
When the loop passes vertical, the current appears to
change direction again, causing rotation to revert to its
original direction.
If left, the loop simply oscillates back and forth either
side of the vertical position.
Commutation
To make the loop rotate, the current must be made to
change direction as the loop passes the vertical position
this is achieved using a commutator and brushes.
When current is applied to the loop a motor torque is
produced and the loop starts to rotate (1).
131
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
When the loop is vertical no rotational torque is
produced but momentum keeps it moving; In this
position the direction of current within the loop is
reversed by the commutator, so that as the vertical
position is passed the torque produced is in the original
direction, maintaining rotation.
To improve the torque and produce smoother running
more loops or coils are added to the armature, each
having its own commutator segment.
Practical dc motors
Construction
Direct current generators are constructed in the same
manner as dc generators, therefore further description is
unnecessary.
The similarities are as such that one machine can be
operated as the other with only minimal adjustment, and
in the case of more expensive machines used as starter
generators, with no adjustment.
Most motors have some form of rating, this being a limit
on the performance. Rating take various forms
depending on the type, size and use of the motor, but
are generally based on a limit on the speed, duration or
altitude of operation.
As with generators, the limit on a motors performance
depends very much on the ability of the machine to
dissipate heat. Cooling may be natural, by convection
and radiation, or assisted by rotor mounted fans, blast
air or slipstream.
Back emf
When a conductor moves in a field, an emf is induced in
the conductor.
The armature coils are moving in a magnetic field and
therefore must have an emf induced in them, this emf
acts against the applied voltage and is called back emf.
The resultant of the two voltages is called the effective
voltage. The flow of armature current is due to the
effective voltage.
132
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
When running, the back emf is almost equal to the
applied voltage, therefore the effective voltage and the
current taken from the supply are both small.
Starting d.c. motors
When starting, the rotor is stationary and therefore
producing no back emf, this results in a high effective
voltage and a large current being taken from the supply.
To limit the current a starting resistor is often used, the
resistor being removed from the circuit once the motor
is running.
Torque
The torque produced by a dc motor is directly
proportional to the armature current and the magnetic
field strength.
Some torque is lost within the motor, especially if a fan
is fitted to the rotor shaft. The torque lost is not
constant, usually increasing with an increase in speed.
Armature reaction
The overall field of a dc motor consists of the armature
field and the stator field. The two fields react, as in the
dc generator, producing armature reaction.
133
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Speed control

The effects of back emf make a dc motor a self

regulating machine.

If the load is increased, load torque exceeds motor

torque and the motor slows down, the reduction in
speed causing a decrease in the back emf and an
increase in the effective voltage across the armature.

Armature reaction causes the magnetic neutral axis of The increase in effective voltage causes an increase in
the motor to be moved around in the opposite direction the current drawn from the supply and an increase in
to that of the generator, against the direction of motor torque, the increase in motor torque causes an
rotation. The problem can be overcome as in dc increase in speed to cope with the load increase.
generators, by fitting compensating windings.
The speed of a dc motor can be varied in two ways:
Reactive sparking
By controlling the field current.
The dc motor also suffers from reactive sparking. For By controlling the armature current.
fixed load motors this problem is overcome simply by
moving the brushes onto the magnetic neutral axis; for
variable load motors, interpoles are used as in a dc
generator.

134
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Field control Changing the direction of rotation

A decrease in field current will cause the main field flux
to decreases, this will in turn decrease the back emf
induced into the armature. The decrease in back emf
will result in an increase of the effective voltage which
will cause the armature current to increase. The
increase in armature current increases the motor torque
which increases the motor speed.
This occurs because a small change in the main field
strength causes a large change in the armature current.
Of course, this cannot continue uncontrolled because
eventually the field will be lost. Field control is generally
used for speed control of normal running speed and
upwards.
To change the direction of rotation it is only necessary to
change the direction of the main field or the armature
current. If both are changed the motor will rotate in the
same direction.
In the majority of cases where a bi-directional dc motor
is required on an aircraft, a split field motor is used.
This motor will be examined in more detail later in the
notes, suffice to say it has two fields windings, one for
clockwise rotation and another for anti-clockwise
rotation.

Armature control

An increase in armature current causes an increase in

motor torque and the motor speed increases. A
decrease in armature current causes a decrease in
motor speed. Armature control is generally used for
control of normal running speed and downwards.

135
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Motor classifications Theoretically the torque is approximately proportional to

Dc motors are constructed in same manner as dc
generators. Armatures are wound in same manner,
either wave or lap, the only difference is the positioning
of brushes due to armature reaction or reactive
sparking.
Motors are classified in the same manner as generators -
shunt, series and compound; each type having its own
operating characteristics and uses.
the square of the armature current. In practice,
however, due to armature reaction and saturation of the
magnetic circuit, and particularly on heavy loads, this is
not true.
As speed increases, the torque decreases, until the load
torque and motor torque balance. If the load of a series
motor is removed, speed may become dangerously high.
It is not normal practice to run these motors off load.

Series motor

A series motor has a low resistance, heavy gauge

winding in series with the armature winding. On light
loads speed is high, armature current is low and the field
is weak. On heavy loads speed is low, armature current
is high and the field is strong. Series motors have a
wide speed variation with load.

The armature torque is proportional to the magnetic field

and armature current. In series motors the magnetic
field depends on the armature current.

136
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

When starting, a series motor it is normally connected Shunt motor

straight to the supply. Initial current is limited by the
combined resistance of the field and armature windings
and by the inductance of field winding.
The field strength builds up quickly, giving a high
starting torque, fast acceleration and rapid back emf
build up. There is a short period of high current drain on
the supply.
Where a large speed range is required, as in turbine
engine starting, a starter resistor is initially used in
series with the motor and removed when the motor is
required to increase speed. The starter resistor must be
able to carry large current involved.
A shunt Wound motors has a high resistance field
winding in parallel with armature. The field current will
be constant if the input voltage is constant and no field
control resistor is used.
When load torque is increased, the motor will slow
down, the fall in back emf allows the armature current to
rise and the motor torque increases. When the motor
torque matches the load torque, the speed again
becomes constant. Small decreases in speed cause
relatively large increases in the armature current.

Applications include starter motors, cranes and dc

actuators.

Some series motors are fitted with two separate

windings. This enables motor rotation to be quickly
reversed.

Applications include fuel valves landing lights.

