Rimsky-Korsakov’s Principles of Orchestration

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Author’s Preface
I. In the orchestra there is no such thing as an ugly quality of tone
II. Orchestral writing should be easy to play
III. A work should be written for the size of the orchestra that is to perform it

Good scoring is when the orchestra sounds well playing from sight.

Chapter I: General Review of Orchestral Groups.

A. Stringed Instruments.
Write for a medium-sized body of strings (12,10, 8, 6, 4-6).

Full orchestra Medium orchestra Small orchestra

Violins I 16 12 8

" II 14 10 6

Violas 12 8 4

Violoncellos 10 6 3

Double basses 8-10 4-6 2-3

Divisi​ - when one or more of the principal string parts are split up into two or more parts.
- Equivalently, when the string group is written for more than 5 parts.

Common combinations of ​divisi​ (e-g being less frequen)::

Vns I div. Vns II div. Violas div. Cellos div.
a { Vns II div.
b { Violas div.
c { Cellos div.
d { D. basses div.

Vns I div. Vns II div. Violas div.

e { Violas div.
f { Cellos div.
g { D. basses div. etc.
String group is the richest and most expressive (possesses the greatest variety of sound).
● “Shades of expression”
○ Legato​, detached, ​staccato,​ ​spiccato​, ​portamento​, ​martellato​, light ​staccato,​
saltando​, attack at the nut and at the point, down bow ​Π Π Π​..., up bow​ ⋁ ⋁ ⋁​…
○ In every degree of tone: ​fortissimo​, p​ ianissimo​, ​crescendo​, ​decrescendo​,
sforzando​, ​morendo.
● Melodic expression -
○ Suited by their warmth, nobility of tone, and ability to connect sounds.
● Harmonic as well as melodic ability -
○ Capable of double notes and full chords across three or four strings.

Extreme limit of the string quartet's range - for violins, violas, cellos, and double basses:

- Notes higher than these are used with caution or in special circumstances:
○ Long valued notes, ​tremolando​, slow/flowing melodies, repeated note
passages...
○ Avoid skips and rapid sequences of scales.
- Limit the highest note on the lowest three strings to the octave or ninth.

● Note:​ Long chromatic figures in quick passages are better suited to the woodwinds than
to the strings.

Beyond the limits of the human voice (above soprano and below bass), their range loses
expression and warmth:
- Violins: Soprano, contralto… - Cellos: Tenor, bass…
- Violas: Contralto, tenor… - Double basses: Bass and lower range...

Scope of greatest expression is within the limits of human voice (D2 - E6)

Open strings of the stringed instruments.

(Double bass transposes one octave lower)
The distinctive character of each string:
- Violin: (E) brilliant, (A, D) sweeter/weaker in tone, (G) rather harsh.
- Viola: (A) biting and slightly nasal, (D) sweeter/weaker, (G, C) rather harsh.
- Cello: (A) bright “chest-voice”, (D) sweeter/weaker, (G, C) rather harsh.
- Double Bass:
○ equally resonant throughout; (G, D) more penetrating, (A, E) slightly duller.
○ Note:​ the double bass usually moves in octaves or unisons with the cellos and
bassoons, except in pedal notes.
● Note:​ Open strings are clearer and powerful but less expressive than stopped strings.

E A D G C

Violin brilliant sweeter/weaker in tone rather harsh N/A

biting, sweeter,
Viola N/A rather harsh
slightly nasal weaker

bright “chest” sweeter,

Cello N/A rather harsh
voice weaker

Double Bass slightly duller more penetrating N/A

Modified resonance and tone quality:

