Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load of Popular Weight-Loss Diets

2/25/2018 Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load of Popular Weight-Loss Diets
MedGenMed. 2006; 8(1): 22. PMCID: PMC1682003

Published online 2006 Jan 24.
Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load of Popular Weight-Loss Diets

James M. Shikany, DrPH, Assistant Professor, Sarah E. Thomas, BS, C. Suzanne Henson, MS, RD, Assistant
Professor, David T. Redden, PhD, Associate Professor, and Douglas C. Heimburger, MD, Professor
James M. Shikany, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham. Email: jshikany@dopm.uab.edu;
Contributor Information.
Disclosure: James M. Shikany, DrPH, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.
Disclosure: Sarah E. Thomas, BS, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.
Disclosure: C. Suzanne Henson, MS, RD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.
Disclosure: David T. Redden, PhD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.
Disclosure: Douglas C. Heimburger, MD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.
Copyright ©2006 Medscape
Abstract
Context
Carbohydrate-restricted diets have been popular in recent years. The theoretical glycemic impact of these
diets, compared with other popular weight-loss diets, has not been reported.
Objective
To assess the glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL) of 2 popular, carbohydrate-restricted diets
(South Beach and Sugar Busters!) and compare them with a low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet (Ornish) and a
moderate-fat, moderate-carbohydrate diet (EatRight).
Design
All available sample menus provided in the book for each diet were extracted and included in the analyses.
GI values for all carbohydrate-containing foods were assigned based on a published list. GL values were
determined based on these GI values and recommended serving sizes.
Main Outcome Measures

Median daily GI and GL values were calculated for each diet and for each phase of South Beach and each
meal pattern of EatRight.
Results
The median daily GLs of South Beach and Sugar Busters! (34 and 48, respectively) were less than one half
those of Ornish and EatRight (113 and 104, respectively). Adjusting the diets to 1500 kcal attenuated the
differences slightly. The median daily GIs of the diets were in a very narrow range (46-53); however,
South Beach (46) was significantly lower than Ornish (53).
Conclusions
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1682003/?report=printable 1/11
The GLs of 2 carbohydrate-restricted diets were significantly lower than those of a low-fat, high-
carbohydrate diet and a moderate-fat, moderate-carbohydrate diet. The differences were due primarily to
lower carbohydrate content rather than to differences in overall GIs of the diets.
Readers are encouraged to respond to George Lundberg, MD, Editor of MedGenMed, for the editor's eye
only or for possible publication via email: glundberg@medscape.net
Introduction
The prevalence of overweight and obesity among adults in the United States increased from 47% and 15%,
respectively, in the period of 1976-1980 to 65% and 31%, respectively, in the period of 1999-2002.[1]
Countless dietary approaches for weight loss have been promulgated over the years. Although first