137
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Between no load and full load, the variation in speed of a
direct current shunt motor, with a low resistance
armature, is small and these motors can be regarded as
constant speed; with a high resistance armature, there
is a more noticeable variation in speed with load.
When a shunt motor has a constant input voltage:
On light loads the magnetic field is constant and
the torque is directly proportional to the armature
current.
On heavy loads the magnetic field reduced by
armature reaction and torque does not rise in
direct proportion to the armature current.
If a motor does not increase speed when connected to
the supply, then no back emf is produced. This causes a
high armature current, large armature reaction and
reduced torque and the motor will not start.
Several options are available to solve this problem:
Motors used on small loads only.
Start motors with no load.
Increase armature resistance.
Use a starter resistor.
A low resistance shunt motor is normally started with a
variable resistor, set to maximum resistance, placed in
series with the armature. This reduces the armature
current and armature reaction, increasing the start
torque.
As the speed increases, the back emf increases and
armature current reduces. As the speed builds the
resistance is gradually decreased until at normal running
speed it is totally removed from the circuit.
An automatic method, used for inserting a resistor in
series with the armature for starting and removing it
once the back emf has been developed, is referred to as
a 'T Start' circuit.
When current is applied the armature is stationary and
producing no back emf, therefore the voltage at A is
almost zero, the relay is de-energized and the resistance
is in circuit limiting the current.
As the rotor starts to turn and the back emf increases,
the potential point A starts to increase.
138
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
At a pre-determined speed the potential at point A and
the current through the coil, will be sufficient to cause
the relay to energize, removing the resistor from the
armature circuit.
Speed control
The speed of a shunt motor is normally controlled by a
variable resistor placed in series with the field winding.
When the resistance is increased the field current is
reduced, this reduces the back emf, increasing the
effective voltage. The increase in effective voltage
results in an increase in armature current and an
increase in speed. When required to reduce the speed
of the motor, the field resistance is decreased.
Separately excited shunt motors
Separately excited dc shunt motors have the same
operating characteristics as described and the therefore
require no additional consideration.
Shunt motors have uses where a constant speed is
required and will be found in inverter drives and
windscreen wipers.
Compound motor
These are used to meet specific requirements we may
require motor with high start torque that will not race off
load, or perhaps a motor to increase, decrease or
maintain speed as load varies.
These requirements can be met with suitable
compounding. There are two forms of compound motor:
Differential - fields connected to oppose each other
Cumulative - fields connected to assist each other
139
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Split field motor
In certain applications it is necessary to change the
direction of rotation of a motor. Typical examples would
be in valves and actuators.
We have already seen that this can be achieved by
reversing the direction of the armature or field current,
however, there is also a special form of reversible series
motor known as a split field motor.
A split field motor is simply a series motor with two field
windings. The windings are wound in opposite
directions, with one of the two windings being used for
each direction of rotation. The direction is usually
controlled by a single pole, double throw switch as
shown below.
The above circuit is in fact that of an actuator and
includes not only a split field motor, but also a selector
switch, limit switches and a brake solenoid.
The motor is shown as having driven to position 1; this
can be seen because limit switch A is not connected to
the field winding. Whether this position is fully open,
fully closed, extended or retracted depends on the
device being driven.
When it is required that the actuator drive to position 2,
the selector switch is moved to position 2. Current flows
through the field winding, brake solenoid and armature
winding. The brake is released and the motor starts to
turn.
As soon as the motor moves, it is no longer in position
1, so switch A moves across. This allows the direction to
be reversed by returning the selector switch to position
1 should the need dictate.
When the motor reaches the limit of travel at position 2,
switch B moves across, removing the power supply from
the motor.
140
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
The brake solenoid, field winding and armature de-
energise, the brake is applied and the motor stops.
If the selector switch is now moved to position 1, the
upper field winding, brake solenoid and armature are
energised. The brake is released and the motor runs in
the opposite direction towards position 1.
Rating
Most motors have a rating, a limit on performance or
operation. Ratings take various forms:
Output.
Time.
Speed.
Altitude.
As with generators output depends very much on
machines ability to dissipate heat.
All machines require some form of cooling. Low output
motors or those that are not used for continuous
operation may be cooled naturally. Others may be fitted
with centrifugal or straight fan to drive air through the
machine - usual small machines. Others use air ducted
from slipstream.
Starter generators
Many gas turbine aircraft are equipped with starter-
generator systems.
These starting systems use a combination starter-
generator which operates as a starter motor to drive the
engine during starting, and after the engine has reached
a self-sustaining speed, operates as a generator to
supply the electrical system power.
The starter-generator unit, shown below, is basically a
shunt generator with an additional heavy series winding.
This series winding is electrically connected to produce a
strong field and a resulting high torque for starting.
Starter-generator units are desirable from an economical
standpoint, since one unit performs the functions of both
starter and generator. Additionally, the total weight of
starting system components is reduced, and fewer spare
parts are required.
141
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The starter-generator shown below has four windings: During starting, the series, compensating, and interpole
windings are used. The unit is similar to a direct-
A series field. cranking starter since all of the windings used during
A shunt field. starting are in series with the source.
A compensating field.
An interpole winding. While acting as a starter, the unit makes no practical use
of its shunt field. A source of 24 volts and 1,500
amperes is usually required for starting.

When operating as a generator, the shunt,

compensating and interpole windings are used. The
series field is used only for starting purpose.

The shunt field is connected in the conventional voltage

control circuit for the generator. Compensating and
interpole windings provide almost sparkless
commutation from no load to full load.

142
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
3.13 AC THEORY
Production of a sine wave
The only feasible way of generating an electromotive
force (emf) by mechanical means is to rotate a
conductor in a magnetic field.
As the direction of motion through the field is changing,
the induced emf in the conductor will also change. In
addition, the induced emf will start at zero, rise to a
maximum value, decay to zero and then repeat the
process in the reverse direction.
It is in this way that basic alternating emf‟s are
produced, leading, when there is a complete circuit, to
alternating current (ac) flow.
By making the conductor in the form of a loop, we have
the basis of the simple ac generator.
All generators, both dc and ac, have this basic design.
In a dc machine the output to the load is continually
switched by the commutator so that the load current
always flows in one direction. In the ac machine the
current through the load is continually reversing.
If the generated emf of the loop is measured and plotted
as the loop rotates, the result will be as shown in the
diagram below.
143
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

It can be seen that when the conductors are moving
parallel to the lines of flux, and not cutting them, the
induced emf is zero.
When the conductors are cutting the lines of flux at right
angles, maximum emf is induced in them. By
convention, the part of the waveform above the zero line
is labelled positive and the part below the line is labelled
negative.
The wave generated is called a sine wave because its
amplitude (height) at any instant can be calculated from
sine tables, i.e. plotting the sines of all angles between
0º and 360º.
When the conductor has completed 360º of rotation, it is
said to have completed one cycle.

The sine wave

If the conductor is rotated at uniform speed in a uniform

magnetic field, then the output waveform is said to be
„sinusoidal‟ and we refer to this type of waveform as a
sine wave.

There are many other wave shapes that can be

generated or developed, but it is the sine wave that is
used for main power supply systems. It is therefore
necessary for the engineer to be very familiar with this
particular waveform and he is expected to be able to
remember and use the various figures and formulae
associated with it.

144
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Peak and Peak-to-Peak values
Amplitude values and their calculation apply equally to
current and to voltage measurement.
Peak or Maximum Value
The maximum value attained by the wave in either
direction is called the maximum value or, more usually,
the peak value.
Peak-to-Peak Value
The maximum in one direction to the maximum in the
other direction is called the Peak-to-Peak value. It must
not be confused with peak value, which is measured in
one direction only and which is normally used in
calculations.
Peak-to-peak values are often used on oscilloscopes
because it is easier to measure from top to bottom of
the waveform. It must be remembered to divide the
peak-to-peak value by two in order to obtain the peak
value for calculations.
Instantaneous Value
As previously stated, the value at any instant can be
calculated by multiplying the peak value by the sine of
the angle (from 0º) through which the conductor has
rotated.
Average values
The amplitude of an ac waveform may be defined in
terms of its average values. Over one complete cycle
this would mathematically be zero (the wave goes as far
positive as it does negative); if the pulses of voltage or
current are always in one direction, the average value
can be calculated from:
145
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

For single-phase full-wave rectification
Average Value = Peak Value × 0.637
For single-phase half-wave rectification
Average Value = Peak Value × 0.318
RMS values
Whilst the Peak and Average values of ac have their
place and uses, they are not a lot of use for everyday
work on ac.
To produce the same heating effect in the same resistor
using dc would require a dc with a steady current of only
0.707 of „Y‟.
By convention, it is not necessary to add „rms‟ to a
voltage or current value but, if peak or average values
are being referred to, then the word „peak‟ (Pk) or
„average‟ (Av) must be added after the value.

What is required is a value of ac which relates to an

equivalent value of dc. Suppose that an electric fire is
operating with 5 amperes of dc flowing through it, and it
is giving out a certain amount of heat, we want to able
to say that 5 amperes of ac is flowing through it. Such a
value is given by the Root Mean Square (rms) value of
ac.

For a sinusoidal waveform, the rms value = peak value

× 0.707. In other words, a sine wave of peak value „Y‟
produces a certain amount of heat when passed through
a given resistor.

146
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Periodic time Angular Velocity

The time taken to complete one cycle is called the The velocity at which the phasor rotates is very
„periodic time‟ (t), measured in seconds or fractions of a important and can be calculated from:
second.

Frequency

In electrical terms, the frequency is the number of cycles Where:

completed in one second (cycles per second) which is
expressed in Hertz (Hz).

1 Hz = 1 cycle per sec And

10 Hz = 10 cycles per sec etc.

1,000 Hz (1 x103 Hz) = 1 Kilo-Hertz (1 kHz)

1,000,000 Hz (1 x106 Hz) = 1 Mega-Hertz (1 MHz)
1,000,000,000 Hz(1 x109 Hz) = 1 Giga-Hertz (1GHz) Then

