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1 Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) Systems: James MW Brownjohn, University of Plymouth, January 2005
1 Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) Systems: James MW Brownjohn, University of Plymouth, January 2005
1-2
1.1 SDOF systems
1.1.1 Definition and usage
Single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system is a system whose motion is
defined just by a single independent co-ordinate (or function) e.g. x which
is a function of time.
SDOF systems are often used as a very crude approximation for a generally
much more complex system.
However, behaviour of SDOF systems is probably the most important topic
to master in structural dynamics. This is because the behaviour of more
complex systems whose motion needs to be described by several
coordinates could be treated as if they are simply collections of several
SDOF systems hence understanding of SDOF systems is a prerequisite.
1-3
SDOF modelling of the vertically vibrating system shown in Figure 1 is
probably sufficient. However, sufficiently detailed description of the
motion of the horizontally vibrating system shown in Figure 2 would
require more than just one time-dependent function x(t).
0
k
-1
m 1
Energy
PE
KE
0.5 PE+KE
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time /seconds
x (t ) mx( t )
x+ (t )
k fk
m m
ω n2 x02 + v02
(20)→ A= and
ωn
⎛ ω n x0 ⎞
(21) φ = tan ⎜ −1
⎟ ,
⎝ v0 ⎠
leading to the final solution:
ω n2 x02 + v02 ⎛ −1 ⎛ ω n x0 ⎞
⎞
(22) x ( t ) = sin ⎜ ω n t + tan ⎜ ⎟⎟
ωn ⎝ ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎠.
v
This solution is shown in Figure 6 and indicates that the vibration does not
diminish with time passing.
1-13
Figure 6: Summary
of description of
simple harmonic
motion
1-14
EXERCISE 1-1: SIMULATION OF EQUATION (22).
Simulation performed using interactive MATLAB software NDOF
System: m=10kg, natural frequency f n = 10 Hz, damping: none
stiffness: k = ( 2π f n ) m =39,478N/m
2
1-16
1.2.2 Damped systems
Damping is a non-conservative force i.e. it dissipates energy. As a
mathematical convenience, the damping force is taken to be proportional to
and opposing velocity, which fits in with observations of ‘dashpots’ like
vehicle shock absorbers. Hence in addition to the stiffness term kx ( t ) that
acts in the opposite direction to deflection x we include a damping term
cx ( t ) that acts in the opposite direction to velocity x ( t ) .
Hence the term cx ( t ) is added to LHS of the equation of motion (8) so that:
(24) mx ( t ) + cx ( t ) + kx ( t ) = 0 ,
The damping force will acts to dissipate energy by opposing motion (like
friction) so that any oscillations will die out or decay, provided that c is a
positive constant having units [N/s].
The cx ( t ) term represents a damping force fC ( t ) which acts in the
direction opposite of the direction of mass motion (velocity).
1-17
In other words, the force acts in the same direction as the stiffness and
inertia forces, as shown in Figure 7, and helps establish the following
equilibrium of all dynamic forces acting on the mass:
(25) f I ( t ) + fc ( t ) + fk ( t ) = 0
x (t ) mx( t )
x+ (t )
k fk
c m fc m
or
1-21
(36) x (t ) = e −ζω n
(a e
1
− jω n 1−ζ 2 t
+ a2 e + jω n 1−ζ 2 t
),
where a1 and a2 are complex-valued constants of integration to be
determined by initial conditions. Using Euler relations:
(37) eφ j = cos φ + j sin φ ,
and
(38) e −φ j = cos φ − j sin φ ,
Equation (36) can be written as
(39) x ( t ) = Ae −ζωnt sin (ω d t + φ )
( v0 + ζωn x0 ) + ( x0ω d )
2
(40) A=
ω d2
1-22
and
⎛ x0ω d ⎞
(41) φ = tan ⎜
−1
⎟
⎝ 0
v + ζω n 0 ⎠
x
A typical shape of the response to initial disturbances is shown in Figure 8
1-23
EXERCISE 1-2: SIMULATION OF EQUATION (39) –UNDERDAMPED MOTION
Simulation performed using NDOF
System 1: m=6500kg, natural frequency f n = 4.5Hz
k = (2π f n ) 2 m = 5200000N/m
Case 1: x0 = 0m , v0 = 0.1m/s and ζ = 1%
Peak displacement: A=_______m
Case 1: x0 = 0m , v0 = 0.1m/s and ζ = 10%
Peak displacement: A=_______m
1-24
System 2: m=6500kg, natural frequency f n = 0.08 Hz
stiffness: k = ( 2π f n ) m =1,621N/m
2
1-25
1.2.2.2 CASE 2: OVERDAMPED MOTION (ζ > 1)
In this case:
(42) x (t ) = e −ζω n t
(a e
1
−ω n ζ 2 −1t
+ a2 e + ω n ζ 2 −1t
)
which is a non-oscillatory motion; examples are shown in Figure 9.