described over 150 years ago, carbohydrate-restricted diets have undergone resurgence in popularity over
the past several years. Interest in these diets is demonstrated by the continuing popularity of carbohydrate-
restricted diet books in the lay press, with several of these books enjoying long runs on nonfiction
bestseller lists.
Several of the most popular carbohydrate-restricted diets (including The South Beach Diet and Sugar
Busters!) embrace the concepts of glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL) as adjuncts to weight-loss
efforts. GI is a ranking of carbohydrate-containing foods based on postprandial blood glucose response and
is a measure of carbohydrate quality.[2] Generally, the lower the GI, the lower the rate of absorption of the
carbohydrate and the smaller the rise in postprandial glucose and insulin concentrations.[3] GL is a
measure that incorporates both the quality and quantity of dietary carbohydrates.[4] It has been
hypothesized that low-GI diets may aid weight-loss efforts by increasing satiety and by promoting fat
oxidation at the expense of carbohydrate oxidation.[5] Small clinical studies suggest that low-GI diets may
promote weight loss.[6]
A systematic assessment of GI and GL of carbohydrate-restricted diets has not been reported. The purpose
of this study was to assess the theoretical glycemic impact of 2 popular carbohydrate-restricted diets and
compare them with a low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet and a moderate-fat, moderate-carbohydrate diet.
Materials and Methods
Diets
Two carbohydrate-restricted diets were analyzed: The South Beach Diet[7] and Sugar Busters!.[8] These
diets were chosen based on the popularity of their respective books on The New York Times' Best Sellers'
list in early 2004. The South Beach Diet book remains on The New York Times' Best Sellers' list as of
November 2005.[7] For comparison, a high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet (Ornish)[9] and a moderate-
carbohydrate, moderate-fat diet (EatRight)[10] were included. All available sample menus in each diet
book were extracted and included in the analyses.
South Beach The South Beach Diet is a carbohydrate-restricted diet with 3 phases. During Phase 1, all
carbohydrates are severely restricted. In Phase 2, the concept of GI is introduced and low-GI
carbohydrates, such as apples, high-fiber cereals, multigrain breads, and reduced-fat milk, are gradually
reintroduced into the diet. Higher-GI carbohydrates, such as refined-grain breads and potatoes, are
proscribed. Phase 3 of the diet is the maintenance phase.
Sugar Busters! The Sugar Busters! diet is a 14-day dietary plan based on the restriction of dietary sugars
rather than all carbohydrates. The diet emphasizes GI and restricts high-GI carbohydrates. The plan also
discusses GL and advises against the overconsumption of even low-GI carbohydrates because of
deleterious effects on dietary GL.
Ornish In this diet plan, dietary fat is restricted to 10% of total energy intake. In contrast to the
carbohydrate-restricted diets, the Ornish diet includes 70% of total energy from carbohydrates. So-called
complex carbohydrates and high-fiber foods are promoted. Sugars are restricted, although not completely
eliminated from the diet.
EatRight The EatRight Weight Management Program is a 12-week lifestyle-oriented, weight-control

