INTRODUCTION:

Electrochemical Machining (ECM) is a non-traditional machining (NTM) process belonging to

Electrochemical category. ECM is opposite of electrochemical or galvanic coating or deposition
process. Thus ECM can be thought of a controlled removal of metal by anodic dissolution at atomic
level of the work piece that is electrically conductive by a shaped tool due to flow of high current at
relatively low potential difference through an electrolyte which is quite often water based neutral
salt solution.

The electrolyte is pumped through the gap between the tool and the workpiece, while direct current
is passed through the cell, to dissolve metal from the workpiece. The tool and the workpiece are
located such that there is a gap between 0.1mm to 0.6mm between them. On application of a
potential difference between the electrodes and subsequently when adequate electrical energy is
available between the tool and the workpiece, positive metal ions leave the workpiece. The tool is
designed so that it is the exact inverse of the feature to be machined. ECM is widely used in
machining of jobs involving intricate shapes and to machine very hard or tough materials those are
difficult or impossible to machine by conventional machining. It is now routinely used for the
machining of aerospace components, critical deburring, Fuel injection system components,
ordnance components etc. ECM is also most suitable for manufacturing various types of dies and
moulds.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:
In ECM, material removal takes place due to atomic dissolution of work material. Electrochemical
dissolution is governed by Faraday’s laws. The first law states that the amount of electrochemical
dissolution or deposition is proportional to amount of charge passed through the electrochemical
cell, which may be expressed as: m Q∝ , where m = mass of material dissolved or deposited Q =
amount of charge passed The second law states that the amount of material deposited or dissolved
further depends on Electrochemical Equivalence (ECE) of the material that is again the ratio of the
atomic weigh and valency.

When an electric current of high density and low voltage is passed through the electrolyte, the
anode workpiece dissolves locally. So the final shape of the generated workpiece is approximately
a negative mirror image of the tool. The electrolyte, which is generally a concentrated salt solution
flows through the inter electrode gap with high velocity to intensify the mass transfer through the
sub layer near anode and to remove the sludge, heat and gas bubbles generated in the gap.
Machining performance in ECM is governed by the anodic behaviour of the workpiece material in
a given electrolyte. When a potential difference is applied across the electrodes, several possible
reactions can occur at the anode and cathode. The salt is not consumed in the electrochemical
processes. Due to electrolysis the dissolution of iron from the anode, and the generation of
hydrogen at the cathode occurs. No other action takes place at the electrodes . The tool is advanced
into the workpiece to aid in material removal . A schematic of a cell used for electrochemical
machining is shown in figure 1. A pump system must filter the electrolyte and circulate it because
the electrolyte carries away machining waste.
PROCESS:

During ECM, there will be reactions occurring at the electrodes i.e. at the anode or workpiece and at the
cathode or the tool along with within the electrolyte. Let us take an example of machining of low carbon
steel which is primarily a ferrous alloy mainly containing iron. For electrochemical machining of steel,
generally a neutral salt solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) is taken as the electrolyte. The electrolyte and
water undergoes ionic dissociation as shown below as potential difference is applied

NaCl
NaCl↔
↔ Na+ + Cl
Na+
-
+ Cl-
H2O ↔ H+++ (OH)--
H2O ↔ H + (OH)
As the potential difference is applied between the work piece (anode) and the tool (cathode), the positive
ions move towards the tool and negative ions move towards the workpiece. Thus the hydrogen ions will take
away electrons from the cathode (tool) and from hydrogen gas as:

2H +
2H+ ++ 2e
-
2e- == H ↑
H22↑

at cathode Similarly, the iron atoms will come out of the anode (work piece) as:
Fe = Fe++ + 2e

Within the electrolyte iron ions would combine with chloride ions to form iron chloride and similarly
sodium ions would combine with hydroxyl ions to form sodium hydroxide
+ -
Na
Na + + OH- = NaOH
+ OH = NaOH

