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E12 El-T&d KV Apr2014 Gsok
E12 El-T&d KV Apr2014 Gsok
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PERFORMANCE AND COSTS – Energy losses are measured as the fraction of the transported energy that is lost
mainly due to line heating. Losses are lower in HVDC than in HVAC over long distances: for a ±800 kV line voltage,
losses are about 3% per 1,000 km for an HVDC while they are about 7% per 1,000 km for an HVAC line [4]. For HVDC
sea cables, losses are about the same but can reach 60% per 100 km for a 750 kV HVAC sea cable. Most of the total
T&D losses occur in the distribution systems. It has been falling significantly in the US from 16% in 1926 to 7% today [10]
and in other developed countries (5.1% to 7.7% in 2010). In developing countries, losses vary between 11.6% and
20.7% for 2010 [8]. Emission factors associated to T&D losses are derived as a percentage of the total electricity
generated in a region or a country [11]: it varies between 5% in OECD countries and up to 20% in developing countries.
The cost of HVDC transmission systems vary widely with its design as well as the economic, geographical and
environmental conditions. For a bipolar HVDC line, a cost of 190 k€/km is estimated and converter stations are estimated
to 190 M€. For a double AC line, a cost of 190 k€/km (each) is estimated and AC substations (above 600 km) are
estimated to 60 M€ [7]. The relation between cost and capacity (MW) is not linear. Another source [13] gives cost data
per MW-km: 746$ -3318$ for long distance and 1491$-6636$ for lower voltage transmission lines. Substation costs vary
between 10,700–24,000 $/MW. Investment in transmission systems are higher in scenarios with higher renewable
shares. Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) brings significant operational benefits in distribution systems, although
they do not cover the full investment costs: 150$ to 400$ per meter [7].
POTENTIAL AND BARRIERS – In many countries, the existing infrastructure for electricity transmission and
distribution is aging and becoming obsolete or overstressed with the increasing penetration of intermittent renewables-
based electricity sources. Projected investments in the electricity sector over the 2012-2035 period for the global
generating capacity reaches about $9.7 trillion dollars, with an additional $7.2 trillion for T&D grids (40% to replace
existing infrastructure and 60% to build new infrastructure) [1]. Depending on the region, the cost for transmission
infrastructure varies between 4%-15% of the total cost and between 27%-34% for the distribution infrastructure. Potential
savings resulting from grid modernization are significant with a benefit-to-cost ratio of between 4:1 and 6:1 ratios [9].
Many challenges will affect the electricity grids of many countries on the long term [10]. In particular, investment in
improving flexibility within the system will become increasingly important with the penetration of intermittent forms of
energy. This will involve modifications in the designs and operations of systems as well as reforms in the processes for
transmission planning and system expansion. The penetration of electric vehicles and increasing changes in demand
variability will accelerate the decline in capacity utilization and consequently increase electricity costs. The penetration of
distributed generation (subsidies provided by net metering) will involve modifications in the design and operation of
distribution systems. In relation with the future challenge, the industry faces a near-term shortage of skilled workers, such
as engineers. New technologies and policies for reliability and efficiency will need to be developed and deployed to
enhance observation and control in T&D systems as well as to make demand more responsive to real-time costs.
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Consequently, their installation is not constrained by the large volumes of electricity over long distances offers
labour force. Maintenance of HVDC and HVAC systems several advantages over AC [4, 7]:
is comparable as the high voltage equipment in
Lower losses. If the systems are optimized, losses
converter stations is similar and requires trained
associated with HVDC transmission lines are lower than
technicians. Normal maintenance is recommended for
those of HVAC lines: 3% per 1,000 km compared with
about one week a year, but can be extended to two
7% per 1,000 km for a typical ±800 kV line [4]. Losses
years [7]. Bipolar systems can continue to operate
of a sea HVAC line can reach 60% per 100 km. This
during maintenance as only one pole is at stopped at
statement remains true even when one adds losses
the same time. Preventive maintenance should also be
associated to converters (about 0.6 % of the transmitted
done in addition to the normal routine mainly to make
power per station).
sure the “equipment achieve optimally balanced
availability with regard to the costs of maintenance, Lower investment cost. A HVDC line costs less for
operating disturbances and planned outages”. The the same transmission capacity even when accounting
objective should normally to achieve 98% of availability for the conversion stations that are required at both
[7]. The labour force required for maintenance varies sides of the lines since producers and customers are
based on several factors (regulations, unions, etc.). normally using AC technologies. Considering both
factors (investment costs and losses), HVDC lines are
Using the DC and high voltage (HVDC) for transporting
economically feasible for distance of about 600-800 km
on land and 50 km overseas [4].
