SENSOR OPERATED PAPER COUNTING

MACHINE
SYNOPSIS
SYNOPSIS

The object of this project is to develop a Paper Counting machine to count the paper.
The operation of paper counting machine is performed by using a D.C Motor, Paper feed
Mechanism, counting proximate Sensors and Presettable timer. The paper is held at a
paper tray, one end of which is passed through three guide-rollers. The Electronic Counter
is used to counting the number of paper transferred to the collecting tray. The number of
papers transferred to the collecting tray is adjusted by resetting the Electronic counter.
INDRODUCTION
 INDRODUCTION

The number of papers that are counted can be directly read on the Resettable count
meter fixed to the frame stand. The paper counting machine can be operated by using a
permanent Magnet D.C motor. The machine is useful to count papers very accurately.
The advantage of the machine is that it is portable and low cost machine.

Need For Automation

Automation can be achieved through computers, hydraulics, pneumatics, robotics,

etc., of these sources for low cost automation. Automation plays an important role in mass
production.

Degrees of automation are of two types, viz.

Full automation.
Semi automation.

In semi automation a combination of manual effort and mechanical power is

required whereas in full automation human participation is very negligible.
PROPOSED SYSTEM

BLOCK DIAGRAM

PAPER PAPER FEEDING COLLECTING

TRAY MECHANISM TRAY

IR SENSOR
CONTROL UNIT
UNIT

DIGITAL
COUNTER

MODEL DIAGAM
There are two main subdivisions our machine works on 1) Separating. 2) Counting. Our machine is

basically a prototype for counting A4 size papers. The rotor is connected to the motor assembly.

The rotor is used to separate the pages as it sticks to a page and helps to separate it out from the

bunch. 1) Separating: The pages to be sorted are loaded at the base fitted with springs to maintain

adequate pressure on the bunch of papers to be sorted. The count of pages to be separated out from

the bunch is given via 4X4 keypad interfaced with the microcontroller. The microcontroller then

does the necessary processing and then displays the inputted count for separating the pages on the

LCD. The time for which the motor will be rotating is programmed in way considering the length

of the pages. The delay is specified by using c language. The number of pages to be sorted when

given, the rotor connected to the motor rotates for the required time and the pages are collected in

the collecting tray. 2) Counting: We have used the concept of reverse engineering for the purpose

of counting the pages. The pages which are supposed to be counted are loaded at the base. A

random number is given just as a wild guess of number of pages in the bunch. When the count

reaches the value of the random number the microcontroller executes the interrupt and stops the

counting. The assembly also contains the a LDR and a LED when the pages loaded are over, the

LDR senses the LED light and then executes the interrupt and stops the counting. The further

process of counting works exactly as the process of separating.

CHAPTER-3

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT

SHEET METAL

It is metal formed by an industrial process into thin, flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental forms
used in metalworking and it can be cut and bent into a variety of shapes. Countless everyday
objects are constructed with sheet metal. Thicknesses can vary significantly; extremely thin
thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate.

Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or coiled strips. The coils are formed by running a continuous
sheet of metal through a roll slitter.

The thickness of sheet metal is in the USA commonly specified by a traditional, non-linear
measure known as its gauge. The larger the gauge number, the thinner the metal. Commonly used
steel sheet metal ranges from 30 gauge to about 7 gauge. Gauge differs between ferrous (iron
based) metals and nonferrous metals such as aluminum or copper; copper thickness, for example is
measured in ounces (and represents the thickness of 1 ounce of copper rolled out to an area of 1
square foot). In the rest of the world the sheet metal thickness is given in millimeters.

There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such as aluminum, brass,
copper, steel, tin, nickel and titanium. For decorative uses, important sheet metals include silver,
gold, and platinum (platinum sheet metal is also utilized as a catalyst.)