In practice FeCl2 and Fe(OH)2 would form and get precipitated in the form of sludge. In this manner it can
be noted that the work piece gets gradually machined and gets precipitated as the sludge. Moreover there is
not coating on the tool, only hydrogen gas evolves at the tool or cathode. Fig. 2 depicts the electro-chemical
reactions schematically. As the material removal takes place due to atomic level dissociation, the machined
surface is of excellent surface finish and stress free.
MAIN ELEMENTS OF ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING:
The ECM system has the following components:
 Cathode(Tool)
 Anode(Workpiece)
 DC power and control system
 Electrolyte

CATHODE:

The accuracy of tool shape directly effect the workpiece accuracy, since configuration of the cavity produced
cannot be more accurate than the tool that produces it. The same is applicable to the surface finish of the
tool. Poor surface finish of the tool will produce poor surface on the part.

The materials that find wide applications in the manufacture of tools for ECM are Aluminium, Brass,
Bronze, Copper, Carbon, Stainless Steel and reinforced plastics.

Shaping the tool is usually not a problem since all these materials are easy to machined. Cold forging and
electroforming methods of tool making.

ANODE:

There is no restriction on the nature of work material except that it must be a good conductor of electricity.
The chemical characteristics of the work material, however, do affect the material removal rate. The removal
rate is proportional to the atomic weight and inverse of the valency of work material.

The fixtures for holding the work are made of some insulating materials. Epoxy resins or glass fibre resins
have been successfully employed for this purpose. Cheaper materials which serve the purpose in some
instances are Perspex and PVC. They should have good thermal stability and low moisture absorption
properties. Some provision is made through the fixture for the electric contact between the supply and the
workpiece.

DC POWER AND SUPPLY:

The process needs low voltages of the order of 2 to 20 V, and in rare cases up to 30 V. Normal current
requirements are as high as 800 amp/cm2 of the work piece area to be machined, while still higher currents are
being considered for future use. Three phase, 440 V, A.C. power supply available from mains is converted to
low voltage D.C. by a step down transformer and a rectifier. Adequate protective circuits for the transformer,
rectifier and the machine itself are provided against short-circuit and overloaded conditions. these conditions
may occur due to the mishandling or incorrect fitting of electrodes or work piece, pilling up of conducting
debris in the gap or malfunctioning of the gap-control system.

Several methods are available for achieving a constant output voltage. One of these methods employs a
motorized variable transformer which varies the input to the step-down transformer in such a way as to maintain
D.C. output at a constant pre-set voltage. Another method, which is superior to the first one, employs a saturable
reactor to control the output. This is connected in series with the primary winding of the step-down transformer,
and the currents in the control windings are so varied that the D.C. output remains at the pre-set voltage. The use
of silicon- controlled rectifiers is becoming very common for voltage control in ECM machines. These are light
in weight and compact in size.

ELECTROLYTE:

The electrolyte used in ECM performs many functions, such as;

 completing the electric circuit between the tool and the workpiece
 Allowing desirable machining reactions to occur.
 Carrying away the heat generated during the chemical reactions.
 Carrying away products of reaction from the zone of machining.

Essential properties and selection-

An effective and efficient electrolyte should have the following characteristics:

 high electrical conductivity

 low viscosity and high specific heat
 chemical stability
 resistance to formation of passivating film on work surface
 non-corrosive and non-toxic in nature
 inexpensive and readily available

all these factors have to be considered while choosing the best electrolyte for a specific use and practical
experience wil probably enable the best selection.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ECM:
 Tool and work piece should be electrically conductive
 Atomic level dissolution
 Surface finish is excellent
 Almost stress free machined surface
 No thermal damage

MODELLING OF MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE:

Material removal rate (MRR) is an important characteristic to evaluate efficiency of a non-traditional
machining process.In ECM, material removal takes place due to atomic dissolution of work material.
Electrochemical dissolution is governed by Faraday’s laws.

