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3 1 LoadFlowStudies Parti
3 1 LoadFlowStudies Parti
(Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 1/59
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III. Load Flow Studies
PART I
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Systems
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
the Load Flow in Power Systems
This Section Presents a General Overview of
3/59
1. Overview of Load Flow in Power
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1. Introduction
• Load flow studies determine the voltage, current, active,
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and reactive power and power factor in a power system.
[1] IEEE Recommended Practice for Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Analysis, IEEE Std 399-1997
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 4/59
1. Introduction
• A number of operating procedures can be analyzed,
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including contingency conditions, such as the loss of a
generator, a transmission line, a transformer, or a load.
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 5/59
1. Introduction
• The results of a load flow study are also starting points for
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stability studies.
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 6/59
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
load flow formulation
2. Load Flow Formulation
7/59
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2. Power Flow Formulation
• Given the load power consumption at all buses of a known
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electric power system configuration and the power
production at each generator, find the power flow in each line
and transformer of the interconnecting network and the
voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus.
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 8/59
2. Power Flow Formulation
• During the basic circuit theory courses, you heard about
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“Solve the circuit”:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
RT = 50 Ω + 75 Ω + 100 Ω
RT = 225 W
Applying the Ohm Law
VT = IRT
VT = (0.5 amps)(225 Ω)
VT = 112.5 volts
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Algebraic Variables
The solution of this Lineal Problem
problem is EASY
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 9/59
2. Power Flow Formulation
• The load flow is like “Solve the Circuit”, however the circuit to
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be solved is a Power System ☺.
Nº Bus Type P Q V
2 Load 0 0 ?
4 Slack ? ? 1+j0
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
load flow calculations
3. Theoretical Background
11/59
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Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
Nodal Admittance Matrix [Y]
3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
12/59
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3.a. Network Performance Equations
• The steady state behaviour of the ac electrical power
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system can be described using the network equations.
Vbus = Zbus Ibus
or in admittance form Ybus:
Ibus = Ybus I bus
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 13/59
3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
• Nodal Admittance Matrix Ybus is built to model or represent
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the steady-state behavior of an electrical system ac system.
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 14/59
3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
• Assume and branch element (yij) connected between two
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adjacent bus bars “i” and “j” respectively.
• The voltage in each bus bar is known: Vi and Vj
• The current flowing between the buses i and j, assuming
from i to j, is defined as Iij
Bus “i” Bus “j”
Iij
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
yij
Vi Vj
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 15/59
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Vi
Bus “i”
I ij
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
zij
Vi V j
Iij
y ij
3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
Vj
Bus “j”
yij Vi V j
• Ecuation for the current through the impedance:
16/59
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3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
• For the k-th bus, the equations for the currents results:
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k
I k 0 y k 0 Vk Ik1 1
I k1 y k1 Vk V1
yk1
Ik2 2
I k 2 y k 2 Vk V2 Ik
yk2
.
.
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
.
I kn y kn Vk Vn
Ik0 Ikn n
yk0 ykn
Vk
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 17/59
3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
• Let be Ikm the current in out direction from the bus "k" and
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going to the bus "m". k
Ik1 1
I k 0 y k 0 Vk yk1
I k1 y k1 Vk V1
Ik2 2
I k 2 y k 2 Vk V2
yk2
Ik .
.
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
.
Ik0 Ikn n
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 18/59
3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
I k 0 y k 0 Vk
k
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Ik1 1
I k1 y k1 Vk V1
yk1
Ik2 2
I k 2 y k 2 Vk V2
yk2
Ik .
.
.
Ik0 Ikn n
I kn y kn Vk Vn
yk0 ykn
Vk
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
I k I k 0 I k1 I k 2 I kn
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 19/59
3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
• Substituting the definition of each branch (Iij) current results:
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I k I k 0 I k1 I k 2 I kn
n n
I k Vk ykj ykjV j
j 0 j 1
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 20/59
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
n
j 1
n
3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
j 1
j k
• Finally the current in the node “k” is:
I k YkjV j
I k Vk Ykk YkjV j
21/59
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3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
• Rewrite the equations into the normative form for the
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current for the n buses results:
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node equations can be rewritten using matrix notation:
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the vector of nodal voltages; Y is called the nodal
admittance matrix:
Ibus = Ybus Vbus
V1 I1
V I
2 2
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Vbus I bus
Vn I n
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 24/59
3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
• Here I is the vector of nodal injection currents and V is
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the vector of nodal voltages; Y is called the nodal
admittance matrix:
Ibus = Ybus Vbus
Ybus
Yn1 Yn 2 Yn 3 Ynn
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 25/59
3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
Y11 Y12 Y13 Y1n
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Y Y Y2 n
21 22 Y23
Ibus = Ybus Vbus Ybus
Yn1 Yn 2 Yn 3 Ynn
y
k, is equal to the sum of all
kj Ykk the admittances of the
incident branches of the
j 0 corresponding node.
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Mutual-Admittance between
node k and j
-ykj = Ykj
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 26/59
3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
• A nodal admittance matrix reflects the topology and
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parameters of an electricnetwork,
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 27/59
3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
• The admittance matrix is symmetric if there is no phase-
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shifting transformer in the network.
• The admittance matrix is sparse
• Usually, the number of branches connected to one node is
2–4, thus there are only 2–4 nonzero off-diagonal elements
in each row.
• The property that only a few nonzero elements exist in a
matrix is called sparsity.
• This phenomenon will be more remarkable with increase of
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
NUMERIC EXAMPLE
29/59
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3.b. Nodal Admittance Matrix: Example
• Example: Consider the following on-line diagram which the
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represents a three-phase steady-state ac system.
• This is a simple 3-bus test system
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 30/59
3.b. Nodal Admittance Matrix: Example
• Let us assume that following the circuit represents the
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single-phase equivalent of the symmetrical balanced three-
phase test system
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 31/59
3.b. Nodal Admittance Matrix: Example
• Applying the Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL):
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VA 0.20 jI1 1 j I1 I 2 VB 0
VA VB V1 1.2 jI1 1 jI 2 0 I 3 (Loop 1)
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 32/59
3.b. Nodal Admittance Matrix: Example
• The system equations result:
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VA VB 1.2 1.0 0.0 I1
V V 1.00 3.75 2.5 I
A B 2
VA VB 0.0 2.5 3.5 I 3
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 33/59
3.b. Nodal Admittance Matrix: Example
• Applying the Kirchhoff's current law (KCL):
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I1 10 jV1 10 j (V1 V2 )
I1 20V1 10 jV2 0V3 (Node 1)
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 34/59
3.b. Nodal Admittance Matrix: Example
• The system equations result:
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I1 20.0 10.0 0.0 V1
I 10.0 15.0 2.5 V
2 2
I 3 0.0 4.0 5.4 V3
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 35/59
3.b. Nodal Admittance Matrix: Example
• This is the admittance matrix of the 3-bus test system:
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20.0 10.0 0.0
Ybus 10.0 15.0 2.5
0.0 4.0 5.4
There is not
connection
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
between
these buses
HOMEWORK
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
Nodal Admittance Matrix [Y]
37/59
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HOMEWORK
• Considering the following on-line diagram.
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• Calculate step-by-step the elements of the Nodal Admittance
matrix Ybus.
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 38/59
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
3.c. Power Equations
39/59
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3.c. Power Equations
• Consider the k node, it has n branches where each branch
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has a current going out the node k.