1-27
Figure 10: Response of a critically damped system for three different initial
velocities. The system properties are: k = 225N/m , m = 100kg and ζ = 1.
Critical damping ccr can be understood in a number of ways:
1. it is the smallest value of damping that yields aperiodic motion (i.e.
removes oscillation as dynamic response of the system)
2. it can be shown (not shown here) that critical damping provides the
fastest return to zero without oscillation.
1-28
1.3 Analysis of forced response of SDOF systems
So far we have studied ‘free vibration’ where (for a given SDOF system)
the response depends on initial conditions of velocity and displacement and
no external forces are applied. We now consider the application of
‘dynamic forces’.
1.3.1 Definition of a dynamic force
Dynamic excitation force is a time-varying force which will engage
significant inertia, damping and stiffness forces in a structure to which it is
applied. Resonance is a condition where the applied force varies at a rate
that matches the natural frequency of the oscillator.
If the force variation is much slower than the natural oscillations, then the
oscillator behaves like a spring (governed by f=kx) in which case it is
‘stiffness-dominated’ and may be analysed by static analysis. A usual cut-
off is r < 1/ 3.
Likewise if the force variation is much faster than the natural oscillations,
then the oscillator behaves like a mass, governed by f=ma.
1-29
1.3.2 Types of dynamic force
A variety of dynamic forces can be applied to a structural system which
will cause vibration. Typical examples of these forces are:
1. harmonic (including rotating eccentric mass)
2. periodic
3. transient
4. random
There are specific techniques best suited for each type of force.
1.3.3 Equation of motion for forced response of SDOF system
Figure 11 shows the damped SDOF oscillator with applied external force.
With the addition of the forcing function, equation (45) becomes
(46) mx( t ) + cx ( t ) + kx ( t ) = f ( t )
Response of an undamped oscillator is analysed by deleting the cx ( t )
term. 1-30
x (t ) mx( t )
x+ (t )
k fk
c m fc m
f
1-31
Harmonic excitation and response (by rotating imbalance):
harmonic
1
0.5
ch 1 (N)
-0.5
-1
1
ch 4 (mm/sec2)
0.5
-0.5
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
seconds
1-32
Periodic forcing and response: footfall forces (walking)
periodic
1000
800
ch 1 (N)
600
400
1000
ch 4 (mm/sec2)
500
-500
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
seconds
1-33
Transient excitation and response: earthquake
qk11
1
ch 1 (mm/sec2)
0.5
0
Input
-0.5 (ground movement)
-1
5
Response
2
ch 3 (mm/sec )
0
(building sway)
-5
500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950
seconds
1-34
Random forcing and response: e.g. wind
random
4
2
ch 1 (N)
-2
-4
10
ch 4 (mm/sec2)
-5
-10
0 5 10 15 20
seconds
1-35
1.3.4 Motion of SDOF systems under harmonic loading
Knowing structural/SDOF response to harmonic (i.e. sine) excitation is
important because:
1. It is a very common source of dynamic excitation, typically
applied by machinery
2. Periodic forces can be expressed as a sum of a series of harmonic
terms, so if we know how to calculate response to one term, by
superposition (which is applicable in the case of linear systems)
we can calculate total response to the periodic function as well.
3. Harmonic input-output (i.e. excitation-response) relationships
forms the foundation of vibration measurement.
4. Vibration isolation (to reduce transmitted forces or vibrations) is
based on the harmonic response analysis.
1-36
1.3.4.1 UNDAMPED SYSTEM
Under harmonic loading equation the forcing function for equation (46) is
f ( t ) = F0 cos (ωt ) where F0 is the amplitude and ω is the frequency in
radians per second.
The equation of motion is:
(47) mx ( t ) + kx ( t ) = F0 cos (ω t )
or, after dividing by m :
(48) x ( t ) + ω n2 x ( t ) = f 0 cos (ω t ) ,
where f 0 = F0 / m .
Differential equation (48) is linear and non-homogenous, which means that
its solution is a sum of homogenous and particular solutions:
(49) x ( t ) = xh ( t ) + x p ( t )
1-37
Homogenous solution xh ( t ) has already been found (Equation (22)) and
corresponds to free vibrations of an initially disturbed undamped system,
which can be re-written as (Inman, 2001, p. 92):
(50) xh ( t ) = A1 sin (ω n t ) + A2 cos (ω n t )
Particular solution x p ( t ) can be obtained by assuming that it is of the form
x p ( t ) = X cos (ω t ) , where X is an amplitude of the forced response. After
double differentiation and inserting x p ( t ) and
x p ( t ) into Equation (48),
particular solution is obtained as:
f0
(51) x p (t ) = 2 cos (ω t )
(ω n − ω )
2
1-38
x ( t ) = A1 sin (ω n t ) + A2 cos (ω n t )
(52) f0
+ 2 cos (ω t )
(ω n − ω )
2
Finally, initial conditions are used to calculate A1 and A2 , so that the total
solution is of the form:
v0 ⎛ f0 ⎞
x (t ) = sin (ω n t ) + ⎜ x0 − 2 2 ⎟
cos (ω n t )
ωn ⎝ ωn − ω ⎠
(53)
f0
+ 2 cos (ω t )
ωn − ω 2
Two very important phenomena occur when the driving frequency becomes
close to the system’s natural frequency: beating and resonance. This is
illustrated in the following exercise.
1-39
EXERCISE 1-3: SIMULATION OF EQUATION (53).
Simulation performed using NDOF
System: m=6500kg, natural frequency f n = 4.5Hz , damping: none
k = (2π f n ) 2 m = 5200000N/m
Case 1: Excitation frequency twice lower than the natural frequency
f = 2.25Hz leading to 14.173rad / sec
x0 = 0; v0 = 0; f ( t ) = F0 cos (ω t ) , F0 = 100kN
Peak displacement: A=_______m
1-40
Case 2: Excitation frequency 90% of the natural frequency
f = 4.05Hz leading to ω = 25.447rad / sec
x0 = 0; v0 = 0; f ( t ) = F0 cos (ω t ) , F0 = 100kN
Case 3: Excitation frequency twice higher than the natural frequency
f = 9Hz leading to ω = 56.55rad / sec
x0 = 0; v0 = 0; f ( t ) = F0 cos (ω t ) , F0 = 100kN
Peak displacement: A=_______m
Case 4: Excitation at natural frequency
f = 4.5 Hz leading to ω = 28.274rad / sec
x0 = 0; v0 = 0; f ( t ) = F0 cos (ω t ) , F0 = 100kN
Peak displacement: A=_______m
1-41
In the case when ω = ω n the solution given in Equation (53) is no longer
valid (division by zero), and it can be shown (Inman, 2001, p. 96) that the
new solution is:
v0 f0
(54) x ( t ) = sin (ω t ) + x0 cos (ω t ) + t sin (ω t ) ,
ω 2ω
as shown in Figure 12. It can be seen that the response grows without
bound and this phenomenon is known as resonance.
1-42
Figure 12: Forced response of an undamped spring-mass system driven
harmonically at its natural frequency
1-43
1.3.4.2 DAMPED SYSTEM
Equation of motion of a damped system under harmonic loading is:
(55) mx ( t ) + cx ( t ) + kx ( t ) = F0 cos (ω t )
or
(56) x ( t ) + 2ζω n x ( t ) + ω n2 x ( t ) = f 0 cos (ω t ) ,
where all notation is the same as before.
Following exactly the same procedure as for the undamped case, the
solution of this differential equation can be presented as a sum of a
homogenous and particular solution, and it can be shown that:
(57) x ( t ) = Ae −ζωnt sin (ω d t + φ ) + X cos (ω t − θ ) ,
where:
f0
(58) X= ,
(ω 2
n − ω 2 ) + ( 2ζω nω )
2
1-44
⎛ 2ζω nω ⎞
(59) θ = tan ⎜ 2
−1
2 ⎟
ω
⎝ n − ω ⎠
As before, constants A and φ are determined from initial conditions, but
the formulae are complex and are presented by Inman (2001, p. 99).
The structure of Equation (57) is such that the response has two parts: the
homogenous part, which decays and oscillates with the damped frequency
ω d , and homogenous part which is a harmonic function having the
frequency of the excitation force ω . This is why the homogeneous solution
is often called transient solution, whereas another term for particular
solution is steady-state solution. It should be stressed that even in the case
of homogenous (i.e. zero) initial conditions, transient response will exist as
a results of initial disturbance which the applied steady-state force imparts
on the structure at the beginning of excitation (Inman, 2001, Eq. (2.30),
p.99).
1-45
1.3.4.3 VISUALISING USING ROTATING VECTORS
A useful way to understand the components of equation (55) in steady state
after the transient part has decayed is by visualising the components as
rotating vectors (phasors) either ‘in phase’ or ‘in quadrature’.
Substituting the (steady state) solution x ( t ) = X cos (ωt − θ ) into equation
(55) leads to
(60) − mω 2 X cos (ωt − θ ) − cω X sin (ωt − θ ) + kX cos (ωt − θ ) = F0 cos (ωt )
The right hand side is a vector that rotates so that as ωt takes values 0,
π 2 , π , 3π 2 etc. the in phase component goes from F0 to 0 to - F0 to 0
while the quadrature term goes from 0 to F0 to 0 to - F0 . The terms in
equation (60) can be viewed as the in-phase components of vectors:
mω 2 X cω X kX F0
at angles
π + ωt − θ π 2 + ωt − θ ωt − θ ωt .
1-46
The terms in equation
− mω 2 X cos (ωt − θ ) − cω X sin (ωt − θ ) + kX cos (ωt − θ ) = F0 cos (ωt )
are thus added vectorially as follows:
quadrature
mω 2 X
F0 ωcX
ωt kX
θ in phase
F0 cos (ωt ) mω 2 X cos (ωt − θ ) cω X sin (ωt − θ )
kX cos (ωt − θ )
Figure 13 Vector representation of equation (60)
1-47
From this it can be seen that (e.g. by Pythagorus):
⎛ cω ⎞
F0 = X ( k − mω ) + ( cω )
2 2 2
and θ = tan ⎜
−1
⎝ k − mω 2 ⎟
⎠
Dividing left and right or top and bottom by m leads to equations (58) and
(59).
From Figure 13 can be seen that the mass ( mω 2 X ) and stiffness ( kX )
terms of equation (55) are similar in magnitude and opposite in sign and
both larger than the damping (cω X ) and forcing ( F0 ) terms. The phase
angle θ is approximately π 4 i.e. the response ‘lags’ the forcing by about
45°.
1-48
EXERCISE 1-4: SIMULATION OF EQUATION (57).
System: m=6500kg, natural frequency f n = 4.5Hz
k = (2π f n ) 2 m = 5200000N/m
x0 = 0; v0 = 0; f ( t ) = F0 cos (ω t ) , F0 = 100kN
Case 1: Non-resonant forcing, Low-damping (ζ = 1% )
f = 9Hz leading to ω = 56.55rad / sec . Use T=10 seconds.
Transient peak displacement: A=_______m
Steady-state peak displacement: A=_______m
Case 2: Resonant forcing, Low-damping (ζ = 1% )
f = 4.5 Hz leading to ω = 28.274rad / sec . Use T=10 seconds.
Steady-state peak displacement: A=_______m
1-49
Case 3: Non-resonant forcing, High-damping (ζ = 10% )
f = 9Hz leading to ω = 56.55rad / sec
Transient peak displacement: A=_______m
Steady-state peak displacement: A=_______m
Case 4: Resonant forcing, High-damping (ζ = 10% )
f = 4.5 Hz leading to ω = 28.274rad / sec
Steady-state peak displacement: A=_______m
1-50
Conclusion from Exercise 1-4: Off resonance, steady state condition is
eventually established and damping has little influence on the peak values
of the steady state response. For resonant forcing, damping controls
maximum amplitude and the time taken to achieve it.
As transient part eventually dies out, it is often common to ignore the
transient part of the total solution and focus on the steady-state response:
(61) x p ( t ) = X cos (ω t − θ )
With this in mind, it is of interest to consider magnitude X and phase θ
(relative to the force F0 cos (ω t ) ) of the steady-state response as a function
of the driving frequency ω . This is done by plotting the ratio of dynamic
amplitude X to static amplitude F0 / k , often referred to as the ‘dynamic
amplification factor’ or DAF and given as:
1-51
X X ω n2 1
(62) = = ,
⎛ F0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
f0
(1 − r )
2 2
+ ( 2ζ r )
2
⎝ k ⎠
and
⎛ 2ζ r ⎞
(63) θ = tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
,
⎝1− r ⎠
where r is the frequency ratio:
ω
(64) r=
ωn
This relationship is shown in Figure 14.
F0 ωt kX
θ =π 2 in phase
1-54
EXERCISE 1-5: SIMULATION OF IN- AND OUT-OF-PHASE BEHAVIOUR
Simulation performed using NDOF
System: m=6500kg, natural frequency f n = 4.5Hz
k = (2π f n ) 2 m = 5200000N/m , damping: ζ = 10%
x0 = 0; v0 = 0; f ( t ) = F0 cos (ω t ) , F0 = 100kN
Case 1: Low-frequency excitation
f = 2.25Hz leading to 14.173rad / sec
1-55
With regard to the last observation, when r = 1 the dynamic response can
be calculated from Equation (62) as:
F0 1
(65) X=
k 2ζ
Therefore, at resonance, dynamic response is inversely proportional to
damping.
1-56
1.3.5 Periodic forcing
A function that is periodic repeats itself identically after one complete
period and using Fourier analysis can be decomposed into a sum of
sinusoidal functions.
For example a square wave repeating every 0.5 seconds (2Hz) can be
regenerated from an infinite sequence of sine waves with frequencies 2H,
6Hz, 10Hz, 14Hz etc..
The plot shows a sine wave and how the sum of 10 sinusoids, in phase at
time zero, approaches the square wave shape.
Using superposition, which applies for a linear system, the response to a
sum of sine (or cosine) waves is the sum of responses to the separate sine
(or cosine) waves.
1-57
5
-5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time/seconds
Fourier amplitude/ASD spectrum an Fourier Phase spectrum φn
6
200
4
0
2
-200
0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
frequency/Hz frequency/Hz
1-58
EXERCISE 1-6: PERIODIC FORCING: WALKING ON A BRIDGE
f n = 4.25 Hz leading to f n = 26.7035rad / sec m = 6500kg
damping: ζ = 5%
x0 = 0; v0 = 0; f ( t ) = F0 cos (ωt )
Fundamental component: footfall rate
f = 2 Hz , F0 = 430 N leading to ω = 12.5664Hz
Second harmonic: twice footfall rate
f = 4 Hz F0 = 28 N leading to ω = 25.1327 Hz
Use T=2sec. Examine the acceleration trace and note peak values each
time.
Sum of fundamental and second harmonic
Run using ‘user .MAT’ and select file yh1p2.mat when prompted.
Compare with each of the two separate sinusoidal excitations. 1-59
1.3.6 Rotating imbalance
A common source of vibration problems is rotating machinery. A small
imbalance, characterised by a mass me at an eccentric distance re from the
shaft requires centripetal force Fr to maintain the rotation. The force is
proved by the mass to which it is attached. It is the reaction to this force,
-Fr, termed ‘centrifugal force’ that is a special case of harmonic excitation.
Figure 16 Harmonic excitation by rotating imbalance
k me ω
c
x(t)
1-60
The equation of motion for the system shown in Figure 16 is derived from
equation (47) as
(66) mx( t ) + cx ( t ) + kx ( t ) = − Fr ( t )
The motion of the eccentric mass me at radius re is described as
xr = re cos (ωt )
and the centripetal force is
xr = − me reω 2 cos (ωt )
Fr = me
so that equation (66) becomes
(67) mx( t ) + cx ( t ) + kx ( t ) = me reω 2 cos (ωt ) .
The only difference from the solutions for harmonic excitation in section
1.3.4 is that the forcing function increases with frequency so that the
response is given by
x ( t ) = X cos (ωt − θ )
1-61
where
mr r2 ⎛ 2ζ r ⎞
(68) X= ee with θ = tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
.
m
(1 − r )
2 2
+ ( 2ζ r )
2 ⎝ 1− r ⎠
1-63
5 Unit ‘impulse’, height 5N, width
ε=1/5=0.2 seconds. This is an
4
ε 1/ε approximation to δ ( 2 )
3
τ=2=delay from time t=0.
Force
2 τ
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Undamped response , h ( t − 2 )
time
(69)
d
dt
( mx ( t ) ) = f ( t )
(70) m ( x ( t2 ) − x ( t1 ) ) = ∫ f ( t ) dt .
t1
The integral on the RHS of Equation (70) is the magnitude of the impulse.
In the case of a short unit impulse applied on a SDOF system: t1 = 0 and
t2 = ε , so the velocity at time t2 = ε can be calculated as:
t2
∫ f ( t ) dt 1
x ( ε ) = =
t1
(71) .
m m 1-65
This is so because the duration of the impulse application is infinitesimally
short, so the SDOF spring and damper do not have the time to respond.
After the application of the impulse, the force is removed and the response
of the SDOF system can be calculated as for a freely vibrating system
1
disturbed only by initial velocity x ( 0 ) = . Due to the short duration of
+
m
the impulse it can be assumed that no displacement occurs, so x ( 0+ ) = 0
Response to an impulse
To calculate this response, Equations (39)-(41) can be used leading to
1
A= and φ = 0 .
mω d
Therefore, the response of the system at to the unit impulse applied at time
t=0 can be calculated as:
1 −ζωnt
(72) x(t ) = e sin ωd t
mωd
1-66
The impulse is denoted mathematically as δ ( t ) or ‘delta function’. When it
occurs at t=0 it is evaluated as δ ( 0 ) . The resulting response given by
equation (72) is termed the ‘impulse response function’ and denoted h ( t ) .
When the impulse occurs after a delay τ , the response at time t ( t > τ ) is
given by
1 −ζωn ( t −τ )
(73) x(t ) = e sin ωd ( t − τ )
mωd
1-67
EXERCISE 1-7: IMPULSE RESPONSE FUNCTION, EQUATION (73).
Simulation performed using NDOF
System: m=1kg, natural frequency f n = 1Hz , damping 1%
k = ( 2π .1) m = 39.478 N / m
2
1-68
Case 2: Infinitesimal impulse, Damped response (ζ = 1% ), time step-
0.01
x0 = 0; v0 = 0;
f(t)=0 until t=0, f(t)=100 until t=0.1;
Transient peak displacement: =_______m
Transient peak velocity: =_______m/sec
Examine the response up to t=1 sec.
1-69
1.3.8 Random forcing
Dynamic response of a SDOF system to a random signal can be found
using the method for response to an impulse. A random signal is not
periodic or harmonic as it never repeats itself and is not transient as it does
not go to zero after a short time.
1-70
The figures below represent the same data; a random signal with time
interval 0.32 seconds. In the left plot the data points are joined by smooth
continuously varying curves. In the right plot the data points are taken to be
constant at the sample time and dt/2 either side.
300
200
200
100
100
0
0
0 5 10
-100 -100
-200 -200
0 5 10
1-71
Because a SDOF oscillator is linear, we can use superposition. Each bar in
The right hand plot is taken as an impulse scaled by 0.32×the value of the
data point i.e. by the area of each bar:
t data value bar area equivalent impulse impulse response
0 10.2133 3.268 3.268×δ (0) 3.268×h ( t )
0.32 11.0500 3.536 3.536×δ (0.32) 3.536×h ( t − 0.32 )
0.64 -12.2728 -3.927 -3.927×δ (0.64) -3.927×h ( t − 0.64 )
0.96 30.6986 9.824 9.824×δ (0.96) 9.824×h ( t − 0.96 )
1.28 -20.9759 -6.712 -6.712×δ (1.28) -6.712×h ( t − 1.28 )
1.60 51.0890 16.348 16.348×δ (1.60) 16.348×h ( t − 1.6 )
1.92 124.9847 39.995 39.995×δ (1.92) 39.995×h ( t − 1.92 )
2.24 42.5725 13.623 13.623×δ (2.24) 13.623×h ( t − 2.24 )
1-72
The response to the random
6
4
h(0) forcing is the sum of the
2
h(0.32)
h(0.64)
impulse response functions.
h(0.96)
0 h(1.28)
0 2 4 6 8 10
h(1.60)
-2 h(1.92) Here the sum is taken for
h(2.24)
functions only due to data up
Σ
-4
to t=2.24.
-6
6
5
4 The operation of summing
shifted and scaled response
3
2
1 functions is called
0
-1 0 2 4 6 8 10 ‘convolution’.
-2
-3
-4
-5
-500
20
ch 2 (m)
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
seconds
Figure 21 Calculated oscillator response to random forcing
1-74
Mathematically, to calculate a response of the system at time t j , it is
necessary to add up contributions of all impulses applied at times ti (for a
short period ∆t , assumed to be constant) before time t j . Therefore,
x ( t j ) = ∑ f ( ti ) ∆t × h ( t j − ti ) .
j
(74)
i =1
Finding the limit of this discrete sum as the number n of equal divisions ∆t
( ∆t = t n ) increases to infinity n → ∞ ( ∆t → dτ )yields:
t
(75) x ( t ) = ∫ f (τ ) × h ( t − τ )dτ
0
1-75
Coursework: Exercise 1.8: Use spreadsheet ‘convit.xls’ to extend the
generation of response to random forcing represented by Figure 20 up to
the end of the sequence of random forcing data points i.e. about 10
seconds.
Repeat the exercise for a different damping ratio and then for a different
frequency and then use a forcing function of your choice (e.g. square or
triangular wave).
1-76
1.4 Logarithmic decrement and damping
Free vibration after initial disturbance ( x0 , v0 ) and impulse response
function due to impulsive forcing are both characterised by the decaying
exponential:
x(t ) = Ae −ζωnt sin (ωd t + φ )
When x0 ≠ 0, v0 = 0 , φ = 90° and the decay starts from the maximum
amplitude A.
When x0 = 0, v0 ≠ 0 or due to impulsive excitation, φ = 0° and the decay
starts from zero.
In either case the maximum values xn in successive cycles diminish
according to damping. If t0 is the time for the first maximum x0 then the
next maximum x1 will occur after an interval T = 2π ωd . Successive
maxima xn occur at times t0 + 2nπ ωd .
1-77
For the first maximum n=0, x0 = Ae −ζωnt0 sin (ωd t0 + φ )
For the send maximum n=1, x1 = Ae −ζωnt0 +T sin (ωd ( t0 + T ) + φ )
1-79
ω=1.6196Hz , ζ =0.56911%
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
ch 6
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1-81
1.5 Base excitation
As well as having a force applied directly to the mass of the oscillator, an
alternative and often more critical case is when the support of the structure
moves. Examples where understanding of base excitation is important
include earthquakes, suspension systems on vehicles and mounting of
sensitive machinery on a vibrating floor.
The analysis is the same if the movement is horizontal or vertical and
gravity is irrelevant. For consistency we consider horizontal movement (as
in a building moving in an earthquake).
1-82
xg ( t ) x (t ) mx( t )
x+ (t )
k fk
c m fc m
damping force f c = k ( x g ( t ) − x ( t ) ) ,
1-83
Using dynamic equilibrium, the equations of motion for mass m are:
(79) f I ( t ) + fc ( t ) + fk ( t ) = 0 .
Substituting for fk etc. and dropping the (t),
(80) − mx + c ( x g − x ) + k ( xg − x ) = 0
Note: using f=ma directly exchanges −mx on the left for + mx on the right.
It is the relative movement that gives rise to spring and damper forces,
hence we define relative displacement
(81) xr = x − xg
so that we add mxg to both sides and equation (80) becomes:
(82) m ( x ) + c ( x g − x ) + k ( xg − x ) = mxg
xg −
1-84
(83) mxr + cxr + kxr = − mxg
Equation (83) can be used for determining the relative response to any base
excitation after which the absolute response can be found by adding the
base response.
If we are interested in the internal stiffness and damping forces we can use
xr directly. Note that equation (83) is identical in form to equation(46):
(46) mx( t ) + cx ( t ) + kx ( t ) = f ( t )
so all the methods described in section 1.3 for different forcing functions
can be applied. The one that interests us is harmonic base excitation.
1-85
1.5.1 Harmonic base excitation-absolute response
Starting with equation (82):
(82) m ( x ) + c ( x g − x ) + k ( xg − x ) = mxg
xg −
or
(84) mx + cx + kx = −cx g − kxg
For harmonic base excitation
(85) xg ( t ) = X g cos (ωt ) .
Assume that the transient part has decayed leaving a harmonic response:
(86) x ( t ) = X cos (ωt − φ ) .
Hence equation (84) becomes
1-86
(87) − mω 2 X cos (ωt − φ ) − cω X sin (ωt − φ ) + kX cos (ωt − φ )
= −cω X g sin (ωt ) + kX g cos (ωt ) .
The terms in equation (87) are thus added vectorially as follows:
quadrature
mω 2 X
cω X g
kX g 2cω X
ωt
φ kX
in phase
ωn2 + ( 2ζωnω )
2
⎛ 2ζωωn ⎞
(88)
X
=
−1
, ∠ tan ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
- tan −1
( 2ζωωn )
Xg
(ω − ω
2
n )
2 2
+ ( 2ζωnω )
2
⎝ ωn − ω ⎠
1 + ( 2ζ r )
2
X ⎛ 2ζ r ⎞
(89) = , ∠ tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
- tan −1
2ζ r .
Xg (1 − r ) + ( 2ζ r )
2 2
⎝ 1− r ⎠
1-88
EXERCISE 1-10: SIMULATION OF IN- AND OUT-OF-PHASE BEHAVIOUR FOR
BASE EXCITATION: EQUATION (82)
x (t ) mx( t )
x+ (t )
k fk
c m fc m
f
1-91
Once again the ratio of two vector quantities is best found via the force
polygon:
quadrature
mω 2 X
F0 fT ωcX
φ
ωt kX
in phase
-
1-92
From Figure 25 it can be seen that
(91) T= =
( k − mω ) + ( cω )
2 2 2
(ω 2
n −ω ) + ( 2ζω ω )
2 2
n
2
1 + ( 2ζ r )
2
⎛ 2ζ r ⎞
(92) T= , ∠ tan ⎜ 2 ⎟
-−1
tan −1
2ζ r
(1 − r ) + ( 2ζ r )
2 2
⎝ 1− r ⎠
1-93
EXERCISE 1-11: SIMULATION OF IN- AND OUT-OF-PHASE BEHAVIOUR FOR
TRANSMISSIBILITY: EQUATION (91)
1-94
1.6.1 Transmissibility Ratio Characteristics
1-95
In both cases, as frequency ratio r tends to zero T=TR goes to unity
meaning that stiffness forces dominate: inertia forces goes to zero so that
for force transmissibility all the applied force is transmitted to the support,
while for base excitation, there is no relative motion caused by inertia.
In both cases for reasonable (small) damping ratios, phase angle passes
close to 90° at resonance.
An important feature shown in Figure 26 is that for r < 2 T increases with
lower damping whereas for r > 2 damping increases T.
1-98
References and links
1. Inman, D. J. (2001). Engineering Vibration, 2nd Edition. Prentice Hall, New
Jersey. pp. 621.
2. Smith, J. W. (1987). Vibrations of Structures, Applications in Civil
Engineering Design. Chapman and Hall, pp. 338.
3. Neat animations from Prof Brian Stone, Australia’s top engineering lecturer:
http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/bjs/Vibration/OneDOF/
4. Animation of base isolation:
http://widget.ecn.purdue.edu/~me563/Lectures/Forced/Isolation_Absorption/
Animations_01/animation01.html
5. Simulator (like NDOF, but as Java applet, single screen):
http://mathinsite.bmth.ac.uk/applet/msd/msd.html
6. EFUNDA formulae: http://www.efunda.com/formulae/vibrations
7. Lecture notes by Prof Dan Inman: www.cimss.vt.edu/me3504
1-99