Capítulo 2

Secuencias y series

2.1 Sequences

2.1.1 Preliminaries

Let { z n } be a sequence o f complex numbers. A sequence{ z n} is bounded if there

exists M > 0 such that |zn|< M for all n E N.
A complex number v is an accumulation point of { z n} if for every e > 0there exist
infinitely many integers n such that

|zn - v | < £.

Definition 2.1 We say that { z n} converges to w £ C, in the notation

lim zn = w
n —>oo

if fo r every e > 0 there exists an integer no such that f o r all n > no

\zn — w\ < e .

We say that { z n} is a Cauchy sequence if for every e > 0 there exists an integer n0
such that for all n, m > no

T h e o re m 2.2 A sequence { z n} o f complex numbers is convergent i f and only i f it

is a Cauchy sequence.

37
38 C H A P T E R 2. S E Q U E N C E S A N D S E R IE S

2.1.2 Examples and Exercises

E x a m p l e 2.1 Find which o f the following sequences are bounded:

a) {*"}; b) { ( r
+ 1

<> m i - «
e) { n 2(zn — 1 )}.

Solution, a) Th e sequence is bounded since \in \- - \i\n = 1.

b) T h e sequence is bounded, since

Ir - l- H = ( — -— ')" ^ 1 ^ 1 r
< tor every n E N.
IV1+ iJ I Ml +?r (\/2)n ~ y/2

c) Th e sequence is bounded, since |( j j ] | = 1, for every n E N.

d) Th e sequence is bounded since

n n — 11 , n NO f n — 1 xo 5 r
— + *------- = J ( ■- ) 2 + --------) 2 < - for every n E N .
12n + 1 n 1 y 2n + 1 n 4

e) Th e sequence is unbounded since n ^ 4A;, A: = 1, 2,...,

|n2(zn — 1)| = \Jn4 + n4 = y/2n2.

E x a m p l e 2.2 I f the sequence { a n} is bounded, prove that the following sequences

are also bounded

J 2 p ' a'
a) HE0; ; b)
i= i
n ,Pi > 0; c) IT

Solution. W e shall use that there exists M > 0 such that |at-| < M for every
i E N. a) W e have

< — V ] K ’| < — n M = M .
n fzl n
2.1. SEQ U E N C E S 39

b) W e have

- = M for pi > 0.

c) W e have
n n n

E x a m p l e 2.3 Find the accumulation points of sequences fr o m Example 2.1.

Solution. Th e accumulation points are

a) 1 ,-1 ,z ,- l; b) 0;
c) 1 ,- 1 ,i,-? ; d) i + z;
e) 0.

E x a m p l e 2.4 Which sequences fro m Example 2.1 converge?

Solution, a) Does not converge.

b) Th e sequence is bounded and it has one accumulation point 0. Therefore it

converges to 0.

c) Does not converge. It is bounded but with few accumulation points.

d) Th e sequence is bounded and it has one accumulation point | + i. Therefore

it converges to | + i.

e) Does not converge. It has one accumulation point but it is unbounded.

E x a m p le 2.5 Prove that i f the sequence { w n} converges to w, then {|wn|} converges

|iu|. The opposite is not true.

Solution. First we shall prove that the inequality

\u — H ^ |M — M l fo r u,?; E C . (2 .1)

Since u = (u — v) + v we have

M — \u ~ H + M-

Hence
M — \v\ < \u — V
40 C H A P T E R 2. S EQ U E N C E S A N D S E R IES

Starting from v = (v — u) + u, analogously we obtain

M ~ M< \u —

— |u — t?| < \u\ — \v\ < Iu — V|.

Since { w n} converges to w , we have that for every e > 0 there exists n0 E N such
that \wn — w\ < e for every n > n0. Pu tting v = wn in (2.1) we obtain

£ > \wn - w\ > \\wn \- M||,

for every n > n0, i.e., \wn\ —> \w\ as n —> oo. Th e following exam ple shows that
the opposite is not true.

an = ( —l ) n, |an|—> 1 ^ an —> a for some a E M.

Exercise 2.6 Prove that a sequence { w n} converges to w, i f and only i f the sequence
{ Re wn} converges Re w and the sequence {Im wn) converges to Im to.

Exercise 2.7 Find a sequence with one accumulation point which does not converge.

A n s w e r . { ( ( —l ) n -f l ) n } .

E x a m p l e 2.8 Prove that

lim \wn| = r (r > 0) and lim ar g w n = (p

imply
lim w,n = re ^ ,
n —+oo 1

where arg w is the main value.

Solution. For wn = un + ivn, we have

un — Re wn = \wn\cos (arg wn)

vn = Im wn = \wn \sin(arg wn).

Therefore
lim un = lim \wn \ lim cosfarg wn) = rcoscp,
oo
n —► n —>oo n —►
oo v

'n
lim
k
vn : =Tlim M n|'
O L /'N/'-'t ’
lim
IM v
sinfarg
\
wn)/ = rsim p .

Hence
lim wn - - r ( cos <z> + z sin co).
n —>oo

W e have used that { w n} converges, if the sequences {u n} and { ^ n} converge.

2.1. SEQUENCES 41

E x a m p l e 2.9 Let lim wn = w0. Is it true then that also

lim arg wn = arg

Solution. It is not true ! Counter-example: wQ = 0, wn = — 1 + ( — l ) n^. W e

have

i. 1 1
lim wn = —1, and arg w2k — ^ — arctan — , arg w 2fc+i = tt + arctan —------ .
^ 2k 2 A/ | 1

Hence {a r g w n} diverges.

R e m a r k . If { w n} converges to w0 ^ 0, then for every value ip = |Argw0 there

exists a sequence <pn = A rg wn which converges to A rg w0. If w0 ^ 0 is not a negative
number, then we have also lim n_+oo arg w n = arg^o-

E x a m p l e 2.10 Prove that i f lim wn = w and lim w'n - = vJ then f o r an arbitrary

but fixed k E N :

a) lim (w n) k = wk\
71— K X )

k k

Solution, a) and b ) Th e proof goes by induction. W e known that for k = 2

lim (wn) 2 = w2 and

Suppose that the desired equalities hold for k — 1,

Then we have for k

lim (wn) k = lim (wn) k 1 lim wn = wk l w ~ wk.

n — >o o n — KX> n — KX>

(Analogously also for b) ).

c) By induction we can prove that the sum of finite number o f convergent se­
quences converges to the sum o f their limits. Therefore by a) we have