The first law states that the amount of electrochemical dissolution or deposition is proportional to amount
of charge passed through the electrochemical cell, which may be expressed as:

m ∝ Q,

where m = mass of material dissolved or deposited

 Q = amount of charge passed

The second law states that the amount of material deposited or dissolved further depends on
Electrochemical Equivalence (ECE) of the material that is again the ratio of the atomic weight and
valency. Thus

m α ECE α ( A / ν )

Thus m α ( Q A / ν )
where F = Faraday’s constant

= 96500 coulombs

∴ m =(ItA/Fv)

MRR = (m/tρ )=(I A /F ρ ν )

where I = current

ρ= density of the material

The engineering materials are quite often alloys rather than element consisting of

different elements in a given proportion.

Let us assume there are ‘n’ elements in an alloy. The atomic weights are given as A1, A2,
………….., An with valency during electrochemical dissolution as ν1, ν2, …………, νn. The weight
percentages of different elements are α1, α2, ………….., αn (in decimal fraction)

Now for passing a current of I for a time t, the mass of material dissolved for any element ‘i’ is given by

mi = Γ a ραi

where Γa is the total volume of alloy dissolved. Each element present in the alloy takes a certain
amount of charge to dissolve.

mi = (QiAi/Fν i )

Qi=(Fmiνi/Ai)

Qi=(FΓaραiνi/Ai)

The total charge passed

Q T = It = ∑ Qi

Q T = It = FΓ a ρ∑(α i ν i /A i )

Now,
MRR=(Γ a /t)=(1/Fρ).{I/∑(α i ν i /A i )}
 PROCESS PARAMETERS THAT CAN BE OPTIMISED:

Power supply:-

 Type-DC
 voltage- 2-35 volts
 Current- 50-40000 Ampere
 Current density- 0.1 A/mm2 – 5A/mm2
Electrolyte:-
 material- NaCl, NaNO3
 Temperature:- 20ºC - 50ºC
 Flow rate:- 20 litre per minute for 100 Amp current
 Electrolyte dilution:- 100 gm/ltr - 500 gm/ltr
 Pressure :- 0.5 - 20 bar
 Working gap:- 0.1mm to 2mm
 feed rate:- 0.5mm/min to 15mm/min
 Electrode metal:- Cu, Brass, Bronze
 Surface roughness:- 0.2 to 1.5µm
 Overcut :- 0.2 mm – 3.0 mm

PROCESS PARAMETERS RELATION WITH ECM:

POWER SUPPLY:

The
process needs low voltages of the order of 2 to 20 V, and in rare cases up to 30 V. Normal current requirements
are as high as 800 amp/cm2 of the work piece area to be machined, while still higher currents are being considered
for future use. Three phase, 440 V, A.C. power supply available from mains is converted to low voltage D.C. by a
step down transformer and a rectifier.

 Why D.C.?
Galvanic cells operate on DC (direct current), which is when electrons flow in one direction. This is how
redox reactions work. Electrons go from one end to the other.
In AC (alternating current), energy is transferred through the back and forth movement of electrons. This
is not appropriate for redox reactions, as the electron current should move in one direction, rather than
alternate (moving back and forth).
Since electrolysis works by inputting energy to force a redox reaction to occur, it must push electrons in a
particular direction, which can only be achieved with a DC power source!
 Why low voltage and high current?
In ECM process we use an electrolyte to complete the circuit. Smaller the inter electrode gap greater will
be the current flow. Therefore the process requires low voltage and high current, because resistance
decreases for the presence of electrolyte and higher is the material removal rate. But in case of EDM
 process due to the higher resistance in the flow of electrons therefore we require high voltage and low
current.

Owing to loss or lack of control, sparking may occur between the tool and the work piece, causing damage to
both. The damage increases with the duration of the spark. Preventive measures for sparking are necessary if
continuous production of good quality parts is to be obtained.

Machining voltage variations severely affect the overcut. A higher voltage brings about a larger overcut and a
lower voltage a smaller overcut. In actual practice, the final size of the part is made by the controlling the voltage.

For better accuracy, therefore, there has to be the minimum possible variation in the machining voltage. The ECM
power supply system attempts to rigidly maintain a constant pre-set voltage for varying incoming line voltage and
total machining current.