● Harmonics:
○ Cold timbre - transparent when soft, brilliant when loud;
○ Used for ornament (not expressive or fundamental);
○ Lack resonant power and may be overpowered by other instruments;
○ Usually employed on sustained notes, ​tremolando​, or for brilliant effects;
○ Tonal affinity with the flute - link between strings and woodwinds.
● Mutes:
○ Volume of tone is always reduced;
○ In soft passages, the clear singing tone becomes dull;
○ In loud passages, becomes a slight hiss or whistle.
● Position of the bow on string:
○ sul ponticello​ (close to the bridge) produces a metallic sound and is chiefly used
tremolando
○ sul tasto​, ​flautando ​(over the fingerboard) creates a dull, veiled effect
○ col legno ​(with the back or wood of the bow) produces a sound like a xylophone
or a hollow ​pizzicato

Table A. String group ​(These instruments give all chromatic intervals)

 (Black lines denote each string’s general range in orchestral writing)
(Dotted lines give the registers: low, medium, high, very high)

1st Violins are important to the harmonic scheme and must be heard distinctly.
- Any surplus of tone is given to them.
- They generally possess a more powerful tone than that of 2nd Violins.

In conclusion it may be said that the group of strings, as a melodic element, is able to
perform all manner of passages, rapid and interrupted phrases of every description,
diatonic or chromatic in character. Capable of sustaining notes without difficulty, of
playing chords of three and four notes; adapted to the infinite variety of shades of
expression, and easily divisible into numerous sundry parts, the string group in an
orchestra may be considered as an harmonic element particularly rich in resource.

B. Wind Instruments.

Woodwind.
This group varies in regard to number of parts and volume of tone commanded. It may be
divided into three general classes:

Woodwind Woodwind Woodwind

in pairs in three's in four's
(II—Piccolo). (III—Piccolo). 1 Piccolo (IV).
2 Flutes I. II. 3 Flutes I. II. III. 3 Flutes I. II. III.
(II—Bass flute). (III—Bass flute).
 2 Oboes I. II. 2 Oboes I. II.
(II—Eng. horn). 1 Eng. horn (III).
(II—Small clarinet).
2 Clarinets I. II. 3 Clarinets I. II. III.
(II—Bass clarinet). (III—Bass clarinet).
2 Bassoons I. II. 2 Bassoons I. II.
1 Double bassoon (III).
3 Oboes I. II. III.
1 Eng. horn (IV).
(II—Small clarinet).
3 Clarinets I. II. III.
1 Bass clarinet (IV).
3 Bassoons I. II. III.
1 Double bassoon (IV)

- (Instruments in brackets do not require additional players)

○ The first flute, first oboe, first clarinet and first bassoon never change
instruments.
○ Parts written for piccolo, bass flute, English horn, small clarinet, bass clarinet and
double bassoon are taken by the second and third players in each group.

The woodwinds’ diversity in range and timbre is striking (more so than the strings).
- Woodwinds are less flexible than strings:
○ They lack vitality/power and are less capable of many expressive shades.
- “Scope of greatest expression”:
○ Range in which various grades of tone are achievable.
○ Outside this range, the instrument provides richness of color instead.
○ The piccolo and double bassoon are highly colored but non-expressive
instruments.

Four kinds of woodwinds: flutes, oboes, clarinets and bassoons.

● Possess equal power;
○ Special instruments (Piccolo, bass flute, eng horn, small clarinet, bass clarinet,
double bassoon) do not match power.
● Their power and tone quality varies across each register.
○ Adjacent registers blend together with subtle differences of tone, but leaps in
register are noticeable.
● Oboes and bassoons:
○ Nasal quality, dark resonance;
○ Low register is thick, rough;
○ High register is shrill, hard, dry;
○ Double reed makes them less mobile:
■ Melodic of a ​cantabile​ and peaceful nature.
■ Often double the flutes, clarinets, or strings in quick passages.
■ Suited for distinct and penetrating ​staccato ​passages.
■ Composite ​legato​ passages.
● Flutes and clarinets:
○ Chest-voice quality, bright tone, clear resonance;
 ○ Low register is nasal, dark;
○ High register is piercing;
○ Color - flute is cold, clarinet is pliable and expressive.
○ Most flexible woodwinds:
■ Clarinet’s expressiveness and subtlety in nuance supersedes the flute.
■ Flutes are particularly flexible.
■ Excel in well-sustained ​legato​ phrases.
■ Composite ​staccato​ passages.
● All are equally capable of ​legato​ and ​staccato​ playing.