Sheet metal is used for car bodies, airplane wings, medical tables, roofs for buildings (architecture)
and many other applications. Sheet metal of iron and other materials with high magnetic
permeability, also known as laminated steel cores, has applications in transformers and electric
machines. Historically, an important use of sheet metal was in plate armor worn by cavalry, and
sheet metal continues to have many decorative uses, including in horse tack. Sheet metal workers
are also known as "tin bashers" (or "tin knockers"), a name derived from the hammering of panel
seams when installing tin roofs.
DC MOTOR

INTRODUCTION

Almost every mechanical movement that we see around us is accomplished by an

electric motor. Electric machines are a means of converting energy. Motors take electrical
energy and produce mechanical energy. Electric motors are used to power hundreds of
devices we use in everyday life. Motors come in various sizes. Huge motors that can take
loads of 1000’s of Horsepower are typically used in the industry. Some examples of large
motor applications include elevators, electric trains, hoists, and heavy metal rolling mills.
Examples of small motor applications include motors used in automobiles, robots, hand
power tools and food blenders. Micro-machines are electric machines with parts the size of
red blood cells, and find many applications in medicine. Electric motors are broadly
classified into two different categories: DC (Direct Current) and AC (Alternating Current).
Within these categories are numerous types, each offering unique abilities that suit them
well for specific applications. In most cases, regardless of type, electric motors consist of a
stator (stationary field) and a rotor (the rotating field or armature) and operate through the
interaction of magnetic flux and electric current to produce rotational speed and torque. DC
motors are distinguished by their ability to operate from direct current. There are different
kinds of D.C. motors, but they all work on the same principles. In this chapter, we will
study their basic principle of operation and their characteristics. It’s important to
understand motor characteristics so we can choose the right one for our application
requirement.

CONSTRUCTION

DC motors consist of one set of coils, called armature winding, inside another set of coils
or a set of permanent magnets, called the stator. Applying a voltage to the coils produces a
torque in the armature, resultingin motion.

STATOR

 The stator is the stationary outside part of a motor.

 The stator of a permanent magnet dc motor is composed of two or more permanent

magnet pole pieces.

 The magnetic field can alternatively be created by an electromagnet. In this case, a

DC coil (field winding) is wound around a magnetic material that forms part of the
stator.

ROTOR

 The rotor is the inner part which rotates.

 The rotor is composed of windings (called armature windings) which are connected
to the external circuit through a mechanical commutator.

 Both stator and rotor are made of ferromagnetic materials. The two are separated by
air-gap.

WINDING

A winding is made up of series or parallel connection of the coils.

  Armature winding - The winding through which the voltage is applied or induced.

 The field winding - The winding through which a current is passed to produce flux
(for the electromagnet)

 Windings are usually made of copper.

\PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Consider a coil in a magnetic field of flux density B (figure 4). When the two ends of
the coil are connected across a DC voltage source, current I flow through it. A force is
exerted on the coil as a result of the interaction of magnetic field and electric current. The
force on the two sides of the coil is such that the coil starts to move in the direction of force.
In an actual DC motor, several such coils are wound on the rotor, all of which experience
force, resulting in rotation. The greater the current in the wire, or the greater the magnetic
field, the faster the wire moves because of the greater force created.At the same time this
torque is being produced, the conductors are moving in a magnetic field. At different
positions, the flux linked with it changes, which causes an emf to be induced (e = d /dt) as
shown in figure 5. This voltage is in opposition to the voltage that causes current flow
through the conductor and is referred to as a counter-voltage or back emf.

The value of current flowing through the armature is dependent upon the difference
between the applied voltage and this counter-voltage. The current due to this
counter-voltage tends to oppose the very cause of its production according to Lenz’s law. It
results in the rotor slowing down. Eventually, the rotor slows just enough so that the force
created by the magnetic field. Equals the load force applied to the shaft. Then the system
moves at constant velocity.

DC MOTOR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

 The schematic diagram for a DC motor is shown below. A DC motor has two distinct
circuits: Field circuit and armature circuit. The input is electrical power and the output is
mechanical power. In this equivalent circuit, the field winding is supplied from a separate
DC voltage source of voltage Vf. Rf and Lf represent the resistance and inductance of the
field winding. The current If produced in the winding establishes the magnetic field
necessary for motor operation. In the armature (rotor) circuit, VT is the voltage applied
across the motor terminals, Ia is the current flowing in the armature circuit, Ra is the
resistance of the armature winding, and Eb is the total voltage induced in the armature.