AT 138 5,700,000 150,000 100 61 235,600 9,200 560 29,250 36,300 37,600 122,700 76,800 na
BE 24 5,178,890 64,906 0 55 193,165 0 0 7,021 65,501 52,164 68,480 69,398 544
BG 4 4,909,374 6,123 0 26 153,916 73 41 49,651 14,801 63,533 25,817 48,543 524
CY 1 512,972 646 0 5 22,428 0 0 5,482 3,305 9,206 4,434 14,774 1,800
CZ 3 5,812,727 24,258 134 65 221,441 12,245 13 58,734 12,979 65,764 71,706 3,677 30
DE 880 na na na 511 1,772,696 106,869 7,018 122,226 384,445 143,516 1,008,622 461,900
DK 72 na na na 33 171,819 1,364 379 8,629 65,354 3,961 92,132 71,100
EE 651,000 1,000 0 8 60,000 0 0 20,000 6,000 26,000 8,000 25,000 350
ES 27,682,771 103,630 397 278 695,427 30,363 1,017 203,225 77,620 241,735 141,467 289,671 776
FI 3,305,268 3,761 117 60 382,740 6,438 184 121,153 17,000 148,758 89,208 133,570 567
FR 33,903,690 95,703 0 384 1,293,466 0 0 356,263 251,790 419,060 266,353 751,000 2,240
GR 2 8,184,378 11,347 0 45 229,877 569 208 96,793 9,915 107,837 13,570 156,061 198
HU 6 5,520,991 6,334 138 37 161,954 7,755 118 53,887 12,929 64,039 33,227 59,485 155
IE 1 2,235,681 1,545 6 23 167,528 402 136 87,866 9,924 57,100 12,100 248,588 189
IT 144 31,331,656 90,949 1,018 264 1,105,216 0 0 207,247 135,353 510,301 252,315 426,559 1,728
LT 1 1,570,584 1,205 0 9 123,749 0 0 43,362 10,655 56,848 12,884 36,308 395
LU 6 na na na 5 8,477 0 0 1,115 2,044 319 4,999
LV 11 872,930 926 0 7 93,764 0 0 29,434 5,530 40,640 18,160 28,488 134
NL 11 na na na 109 252,634 0 0 na na na na
PL 184 16,456,000 31,000 300 133 774,141 32,486 185 234,732 70,760 291,671 144,307 250,229 98
PT 13 6,113,839 23,772 0 52 222,627 0 0 66,725 16,531 106,744 32,627 64,458 59
RO 2,633,625 5,602 91 54 89,944 6,332 252 22,645 12,021 28,589 20,106 20,736 25
SE 173 5,300,000 9,000 na na 528,606 na na na na 69,868 236,151
SI 820,000 105,275 2 11 63,120 801 10 12,189 4,665 24,655 20,801 16,425 93
SK 3 2,379,672 12,664 82 20 91,353 na na na na na na
UK 7 na na na 326 837,156 50,462 24,978 193,102 159,739 70,276 338,599 665,408 637
NO 155 na na na 118 128,591 na na na na na na 142,651 171
Figure 6 - Transmission and distribution losses for selected countries, 2008 [10]
Table 4 - Transmitted power and losses for the original double circuit AC lines and the converted DC lines [7]
Voltage (kV) 0,7 A/mm2 1.0 A/mm2 1.4 A/mm2
Joule % Joule % Joule %
Power (MW) Power (MW) Power (MW)
(per 10Km) (per 10Km) (per 10Km)
AC 33 26 11.0 37 16.1 52 22.6
AC 132 130 3.5 180 4.9 262 7.1
DC 66 89 3.8 127 5.4 178 7.6
DC 264 440 1.2 636 1.7 890 2.4
Substations, Voltage Support and System Operation. Reliability of transmission system clearly faces some
Substations are used for the interconnection of important challenges, namely for increasing
transmission lines and they are equipped with voltage transmission capacity with minimal environmental
transformers (e.g. links with the low voltage distribution impact, while incorporating intermittent energy
networks), with protection devices (circuit breakers, and resources [10]. First, the construction of new
surge arresters) and with data measure and transmission lines is a long and complex task requiring
communication equipment used to keep voltage at acquisition of rights-of-way, as well as consolidation of
acceptable levels [10]. Voltage support is becoming short term with long-term strategic objectives [10]. In
critical with the increase of line length and loading. The addition, some constraints limit the capacity of a
most common practice relates to the connection of transmission line: 1) thermal constraints, since the
compensating devices to the lines and the control of losses increase the temperature of the line which then
their voltage contribution following changes in the load. stretches between its supports, and 2) stability
Efficiency and reliability of transmission networks can constraints which represents the system ability of
be further improved with innovative technologies [10]: maintaining regular operations after unexpected events
(disturbances, failures, etc.) [10]. Thermal constrains
Phasor measurement unit (PMU) devices provide
are related to the material of the lines, while stability
regular and frequent data on the system conditions to
constraints depend on the length of the lines and
system operators in order to allow anticipating failures
system conditions. Extensive N-1 contingency analysis
and contingencies. While these devices are
is performed in order to define the stability limits [10].