Technical individualities of the woodwinds:

● Rapid repetition of a single note by single-tonguing.
○ Double-tonguing is possible only on the flute, a reedless instrument.
● Clarinets are not well adapted to sudden octave leaps.
○ These are easier on flutes, oboes and bassoons.
● Arpeggios ​and rapid ​legato ​alternation of two intervals:
○ Sound well on flutes and clarinets;
○ Avoid on oboes and bassoons.

Give woodwind players a little rest (they must breathe!)

● Avoid extremely long sustained passages.

Character of timbres across the registers:

- (Mood in music is not solely dependent on timbre pg 19)
Middle/High Registers Extreme Registers

Major Minor Low High

slight touches of
Flute light, graceful dull, cold brilliant
transient sorrow

Oboe artless, gay pathetic, sad wild hard, dry

joyful, sad, reflective,

ringing,
Clarinet contemplative, impassioned, piercing
threatening
mirth dramatic

Bassoon senile mockery sad, ailing sinister tense

Special woodwinds.
● Piccolo and small clarinet:
○ Extend the high range.
○ Piccolo’s highest compass is whistling and piercing but not expressive.
 ○ Small clarinet’s highest compass is more penetrating than ordinary clarinet.
○ Their low and middle ranges correspond with the ordinary instruments but have a
weaker tone.
● Double bassoon:
○ Extends the bassoon’s low range.
○ Accentuates the ordinary bassoon’s low-range timbre.
○ Middle and high range is weak (little use).
○ Its deep notes are very thick and dense (powerful in piano passages).
● English horn = alto oboe = oboe in F:
○ Similar in tone to regular oboe.
○ Listless, dreamy timbre made sweet in extreme.
○ Low register is penetrating.
● Bass clarinet:
○ Similar in tone to regular clarinet.
○ Darker color, lacks silvery quality of upper notes.
○ (Incapable of joyful expression)
● Bass flute:
○ Colder color
○ Crystalline in the middle and high regions

Table B. Wind group​ (These instruments give all chromatic intervals)

 ( > and < indicate how the resonance diminishes or increases in relation to its characteristic
timbre. Scope of greatest expression is marked by bracket underneath.)

Woodwinds can be muted by inserting a soft pad into their bell.

● Deadens the tone of oboes, Eng. horns, and bassoons to the point where extreme
pianissimo​ is possible.
● Mutes don't affect the higher register of woodwinds.
● (Muting clarinets is unnecessary; they can naturally play soft enough)
 ● (Lowest notes on bassoon and oboe/Eng. Horn are impossible when muted)

The winds have two uses in orchestration: melodic (usually as solo instruments) and
harmonic (discussed later). (Doubling the same instrument at the unison adds very little
loudness, and usually just sounds a bit out of tune.) It’s useful to think of each wind
instrument as really three-in-one: low, medium, and high. As one moves into each new
register, the color changes sufficiently (though subtly) to be considered another color.
The balance between the individual winds and with other instruments will vary radically
according to the register used.

Brass.
Group corresponding Group corresponding
to the wood-wind to the wood-wind
in pair's in three's
2 Trumpets I, II. 3 Trumpets I, II, III.
(III—Alto trumpet)
or:
(2 Cornets I, II.)
(2 Trumpets I, II.)
4 Horns I, II, III, IV. 4 Horns I, II, III, IV.
3 Trombones. 3 Trombones I, II, III.
1 Tuba. 1 Tuba.
Group corresponding
to the wood-wind
in four's
(II—Small trumpet).
3 Trumpets I, II, III.
(III—Alto trumpet or
Bass trumpet.)
6 or 8 Horns I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII.
3 Trombones I, II, III.
1 Tuba.