ADVANTAGES OF DC MOTOR

DC motors provide excellent speed control for acceleration and deceleration with
effective and simple torque control. The fact that the power supply of a DC motor connects
directly to the field of the motor allows for precise voltage control, which is necessary to
speed and torque control applications.

DC motors perform better than AC motors on most traction equipment. They are also used
for mobile equipment like golf carts, quarry and mining equipment. DC motors are
conveniently portable and well suited for special applications, such as industrial tools and
machinery that is not easily run from remote power sources.
MOTOR DRIVER –H BRIDGE

H Bridge is an electronic circuit that enables a voltage to be applied across a load in

either direction. These circuits are often used in robotics and other applications to allow
DC motors to run forwards and backwards. H bridges are available as integrated circuits, or
can be built from discrete components.

STRUCTURE OF H-BRIDGE

The term H bridge is derived from the typical graphical representation of such a circuit.
An H bridge is built with four switches (solid-state or mechanical). When the switches S1
and S4 (according to the first figure) are closed (and S2 and S3 are open) a positive voltage
will be applied across the motor. By opening S1 and S4 switches and closing S2 and S3
switches, this voltage is reversed, allowing reverse operation of the motor. Using the
nomenclature above, the switches S1 and S2 should never be closed at the same time, as
this would cause a short circuit on the input voltage source. The same applies to the
switches S3 and S4. This condition is known as shoot-through.
CONSTRUCTION

Typical solid-state H bridge

A solid-state H bridge is typically constructed using opposite polarity devices, such

as PNPBJTs or P-channel MOSFETs connected to the high voltage bus and NPN BJTs or
N-channel MOSFETs connected to the low voltage bus.

The most efficient MOSFET designs use N-channel MOSFETs on both the high side and
low side because they typically have a third of the ON resistance of P-channel MOSFETs.
This requires a more complex design since the gates of the high side MOSFETs must be
driven positive with respect to the DC supply rail. However, many integrated circuit
MOSFET drivers include a charge pump within the device to achieve this.

Alternatively, a switched-mode DC–DC converter can be used to provide isolated

('floating') supplies to the gate drive circuitry. A multiple-output flyback converter is
well-suited to this application.

Another method for driving MOSFET-bridges is the use of a specialized transformer

known as a GDT (Gate Drive Transformer), which gives the isolated outputs for driving
the upper FETs gates. The transformer core is usually a ferrite toroid, with 1:1 or 4:9
winding ratio. However, this method can only be used with high frequency signals. The
design of the transformer is also very important, as the leakage inductance should be
minimized, or cross conduction may occur. The outputs of the transformer also need to be
usually clamped byZener diodes, because high voltage spikes could destroy the MOSFET
gates.

A common variation of this circuit uses just the two transistors on one side of the load,
similar to a class AB amplifier. Such a configuration is called a "half bridge". The half
bridge is used in some switched-mode power supplies that use synchronous rectifiersand
in switching amplifiers. The half-H bridge type is commonly abbreviated to "Half-H" to
distinguish it from full ("Full-H") H bridges. Another common variation, adding a third
'leg' to the bridge, creates a three-phase inverter. The three-phase inverter is the core of any
AC motor drive.

A further variation is the half-controlled bridge, where one of the high- and low-side
switching devices (on opposite sides of the bridge) are replaced with diodes. This
eliminates the shoot-through failure mode, and is commonly used to drive
variable/switched reluctance machines and actuators where bi-directional current flow is
not required.

A "double pole double throw" relay can generally achieve the same electrical functionality
as an H bridge (considering the usual function of the device). An H bridge would be
preferable to the relay where a smaller physical size, high speed switching, or low driving
voltage is needed, or where the wearing out of mechanical parts is undesirable.

There are many commercially available inexpensive single and dual H-bridge packages,
and L293x series are the most common ones. Few packages have built-in flyback diodes
for back EMF protection.
OPERATION OF H-BRIDGE

The two basic states of an H bridge

The H-bridge arrangement is generally used to reverse the polarity of the motor, but
can also be used to 'brake' the motor, where the motor comes to a sudden stop, as the
motor's terminals are shorted, or to let the motor 'free run' to a stop, as the motor is
effectively disconnected from the circuit. The following table summarizes operation, with
S1-S4 corresponding to the diagram above.