increasingly employed, more work is necessary to
The objective is to make sure that if any single
optimize the use of data for controlling network.
component of the system is broken, the power flows will
Flexible alternating current transmission system
remain within these limits. There are two main forms of
(FACTS) devices allow a greater control of voltages
stability limits:
and bulk power flows in the systems, and
consequently, more power transmission on existing “Transient stability refers to the ability of a
lines with no additional risk of problems. transmission line to accept a transient increase in
power low without exceeding the maximum safe
Control Center. System reliability is also insured
voltage angle between the ends of the line.
through centralized planning at control centers where
Voltage stability refers to the ability of a power system
main operations consist of monitoring, analysis, and
to maintain acceptable voltage levels across the
control. Control operations involve the calculation of
network after a disturbance. The most common form
hourly power expected from generating units on a very
of voltage instability is a progressive drop in voltages
short term basis (few hours or days) depending on the
following a disturbance when the automatic controls
expected demand (this is called economic dispatch)
associated with some loads push generators and
[10]. Long term planning of the system goes beyond
transmission equipment beyond their capabilities.”
operation planning and is addressed at the utilities and
[10].
system operator levels.
There is an increasing interest in facing the challenges and once it is reported, operators need to send a truck
associated with long distance transmission, namely for repair which involves some additional delays. With the
the integration of renewable sources which may be years however, delays have reduced with
distant from economic centers. Long distance improvements in problems reporting and location. Using
transmission is technically feasible, but costly and sophisticated controlling devices in distribution systems
difficult to implement due to rights-of-way issues. The is less cost-effective than for transmission systems
main two technologies appropriate for this purpose are there are much more distribution lines and each of them
[10]: serves a much lower numbers of costumers.
Extra-high voltage AC (between 242-1000 kV): more Improvements and investments in aging distribution
power can be transmitted through these lines over networks will be necessary in the next decades, in
longer distance, but supporting infrastructure is also particular due to emerging challenges such as
bigger and more expensive (transformers, insulators, intermittent renewable penetration. Efficiency and
etc.). They are cost-effective for large capacity and reliability of distribution networks can still be improved
long distance, but limited by stability constraints. with innovative technologies, “…including distribution
High-voltage DC: The length of these lines is not management system software, more accurate control of
limited by stability constraints. Substation costs are voltages, automatic reconfiguration of distribution
higher as they required more electronic equipment for circuits, and advanced metering infrastructure (AMI)
AC/DC conversion and substation losses are higher [10]. AMI technologies are particularly relevant as they
(1.5% for AC/DC compared with 0.5% for AC). allow costumers receiving real-time prices based on the
However, the overall losses are much lower in a DC real-time supplying cost on one hand and allow
line than in an AC line, so DC lines are the most operators receiving real-time usage data on the other
appropriate and cost-effective for long distance and hand. These technologies will play a critical role as
point-to-point destination, including for transmission incentives to reduce peak demand, to improve network
power from renewable sources in remote areas. efficiencies and to lower costs of supplying electricity.
There deployment at a large scale will require
Other means are considered for increasing
appropriate legislation. Until now, demand side
transmission capacity, such as [10]:
management through dynamic pricing is starting but at
Transmission Overlays: This refers to the
a very slow pace.
superimposition of new high voltage transmission
lines over the existing network, but the benefits (less Emissions – Emission factors associated to
land space to connect more renewables) needs to be transmission and distribution losses are normally
balance against the high construction costs of this derived as a percentage of the total electricity
option. generated in a region or a country. According to [11],
Underground and Submarine Cables: Their main the portion of electricity consumed during its
advantage relates to their minimal overhead transmission and distribution vary between 5% in
infrastructures and visual impacts, but they are much OECD countries and up to 20% in developing countries.
more expensive and face some constraints: the length
Studies have shown that smart grids have less impact
for AC lines (dues the high capacitive charging
on the environment and can make a significant
current) and losses for DC lines.
contribution to energy and carbon savings. For
Superconductors: These are materials with very low
instance, a study from the Pacific Northwest National
resistance below a certain temperature and
Laboratory (PNNL) estimates a 12% reduction in
consequently have a higher capacity, but their
electricity consumption and CO2 emissions in 2030
deployment is limited by technical difficulties (to
after a complete implementation of smart grid
maintain the appropriate cooling).
technologies in the country [9].