Brass heightens the effect of other groups through their resonance, but they are far less flexible.
- Trumpets, trombones, and tubas are about equal in strength.
○ Cornets lack some force.
- Horns in ​forte ​are about half as strong, but in ​piano ​have the same weight as other brass
playing softly.
○ (If trumpets and trombones play ​pp​, horns should play ​p​)

Generally, their quality becomes more brilliant as the high register is approached. The tone
decreases towards the low register.
- pp​: sweet resonance
- ff​: hard "crackling" tone
- They can swell from ​pp t​ o ​ff r​ emarkably, or inversely.
○ sf​ > ​p ​is an excellent effect.
○ More effective is ​fp​ < f​ ​, or even ​ffpp ​< ​ff
- Brass instruments are very similar in range and timbre.
Character and tone quality:
● Trumpets ​(Bb-A):
○ Clear and penetrating tone
○ In ​forte​, stirring and rousing;
○ In ​piano​, the high range is full and silvery while the low range is troubled
(threatening danger)
○ Alto trumpet​ (F):
■ Fuller, clearer, finer tone in low register
○ Small trumpet​ (Eb-D):
■ Tonality and range similar to the soprano cornet
○ Cornets ​(Bb-A):
■ Softer and weaker tone than trumpets
● Horn ​(in F):
○ Soft, poetical, and beautiful tone.
○ Low register is dark and brilliant;
○ Upper register is round and full;
○ Middle range resemble the basson's
■ (blends well and links the brass and woodwind groups).
○ Little mobility, - languid and lazy production of tone.
● Trombone​:
○ Deepest register is dark and threatening;
○ Highest register is brilliant and triumphant.
○ Piano​ is full but heavy;
○ Forte​ is powerful and sonorous.
○ Slide trombones are preferred for their nobility and equality of sound, while valve
trombones are more mobile.
■ Slide trombones are rarely required to perform quick passages.
● Tuba​:
○ Thick and rough
○ Valuable for its low register's strength and beauty.
○ Its valves make it flexible.
○ Useful for doubling the bass (along with the double bass and double bassoon)

Table C. Brass group​ (These instruments give all chromatic intervals)

 (Natural sounds given in white notes)
(Upper lines indicate the scope of greatest expression - the middle registers)

Brass are less adapted to expressive playing as the woodwinds, but uniform in resonance.
- (Small trumpet and tuba do not play with great amount of expression)
- Rapid and rhythmic repetition of a single note is possible by single tonguing
- Double-tonguing is only possible on small-mouthpiece instruments (trumpet, cornet)
○ rapid ​tremolando ​without difficulty
- The instrumentalists must breathe!

Stopped notes and mutes alter brass tone:

- The horn employs both.
○ Shorter notes are stopped, long passages are muted.
○ Tone is always deadened.
○ Resonance and silvery tone is lost.
■ Approaches sound of oboe or Eng. horn.
○ Wild and crackling in ​forte​.
○ Tender and dull in ​piano​.
- Con sordino​ (with mute; stopped sounds) is marked by +, followed by a ○ indicating
senza sordini​ (without mute; resumption of open sounds)
- When muted, brass produce an effect of distance.
- Stopped and muted sound is similar.
○ Stopped notes can only be employed on trumpets, cornets, and horns;
○ All brass possess mutes (tuba mutes are rare);
○ Muted trumpet has a better tone than when stopped.
C. Instruments of little sustaining power.

Plucked Strings.
The orchestral string quartet plucking with the finger instead of using the bow introduces a new
independent group with a particular tone quality.

Pizzicato​ has small range of expression but is capable of ​ff ​to ​pp​ and is used chiefly as color.
● Resonant and heavy on open strings.
● Shorter and duller on stopped strings.
● Dry and hard in the high positions.

Table D. Pizzicato.

(Black notes are dry and hard, without resonance, and used only when doubled with the
woodwind)

Pizzicato ​passages are slower than ​arco ​passages because the fingers are less agile.
● The possible speed of ​pizzicato ​depends on the string’s thickness.
● (Bass ​pizzicato ​is always slower than violin ​pizzicato​.)

Pizzicato​ open strings produce a more brilliant tone than covered strings.
● Avoid them in chords if you wish to avoid inadvertent accents. (The more resonant tone
may not be appropriate)
● Natural harmonics create a charming effect and are chiefly successful on the cello;
○ However, the tone is weak.
 ● May be played on single notes or on double notes and chords.
○ 4-note chords allow freedom and vigor of attack.

Harp.
Almost entirely a harmonic or accompanying instrument:
● Special function lies in the execution of chords - “florid figures”

Whole range of the harp:

Percussion instruments producing determinate sounds, keyed

instruments.

Kettle-drums.
The most important percussion instrument in the theatre and concert orchestra. In Beethoven’s
time, a pair of timpani in the tonic and dominant keys were commanded:

Big kettle-drum: Small kettle-drum:

The high compass of kettle-drums depends on the size and quality of the smallest one. (Today,
all orchestras use fully tuneable timpany.)

A general range is:

They’re capable of every dynamic shade of tone:

● From thundering ​fortissimo​ to a barely perceptible ​pianissimo​.
● In ​tremolando​ they can execute a gradual ​crescendo​, ​diminuendo​, the ​sfp​, and
morendo​.
 ● Timpani coperti​ (muffled drums): an instruction to deaden the sounds with a piece of
cloth placed on the skin of the drum.

Piano and Celesta.

Use of piano in the orchestra (apart from concertos) belongs to Russian school.
● The quality of tone (with or without harp) is made to imitate a popular instrument (the
guzli as in ​Glinka​) or a soft peal of bells.

In the celesta, small steel plates replace the strings.

● Hammers falling on steel plates produces a delightful sound, similar to the ​glockenspiel​.
● (First used by Tchaikovsky)

Glockenspiel, Bells, Xylophone.

Glockenspiel​ (​campanelli​):
● May be made of steel bars or played with a keyboard (less satisfactory, less resonance).
● Its use is similar to the ​celeste​, but its tone is more brilliant and penetrating.

Big bells in the shape of hollow discs or metal tubes:

● Or real church bells of moderate size.
● More as theatrical properties than orchestral instruments.

Xylophone:
● Strips or cylinders of wood, struck with two little hammers.
● Produces a clattering sound - powerful and piercing.
● The marimba is a common lower extension to the xylophone’s sound.

Table E. Glockenspiel, celesta, xylophone.

Strings playing ​col legno​ (with the wood or back of the bow):
● Sound is similar to the xylophone.
● Sound quality gains as the number of players increases.

Percussion instruments producing indefinite sounds.

Instruments in this group do not take any harmonic or melodic part in the orchestra. They can
only be considered as ornamental instruments (no intrinsic musical meaning).

They correspond by register with percussion instruments of determinate sounds:

● High:
○ Triangle
○ Castanets
○ Little bells
● Medium:
○ Tambourine
○ Switch or rod (​Rute. ​Ger.)
○ Side or military drum
○ Cymbals
 ● Deep:
○ Bass drum
○ Chinese gong

Combining percussion with other orchestral groups:

● Place them in the same register, e.g. basses with bass drum/timpani/tam-tam or piccolos
with celesta/xylophone…
○ Achieves the effect of a single related musical plane of tone.