IR Introduction

Infrared technology addresses a wide variety of wireless applications. The main areas are sensing
and remote controls. In the electromagnetic spectrum, the infrared portion is divided into three
regions: near infrared region, mid infrared region and far infrared region.

The wavelengths of these regions and their applications are shown below.

 Near infrared region — 700 nm to 1400 nm — IR sensors, fiber optic

 Mid infrared region — 1400 nm to 3000 nm — Heat sensing
 Far infrared region — 3000 nm to 1 mm — Thermal imaging

The frequency range of infrared is higher than microwave and lesser than visible light.

For optical sensing and optical communication, photo optics technologies are used in the near
infrared region as the light is less complex than RF when implemented as a source of signal.
Optical wireless communication is done with IR data transmission for short range applications.

An infrared sensor emits and/or detects infrared radiation to sense its surroundings.
The working of any Infrared sensor is governed by three laws: Planck’s Radiation law, Stephen –
Boltzmann law and Wien’s Displacement law.

Planck’s law states that “every object emits radiation at a temperature not equal to 00K”. Stephen –
Boltzmann law states that “at all wavelengths, the total energy emitted by a black body is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature”. According to Wien’s Displacement
law, “the radiation curve of a black body for different temperatures will reach its peak at a
wavelength inversely proportional to the temperature”.

The basic concept of an Infrared Sensor which is used as Obstacle detector is to transmit an
infrared signal, this infrared signal bounces from the surface of an object and the signal is received
at the infrared receiver.

There are five basic elements used in a typical infrared detection system: an infrared source, a
transmission medium, optical component, infrared detectors or receivers and signal processing.
Infrared lasers and Infrared LED’s of specific wavelength can be used as infrared sources. The
three main types of media used for infrared transmission are vacuum, atmosphere and optical
fibers. Optical components are used to focus the infrared radiation or to limit the spectral response.
Optical lenses made of Quartz, Germanium and Silicon are used to focus the infrared radiation.
Infrared receivers can be photodiodes, phototransistors etc. some important specifications of
infrared receivers are photosensitivity, detectivity and noise equivalent power. Signal processing
is done by amplifiers as the output of infrared detector is very small.

Types of IR Sensors

Infrared sensors can be passive or active. Passive infrared sensors are basically Infrared detectors.
Passive infrared sensors do not use any infrared source and detects energy emitted by obstacles in
the field of view. They are of two types: quantum and thermal. Thermal infrared sensors use
infrared energy as the source of heat and are independent of wavelength. Thermocouples,
pyroelectric detectors and bolometers are the common types of thermal infrared detectors.

Quantum type infrared detectors offer higher detection performance and are faster than thermal
type infrared detectors. The photosensitivity of quantum type detectors is wavelength dependent.
Quantum type detectors are further classified into two types: intrinsic and extrinsic types. Intrinsic
type quantum detectors are photoconductive cells and photovoltaic cells.

Active infrared sensors consist of two elements: infrared source and infrared detector. Infrared
sources include an LED or infrared laser diode. Infrared detectors include photodiodes or
phototransistors. The energy emitted by the infrared source is reflected by an object and falls on
the infrared detector.

IR Transmitter

Infrared Transmitter is a light emitting diode (LED) which emits infrared radiations. Hence, they
are called IR LED’s. Even though an IR LED looks like a normal LED, the radiation emitted by it
is invisible to the human eye.

The picture of a typical Infrared LED is shown below.

There are different types of infrared transmitters depending on their wavelengths, output power
and response time.

A simple infrared transmitter can be constructed using an infrared LED, a current limiting resistor
and a power supply. The schematic of a typical IR transmitter is shown below.

When operated at a supply of 5V, the IR transmitter consumes about 3 to 5 mA of current. Infrared
transmitters can be modulated to produce a particular frequency of infrared light. The most
commonly used modulation is OOK (ON – OFF – KEYING) modulation.

IR transmitters can be found in several applications. Some applications require infrared heat and
the best infrared source is infrared transmitter. When infrared emitters are used with Quartz, solar
cells can be made.

IR Receiver

Infrared receivers are also called as infrared sensors as they detect the radiation from an IR
transmitter. IR receivers come in the form of photodiodes and phototransistors. Infrared
Photodiodes are different from normal photo diodes as they detect only infrared radiation. The
picture of a typical IR receiver or a photodiode is shown below.