Phasor Measurements for Increased Transmission
Capacity (see above). Costs and Investment – Although the cost of HVDC
transmission systems vary widely with its design as well
Distribution systems. While most problems and
as the economic, geographical and environmental
failures in the transmission network are increasingly
conditions, a typical cost structure is the following:
well controlled and not observed by costumers, those
Valves (20%), Converter transformers (16%), AC Filters
arising in the distribution networks directly affect them.
(10%), Control (7%), Other equipment (10%), Civil
One reason is related to the physical configuration of
works, buildings (14%), Engineering (10%), Erection,
distribution lines which are more numerous and
commissioning (8%), Freight, insurance (5%) [7].
vulnerable to uncontrolled events such as storms. In
Traditional HVDC systems designated for the
addition, operators of distribution systems use less
transmission of hundreds of megawatts are not
sophisticated (and less costly) controlling equipment.
economical for less than 20 MW loads. Since the prices
Consequently, when a tree falls on a distribution line for
go down with the voltage, costs of distribution networks
instance, the failures may be not reported automatically,
are lower than those of the transmission networks.
10
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Table 5 - Levelized electricity costs for new power plants, 2020 and 2040 [3]
2020 2040
Gas Gas
2011 ¢/kWh combined Wind Nuclear Coal combined Wind Nuclear Coal
cycle cycle
Capital 1.71 6.98 7.73 8.32 1.35 5.88 5.98 6.61
O&M 0.20 1.31 1.16 0.68 0.20 1.31 1.16 0.68
Fuel 4.77 0.00 1.25 3.01 6.71 0.00 1.40 2.89
Transmission 0.12 0.32 0.11 0.11 0.12 0.32 0.11 0.11
Transmission (%) 1.7% 3.7% 1.1% 0.9% 1.4% 4.2% 1.2% 1.1%
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equipment failures, energy losses, transmission of market incentives) and political barriers (lack of
congestion and environmental impact [9]. Indeed, the regulation and incentives). On the opposite, the
Research & Development Multi-Year Program Plan of development of distributed renewable electricity (such
the US DOE is expected to achieve significant target as solar PV in buildings) will have an reducing impact
benefits in 2030, such as a 20% reduction in the on the investment needs in transmissions networks,
national peak demand, a 100% availability to serve all although other type of investment may be required to
critical loads at all times, a 40% efficiency improvement, allow consumers providing electricity back to the grid
a load factor of 70% and a 20% of capacity generated [1].
from distributed and renewable energy sources (about
To face the upcoming challenges, the existing networks
200 GW) [9].
need to be extended, upgraded and transformed into
Toward Smart Grids - The development of future so-called smart grids (see ETSAP E15 for a complete
transmission and distribution grids will be influenced by description of smart grid technologies, performance and
the need to integrate the increasing amount of costs), aimed to meet increasing and changing
electricity generated from intermittent renewable electricity demand/supply needs. The US Department of
sources, and consequently, the need to increase its Energy (DOE, Office of Electricity Delivery & Energy
flexibility (about 3.2% of the total investments) [1,2]. For Reliability) defines the smart grids in comparison with
instance, smart grids use digital communication and existing grids, based on seven characteristics or
control technologies to optimise the operation of the functionalities required to meet the future needs (Table
system and to minimize the losses. Another motivation 10). The characterization includes standards for electric
for the development of smart grids technologies is the interconnection, integration, interoperability, test
increasing penetration of electric vehicles on the procedures and operating practice. While significant
markets, having a significant impact on the peak load research and technology advances are needed before
as most drivers will recharge their batteries at night. In implementing the smart grids at a large scale, the US
this case, smart grids allow electric vehicle charging DOE identifies R&D priority areas such as [9]:
(grid-to-vehicle) load to be shifted to off peak periods
1) home- and distribution-level, with low-power and
and flattening of the daily load curve. Advanced
secure communication; 2) distribution system and
technologies are also expected to eventually allow
customer-side sensing; 3) grid-to-vehicle and vehicle-
using electric vehicles as storage devices feeding back
to-grid technologies; 4) protection and control for high-
the electricity to the grid when needed (vehicle-to-grid).