program that was developed at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. The program is based on the
concept of “time-calorie displacement,” which emphasizes the ingestion of large quantities of high-bulk,
low-energy-density foods (vegetables, fruits, high-fiber grains, and cereals) and moderation in high-
energy-density foods (meats, cheeses, sugars, and fats). Women are placed on a 1200-kcal/day regimen
(Meal Pattern 1) and men on a 1500-kcal/day regimen (Meal Pattern 2). Meal Pattern 3 is an 1800-kcal
regimen that is recommended for some persons who have reached their weight goals.
Nutritional Analysis
The nutrient composition of each diet was determined by computerized nutritional analysis, with the
Nutrition Data System for Research (NDS-R) software, version 4.06 (Nutrition Coordinating Center,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis). Nutrient values used in the calculations came from the NDS-R
software or were provided by the manufacturer.
Determination of Dietary GI and GL

Dietary GI and GL values were determined for each meal and day for each of the 4 diets. Calculations
were also done for each phase or meal pattern of a diet, where applicable. To determine the GI and GL
values for a given meal, a list of all carbohydrate-containing foods in the meal was generated by NDS-R,
along with the amount of total carbohydrate and dietary fiber in the serving size of each food specified by
the respective diet. Available carbohydrate was used in the GL calculations and was calculated by
subtracting the amount of dietary fiber from the amount of total carbohydrate. Each food was assigned a
glucose-based GI value from a published table of GI values.[11] The GL value of an individual food was
calculated by multiplying the GI value of the food by the grams of available carbohydrate per serving and
dividing by 100.[11] The GLs of all carbohydrate-containing foods in the meal were summed, resulting in
the GL for the meal. The GL for a day was obtained by summing the meal GLs for that day.
The GI of a meal was calculated by multiplying the meal GL by 100 and dividing by the total grams of
available carbohydrate in the meal, resulting in a weighted median GI, with weights based on the
proportion of available carbohydrate content of the meal contributed by each food.[12] With the same
methods, the GI for a day's intake was also determined. These methods assume that the overall glycemic
effect of the diet is proportional to the GI and the amount of carbohydrate that each food contributes to the
diet. These assumptions have been demonstrated to be correct in a mixed diet of low- and high-GI foods,
which was shown to have a glycemic response similar to that predicted based on the GI values of the
component foods.[13]
GI values for foods with no published values were imputed based on published GI values of similar foods.
Foods containing little carbohydrate (eg, meats, poultry, fish, cheese, eggs, and salad vegetables) were not
included in the GL and GI analyses due to their minimal glycemic effect. When there were multiple GI
values listed for a given food in the GI table, the mean GI value was assigned. For mixed dishes with no
published GI value, the GI was calculated as the weighted average of the GIs of the component
carbohydrate ingredients with the methods described above.
Statistical Analysis
Descriptive statistics (medians and ranges) were used to summarize the diets' nutrient contents. Weighted
descriptive statistics, with “glycemic” carbohydrates as a weighting variable, were calculated for the GI.
Due to small sample sizes, nonparametric tests (Kruskal-Wallis) were used to compare nutrient
information among the diets. For significant results, follow-up procedures with Mann-Whitney tests were
conducted with a Bonferroni correction to control for multiple comparisons.
Results
The number of days of sample menus provided for each diet varied from 7 (Ornish and EatRight) to 14
(South Beach and Sugar Busters!). Overall, the compositions of both carbohydrate-restricted diets were
very similar (Table 1). When compared with Ornish and EatRight (Meal Pattern 3), the carbohydrate-
restricted diets were lower in energy, carbohydrates, and dietary fiber. Both South Beach (Phase 3) and
Sugar Busters! were significantly higher in fat (both in absolute terms and as a percentage of total energy)
and cholesterol compared with Ornish, but not compared with EatRight.
Analyses of median GIs and GLs of the diets are reported in Table 2. With Phase 3 of South Beach and
Meal Pattern 3 of EatRight for comparison, the lowest overall median daily GLs were seen in the 2
carbohydrate-restricted diets, South Beach and Sugar Busters!. The GLs of these 2 diets were similar in
magnitude (34 and 48, respectively) and were less than half that of both Ornish and EatRight (P < .001 for
differences), which were also similar in magnitude (113 and 104, respectively). Within the carbohydrate-
restricted diet with multiple phases (South Beach), there were increases in GL with progression of the
phases: 3, 32, and 34 for Phases 1, 2, and 3, respectively; however, only the differences between Phases 1