The feed rate of the tool must be maintained under varying conditions of load and machining voltage, otherwise
accuracy will be lost.

The power loss (I2R loss) in the electrolytic reaction gives rise to an increase in the temperature of the electrolyte.
This heat must be carried away from the cutting area so as to maintain stable and steady conditions, helpful for
achieving better accuracy.

ELECTROLYTE

Studies for different electrolytes on the electrochemical machining process is made and tabulated as under:

S.No. Electrolyte material Advantages Disadvantages

1 NaCl or KCl upto 0.25 Steels and iron base Inexpensive. Non Removes material
kg/litre alloys toxic. No fire from surrounding
hazard. Can be finished surfaces.
used for a variety Conductivity is
of materials. affected by
Current efficiency temperature.
is high.
2 NaNO3 upto 0.5kg/litre Steels and iron base Produce better Costly than NaCl.
alloys. surface finish. Fire hazard. Require
Lesser stray high concentration
machining for for good
conductivity.
Conductivity is
affected by
temperature.
3 NaClO3 0.2 to 0.5 Steel and iron base alloys. Produces smooth High fire risk to dry
kg/litre and bright surface. on combustible
Conductivity material. High
relatively voltages are required
unaffected by for better results.
temperature
4 NaCl + 0.01kg/litre Steel and iron base alloys Citric acid prevents Very expensive. if
fatric acid formation of metal use for other than
 hydroxide small intricate patts
precipitates.
5 NaCl upto 0.20 kg/litre Grey cast iron Produces good Large machining gap
or NaNO3 upto 0.5 surface finish. sizes must be use to
kg/litre allow graphite
particles to be swept
clear.
6 NaCl upto 0.25 kg/litre Nickel and cobalt base Materials which inter granular
+ 0.002 kg/litre NaF alloys display irregular corrosion, drastically
black oxide films lowers the fatigue
when machined endurance of
with other components
electrolytes will machine. Pitting of
produce a good surfaces adjacent to
finish with this machine area.
electrolyte
7 NaCl upto 0.15 kg/litre Titanium alloys Produces good Higher voltage
+ 0.05 kg/litre NaBr + surface finish. reduces chance of
0.002 kg/litre NaF Characteristics of passivity. A loose
surface oxide films grey oxide film
intensive to flow remains on the work
velocity. Easy to piece.
control contour
dimensions.
8 NaCl less than 0.1 Titanium alloys Can produces High voltages are
kg/litre surface finish better required. Flow lines
than previous may be formed on
electrolyte. the work surface.
Machined surface
does not have any
loose oxide film.

Temperature:

The difference in temperatures of electrolyte at the entrance and exit of tool work gap is an important factor.
In the previous experiments it is recorded that temperature difference of as much as 45 degree C under
otherwise normal process parameters. Such a temperature difference can be expeted to decrease the specific
resistance of the 10 per cent NaCl electrolyte by about 50 per cent. Precautions are taken to prevent the
overheating of the electrolyte.

There are many of advantages of using hot electrolyte too. An increase in the temperature speeds up
electrode reactions and reduces the over-voltages required. The solubility of the products of reaction
increases with rising electrolyte temperature.
FLOW RATE:

The velocity of the electrolyte flow through the gap is also an important parameter affecting the surface
finish and removal rates. Under normal operation, the electrolyte flow may be 20 litres per minute for 100
Amp current. If the electrolyte velocity is too low, the heat and by products of the reaction (hydrogen gas
bubbles and sludge) build in the gap causing non-uniform material removal. If the velocity is too high it will
cause cavitations, also promoting uneven material removal. Therefore we need to maintain an optimise flow
velocity. A rule of thumb relationship for determining electrolyte flow when using NaCl, one of the most
popular electrolytes is 20 litre per minute for 100 Amp current.

PRESSURE:

Increased pressure of electrolyte above atmospheric pressure also increases the boiling point of electrolyte,
reduces the over voltage at the tool surface and decreases the volume of generated hydrogen. Hydrogen
bubbles thus occupy a smaller volume of the gap and displace less electrolyte, permitting the use of higher
current densities.