penetration distributed energy resources, with changing
However, there are still significant technical (low battery
network conditions; and 5) operations support tools.
discharge rates and storage capacity), economic (lack
14
Table 11– Summary Table: Key Data and Figures for Electricity Transmission and Distribution
Costs Typical current international values and ranges (200XX US$, 1€ = 1.3 US$)
by technology variant Transmission Systems Distribution Systems
Investment cost 1, k€/km 190 k€/km for a bipolar HVDC line and 190 M€
for converter stations, 190 k€/km for a double
AC line (each) and 60 M€ forAC substations
(above 600 km)
Invest cost 2 , $/MW-km or Long distance transmission lines : 746-3318 Lower voltage transmission lines : 1491- 6636
$/MW $/MW-km $/MW-km
Substation costs: 10,700–24,000 $/MW 150$ and 400$ per smart meter
Intertie (AC-DC-AC) costs: 230,000 $/MW
Investments costs of T&D as a 4%-15% of the total cost 27%-34% of the total cost
% of total electricity delivery
costs
Typical cost breakdown % - Valves (20%), Converter transformers (16%), AC Filters (10%), Control (7%), Other equipment
Technologies within the T&D (10%), Civil works, buildings (14%), Engineering (10%), Erection, commissioning (8%), Freight,
systems insurance (5%)
Typical cost breakdown % - Gas combined cycle (1.7% - 1.4%),
Transmission share in the Nuclear (1.1% - 1.2%),
levelized electricity costs for Coal (0.9% - 1.1%),
new power plants in 2020 and Wind (3.7% - 4.2%).
2040
Effic., %, Most improvement are expected in develipong regions with important losses in 2010 (up to 20%).
2010-2020 (2030-) Losses in developed region can currently be as low as 6%
Inv.cost, US$ 2012- Investments in the electricity sector: $9.7 trillion $
2035 Investments for T&D grids: + $7.2 trillion (40% to replace existing infrastructure and 60% to build new
infrastructure).
Length of global T&D From 25 Mkm in 2012 to 93 Mkm in 2035.
systems
Savings from Savings of $40 billion/year
modernization Benefit-to-cost ratio of between 4:1 and 6:1 ratios.
15
[2] IEA – International Energy Agency (2011). Methodology used to calculate T&D investment. World Energy Outlook.
Paris, 4 p.
[3] EIA - Energy Information Administration (2013). Annual Energy Outlook 2013. US Department of Energy.
Washington DC, 244 p.
[4] Lavagno, E. (Project coordinator) (2010). Risk of Energy Availability: Common Corridors for Europe Supply
Security. Deliverable D2.1 & D3.1 ‘Captive’ and ‘Open Sea’ Energy Import Framework. EC-FP7 Project. Theme:
ENERGY-2007-9. 1-01: Energy Security of Supply. 126 p.
[6] University of Idaho (2012). HVDC Projects Listing. Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering. Prepared
for the HVDC and Flexible AC Transmission Subcommittee of the IEEE Transmission and Distribution Committee
[7] Larruskain, D.M., I. Zamora, A.J. Mazón, O. Abarrategui, J. Monasterio (s.d.). Transmission and Distribution
Networks: AC versus DC. Department of Electrical Engineering, University of the Basque Country - Bilbao (Spain)
and Avnet Iberia S.A.U.
[8] Worldbank (2013). Electric power transmission and distribution losses (% of output). Database available online.
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.LOSS.ZS/countries?display=default
[9] U.S. Department of Energy (2010). Smart Grid Research & Development Multi-Year Program Plan (MYPP) 2010-
2014. US DOE, Office of Electricity Delivery & Energy Reliability. Second Draft: March 2010, 78 p.
[10] MIT (2011). The Future of Electric Grid. An interdisciplinary MIT Study, 280 p.
[11] WRI/WBCSD (2007). GHG Protocol Initiative calculation tool: Indirect CO2 Emissions from the Consumption of
Purchased Electricity, Heat, and/or Steam. Guide to calculation worksheets (January 2007) v 1.2.
[12] European Network for Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E) (2011). Statistical Yearbook
2011. 136 p. https://www.entsoe.eu/publications/statistics/statistical-yearbooks/
[13] NREL- National Renewable Energy Laboratory (2012). Renewable Electricity Futures Study. Study U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, 4 volumes.
http://www.nrel.gov/analysis/re_futures/
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