and 2 and Phases 1 and 3 were statistically significant. This pattern was also seen in the comparison diet
with multiple meal patterns – EatRight, with GLs of 60, 82, and 104 for Meal Patterns 1, 2, and 3,
respectively.
A comparison of GLs among the diets was also carried out after standardizing the diets to 1500 kcal to
adjust for the effects of differences in energy content on GL (Table 2 and Figure 1). Adjusting the diets had
the effect of attenuating the differences in GL among the diets to some degree; however, the GLs of the 2
carbohydrate-restricted diets (41 and 59 for South Beach and Sugar Busters!, respectively) remained lower
than the GLs of the 2 comparison diets (98 and 82 for Ornish and EatRight, respectively). However, the
difference between Sugar Busters! and EatRight was no longer statistically significant. Within South
Beach, adjustment had little effect on GL in any phase, reflecting the nearly constant energy levels (albeit
different median GIs) of the 3 phases. The converse was true for EatRight – adjustment had the effect of
equalizing the GLs of the different meal patterns due to the different energy levels but nearly equal median
GIs of the 3 meal patterns.
There was no clear pattern of dietary GI among the diets. Although one of the carbohydrate-restricted diets
(South Beach) had the lowest median GI (46), the GI of EatRight (48) was lower than that of the other
carbohydrate-restricted diet, Sugar Busters! (50) (Table 2 and Figure 2). The only statistically significant
difference in GIs was between South Beach (46) and Ornish (53) (P = .001). In South Beach, there were
increases in GI with progression of the phases: 26, 42, and 46 for Phases 1, 2, and 3, respectively;
however, only the differences between Phases 1 and 2 and Phases 1 and 3 were statistically significant.
Median GI was relatively constant among the meal patterns of EatRight.
Discussion
The GLs of the 2 carbohydrate-restricted diets were less than half that of the 2 comparison diets. Although
the median GIs of 2 of the diets were significantly different from each other, there was no clear pattern
among the diets' GIs, and the range among the median GIs (46-53) was very narrow and most likely of
little clinical significance. Carbohydrate-restricted diets would be expected to have low GLs due to their
reduced carbohydrate content. The contribution of GI to GL is generally less powerful than that of
carbohydrate content. Although a reduced carbohydrate content contributed to the low GLs of both South
Beach and Sugar Busters!, one of these diets (South Beach) also had a slightly lower median GI than the
other diets, which contributed to its low GL value.
Studies have suggested that low-GI diets may play a role in weight loss. A low-GI diet resulted in greater
weight loss compared with a high-GI diet in obese women in a 12-week clinical study.[6] Low-GI
carbohydrates may help maintain weight and prevent obesity by increasing satiety.[5] Because low-GI
foods are digested and absorbed more slowly, nutrient receptors in the gastrointestinal tract are stimulated
for a longer period of time, resulting in prolonged feedback to the satiety center in the brain.[14] This
results in reduced energy intake at a given meal and at subsequent meals.[15] High-GI diets, compared
with isoenergetic and nutrient-controlled, low-GI diets, result in higher average 24-hour blood glucose and
insulin concentrations.[16] The postprandial rise in glucose and insulin concentrations in response to high-
GI foods increases carbohydrate oxidation through the rapid activation of key rate-limiting enzymes.[17]
Concomitant reduction in the rate of fat oxidation has been linked with greater weight gain in several
prospective studies.[18,19]
The effectiveness of reducing dietary GI and GL as adjuncts to weight-loss efforts requires further study.
Clinical trials of the effects of lowering dietary GI and GL on weight loss have not been conducted. In
addition, the concept of GI has been criticized on the grounds that it is impractical and that long-term
clinical benefits have not been demonstrated.[20] It should also be noted that a recent study suggested that
the most important predictor of success of weight-loss diets was adherence, not the specific dietary
prescription.[21]
Despite the questionable clinical utility of GI and GL in weight-loss diets, the concept of GI was included
in the diet books for both South Beach and Sugar Busters!. This is contrasted with another well-known,
carbohydrate-restricted diet – the Atkins diet.[22] In Atkins, although extremely low-carbohydrate intake
was recommended, there was no reference to GI. Atkins was not included in our analyses because the
Atkins book included only 1 day of sample menus for phases beyond induction.
Limitations of this study should be noted. First, although all menus in each diet book were analyzed, these
were sample menus, and actual foods consumed by persons following the diets may vary to some extent.
Data regarding the estimated GI and GL values of the diets in actual practice would be of interest to
determine the degree to which they differ from the theoretical values presented here. Second, the GI and
GL values presented are theoretical in nature and do not consider other macronutrients, including fat and
protein, and other dietary constituents, such as phytates and lectins, that may influence the GI of foods.
[23,24] There is no way to adequately control for the effects of other dietary components in GI/GL
calculations. Third, it is possible that the exclusion of foods with very low carbohydrate contents could
have resulted in calculated GLs that were slightly lower than what would be expected based on the total
carbohydrate content. Because these foods comprised only a small fraction of the total carbohydrate
content of each diet, it is unlikely that excluding these foods materially altered the absolute GL values or
the differences in GLs among the diets. Finally, there were a few foods for which no published GI values
exist. In these cases, GI values were imputed, which could have introduced bias.
In summary, 2 carbohydrate-restricted diets had significantly lower median GLs than a high-carbohydrate,
low-fat diet and a moderate-carbohydrate, moderate-fat diet, primarily due to their lower carbohydrate
contents. By contrast, the range of GIs among the diets was very narrow and probably has little clinical
significance. The GIs of the diets that we analyzed that emphasized the concept of GI were not
substantially different from those of the diets that did not emphasize it. It may therefore be impossible to
isolate an independent effect of GI on weight-loss outcomes. The impact of GI and GL on efforts to
prevent and treat obesity remains to be determined.
Acknowledgments
William S. Stigler conducted preliminary analyses that led to the inclusion of additional diets.
Contributor Information
James M. Shikany, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham. Email:
jshikany@dopm.uab.edu.
Sarah E. Thomas, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham.
C. Suzanne Henson, Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham.
David T. Redden, Department of Biostatistics, University of Alabama at Birmingham.
Douglas C. Heimburger, Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham.
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7. Agatson A. The South Beach Diet: The Delicious, Doctor-Designed, Foolproof Plan for Fast and
Healthy Weight Loss. New York: Rodale Inc; 2003.
8. Steward HL, Bethea MC, Andrews SS, Balart LA. Sugar Busters! Cut Sugar to Trim Fat. New York:
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9. Ornish D. Eat More, Weigh Less: Dr. Dean Ornish's Life Choice Program for Losing Weight Safely
While Eating Abundantly. New York: Quill; 2001.
10. Weinsier RL, Wilson NP, Morgan SL, et al. EatRight Lose Weight: 7 Simple Steps. Birmingham, Ala:
Oxmoor House; 1997. (plus accompanying workbook)
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values: 2002. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76:5–56. [PubMed: 12081815]
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Clin Nutr. 1994;59:1265–1269. [PubMed: 8198048]
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noninsulin-dependent diabetic subjects. Am J Clin Nutr. 1986;44:349–352. [PubMed: 3751955]
14. Lavin JH, Wittert GA, Andrews J, et al. Interaction of insulin, glucagon-like peptide 1, gastric
inhibitory polypeptide, and appetite in response to intraduodenal carbohydrate. Am J Clin Nutr.
1998;68:591–598. [PubMed: 9734735]
15. Ludwig DS. Dietary glycemic index and obesity. J Nutr. 2000;130(suppl):280S–283S.
[PubMed: 10721888]
16. Jenkins DJ, Wolever TM, Collier GR, et al. Metabolic effects of a low-glycemic-index diet. Am J Clin
Nutr. 1987;46:968–975. [PubMed: 2825505]
17. Wolfe RR. Metabolic interactions between glucose and fatty acids in humans. Am J Clin Nutr.
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18. Zurlo F, Lilloja S, Esposito-Del Puente A, et al. Low ration of fat to carbohydrate oxidation as
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22. Atkins RC. Dr. Atkins' New Diet Revolution. New York: Avon Books; 2002.
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24. Jenkins DJ, Wolever TM, Jenkins AL. Starchy foods and glycemic index. Diabetes Care. 1988;11:149–
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Figures and Tables
Figure 1
Comparison of median daily glycemic load across the diets (adjusted to 1500 kcal). Phase 3 was used for South Beach and
Meal Pattern 3 for EatRight. Median values of diets with the same letters were significantly different (overall comparison
used P < .05; Bonferroni follow-up comparisons used P < .008 = .05/6).
Figure 2
Comparison of median daily glycemic index across the diets. Phase 3 was used for South Beach and Meal Pattern 3 for
EatRight. Median values of diets with the same letters were significantly different (overall comparison used P < .05;
Bonferroni follow-up comparisons used P < .008 = .05/6).
Table 1
Energy, Macronutrient, Fiber, and Cholesterol Content of the Diets*
Dietary South Beach Sugar Ornish EatRight