ELECTROLYTE CONCENTRATION:

A concentrated electrolyte offers low resistance to the flow of current. A greater density is achieved for a
specific operating voltage. But the disadvantages is that salts crystallize out of the solution at higher
concentration and clog the areas in the machine work enclosure.

Dilute electrolytes are useful in certain cases. If, for example, work surface finish is important, high
machining voltage, dilute electrolyte and a small gap should be employed instead of a low voltage and
concentrated electrolyte.

WORKING GAP:

the controllable parameters which determine the gap size are electrolyte temperature and composition,
voltage, and tool feed rate. Those relating to the electrolyte are normally not difficult to maintain at constant
values. The gap can, therefore, be adjusted by voltage and tool feed rate. Under equilibrium conditions, the
tool feed rate (or the material removal rate) is directly proportional to current density.
 The gap size thus becomes less than half in reducing the total resistive path to half to allow the feed rate to
be doubled. In the case of voltage variations also, the same reasoning holds good. The change in the gap is
more than proportionate change in voltage.

No satisfactory methods are currently available for gap measurement while the process is in operation. The
gap size is equal to the depth of machining minus total tool movement in the work during machining,
provided that all measurements are from a common datum surface.

FEED RATE:

If the feed rate is increased, the electrical resistance of the gap reduces to allow more current to flow. From
this it follows that if the feed rate is doubled, the gap will be halved.

The feed rate of the tool must be maintained under varying conditions of load and machining voltage, otherwise
accuracy will be lost. An increase in feed rate, other parameters remaining constant, decreases the overcut and
vice versa.

ELECTRODE METAL:

The criteria for a good ECM tool material is that it be a good electrical and thermal conductor , be easily
machinable, resist chemicals, exibit good stiffness, be easily obtained. The most commonly used materials are
shown below:

 Aluminium
 Brass
 Bronze
 Carbon
 Copper
 Copper-Manganese
 Cupro-nickel
 Copper tungsten
 Stainless steel
 Titaniuim(99% pure)

With the help of various research and paper reviews , the various material removal rate of different electrode
materials is found to be –

S.NO. material Density(g/cc) Removal rate

g/1000 amp hr cc/min
1 Aluminium 2.7 299 1.9
2 Beryllium 1.8 150 1.3
 3 Cobalt 8.9 978 1.9
4 Copper 8.9 2129 3.9
5 Iron 7.8 937 2.1
6 Lead 11.3 3479 5.0
7 Molybdenum 10.1 1069 1.8
8 Nickel 8.9 978 1.9
9 Titanium 4.5 534 1.9
10 Tungsten 19.3 1023 0.8
11 Uranium 19.0 1997 1.8
12 Zirconium 6.5 761 1.9

SURFACE ROUGHNESS:

There are number of factors which govern the surface roughness the part produce by ECM. The major ones
are;

(i) Machining voltage

(ii) Feed rate of electrode
(iii) Temperature of electrolyte
(iv) concentration of electrolyte

the surface finish of component part depends on its material, the electrolyte and the operating conditions. With
nickel base, cobalt base, stainless steel alloys, it is nearly 0.1 to 0.5 microns, with iron base alloys and steels it
is 0.5 to 2 microns. No burrs are formed on machine surfaces. In general, there is no appreciable change in
mechanical properties such as, tensile strength, yield strength, hardness, ductility, etc. of the material of the
parts due to ECM. Values of notched tensile strength, notched sensitivity, and the sustained load
characteristics of the ECM parts are comparable with those of conventionally machined parts. Fatigue strength
of stainless steel is found to decrease by ECM. This can, however, be overcome by cold working the surface
after ECM.

OVERCUT:

Under ideal conditions, ECM is capable of producing tolerances of approximately ±0.012 mm, although in
daily production the number is closer to ±0.05mm. the typical overcut at the side of tools is approximately
0.12mm. depending upon tool design being used, taper can be held to 0.025 mm per mm.