Comparison of resonance in orchestral groups and combination of

different tone qualities.
● Brass are the most resonant;
○ Trumpets, trombones, and tuba are the strongest.
○ Horns are only ½ as strong in loud passages.
○ 1 Trpt = 1 Trbn = 1 Tuba = 2 Horns.
● Woodwinds (in ​forte​) are twice as weak as the horns;
○ 1 Horn = 2 Clarinets = 2 Oboes = 2 Flutes = 2 Bassoons.
○ In ​piano​ passages, all wind instruments (wood or brass) are of fairly equal
balance!
● Resonance of strings depends on its number of players. In a medium formation
orchestra:
○ In ​piano​, whole of one section is equivalent in strength to one wind instrument.
■ E.g. Violins I = 1 Flute
○ In ​forte​, is equivalent to two wind instruments.
■ E.g. Violins I = 2 Flutes = 1 Oboe + 1 Clarinet, etc.
○ (These “balance equations” are approximate, and hold true only when the groups
are playing the same material)
■ The ear follows activity; a section will attract more attention when playing
a lively figure than held notes!
■ This element of orchestral balance is hard to quantify.
■ Also, brass and woodwinds change timbre more drastically in different
registers than the strings do.
● Low Flute and High Flute are balanced differently.
● Instruments of little sustaining power (​pizz.​ or ​col legno ​strings, soft piano, celesta…),
are diverse in production/emission of sound:
○ Combined force of sustained resonance groups will easily overpower them.
○ The emphatic tone of the ​glockenspiel​, bells, and xylophone (as well as the
ringing, resounding kettle-drums) will easily prevail over other groups combined.
■ However, percussive instruments soon fade away.
■ Orchestral distinction between sustained and percussive sounds, and not
based on timbre.
Timbre of separate groups and their effect on others is noticeable when groups are doubled:
● Woodwinds ​thicken ​the strings and ​soften ​the brass.
● Strings do not blend so well with brass - each is heard too distinctly.
● Combination of the three different timbres in unison produces a rich, mellow and
coherent tone.
● All or several wind instruments will balance/absorb one section of strings:
○ E.g. 2 Fl. + 2 Ob. + Violins I, or 2 Cl. + 2 Fag. + Cellos

○
● One section of strings added to the woodwind in unison is sweet and coherent, with
woodwind timbre predominating;
○ Addition of one wind instrument to all or part of strings in unison thickens the
string resonance, and woodwind timbre is lost:
■ E.g. Violins I + Violins II + 1 Ob.

■
● Muted strings do not combine so well with woodwind (the tone qualities remain distinct
and separate)
○ Plucked strings and percussion with instruments of sustained resonance results
in:
■ Wind (wood and brass) strengthen and clarify ​pizz. ​strings, harp,
kettle-drums and percussion
○ Plucked strings and percussion with bowed instruments does not yield a
satisfying blend.
○ Plucked strings and percussion alone blend perfectly;
■ consequent increase in resonance is admirable
● String harmonics and flute/piccolo link the two groups in the orchestra’s upper range.
○ Viola’s timbre is comparable to the bassoon’s middle register and clarinet’s low
register
■ Orchestral middle register connects string quartet and woodwinds
● Bassoon and horn connect the woodwind and brass;
 ○ They are similar when played in ​p ​and ​mf
○ Flute in lowest register recalls the ​pianissimo​ trumpet tone
○ Stopped/muted notes in horns and trumpets are similar to the oboe and Eng.
horn.

Final remarks:
● The three instrumental groups of sustained resonance (strings, woodwinds, brass) play
the principal part of music (melody, harmony, and rhythm).
○ Instruments of little sustaining power are chiefly used for ornament and colour,
sometimes independently.
○ Instruments producing indeterminate sounds play no melodic or harmonic part
and serve purely rhythmic function.
● Most to least important roles of each group in the “art of orchestration” from the
secondary standpoint of color and expression:
○ Strings, woodwind, brass, plucked strings, percussion (definite), percussion
(indefinite).
○ Expressive capacity decreases in this order. Color is the only remaining attribute.
○ Strings may be listened to for a long time, but other groups become wearisome.
■ The constant use of compound timbres (in pairs/threes…) eliminates
characteristics of tone; produces a dull, neutral texture.
■ Simple, elementary combinations give infinitely greater scope for variety
in color.