Variable Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Busters! Meal Meal Meal
Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3
Energy (kcal/d) 1264 1303 1250 (878- 1226 (966- 1726 (1176- 1045 1533 1913 (1693-
† †
(1064- (829- 2893) 2042) 2089) (979- (1317- 2053)
1735) 2158) 1243) 1733)
Carbohydrate 69 (41-95) 128 (68- 123 (74- 132 (109- 320 (219- 166 (139- 224 (192- 267 (235-
†‡ §ǁ †§ ‡ǁ
(g/d) 220) 301) , 227) , 421) , 181) 234) 311) ,
Carbohydrate (% 21.0 (14.7- 37.8 40.1 (23.3- 45.7 (24.5- 80.3 (74.2- 58.9 58.4 (48.0- 56.5 (49.1-
†‡ § †§ǁ ‡ǁ
of energy) 31.2) (26.7- 53.0) , 61.1) 81.4) , , (45.7- 69.1) 64.1) ,
45.4) 67.2)
Fat (g/d) 67.9 (41.9- 71.9 48.1 (25.5- 38.3 (17.4- 19.6 (13.7- 24.6 34.3 (24.9- 46.8 (35.0-
† ‡ †‡§ §
104.8) (28.1- 105.2) 151.8) 24.7) , , (17.7- 65.2) 71.0)
116.7) 46.3)
Fat (% of 48.5 (35.4- 41.2 36.6 (20.4- 31.9 (14.8- 10.7 (8.6- 19.0 20.8 (16.8- 20.5 (18.6-
†‡ § †§ǁ ‡ǁ
energy) 58.2) (24.4- 52.1) , 66.9) 12.5) , , (16.3- 34.4) 33.4) ,
48.2) 34.3)
Protein (g/d) 109.6 85.7 85.8 (62.9- 76.4 (62.3- 65.6 (56.1- 64.3 86.8 (63.4- 111.7 (88.3-
† ‡ †‡
(76.4- (52.2- 187.0) 93.1) 84.2) (53.2- 130.6) 158.4) ,
129.6) 140.4) 87.1)
Protein (% of 33.7 (22.3- 27.8 26.3 (19.4- 25.4 (14.9- 16.1 (13.7- 22.3 24.6 (18.1- 22.8 (18.2-
† ‡ †‡§ §
energy) 40.9) (19.5- 33.2) 31.0) 19.1) , , (18.1- 30.1) 30.9)
34.6) 28.0)
Dietary fiber 16.2 (9.5- 24.6 18.5 (12.2- 19.6 (14.8- 50.5 (34.1- 24.2 34.3 (22.8- 42.8 (24.2-
†‡ §ǁ †§ ‡ǁ
(g/d) 26.8) (13.1- 36.8) , 33.2) , 74.1) , (18.1- 45.5) 46.8) ,
49.8) 33.6)
Cholesterol 285 (193- 307 (109- 207 (114- 187 (112- 14 (3- 113 (78- 167 (98- 216 (154-
† ‡ †‡§ §
(mg/d) 858) 663) 536) 682) 52) , , 509) 531) 537)
*
All values are medians; ranges in parentheses
†,‡,§,ǁ
Values with the same superscript within a horizontal row are significantly different from one another (overall comparison
used P < .05; Bonferroni follow-up comparisons used P < .008 = .05/6; Phase 3 was used for South Beach and Meal Pattern 3
for EatRight)
Table 2
Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load* of the Diets
† ‡ §
Diet Days of Menus Glycemic Index Glycemic Load Presented Glycemic Load Adjusted
South Beach, Phase 1 14 26 (4-38) 3 (1-6) 4 (1-7)
Sugar Busters! 14 50 (38-68) 48 (39-70) 59 (48-86)
Ornish 7 53 (48-55) 113 (72-146) 98 (63-127)
EatRight, Meal Pattern 1 7 46 (44-54) 60 (48-71) 86 (69-102)
*
Values are medians; ranges in parentheses
†
Values are weighted medians; ranges in parentheses
‡
Values for the diet as presented
§
Values for the diet adjusted to 1500 kcal/day
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2/25/2018 Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load of Popular Weight-Loss Diets

MedGenMed. 2006; 8(1): 22. PMCID: PMC1682003

Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load of Popular Weight-Loss Diets

Disclosure: Sarah E. Thomas, BS, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

Disclosure: David T. Redden, PhD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

Disclosure: Douglas C. Heimburger, MD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.

Copyright ©2006 Medscape

Main Outcome Measures

Materials and Methods

EatRight The EatRight Weight Management Program is a 12-week lifestyle-oriented, weight-control

Determination of Dietary GI and GL

Sarah E. Thomas, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham.

C. Suzanne Henson, Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham.

David T. Redden, Department of Biostatistics, University of Alabama at Birmingham.

Douglas C. Heimburger, Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham.

1998;68:591–598. [PubMed: 9734735]

Figures and Tables

Dietary South Beach Sugar Ornish EatRight

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