n
I k Vk Ykk YkjV j
j 1
j k
• The electrical power fed in the node k is:
Sk Vk I k*
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Sk* Vk* I k
n
Sk* Vk* Vk Ykk YkjV j Pk jQk
j 1
j k
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 40/59
3.c. Power Equations
• The electrical power can be written in terms of active an
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reactive power:
n
Sk* Vk* Vk Ykk YkjV j Pk jQk
j 1
j k
n
*
Pk Re Vk Vk Ykk YkjV j
j 1
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
j k
Qk Im Vk* Vk Ykk YkjV j
n
j 1
j k
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 41/59
3. Power Equations
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n
Sk* Vk* Vk Ykk YkjV j Pk jQk
j 1
j k
• The equation used for electrical power can be written in
terms of voltage
1 Pk jQk n
Vk Y V
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Ykk Vk*
j 1
kj j
j k
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 42/59
3.c. Power Equations
• Equations in Rectangular form:
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Vk ak jbk
n V j a j jb j
Pk jQk Ykk Vk Vk* YkjV j
2
Ykk Gkk jBkk
j 1
j k Ykj Gkj jBkj
j 1 j 1
j k j k
j 1 j 1
j k j k
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 43/59
3.c. Power Equations
• Equations in Polar Form
Vk Vk k
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n
Pk jQk Ykk Vk Vk* YkjV j V j V j j
2
j 1
j k
Ykj Ykj kj
Pk Vk V j Ykj cos kj j k
n
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
j 1
j k
Qk Vk V j Ykj sin kj j k
n
j 1
j k
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 44/59
3.c. Power Equations
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1 Pk jQk n
Vk YkjV j
Ykk Vk *
j 1
j k
• This equation create a Systems of nonlinear equations.
• Cannot (except in rare cases) be solved by closed-
form techniques.
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 45/59
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Formulation
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
.
3.d. Load Flow: Problem
46/59
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3.d. Load Flow: Problem Formulation
• Generally speaking, the power flow problem consists in
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finding the zero of a set of nonlinear equations starting from
an adequate initial guess (demonstrated in 4).
S = VI *
1 Pk jQk n
Vk
Ykk Vk*
j 1
YkjV j
j k P jQ = VYV*
f x, y = 0
g x, y = 0
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3.d. Load Flow: Problem Formulation
f x, y = 0
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DAE MODEL
g x, y = 0
• where differential equations f model dynamic devices such
as, for example, under load tap changers, and algebraic
equations g define the power balance at network buses.
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 48/59
3.d. Load Flow: Problem Formulation
• Considering the algebraic equations g define the power
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balance at network buses.
g ( x, y) 0
• The power balance equations are:
n n
P
k 1
gen Pload LosesP
k 1
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
n n
Q
k 1
gen QPload LosesQ
k 1
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 49/59
3.d. Load Flow: Problem Formulation
• Uncontrolled Variables: Those variables that depend on
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the users, such as the power consumed by the loads Pload
and Qload.
• Independent or Controlled Variables: Those variables that
can be manipulated for the economic or technical
performance of the power system. The power generation are
controlled variables Pgen and Qgen.
• Dependent Variables: Those variables that depend on the
changes of the power, such as voltages: module and angle.
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Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
.
3.e. Load Flow Solvers
51/59
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3.e. Load Flow Solvers
g ( x, y) 0
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• The power balance equations produce an nonlinear
equations system and has no analytical explicit solution.
•
• Not even the simple loss-less system can be solved by hand.
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 52/59
3.e. Load Flow Solvers
• The solution of the simultaneous nonlinear power flow
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equations requires the use of iterative techniques for even
the simplest power systems.
g ( x, y) 0
• There are several methods for calculation the numerical
solution of nonlinear equations:
– Bisection
– Regula Falsi
– Modified Regula falsi
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
– Newton Methods
– Secant Method
– Steepest descend
– Etc..
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3.e. Load Flow Solvers
• Although there are many methods for solving nonlinear
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equations, the following methods are typically used for the
numeric solution of load flow problems.
– Jacobi
– Gauss-Seidel
– Newton-Raphson
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Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
.
solution techniques
3.f. Comparison of load flow
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3.f. Comparison of solution techniques
• Although it is useful to understand how load flow solution
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techniques work, it is more important to understand the
characteristics they exhibit.
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3.f. Comparison of solution techniques
• Most of the research into load flow solution techniques has
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centered on Newton methods.
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Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Questions
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Any Question?
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Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
Please visit:
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
fglongatt@fglongatt.org
http://www.fglongatt.org.
http://www.fglongatt.com
Comments and suggestion are welcome:
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