Different types of IR receivers exist based on the wavelength, voltage, package, etc. When used in
an infrared transmitter – receiver combination, the wavelength of the receiver should match with
that of the transmitter.

A typical infrared receiver circuit using a phototransistor is shown below.

It consists of an IR phototransistor, a diode, a MOSFET, a potentiometer and an LED. When the

phototransistor receives any infrared radiation, current flows through it and MOSFET turns on.
This in turn lights up the LED which acts as a load. The potentiometer is used to control the
sensitivity of the phototransistor.
Principle of Working

The principle of an IR sensor working as an Object Detection Sensor can be explained using the
following figure. An IR sensor consists of an IR LED and an IR Photodiode; together they are
called as Photo – Coupler or Opto – Coupler.

When the IR transmitter emits radiation, it reaches the object and some of the radiation reflects
back to the IR receiver. Based on the intensity of the reception by the IR receiver, the output of the
sensor is defined.

Obstacle Sensing Circuit or IR Sensor Circuit

A typical IR sensing circuit is shown below.

It consists of an IR LED, a photodiode, a potentiometer, an IC Operational amplifier and an LED.

IR LED emits infrared light. The Photodiode detects the infrared light. An IC Op – Amp is used as
a voltage comparator. The potentiometer is used to calibrate the output of the sensor according to
the requirement.

When the light emitted by the IR LED is incident on the photodiode after hitting an object, the
resistance of the photodiode falls down from a huge value. One of the input of the op – amp is at
threshold value set by the potentiometer. The other input to the op-amp is from the photodiode’s
series resistor. When the incident radiation is more on the photodiode, the voltage drop across the
series resistor will be high. In the IC, both the threshold voltage and the voltage across the series
resistor are compared. If the voltage across the resistor series to photodiode is greater than that of
the threshold voltage, the output of the IC Op – Amp is high. As the output of the IC is connected
to an LED, it lightens up. The threshold voltage can be adjusted by adjusting the potentiometer
depending on the environmental conditions.

The positioning of the IR LED and the IR Receiver is an important factor. When the IR LED is
held directly in front of the IR receiver, this setup is called Direct Incidence. In this case, almost
the entire radiation from the IR LED will fall on the IR receiver. Hence there is a line of sight
communication between the infrared transmitter and the receiver. If an object falls in this line, it
obstructs the radiation from reaching the receiver either by reflecting the radiation or absorbing the
radiation.

Distinguishing Between Black and White Colors

It is universal that black color absorbs the entire radiation incident on it and white color reflects the
entire radiation incident on it. Based on this principle, the second positioning of the sensor couple
can be made. The IR LED and the photodiode are placed side by side. When the IR transmitter
emits infrared radiation, since there is no direct line of contact between the transmitter and
receiver, the emitted radiation must reflect back to the photodiode after hitting any object. The
surface of the object can be divided into two types: reflective surface and non-reflective surface. If
the surface of the object is reflective in nature i.e. it is white or other light color, most of the
radiation incident on it will get reflected back and reaches the photodiode. Depending on the
intensity of the radiation reflected back, current flows in the photodiode.

If the surface of the object is non-reflective in nature i.e. it is black or other dark color, it absorbs
almost all the radiation incident on it. As there is no reflected radiation, there is no radiation
incident on the photodiode and the resistance of the photodiode remains higher allowing no current
to flow. This situation is similar to there being no object at all.

The pictorial representation of the above scenarios is shown below.

The positioning and enclosing of the IR transmitter and Receiver is very important. Both the
transmitter and the receiver must be placed at a certain angle, so that the detection of an object
happens properly. This angle is the directivity of the sensor which is +/- 45 degrees.

The directivity is shown below.

In order to avoid reflections from surrounding objects other than the object, both the IR transmitter
and the IR receiver must be enclosed properly. Generally the enclosure is made of plastic and is
painted with black color.