Periodic time and frequency are naturally related: or

(A proper understanding of this formula is essential as it

is used in other formulae).
147
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Referring back to our simple loop it can be seen that, if
the loop was rotating at 120 revs per second, then the
output frequency would be 120 Hz. It therefore follows
that the frequency of the output of an ac generator is
directly proportional to its speed of rotation.
Phase Difference (Angular Difference)
If two conductors are caused to rotate at the same
angular velocity, then two waves would be generated.
Any angle between them is said to be their phase
difference.
In the following diagram, the phase difference is 90º.
As the conductors rotate in an anti-clockwise direction,
the dotted wave is said to lead the solid wave by 90º.
When two waves are 90º apart, they are said to be in
quadrature with each other. When two waves are 180º
apart, they are said to be in anti-phase with each
other.
Phasor or vector diagrams
Waveform diagrams are difficult to visualise and
engineers have devised a diagrammatic method known
as a phasor or vector diagram to simplify the problem.
The terms vector and phasor are interchangeable,
however, the term vector is more general, being used to
denote any quantity that has both magnitude and
direction i.e. velocity, whereas the term phasor tends to
be associated more with electrical engineering.
To avoid repetition the word phasor will be used in these
notes.
Imagine a line (Vm) rotating in an anticlockwise
direction, rather like the conductor rotating in the
magnetic field. If you plot the vertical displacement of
the tip of the line at various angular intervals, the curve
traced out is a sine wave.
148
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
When the line is horizontal, the vertical displacement of
the tip of the line is zero, corresponding to the start of
the sine wave at point A.
After 90 of anti-clockwise rotation, the line points
vertically upwards (point B on the diagram). After 180
of rotation the line points to the left of the page (point C
on the diagram), and the vertical displacement is again
zero.
Rotation through a further 180 returns the line to its
start point.
A phasor is a line representing the rotating line Vm,
frozen at some point in time. Although line Vm was
drawn to represent the maximum values, a phasor is
normally scaled to represent the rms values, and can be
used to represent voltage current, power or indeed flux.
One rotation of the phasor produces one cycle of the
waveform; therefore the number of rotations completed
per second gives the frequency.
The 3 'o-clock position, on a phasor diagram, is the
reference point of the diagram. Whether the current,
voltage, mmf or flux is drawn pointing in this direction
depends on the circuit being considered.
If two or more phase displaced waveforms are to be
drawn on the same phasor diagram they must have
the same frequency, their phase displacements are
indicated by the angles between the phasors.
It must be remembered that phasors rotate anti-
clockwise; therefore if a voltage leads a current by 90 ,
the two phasors should be drawn so that as they are
rotated, the voltage phasor is leading the way.
Addition of phasors
The addition of sine waves is greatly simplified by the
use of phasor addition, however it should be
remembered that, phasors can only be used to add two
sine waves of the same frequency.
149
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

To add two phasors a parallelogram is produced, the two

extra sides being drawn parallel to the phasor already
present ( see diagram).

Once the parallelogram has been produced, the resultant

voltage is represented by a line from the origin to the INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
intersection of the two new lines.

The length of this new phasor represents the magnitude

of the new voltage and the angle between it and the
other phasors is the phase angle between them.

When adding more than two phasors, it is simply a

matter of reducing pairs to a single phasor, as
described, until a single resultant remains.

150
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Addition of ac & dc
It is possible for both ac and dc to exist in the same
circuit or conductor.
In such cases the ac is said to be superimposed on the
dc, or that the dc has an ac ripple. The resultant
waveform depends on the relative values of ac and dc,
as shown in the diagrams below.
Other types of waveforms
Fourier (1768-1830), a French mathematician, was one
of the first to realise that all periodic waves could be
built-up by combining sine waves of the appropriate
amplitude, frequency and phase.
When considering waveforms made up of a number of
sine waves it is customary to call the sine wave with the
lowest frequency, the fundamental.
The resultant waveform will have the same frequency as
the fundamental frequency. The harmonics are those
sine waves with frequencies that are twice, three-times,
four times etc. the fundamental frequency.
Square waves
A perfect square wave has vertical sides and a flat top.
Such a theoretically perfect wave has an infinite number
of odd harmonics and no even harmonics.
Such a waveform is not possible to achieve in electronic
circuits, however, by using the fundamental and the
lowest nine odd harmonics (3rd to 19th) a good
151
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

resemblance can be obtained. Limiting the number of

harmonics causes a sloping of the sides of the wave.

A voltage with a square waveform is often used as a test

signal applied to the input of a system. If the system
does not respond well to higher frequencies, the sides
will slope, if it does not respond well to lower
frequencies the flat portions will become curved.

If an amplifier does not function correctly when a square

wave is applied to the input, it is unlikely to function
correctly when other periodic waves are applied. A
skilled experimenter can make deductions about the
response of an amplifier by observing the output
waveforms.

Triangular or saw tooth waves

A perfect saw tooth wave contains an infinite number of

both odd and even harmonics; again this is not possible
practically. The lower harmonics affect the rising portion
of the wave, the higher harmonics affect the decay time.

152
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

3.14 RESISTIVE, CAPACITIVE AND

INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS

The type of load placed on an ac power supply affects

the phase angle relationship between the voltage and
current. Each type of load produces a different effect,
so they are examined individually.

Resistive loads

When a pure resistance is placed in an ac circuit, the

instantaneous current is given by the instantaneous
Capacitive loads
voltage divided by the resistance (Ohms Law).
The diagram shows a pure capacitance or capacitor
This means that the current waveform is in phase with
connected in an ac circuit. This cannot actually happen
the voltage waveform. If the voltage and current values
in practice as there must always be some resistance, but
are known, then resistance may be calculated from:
we will introduce the resistive element later in these
notes.

153
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
A capacitor will always charge, or discharge, to the
voltage which is being applied to it. In other words, it
follows the supply voltage.
If we take the point where the capacitor is charged in
one direction, when connected across an ac supply and
the ac supply voltage starts decreasing, then a discharge
current will flow (conventionally) from the capacitor‟s
positive plate through the supply source to the negative
plate.
This current flow will be small at first as the supply
voltage starts to drop but will increase to a maximum
value when the supply is at zero volts. It will continue
to flow in the same direction but decrease as the
capacitor is charged up in the reverse direction,
dropping to zero at the point of full charge.
The diagram below illustrates this point and it can be
seen that the current is leading the supply voltage by
90º.
The operation of the capacitor produces an opposition to
the flow of current. It will therefore act in a similar
manner to resistance in a circuit. This effect is called
capacitive reactance; it is calculated in Ohms and is
given the symbol XC.
Capacitive reactance is dependent on frequency such
that XC varies inversely with variations in the frequency.
If the frequency is increased, XC decreases and so the
current flow increases. If frequency is decreased, XC
increases and so the current flow decreases. (This is
why, after the initial charge current, no current flows
through a capacitor on dc).
However:
154
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
It should be clearly understood that, although we refer
to alternating currents and signals „flowing through‟
capacitors, no current actually passes through the
dielectric between the plates.
Electrons circulate from plate to plate through the
circuit, being affected by the electrostatic fields on the
plates.
Inductive loads
The diagram shows a pure inductance or inductor
connected across an ac supply. These notes assume
that there is no resistance in the circuit. This is a
situation which cannot exist in practice, but we shall
introduce the resistive element later.
An inductance always opposes any change in current
flow. When the current is ac, and constantly changing in
value, the result is that it always lags behind the supply
voltage. For a pure inductance the angle of lag is 90º.
The constantly changing current means that the
magnetic field produced by the inductance is also
constantly changing. This gives rise to an emf being
induced into the inductor‟s own windings in such a
direction as to oppose the applied emf.
This self-induced emf is therefore known as a back-emf.
The back-emf is dependent on the rate of change of
current and on the value of the inductor (in Henrys).
155
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Note that the „minus‟ sign indicates that the back-emf is
in opposition to the applied emf. Note also that point F
on the following diagram is a maximum „negative‟ value
because the current at that instant (point A) is changing
at maximum rate.
The appearance of this back-emf in the circuit means
that there is an opposition to the flow of current from
the supply. The opposition due to an inductance, L, is
called inductive reactance, and given the symbol XL.
It has already been stated that back-emf and therefore
reactance, depends on the rate of change of current in
the circuit, this is obviously dependent on the frequency
of the ac supply.
As frequency increases, XL will increase and so current
flow will decrease. As frequency decreases, XL will
decrease and so current flow will increase.
It can thus be seen that equipment marked „For use on
ac only‟ is depending on the reactance to control the
current flow. If it was used on dc at the same voltage,
XL would not exist, the current flow would be too high
and the equipment would burn out.
However:
156
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Impedance
When inductance, capacitance and resistance appear
together in an ac circuit, in any combination, the total
opposition to current flow is referred to as impedance
and given the symbol Z.
Resistance, inductance and capacitance in a circuit can
be represented by phasors in the same way as currents
and voltages.
The position of each phasor relative to the reference
position (3 o'clock) depends on whether a series or
parallel circuit is being considered and therefore will be
studied under the appropriate heading.
For the purpose of deriving the impedance formula
shown below, it is only necessary to understand that
phasors for XL and R or XC and R are at 90 to each
other and as such form a right angled triangle.
In a circuit containing all three components the values of
XL and XC cancel out leaving one dominant value that
again forms a right angled triangle with R.
The resultant in each case is the circuit impedance,
which can be calculated quite easily using Pythagoras.
The total impedance in a circuit containing resistance R,
inductance L and capacitance C, is calculated using the
formula:
157
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

AC power It can be seen that all of the power waveform is above

Power in ac circuits also needs to be examined under the
three headings of resistive loads, inductive loads and
capacitive loads, as the calculation of power in each type
of load produces different results.
Resistive loads
the „zero‟ line, indicting that it is all being dissipated in
the resistance.
The shaped area under the power graph is the product
of power × time and represents the electrical energy
consumed in the circuit.

When the instantaneous values of voltage and current

are multiplied, the resultant power waveform is as
shown in this diagram below.

158
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Inductive loads
No power is developed in a purely inductive circuit.
Power is calculated by multiplying the instantaneous
values of voltage and current. If this is done for the two
waveforms when they are 90 º out-of-phase, then the
resultant power waveform will be as shown below.
It can be seen from the diagram that each half-cycle of
voltage and current produces one full cycle of power
(Power wave frequency is twice the supply frequency).
When the power curve is „positive‟, the inductor takes
power from the supply source. When the power curve is
„negative‟, the inductor returns power to the supply
source.
Over a complete cycle, the net absorption of power is
zero watts. It must be fully understood that current is
flowing in the circuit but that no work is being done
when that current is 90 º out-of-phase with the voltage.
159
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Capacitive loads
As with pure inductance, a pure capacitance also
produces a current flow which does „no work‟. On one
half-cycle, power is delivered to the capacitor (charging)
from the supply source but the on the next half-cycle the
capacitor returns power to the supply source
(discharging).
When the power curve is negative the capacitor returns
power to the supply source.
Over a complete cycle, the net absorption of power is
zero watts. Again it must be understood that the
current is flowing in the circuit, but no work is being
done.

Each half cycle of the voltage and current again

produces a full cycle of power. When the power curve is
positive, the capacitor takes power from the supply
source.

160
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The total load on a generator If the instantaneous values of two sine waves are added
together, the result will be another sine wave.
The following facts regarding power in ac circuits have Conversely, any sine wave can be thought of as being
already been established in these notes: comprised of two separate sine waves.

In a purely resistive circuit, all of the current
does work.
In a purely inductive circuit, none of the
current does work.
In a purely capacitive circuit, none of the
current does work.
If we assume generator‟s load current to be lagging the
voltage by angle we can say that, irrespective of the
individual loads that produced it, the load current is
comprised of one current which is in phase with the
voltage and one current which is 90º lagging the
voltage.

We have also established that, depending on the relative

values of resistance, inductance and capacitance, the
current can be at any angle, from 0º to 90º, leading or
lagging the supply voltage.

If a number of individual loads are switched on to an ac

generator, the individual currents will all combine to give
one load current at one particular angle of lead or lag.

As the angle is usually designed to be one in which the

current lags the voltage, we will concentrate on that but
the same arguments which we are going to use also
apply to a leading current.
161
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Apparent Power & actual current
The load current (lagging the voltage by ) is called the
actual current. This is the current that would be
indicated on an ammeter inserted into the circuit.
If the supply voltage is multiplied by this current, the
power that is apparently being dissipated is found. This
however, is not the true power being dissipated and so it
is called the „apparent power‟ and is given the units of
volts amps.
If the rating plate on an ac generator is examined, it will
be seen that the generator is rated at, say 200 volts
(rms); 30 kVA.
The rating is not given in watts because the designer has
no way of knowing what the phase angle will be when it
is loaded.
True power & Real Current
The component of the actual current that is in phase
with the voltage is known as the „Active‟ or „Real‟ load
current because it is the part of the load current that is
doing all the work.
162
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

This component can only be calculated as it is not

possible to measure anything other than actual current.

In order to find the real load current, it is necessary to

multiply the actual current load by the Cosine of the
angle, . If the supply voltage is multiplied be the real
load current, the „true power‟ being dissipated in the
circuit is found.

True power is given the unit of the Watt.

It is brought into being by the nature of the capacitive
and inductive loads.

Again, it can only be calculated, and is found by

multiplying the actual load current by the sine of the
angle .

If the supply voltage is multiplied by the reactive load

Reactive power & reactive current current, the reactive power is found and is given the
units of Volt Amps Reactive (VAR).
The component of the actual current that is lagging the
supply voltage by 90º is known as the „Reactive‟ or
„Wattless‟ load current because it is the part of the load
current that does no work at all, even though it exists
and has to be carried by the cables, etc.
163
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Power Factor Because of considerations of automatic control over

varying conditions, the power factor in aircraft systems
The angle which the actual load current makes with the is kept well away from unity. It is usual to operate at
supply voltage is known as the power factor of the power factors in the order of 0.75 or 0.8 on aircraft.
circuit.
Power factor can be obtained from anything that gives
The power factor is given by the Cosine of the angle, . the Cosine of the angle:
When the current is in phase with the voltage, the angle
is 0º. The Cosine of 0º = 1 and so the power factor =
unity.

When the current is in quadrature with the voltage, the

angle is 90º. The Cosine of 90º = 0 and so the power
factor = zero (0).

164
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Series LCR circuits This is shown below, along with the circuit diagram.

It has already been stated that it is not possible to have

an ac circuit consisting only of inductance or only of
capacitance. There must be some resistance in each of
these circuits and this resistance can be thought of as
being in series with the inductance or in series with the
capacitance.

Of course, many circuits have resistors deliberately

inserted in series with the other components and some The applied voltage VS is the phasor sum of VL and VR
circuits have all three components in series. It is these and leads I by phase angle , which can be any angle
combinations of series circuits that we will now consider. between 0º and 90º depending upon the ratio of XL to R.

Inductance and resistance in series If required the phasor diagram could be re-drawn with
the supply voltage VS in the horizontal position showing
As the inductance and the resistance are in series, the the current lagging this voltage.
current is the same through each component. Current
passing through the inductance gives rise to a potential
across the inductance which leads the current by 90º.
At the same time, the voltage developed across the
resistor is in phase with the current. As I is the common
value in the circuit, it is called the „reference phasor‟ and
is usually drawn horizontally when drawing the phasor
diagram.
165
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Capacitance and resistance in series
As the capacitance and the resistance are in series, the
current is the same through each component. Current
passing through the capacitance gives rise to a potential
across the capacitance which lags the current by 90º.
At the same time, the voltage developed across the
resistor is in phase with the current. As I is the common
value in the circuit, it is called the reference phasor and
is usually drawn horizontally when drawing the phasor
diagram. This is shown below, along with the circuit
diagram.
The applied voltage VS is the phasor sum of VC and VR
and lags I by phase angle , which can be any angle
between 0º and 90º depending upon the ratio of XC to R.
If required the phasor diagram could be re-drawn with
the supply voltage VS in the horizontal position and
showing the current lagging this voltage.
Inductance, capacitance and resistance in series
As in the paragraphs above, the current I is again
common all three components and so is used as the
reference phasor when drawing the phasor diagram.
This will obviously be a combination of the two diagrams
shown previously and is drawn below, along with the
circuit.
In this example, XL is greater than XC and therefore VL is
greater than VC.
166
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Series resonance

It has already been shown that XL varies directly with

frequency and that XC varies inversely with frequency.

If therefore, the frequency applied to the above circuit

was altered to decrease XL and at the same time
increase XC, then at one particular frequency XL would
Resolution of the diagram results in the applied voltage be equal to XC.
VS being shown to lead the current I by phase angle .

The circuit is therefore acting as though it were

inductive. The opposite effect would be obtained if XC
was greater than XL and the circuit would then act as
though it were capacitive.

This frequency is called the resonant frequency and is

denoted by the symbol fo. At resonant frequency, the
applied voltage and the circuit current are in phase, as
shown in this phasor diagram below and the impedance
of the circuit equals the resistance.
167
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

In a Series Circuit at Resonant Frequency: Then by transposition:

XL = XC
VL = VC
VR = VS
Z=R If graph of current against frequency is made for a
series circuit containing both inductance and
As XL and XC are equal and anti-phase they cancel each capacitance, the result is as shown below.
other, so the only opposition to the flow of current
comes from the resistive element of the circuit; the
Current, therefore, rises to a maximum value.

Because current is at its maximum value, this series

resonant circuit is known as an „acceptor circuit‟.
This high current causes VL and VC rise to very high
values. They can be far higher than the supply voltage
and can therefore be very dangerous. For this reason, it
is very rare for this type of circuit to be operated
continuously at resonant frequency.

Because XL = XC then:

168
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Voltage magnification

At resonance, VL and VC can rise to very large values

and be greater than the supply voltage. This is known
And:
as voltage magnification and given the symbol QO. Off
resonance the magnification factor is represented by the
symbol Q.

The amount of magnification is expressed by the

fractions:
The actual increase in voltage depends on the resistive
element of the circuit. Below fO the circuit is capacitive,
at resonance it is resistive and above fO inductive.

and is sometimes called the „Q‟ factor of the circuit.

Thus

169
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Selectivity
Selectivity is the ability of a tuned circuit to respond
strongly to its resonant frequency and to give a poor
response to nearby frequencies.
A sharp response curve indicates high selectivity; a flat
response curve indicates low selectivity.
High selectivity may be obtained by:
Making the values of XL and XC large, that is by
using a large value inductor and a small value
capacitor thus making the ratio large. This
increases the circuit impedance off resonance.
Making the value of the resistor smaller. This
reduces the impedance at resonance.
Since both selectivity and the magnification factor are
proportional to the inductance and inversely proportional
to the capacitance and resistance, the magnification
factor may be used as a measure of selectivity.
Bandwidth
The bandwidth (B) of a circuit is the difference between
two frequencies either side of the resonant frequency at
which the power has fallen to half its value at resonance,
i.e. the half power points (these are also called the –3db
points: see Decibel notation later in the course).
If the power has fallen to half its value at resonance
then since:
170
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

We can then say: By definition:

As the bandwidth of the circuit narrows theselectivity of

a circuit increases. Thus bandwidth may also be used as
a measure of selectivity as well as magnification factor
Therefore the current has fallen to 0.707 of its value at
(QO).
resonance.
A useful relationship is:

171
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Parallel LCR circuits

This section studies the effects of connecting inductors,

capacitors and resistors in parallel.

Inductance and capacitance

As with the series circuit, variation of frequency will

again effect the inductive reactance and the capacitive
reactance and there will again be one particular
frequency at which the two will be equal for a given
capacitor and inductor. This is the resonant frequency
of the circuit. Imagine also that the capacitor is charged to a given
voltage and that there is no resistance in the circuit.
At resonant frequency, the current circulating between
the capacitor and the inductor is high but the current When the switch is closed the capacitor will discharge
drawn from the supply is low. This type of circuit is through the inductor, transferring energy to it in the
therefore commonly known as a „rejector circuit‟. form of a magnetic field.

The best way of understanding its operation is to Once the capacitor has discharged and current ceases to
imagine a capacitor and an inductor connect as shown in flow the magnetic field will collapse, inducing and emf
the diagram. into the inductor in the opposite direction, this will
charge the capacitor up in the reverse direction.

172
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

This action will repeat itself ad infinitum and the current

will continue to circulate backwards and forwards at a
natural frequency which, of course, is the resonant
frequency of the circuit. This ideal condition would need
no external force to keep operating.

In practice, however, there must be some resistance in

our circuit and so the current will oscillate at resonant
frequency but will gradually decay as power is lost
across the resistance.

In order to keep our circuit oscillating it is only

necessary to keep the circulating current „topped-up‟
from the supply. The current drawn from the supply at
resonant frequency is therefore very small.
At supply frequencies less than resonance, the current
through the inductor increases and that through the
capacitor decreases. The reverse occurs at supply
frequencies above resonance.
If a graph is drawn of supply current (or line current, as
it is sometimes known) against frequency, the result will
be as follows:
The very high impedance at resonance associated with
parallel circuits is most often used in the tuning circuits
of radio or television receivers. When tuned to a
particular frequency, that frequency will not pass
through the parallel circuit.
It is therefore available for the amplifier to amplify and
use it. All the other (unwanted) frequencies coming in
at the aerial are passed through the parallel circuit to
the chassis, thereby by-passing the amplifier.

173
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

At frequencies above resonance, the circuit acts as The value of the resonant current is given by:
though it was capacitive and at frequencies below
resonance, as though it was inductive.

Parallel resonance
In a Parallel Circuit at Resonant Frequency (fO):
Unlike the series tuned circuit, the resistance does have
an effect on the resonant frequency of a parallel tuned
circuit, the equation being:

If, however, the resistance is very small, the term

involving resistance may be ignored and for most
practical purposes the resonant frequency is given by:
Because the impedance is a maximum, the parallel
resonant circuit is known as a „rejector circuit‟.

At resonance, the supply current (IS) is at its minimum

value and is in phase with the applied voltage.

174
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Impedance
The impedance of a parallel circuit can be calculated
using the formula shown below, although knowledge of
this formula is not essential on this course.
At resonance, the impedance is a maximum and called
the dynamic impedance (ZD) of the circuit.
If the supply frequency is increased above or decreased
below fO then the circuit impedance will decrease.
The dynamic impedance is given by the equation:
Current Magnification
In a parallel tuned circuit at resonance, current
magnification occurs, that is IL and IC will be very large
compared with IS.
At any instant IL and IC act in the same direction round
the „internal‟ circuit, and IS, flowing in the „external‟
circuit, is the difference between IL and IC. Thus, as IL
and IC are large and very nearly equal, IS will be small.
At any instant Kirchhoff‟s first law applies, that is:
The circulating current is the smaller of the two currents
(IL or IC) and IS is the make-up current.
Remember that QO for a series tuned circuit is its voltage
magnification whereas QO for a parallel tuned circuit is
its current magnification at the resonant frequency.
175
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Bandwidth Selectivity

Bandwidth is defined as the difference between two
frequencies f1 and f2, one either side of resonance, at
which the impedance, has fallen to 0.707 of the
maximum value.
As for the series circuit:
As for the series circuit, selectivity is the ability of the
tuned circuit to respond strongly to its resonant
frequency and to give a poor response to nearby
frequencies.
Again, as for the series circuit, QO is used as a measure
of selectivity.

Below fO Above fO
1. Z small due to small XL 1. Z small due to small XC
L 2. XC > XL 2. XL > XC
If the resistance is increased, or the ratio
C decreased, 3. Thus IL > IC 3. Thus IC > IL
then the impedance at resonance is decreased, QO is 4. Thus circuit inductive 4. Thus circuit capacitive
decreased and hence bandwidth increased.

176
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

3.15 TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are highly efficient, solid state, devices
that use the principle of mutual induction to increase or
decrease AC voltage or current in a circuit.
Because the flux must be changing state, static
transformers can only be used on alternating current. In
order for a transformer to be used on direct current, part
of the transformer must be rotated.
Power transformers
Power transformers consist of:
Primary and secondary windings.
Laminated core and coil former
A mounting and terminal strip
The ends of both primary and secondary windings are
connected to the terminal strip for connection into the
circuit.
The laminated core consist of thin strips of iron
approximately 0·7mm to 3mm thick, each sheet being
insulated from the next. This laminated form of
construction is used to prevent eddy currents joining and
producing large circulating current within the core.
The core is invariably one of two types, core or shell.
With a core type, the laminations are U shaped and
either I or L shaped, staggered when assembled to
provide a single circular magnetic circuit.

The windings consist of insulated wire wound onto the

laminated former. The primary winding is wound first
and the secondary wound on top; between each winding
is a layer of insulating material. The size of wire used
depends on the current rating of the transformer.

177
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The windings may be placed on one limb or split Circuit symbols & dot codes
between the two.
The basic symbol used for a transformer with one
With a shell type core, the laminations are usually T and primary winding and one secondary winding is as shown.
U shaped, staggered when assembled to produce a three
limbed core. When used for single phase, both windings
are wound on the centre limb, when used for three
phase, each phase is allocated to a separate limb.

Whilst more expensive, the provision of two magnetic

paths make the shell type former more suitable for large
current use.

All of the energy transferred from the primary winding to

the secondary must be stored in the magnetic field
created in the core, therefore, sufficient iron must be
provided to store the energy of each half cycle of the ac
waveform.
If the total power is kept the same, there will be less
energy in half a high frequency cycle than in half a low
frequency cycle, therefore the higher the supply
frequency, the smaller and lighter the transformer.
The two dots are used to indicate the polarity of the
windings. When the top of the left winding is positive,
the bottom of the right winding is positive and vice
versa.
Whilst it should be understood that there is a phase
difference of 180º between the primary and secondary
voltages, the polarity of the secondary winding with
respect to the primary, depends purely on the way the
transformer is wound.
178
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
To indicate the type of core material used, additional
markings are added to the basic transformer symbol.
The core material is determined primarily by the
frequency of the supply on which the transformer is to
be operated.
The three lines drawn between the primary and
secondary windings of this transformer indicate that it
has a laminated iron core. As such this transformer
would be used at low frequencies and may be found on
ac power supply systems.
The two coils on the right show that the transformer has
two secondary windings, and the dot notation indicates
on these windings are wound in opposite directions. The
top of one winding being positive whilst the top of the
other is negative.
The dashed lines between the windings of this
transformer indicate that it has a ferrite core and as
such would be used at medium to high frequencies.
When there are no lines between the two windings, the
transformer is air cored and as such would be used at
VHF and above.
Losses
Transformer losses are very small, 98% efficiency easily
being obtained, however some losses occur in all
transformers. Generally the losses can be divided into
three groups:
Copper losses.
Iron or core losses.
Flux leakage losses.
179
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Iron losses
Iron or core losses are divided into two groups:
Hysteresis losses.
Eddy current losses.
Hysteresis losses arise through continually magnetising
and demagnetising the transformer core, the energy
required for this being dissipated as heat.
Hysteresis loss is dependent on frequency and the type
of material used for making the core. As frequency, or
flux density within the core increases, so the losses
increase.
Transformers are therefore designed to operate at a
specific frequency and the material used has a narrow
hysteresis loop such as Stalloy, Permalloy or Mumetal.
Eddy current loss is due to the formation of eddy
currents within the transformer core, the energy being
dissipated as heat.
Any conducting material within the field of a transformer
has emf's induced in it; these emf's produce small
circulating current flows called eddy currents.
The metal core of the transformer therefore has eddy
currents flowing in it. Providing the currents are small,
loss is minimal, but large circulating currents represent a
large power loss, the loss being proportional to the
square of the frequency.
Eddy currents are kept to a minimum by laminating the
transformer core, thus preventing the small eddy
currents joining into large circulating currents.
Copper losses
Copper losses are the I2R losses in the windings. Part of
the applied voltage is used in overcoming the resistance
of the primary winding; this reduces the flux available
for inducing an emf in the secondary winding.
Also, when the secondary circuit is connected, the
secondary voltage falls due to the resistance of the
winding.
180
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Copper losses are therefore dependent upon the primary to flow in the surface region of the cable, almost as
and secondary currents and the resistance of the though the cable were a hollow tube. As frequency
windings and are independent of the supply frequency. increases the skin effect also increases.

Flux leakage losses
Flux leakage losses as the name implies, results from
the fact that not all of the primary flux links with the
secondary coil. The reduction in flux linkages results in
a reduced secondary voltage. With modern production
methods this loss is negligible.
Skin Effect
Another loss that takes place at higher frequencies is
caused by skin effect. Any current carrying cable
produces a field around the conductor.
The problem can be overcome by using Litz wire, or by
reducing the resistance of the surface region of the
cable, this can be achieved by silver plating the
conductor.
Turns ratio
A simple transformer consists of two coils, a primary and
a secondary, wound on a high permeability, soft iron
core.

In a cable carrying ac current, the alternating field

expands from and collapses to the centre of the
conductor, producing a back emf within the conductor.

As the field is denser at the centre of the conductor, the

back emf is larger, and consequently the current tends

181
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The changing current in the first coil creates a changing
magnetic field that induces a voltage in the secondary
coil.
The size of the secondary voltage compared to the
voltage applied to the primary depends on turns ratio, or
transformation ratio. That is, the number of turns of
wire in the secondary winding compared to number of
turns in the primary.
If losses are very small, the turns ratio may be
expressed as:
step up type and the output voltage will be greater than
the input voltage.
By convention, when writing the transformation ratio,
the secondary voltage is put before the primary;
therefore, a 4:1 transformer is a step up transformer,
the secondary voltage being 4 times the primary
voltage.
Power transference
If losses are ignored, the power in the secondary equals
the power in the primary:

But:
If the number of turns on the secondary is less than the
number of turns on the primary, the output voltage will
be less than the input voltage, and the transformer is
called a step down transformer.

If the number of turns on the secondary is greater than Therefore:

the number of turns on the primary, the transformer is a

182
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Transformer efficiency Loading a transformer

The transformers efficiency, η, is given by the ratio of No load conditions

output power to input power:
In a practical transformer there are losses in the primary
due to:

Resistance.
Hysteresis.
The value of eta ranges from about 90% for small power
Eddy currents
transformers in receivers, to 98-99% for large power
transformers.
These losses produce a current flow within the primary
that is in phase with the applied voltage, and termed
Transformer regulation
loss current.
As the load on the secondary is increased, the output
voltage will fall. The amount by which the voltage falls
is expressed as a percentage of the no load voltage and
is termed the % regulation.

Regulation of power transformers is generally less than

4%.

183
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
The iron core and the number of coils make the primary
circuit highly inductive, the resistance by comparison
being very small. The magnetising current therefore
lags the applied voltage by 90 degrees.
The total current flowing in the primary, with the
secondary winding off load, is the vector sum of the
magnetising current and the loss current.
Due to the large reactance of the primary circuit, the
primary current is very small. If, however, the
transformer is operated at a lower than rated frequency,
the inductive reactance will be less, and a larger primary
current will flow, therefore, transformers should not
be operated below their rated minimum frequency
without reducing the applied voltage.
It is the magnetising current that produces the field, and
it is this alternating field that induces an emf in the
secondary windings. The induced emf depends on the
rate of change of flux, and therefore lags the field by
90°.
As the field already lags the applied (primary) voltage by
90° the induced emf in the secondary will lag the applied
voltage by 180°. The secondary voltage is anti-phase
with respect to the applied voltage.
On connecting a load to the transformer, a current will
be set up in secondary windings and a flux will be
produced. The secondary flux opposes the primary flux
and effectively decreases the primary inductance.
If the applied voltage is kept constant, the decrease in
inductance results in an increase in the primary current.
This increase in current is known as the load component
of primary current.
The load current in the primary sets up a flux that is
equal and opposite to the secondary flux. The ampere
turns of the primary flux equalling the ampere turns of
the secondary flux.
The total primary current is the vector sum of the no
load current and the load current. As the secondary
current increases so the primary current will increase.
184
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Under normal conditions, the load current is so much
larger than the no load current that the latter can be
ignored.
Resistive load
If the load on the secondary is purely resistive, the
secondary voltage and current are in phase. The
secondary current decreases the inductance of the
primary circuit and the primary current increases, the
increase being the load element of primary current.
The load element of primary current is anti-phase with
respect to the secondary current and equal to the
secondary current the turns ratio.
The primary current consists of the vector sum of the
no-load and load current. From the diagram it can be
seen that the primary current is brought closer into
phase with the applied voltage.
The primary voltage and current become more in phase
as the resistive load applied to the secondary is
increased and it appears as though the secondary load
has been reflected into the primary winding.
Inductive load
If a purely inductive load is applied to the secondary, the
secondary current will lag the voltage by 90°. The load
element of primary current, equal to the secondary
current T, will still be anti-phase with respect to the
secondary current and therefore in phase with the
magnetising current.
The primary current is again the vector sum of the no-
load and load currents. From the diagram it can be seen
that the primary current now lags the applied voltage by
185
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

almost 90°. Again it appears as though the load on the

secondary has been reflected into the transformer
primary winding.

Capacitive load
If a purely capacitive load is applied to the secondary,
the load will appear to have been reflected into the
primary winding, and the primary current will lead the
applied voltage by 90°.
Combination loads
Introducing resistance into purely inductive and
capacitive circuits simply has the effect of reducing the
angle of lag, or lead, of the primary current with respect
to the applied voltage.
186
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Reflected impedance
The load placed on the secondary winding of a
transformer always affects the primary current by
altering its phase angle in relation to the primary
voltage.
Neglecting losses the reflected values of LRC can be
shown to depend on the transformation or turns ratio.
In a step down transformer T is less than unity and Z
primary is greater than Z secondary.
The fact that the impedance reflected from the
secondary winding into the primary winding depends on
the transformers turns ratio, makes it useful for
impedance matching.
Impedance matching transformers
Maximum power is transferred from the source to the
load only when the load impedance is equal to the
internal impedance of the source.
If this is not the case an impedance matching
transformer can be used. The necessary turns ratio
being calculated using the formula:
For example a transformer could be used to match a
pre-amplifier of 20 000 ohms input impedance to a
moving coil microphone of 200 ohms.
The turns ratio required would be calculated as follows:
187
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Therefore: When the primary terminals are connected to an ac

source, current flows between P1 and P2. The
alternating flux produced links with all of the turns on
the former, inducing a voltage in each. The output is
taken from terminals S1 and S2.
Auto-transformers
The voltage ratio is calculated from the turns ratio:
Auto transformers have only one winding, this winding
serving as both primary and secondary. They may be
used as "step up" or "step down" transformers.

In the step up transformer shown, the turns on the

primary are those between points A and B, the turns on
the secondary, those between points A and C. If the
transformer were a step down type, the input and
output terminals would be reversed.

The effects of different loads on the transformer are as

for the power transformer; it should, however, be noted
that the primary and secondary currents oppose each
other in the common portion of the winding.

This enables smaller conductors to be used in the

common portion of the transformer, producing a weight

188
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

saving especially if the input and output voltages are Three phase transformers
almost the same.
Although it is possible to use three, interconnected,
Auto transformers are used for: single phase transformers for three phase ac it is more
common to use a single, three limbed, transformer.
Line boosters to compensate for voltage drops in
long cable runs.
Motor starting, several tappings being used in
sequence to apply an increasing voltage to the
motor
Impedance matching
To step the 115V ac supply down to 26V for
aircraft lighting circuits.

The major disadvantage of auto transformers, especially

step down types, is that should the common portion of
the winding go open circuit, the primary voltage is
applied directly to the load on the secondary.

It was for this reason that autotransformers were rarely

used on aircraft but improved reliability, through modern Using a three limbed transformer, the primary and
manufacturing methods, has made them increasingly secondary windings for each phase are allocated a single
more common. limb.

189
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Once the layout of the transformer has been established, The preferred methods of connection are the last two,
it is only necessary to decide how to interconnect the however, the requirements of the circuit must come
primary and secondary windings. There are four possible first.
alternatives:

190
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
3.16 Filters
Filter circuits are four terminal networks designed to
pass a certain required band of frequencies from input to
output terminals, or to filter off, or attenuate the
remainder of signal frequencies present at the input
terminal.
Such filter circuits use as their basis the facts that the
reactance of inductors and capacitors and the
impedances of acceptor and rejector tuned circuits alter
with frequency.
They are thus made up from the reactive elements of
inductance and capacitance.
Filter circuits take four main forms:
High pass filters
Low pass filters
Band pass filters
Band stop filters
High pass filters
High pass filters allow all frequencies above a certain
cut-off frequency to be passed from the input terminals
to the output terminals. All frequencies below the cut-
off frequency are filtered off or attenuated. The
diagrams below show a simple high pass filter together
with its circuit symbol.
The Capacitor allows the high frequencies to pass onto
the output terminals, but offers a high reactance to the
low frequencies.
The Inductor offers a low reactance to low frequencies,
so they are filtered off through it, but offers a high
reactance to the high frequencies and thus does not
filter them off.
191
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
A typical attenuation/frequency graph for a simple high
pass filter is shown below.
In practice a number of these filter circuits are used in
succession as shown. This improves the attenuation of
the lower frequencies and so the cut off region becomes
more abrupt and clearly defined.
Low pass filters
Low pass filters allow all frequencies below a certain cut-
off frequency to be passed from the input terminals to
the output terminals. All frequencies above the cut-off
frequency are filtered off or attenuated.
The circuit symbol and an attenuation / frequency graph
for a simple low pass filter are shown below.
In this circuit, the inductor offers a low reactance to the
lower frequencies, allowing them to pass easily onto the
output terminals, but offers a high reactance to the
higher frequencies.
The capacitor offers a low reactance to the higher
frequencies, so they are filtered off through it, but offers
a high reactance to the required low frequencies and
therefore does not attenuate them appreciably.
In practice a number of these filter circuits are used in
succession. This improves the attenuation of the higher
frequencies, and so the cut off region becomes more
sharply defined.
192
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Band pass filters
These filters allow a certain narrow band of frequencies
to be passed onto the output terminals and filter off, or
attenuate the frequencies above and below this band. A
simple band pass filter is shown below.
Rejecter circuit L1 and C1 and acceptor circuit L2 and C2
are tuned to the same frequency, the centre frequency
of the required band.
No mutual coupling exists between L1 and L2.
The acceptor circuit offers low impedance to the
resonant frequencies and passes them onto the output
terminals, but offers high impedance to all the other
input frequencies.
The rejecter circuit offers low impedance to the
unwanted frequencies above and below the band and so
they are filtered off through it.
The circuit symbol and attenuation / frequency curve for
a band pass filter are shown below.
A more practical band pass filter circuit is shown below.
193
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
This ' type' band pass filter circuit will give more clearly
defined cut off regions.
Band stop filters
These filters pass onto the output terminals all
frequencies a certain narrow band which is attenuated or
filtered off. The circuit diagram shows a simple band
stop filter.
Acceptor circuit L1 and C1 and rejecter circuit L2 and C2
are tuned to the same frequencies; the midpoint
frequency of the unwanted band. No mutual coupling
exists between L1 and L2.
The rejecter circuit offers low impedance to all the
required frequencies and so passes them onto the
output terminals, but offers high impedance to the
unwanted band of frequencies.
The acceptor circuit L1 and C1 offers low impedance to
the unwanted band of frequencies and so they are
filtered off through it; it offers high impedance to the
wanted frequencies and so, does not attenuate them
appreciably.
The circuit symbol and frequency / attenuation graph for
a simple band stop filter are shown below.
194
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

A more practical ' type' band stop filter is shown below;

again this will give more clearly defined cut-off regions.

A Decoupling circuit removes any unwanted ac from a dc

voltage. Such a circuit offers a high reactance to dc and
a low reactance to ac
Smoothing & decoupling circuits

Smoothing and Decoupling circuits are special

applications of filters.

A smoothing circuit changes a pulsating dc to a smooth

dc in power supply circuits. In order to achieve this, the
filter circuit offers a high reactance to ac and a low
reactance to dc

195
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

3.17 AC GENERATORS Output voltage

Principles The instantaneous value of emf induced in the loop is

given by:
The generation of an alternating current has already
been examined in the section on dc generation. The
rules concerning the size of the generated emf and the
direction of current flow are as previously described. Where EMax = lV and is the angle of the conductor
with respect to the field.
Instead of using a commutator to ensure the current
flows in one direction through the load, the load is Output frequency
connected via slip rings and the current flow is
alternating, as shown below. Referring back to our simple loop it can be seen that, if
the loop was rotating at 120 revs per second, then the
output frequency would be 120 Hz.

It therefore follows that the frequency of the output of

an ac generator is directly proportional to its speed of
rotation.

Another factor which determines the output frequency of

the ac generator is its physical construction. A
generator with 4 field poles will produce two complete
cycles of output for each revolution of the shaft.

196
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Similarly, a generator with six field poles will produce From the foregoing, it will be seen that one cycle is
three complete cycles for each revolution and so on. completed in:
A cycle is complete whenever a conductor has passed
under the influence of two dissimilar magnetic poles. 360 mechanical degrees for a two-pole
machine,
It stands to reason then that the output frequency of an 180 mechanical degrees for a four-pole
ac generator is given by: machine,
120 mechanical degrees for a six-pole
machine,
90 mechanical degrees for an eight-pole
The speed of rotation is normally given in revolutions machine, and so on.
per minute (rpm), therefore the output frequency of is
calculated from the following formula: It is therefore necessary to use electrical degrees when
referring to angular motion in the cycle.

One cycle = 360 (electrical) degrees.

Where: It is not usual to use the word „electrical‟ in this respect,

N is the speed of rotor rotation in RPM. but the concept should be clearly understood.
P is the number of pairs of poles.

197
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Practical generator construction Rotating field type

It is possible however, to obtain the same output by
Two forms of construction are used for alternating rotating the field inside stationary windings that are
current generators, the rotating field type and the located around the frame of the machine, the output is
rotating armature type. then taken from the stationary armature, or stator.

The rotating field type generator is the one most

commonly used for main power production.

Rotating armature type

A rotating armature generator is constructed in a similar

manner to a dc generator. The field is located on the
stator and the emf is induced in windings located on the
rotor. The output is then taken from the generator
using slip rings as previously described.

This type of generator is called a „rotating field

generator‟ and has several advantages over the rotating
armature type:

Because the output windings are now stationary

they are no longer subject to high centrifugal
forces and can therefore be larger.
198
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
By having the output windings on the outside of
the machine there is more room for good
insulation and higher voltages can be used.
With the output windings on the outside of the
machine they are more easily cooled and can
therefore carry larger currents.
Using a rotating field only requires the use of two
slip rings and two brushes; also the current
required is relatively small.
These advantages mean a larger output can be obtained
from a smaller machine.
Single phase generator
A single phase ac generator consists of a single output
winding wound on a pair of poles and a rotor fitted with
either a permanent or an electromagnet.
The electromagnet is energised from a dc supply via
brushes and slip rings.
The output frequency is dependent on the speed of rotor
rotation and the number of poles on the rotor. If the
generator shown was rotated at the same speed, but
had two pairs of poles the frequency would double.
Two phase generator
A two phase generator consists of two output windings
wound on separate pairs of poles and a single, common,
rotor.
199
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The two output windings are located at 90 to each The Three phase ac generator is really three single
other, so that when maximum emf is induced in one phase generators on one stator, all using a common
winding, zero emf is induced in the other winding. field.

The output from the generator will be two voltages of Due to the construction of the machine, the emf's
equal amplitude and frequency but phase displaced from generated in each of the windings is phase displaced by
each other by 90 . 120 degrees, as shown.

Three phase generator The normal order of rotation is:

A three phase ac generator has three sets of output Red Yellow Blue
windings, each being physically displaced from the other 1 2 3
two by 120 . The rotor is the same as that used in a A B C
single phase or two phase generator.
If required, the three single phases can be used
independently; this, however, is not common practice.

Star & delta systems

The three armature windings of a three phase generator

can be connected in two ways

Star – One end of each winding is connected to a

common or „Neutral‟ point and the other ends to
the output terminals.
200
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Delta – the end of each winding is connected to
the start of the next, so that the three windings
form a triangle.
Star connection
Although a star connected system is considered to be a
four wire system, if the loads are balanced, the neutral
line need not be connected. The neutral line only carries
out of balance currents.
The neutral, although connected to earth, should not be
confused with the earth in a three pin plug which is
there for protection.
Under the majority of conditions, an aircraft star
connected system will have current flow in the neutral
line.
The voltage from the neutral line or star point to the
other end of each phase winding is called the phase
voltage; the voltage from one phase to another is called
the line voltage.
In a star connected system:
And:
In aircraft ac systems the phase voltage is 115V and the
line voltage is 200V.
201
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The frequency is always expressed as the frequency of a Delta connection

single phase. On some systems the frequency may be
variable, or wild, on a controlled frequency system the A Delta system is a three wire system, one wire coming
frequency is 400 Hz. from each of the armature winding interconnection
points.
With a star connected generator two possible systems
are available:

three single phase systems each operating at

phase voltage.
a single three phase system operating at line
voltage.

If the instantaneous values of two phases are added

together to produce a line voltage, and the process is
repeated for the other phases, three line voltages will be
produced; each line voltage will be displaced 120
degrees from the other two.

One point to note is that there is a 90 degree phase

angle between a phase voltage and its opposite line
voltage, this relationship is used in several control and
monitoring systems.

202
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

In a delta connected system:

And:

A delta connected system has no neutral line and is

generally used on small generators supplying virtually
fixed, balanced loads.

Balanced loads
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
If the currents in each phase are equal in size and phase
displaced from one another by 120 degrees, the loads
are said to be balanced. Under balanced conditions, the
loads on each phase are identical.

Symmetrical loads

If the phase voltages are the same magnitude, and

phase displaced from one another by 120 degrees, the
system is said to be symmetrical. Aircraft systems are
naturally symmetrical.

203
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

3.18 AC MOTORS
With few exceptions, the operation of ac motors rely on
the production of a rotating magnetic field, therefore, we
will examine the production of a rotating field first.
Production of a rotating field
To create a rotating field, the current in one pair of field
windings must be in quadrature with the current in the
other pair.
This can be achieved by placing an inductor or capacitor
in series with one pair of field windings. A capacitor is
generally used because it is more efficient.

Alternating current supplies are generally available in

one of three forms:

Single phase.
Two phase.
Three phase.

Any of these three supplies can be used to produce a

rotating magnetic field, but there are some differences
in their use so they will be examined individually.

Single phase

To produce a rotating field from a single phase ac supply

requires a minimum of two pairs of field windings and
four pole stator.

204
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

The direction of rotation of the magnetic field depends A two phase supply can be obtained from a three phase
on the order in which the poles become magnetised. ac supply, by using a phase voltage and the opposite
line voltage.
The direction of rotation of the field can be reversed
either by swapping the supply to one pair of field
windings, or by switching the capacitor from one field
winding to the other. The latter method is normally used
on aircraft motors.
If the supply to both field windings is reversed, the
motor will run in the same direction.

Two phase

To produce a rotating field from a two phase supply also

requires a minimum of four field poles and two pairs of
field windings.

A two phase supply comprises two phases at 90 degrees

to each, therefore no capacitor is required.

The only way to reverse the direction of rotation of such

a motor is to swap the supply connections to one pair of
field windings.

205
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Three phase
To produce a rotating field from a three phase ac supply
requires the use of a six pole stator and three pairs of
field windings.
The stator of a three phase ac motor is the same as that
of a rotating field ac generator.
The direction of rotation of the field depends on the
order in which the windings are energised. To reverse
the direction of rotation, it is only necessary to swap the
connection to any two of the field windings.
Types of ac motor
The two main types of ac motor used on aircraft systems
are the induction motor and the synchronous motor.
Another type of ac motor often found on aircraft is the
shaded pole motor.
Induction motor
The rotor of an induction motor consists of a number of
copper or aluminium bars connected by two end rings to
form a cage, the cage being enclosed in a laminated iron
core to reduce reluctance.
When the rotor is placed in a rotating magnetic field, the
bars are cut by the flux causing emf's to be induced in
them, because the bars are shorted by the end rings,
currents flow in the bars.
206
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Current flow in the bars produces a magnetic field At switch-on, the emf induced in the rotor bars are at
around them which, reacts with the main field of the the same frequency as the supply voltage and because
machine, causing the rotor to turn. the circuit is highly inductive the current lags the voltage
by almost 90 degrees.

This means, that by the time the rotor field has been
produced, the main field has moved on by almost 90
degrees and the rotor field can only react with the
trailing edge of the main field, resulting in a small
starting torque.

As the rotor speed increases the frequency of the emf in

the rotor decrease, reducing the inductive reactance.
This brings the current more in phase with the induced
emf, producing a good running torque.

It is not possible for the rotor to rotate at synchronous

speed, because there would be no emf induced in the
rotor bars, no current flow and no magnetic field
produced.

The difference between synchronous speed and rotor

speed is called „slip speed‟ and is usually expressed as a
percentage of synchronous speed.

207
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
Where:
When running, the rotor field induces an emf into the
stator windings, this „back emf‟ is almost at 180 degrees
to the applied voltage, resulting in a small effective
voltage across the field and a low current drain on the
supply.
If the load on the motor is increased, it slows down, this
causes the angle of the back emf to change, increasing
the effective voltage, the current from the supply and
the motor torque.
The increase in motor torque accelerates the motor back
to its original running speed.
When first started, the back emf is almost at 90 degrees
to the applied voltage and therefore the initial current
demand is high.
In order to reduce the start current, some motors are
designed to be started with the field windings connected
in star and run with them connected in delta.
This increases the impedance during starting and
reduces the current drawn from the supply, but it does
not improve the poor starting torque.
If it is required that the motor be started „on-load‟, then
the poor starting torque must be improved. To achieve
this, the rotor current must be made to appear more in
phase with the voltage.
This can be achieved by increasing the resistance of the
rotor windings, however, if the resistance is left in the
rotor circuit during running there will be:
An increase in the slip speed.
A greater speed variation with load changes.
An increase the current taken from the supply.
208
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
A compromise often used on aircraft induction motors is
to fit a second, high resistance, cage into the rotor. This
gives an improved starting torque, with minimal running
problems.
Synchronous motor
The synchronous motor gets its name from the fact that
the rotor runs at synchronous speed, for it to do this,
the rotor must be a permanent or electro-magnet.
In order for the magnet to lock-on to the field it must be
brought up to about 75% of synchronous speed, to
achieve this, the majority of synchronous motors have
the cage of an induction motor built into them.
The motor starts as an induction motor and when
sufficient speed as been attained, the electromagnet is
energised, allowing the rotor to lock onto the field. Once
running, no emf is induced in the rotor bars; however,
they are useful in holding the rotor and rotor windings in
place and also assist in smooth running during load
changes.
The rotor, although running at synchronous speed, will
lag the field, the angle of lag is proportional to the load
placed on the motor.
209
 School of Aeronautical Engineering
If whilst running the load is increased, the angle of lag
increases, changing the angle of the back emf and
increasing the effective voltage. This increases the
current taken from the supply, producing an increase in
torque to cope with the load.
Should the angle become too great, the magnetic link
will snap, the motor will run down, stop, and possibly
burn out due to the high current from a lack of back
emf.
Shaded pole motor
The shaded pole motor uses only a single set of poles to
create an apparent rotating field.
Part of each pole is shaded by a copper or aluminium
ring or a shorted coil.
When the field winding is energised an alternating field
appears across the main poles, this alternating field
induces an emf into the shaded ring or shorted winding,
creating a current flow within it; this current flow
produces another field, this field lagging the main field
by approximately 90 degrees.
The overall effect is to produce a field that appears to
move through an angle determined by the positioning of
the poles, because the field is not fully rotating the,
starting torque is low and the motor can only be used for
small, fixed loads.
The operation of the rotor is as for an induction motor.
210
School of Aeronautical Engineering

END OF MODULE

211