SENSOR

We have already discussed how a light sensor works. IR Sensors work by using a specific
light sensor to detect a select light wavelength in the Infra-Red (IR) spectrum. By using an LED
which produces light at the same wavelength as what the sensor is looking for, you can look at the
intensity of the received light. When an object is close to the sensor, the light from the LED
bounces off the object and into the light sensor. This results in a large jump in the intensity, which
we already know can be detected using a threshold.
Depiction of the operation of an IR Sensor

Detecting Brightness
Since the sensor works by looking for reflected light, it is possible to have a sensor that can
return the value of the reflected light. This type of sensor can then be used to measure how "bright"
the object is. This is useful for tasks like line tracking.
Depiction of the operationof an
IR Sensor to measure brightness
CHAPTER -4

MERITS AND DEMERITS

 MERITS AND DEMERITS

MERITS:

 Reduction of lab our and material cost

 Reduction of overall cost
 Increased production
 Increased storage capacity
 Increased safety
 Reduction in fatigue
 Improved personnel comfort
Chapter-5

APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS

 It is very useful in all office accounts department.

 It is also useful in printing, Xerox Machine
CHAPTER-6

LIST OF MATERIALS
LIST OF MATERIALS

FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS

The various factors which determine the choice of material are discussed below.

1. Properties:

The material selected must posses the necessary properties for the proposed application.

The various requirements to be satisfied

Can be weight, surface finish, rigidity, ability to withstand environmental attack from

chemicals, service life, reliability etc.

The following four types of principle properties of materials decisively affect their selection

a. Physical

b. Mechanical

c. From manufacturing point of view

d. Chemical

The various physical properties concerned are melting point, thermal Conductivity, specific heat,

coefficient of thermal expansion, specific gravity, electrical conductivity, magnetic purposes etc.
The various Mechanical properties Concerned are strength in tensile, Compressive shear, bending,

torsional and buckling load, fatigue resistance, impact resistance, eleastic limit, endurance limit,

and modulus of elasticity, hardness, wear resistance and sliding properties.

The various properties concerned from the manufacturing point of view are,

 Cast ability

 Weld ability

 Surface properties

 Shrinkage

 Deep drawing etc.

2. Manufacturing case:

Sometimes the demand for lowest possible manufacturing cost or surface qualities obtainable

by the application of suitable coating substances may demand the use of special materials.

3. Quality Required:

This generally affects the manufacturing process and ultimately the material. For example, it

would never be desirable to go casting of a less number of components which can be fabricated

much more economically by welding or hand forging the steel.

4. Availability of Material:
 Some materials may be scarce or in short supply, it then becomes obligatory for the designer

to use some other material which though may not be a perfect substitute for the material designed.

The delivery of materials and the delivery date of product should also be kept in mind.

5. Space consideration:

Sometimes high strength materials have to be selected because the forces involved are high and

space limitations are there.

6. Cost:

As in any other problem, in selection of material the cost of material plays an important

part and should not be ignored.

Some times factors like scrap utilization, appearance, and non-maintenance of the designed

part are involved in the selection of proper materials.

Chapter-7

COST ESTIMATION
COST ESTIMATION

1. LABOUR COST:

Lathe, drilling, welding, power hacksaw, gas cutting cost

2. OVERGHEAD CHARGES:

The overhead charges are arrived by” manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost =Material Cost + Labour Cost

Overhead Charges =20%of the manufacturing cost

3. TOTAL COST:

Total cost = Material Cost +Labour Cost +Overhead Charges

Total cost for this project =

\

Chapter-8

CONCLUSION
CHAPTER-8

CONCLUSION

Every project work has a thought or purpose behind it. Our project may not promise to form the

best Machine but it certainly promises to be able to be used as the base for further developments.

The main feature of the project is its portability and adaptability. Since it is implemented in small

size this enables it to be portable and the ability to handle very easily any kind of places. The

machine implementation of the same can be used for many purposes like reducing man work, in

industries, in institutes etc. It will count thousands of pages easily by the machine
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIGRAPHY

[1] R. S. Khurmi & J. K. Gupta., Machine Design, Manufacturing considerations First Edition.

[2] William Bolton, Mechatronics a Multi-disciplinary approach, Fourth edition.

[3] William Bolton., Mechatronics, a Multi-disciplinary approach, DC motor control PG 201-208

[4] Pugazhendhiran., Electric motors and Drives Control. EDC sixth edition.

[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino