THE INDUSTRIAL

REVOLUTION
Soraya Villares
First draft
 Introduction

The Industrial Revolution, which took place from the 18th

to 19th centuries, was a period during which predominantly
agrarian, rural societies in Europe and America became
industrial and urban. Prior to the Industrial Revolution,
which began in Britain in the late 1700s, manufacturing
was often done in people’s homes, using hand tools or
basic machines. Industrialization marked a shift to
powered, special-purpose machinery, factories and mass
production. The iron and textile industries, along with the
development of the steam engine, played central roles in
the Industrial Revolution, which also saw improved
systems of transportation, communication and banking.
While industrialization brought about an increased volume
and variety of manufactured goods and an improved
standard of living for some, it also resulted in often grim
employment and living conditions for the poor and working
classes.
 Causes

• Why Britain?

• Agricultural Revolution

• Demographic Revolution

• Domestic trade

• Colonial trade

• Finances and entrepreneurs

• Opinion
Why Britain?

Before the advent of the Industrial Revolution, most people resided in

small, rural communities where their daily existences revolved around
farming. Life for the average person was difficult, as incomes were
meager, and malnourishment and disease were common. People
produced the bulk of their own food, clothing, furniture and tools. Most
manufacturing was done in homes or small, rural shops, using hand
tools or simple machines.

A number of factors contributed to Britain’s role as the birthplace of the

Industrial Revolution. For one, it had great deposits of coal and iron
ore, which proved essential for industrialization. Additionally, Britain
was a politically stable society(had a parliamentary political system),
as well as the world’s leading colonial power, which meant its colonies
could serve as a source for raw materials, as well as a marketplace for
manufactured goods. But parallel revolutions, that range from the
increase of food production and population, the development of new
machinery and energy sources, as well as the reorganization of land
property, contributed to the industrial revolution.

As demand for British goods increased, merchants needed more cost-

effective methods of production, which led to the rise of mechanization
and the factory system.
 Agricultural Revolution

Was the gradual transformation of the traditional

agricultural system that began in Britain in the 18th
century.

Most of the british people of that century resided in

small, rural communities where their daily existences
revolved around agriculture. Peasants only produce
the necessary to survive (subsistence economy),
and each family had one part of land called
commons, where they cultivated their food.

The english landowners started to promote

Enclosure Acts which transformed common land
into private land, transforming agriculture into a
business. Many poor peasants who didn’t had
enough money to fence their property, lost them and
migrated to the big cities to work in factories or
became rural wage workers.

 Inventions
Thanks to the scientific method, the seeding
machine(a new machinery) was created by
Jethro Tull in the 1701, and helped to the
change.

The crop cultivation system based on triennial

rotation was substituted by a 4 year rotation
system that included fodder crops for domestic
animals. The introduction of crops such as maize
and potatoes, along with the use of seed drills or
horse drawn harvesters contributed to increase
production.

In conclusion, the mechanization of agricultural production diminished the number of hands

needed for agricultural tasks, which generated an exodus of population from rural to urban areas.
 Demographic Revolution

Due to the Agricultural Revolution, food production increased and caused a

great demographic growth, and the creation of new cities.

At the beginning of the 18th century, mortality rates were high and life rates
were constant, but suddenly everything changed, thanks to improvements in
nutrition and food production, and life expectancy increased from 38 to 50
years.

This was a consequence for trade, as the demand of manufactures increased

and provided new industries with abundant workforce.
 Domestic Trade

Domestic trade intensified by the construction of

channels
that complemented the extended navigation river system
in Britain. Internal demand of goods increased as
population grew.
 Colonial trade

British colonialism provided industries with capital, easy

access to raw materials and extended markets to sell their
products.

The colonial economy depended on international trade.

American ships carried products such as lumber, tobacco,
rice, and dried fish to Britain. In turn, the mother country
sent textiles , and manufactures goods back to America.
 Finances and entrepreneurs

The number of banks increased and private financing was

available. Profits of commerce and land production were used
to finance other industrial sectors.

This led to the creation of entrepreneurs, english men had the

social and institutional support to become entrepreneurs, to
take risk on the change to obtain greater rewards.
 Opinion

In my opinion, if it were not for the agricultural revolution, I think we would still be making
a great effort to grow our food since the aforementioned inventions would not have been
invented. Thanks to the demographic revolution, it caused the population to increase and
deaths to decrease. This produced the exchanges to be able to obtain and sell products,
at the same time obtaining benefits and help from those who invested money to carry it
out. If it had not happened during that century, I think it could have happened later, but
nobody knows. For this reason, I am pleased that they shared those great ideas to help
humanity.
 Mechanization of textile and iron
industries
• The Textile Industry

• Cottage system

• Mills

• Factories

• The steam engine

• Coal mining

• Iron industry
The Textile Industry

The textile industry was at the centre of Britain's industrial expansion

in the Victorian period. Technological advances meant that cottons,
wools, silks and dyestuffs could be produced at unprecedented
rates, and the results were exported around the Empire. This was
done thanks to the colonial trade which allow cheap cotton fabrics
and clothes to be imported from India. The English government
banned these imports to favor domestic production of cotton. The
driving forces of the mechanization of the textile industry were the
production of cheaper cotton fabrics to compete with Indian imports
and to meet the demands of growing population
 Cottage system

Mechanization improved existing technologies but work was

done still in the house in order to obtain specific materials for
the production of clothes. The flying shuttle patented in 1733,
increased the speed of weaving and allowed the production of
wider pieces of fabric.

As textile production increased the demand on thread

augmented too. The Spinning Jenny, was patented by accident
The flying shuttle
in 1765. This invention allowed one person to spoon up to eight
spools of thread at a time and increased its quality, but it was
done still in houses. This led to obtain more benefits.

The Spinning Jenny

 Mills

The introduction of mechanized devices accelerated production,

leading to the development of textile factories, or mills. Several early
mills popped up in Great Britain throughout the 1740s, and throughout
the coming decades the mill system continued to expand.

Many early mills were powered by horses, but in time water-power

became a popular means of powering textile machinery. Richard
Arkwright played an important role in this development when he
patented a water-powered spinning frame in 1769. Arkwright's
Cromford Mill built in Derbyshire in 1771 is considered to be the first
modern water-powered cotton mill. With its box-like design, the
Cromford Mill served as the standard architectural model for mills. This
type of mill would be replicated all over the world throughout the
Cromford Mill coming century. The need for water-power meant that many mills
popped up along rivers and waterways.

 Factories
Richard Arkwright is the person credited with being the brains
behind the growth of factories. After he patented his spinning
frame in 1769, he created the first true factory at Cromford, near
Derby.

This act was to change Great Britain. Before very long, this factory
employed over 300 people. Nothing had ever been seen like this
before. The domestic system only needed two to three people
working in their own home. By 1789, the Cromford mill employed
800 people. With the exception of a few engineers in the factory,
the bulk of the work force were essentially unskilled. They had
their own job to do over a set number of hours. Whereas those in
the domestic system could work their own hours and enjoyed a
degree of flexibility, those in the factories were governed by a
clock and factory rules.

Factories were run for profit. Any form of machine safety guard
cost money. As a result there were no safety guards. Safety
clothing was non-existant. Workers wore their normal day-to-day
clothes. In this era, clothes were frequently loose and an obvious
danger.

 Different factories

• In 1781 Boulton and Watt invented a steam engine that

was easy to use within a cotton factory, and larger,
steam-powered spinning factories concentrated in coal
mining producing cities like Manchester and far from
rural areas.
• In 1787 Edmund Cartwright designed a mechanized
power loom which used water power, however the first
weaving factories built in Manchester were supported by
a steam engine that produced hydraulic power.
• By the 1790’s, the steam engine was used in an
increasing number of cotton factories and by 1800's the
use of power looms integrated, into the mill system, the
last process of textile production.
The steam engine
The invention and refinement of steam engines played a central role
in the development of the Industrial Revolution during the late
1700s and early 1800s in England, Europe, and North America. The
Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid innovation in industry,
transportation, and technology that was fueled largely by coal and
steam power. Many of the advances made during the Industrial
Revolution were thanks to the steam engine. But how did steam
engines first come into use?

The earliest versions of steam engines were used to pump water

from coalmines in England. A pump driven by a steam engine sat on
top of a mineshaft and burned the readily available coal to generate
the power needed to remove water from deep in the shaft. Thomas
Newcomen invented the first successful engine in 1712 in England,
which greatly increasing mining production. However, Newcomen's
engine was inefficient and could only be used near coalmines, where
coal was abundant and cheap enough to run the engine. It was soon
realized that, if steam engines were to have wider uses, they needed
to be improved.

James Watt perfected the first steam engine and patented his model
in 1765. He's steam engine proved to be more efficient in terms of
producing a continuous movement and increased coal production to
meet the demands of the iron industry. Furthermore, he adapted the
use of the steam engine to power industrial machinery that would
revolutionize other industries and transportation.

 Coal mining

As England had large quantities of high-quality coal, at surface

level, that was easily mined however, galleries would frequently
be filled with water, the Industrial Revolution created a huge
demand for coal, to power new machines such as the steam-
engine.

As the demand for coal increased, miners were forced to go

deeper underground to find new coal. Deep tunnels were dug
underground, where the conditions were dark, hot, and cramped.

Coal mining was a very dangerous job. The tunnels, which were
sometimes propped up with wood, sometimes collapsed. The
miners sometimes came into contact with dangerous gases that
existed naturally underground.

Iron industry
Before the industrial revolution, iron was melted in small ovens, using
wood and manual bellows, which limited production. The iron produced
was brittle and England imported much of the iron they used.

In 1709, an ironmaster in Coalbrookdale, Abraham Darby I, succeeded in

producing cast iron using coal. He discovered a process whereby coal
was first turned into coke, ands allowed iron to be produced easily as
higher temperates were reached for melting the mineral.

It was efficient coal mining, as the steam engine was introduced to

pump water of out of the flooded galleries, the element that rocketed the
iron industry. It to provide larger quantities of energy to sustain the
needs of iron industry.

Watt's steam engine helped increase furnace size and

production.Hydraulic machinery was now used to move larger bellows
that blew air into the blast furnace and produce larger quantities of iron.

It was Henry Cort who, in 1783, discovered an economic method of

producing wrought iron. His 'puddling furnace' produced molten iron
that could be rolled straight away, while it was still soft, into rails for
railways, pipes, or even sheet iron for shipbuilding.

With these innovations, British iron production underwent large growth,

and indispensable elements for the mechanization of industries and the
revolution of transportation.

 Opinion

In my opinion, thanks to all these inventions we have been able to develop and many
people have been able to obtain work for the invention of the factories.
If the textile industry had not been invented, the fashion would not have advanced and it
could be that we would not have had clothes to wear every day. So, if it were not for that,
now our society would look different from now.
 Economic consequences

• Spread of industrialization

• First wave

• Second wave

• The revolution of transport

• Trains and Railways

• The steamboat

• Industrial capitalism

• Financial partnerships

• Banks

• Trade
 Spread of industrialization

By the mid-nineteenth century, Great Britain had

become the world’s first and richest industrial
nation, the “workshop, banker, and trader of the
world.” By 1830, industrialization had begun to
spread from Great Britain to other countries
depending on the political and economical
factors.

Governments on the Continent were

accustomed to playing a major role in economic
affairs and continued to do so as the Industrial
Revolution got under way, subsiding inventors,
providing incentives to factory owners, and
improving the transportation network.
First wave
In Europe industrialization first spread to Britain’s closet countries.

Belgium was the first country after Britain to industrialize, largely

because, being small and compact, its coal and iron deposits were near
each other. Its government also established a national railroad in 1834 to
tie the nation closer together.

In France, as well, railroad construction, directed by Napoleon III and

largely backed by British capital, led the way. By 1870, an extensive
railway network radiated from Paris linking the agricultural south with the
industrial centers in the north. Some said France did not experience an
industrial revolution since it happened gradually and did not affect most
Frenchmen who remained farmers. However, by 1900 France was a major
industrial power following much the same pattern as other countries.

Germany began promoting new industries near the coal mining regions of
Ruhr, Saarland and Upper Silesia. Belgium and Switzerland created new
factories and their textile industries benefited from long artisan traditions,
and financial capacity. But it did not seriously start industrializing until
after unification in 1871 when it could marshal all its resources in a
concerted industrial effort. However, once unified, Germany saw a
meteoric rise in its industrial might.

The United States had several positive factors to embrace

industrialization, vast land areas for growing cotton, mining resources,
high demand due to domestic growth and migration. Textile and steel
factories rapidly grew in the north, and

protectionist measures contributed to their success.

 Second wave

Other European countries, such as Spain, Italy, Portugal, Greece,

Austria or Russia lacked the natural resources, technological
development or internal demand their industrialization process

characterized by isolated industrial spots located mainly near

coal or iron mines or large cities, where workforce and consumer.
Their industrialization began around 1850. Industrialization
reached Japan by 1870.

Japan, had also industrialized by 1870. It had shut itself off from

Western influences since the 1600's. But, in 1854 the United
States forced Japan to trade with the West, and it decided to
beat the West at its own game by industrializing. Few paid
serious attention to this until 1903 when tiny Japan took on
Russian in a war and shocked the world by tearing its army and
navy to pieces with its own largely mechanized forces. Japan
had arrived as an industrial power, showing that the West's days
as the undisputed masters of the globe were numbered.

The revolution of transport

The growth of the Industrial Revolution depended on

the ability to transport raw materials and finished
goods over long distances. There were three main
types of transportation that increased during the
Industrial Revolution: trains, railways, and, steamboats.
Transportation was important because people were
starting to live in the West.
 Trains and railways

The railway was invented when a mobile steam machine could

pull carriages on steel rails. The first railways were developed in
England to transport food between mines and ports. It was the
later development of a locomotive machine that could generate
continuous movement and go uphills that transformed transport
of passenger and goods. From that point onwards, many
countries began to build their own extensive rail networks.

The railroads had a fairly large impact on the Industrial

Revolution. Railroads could transport materials needed faster
than before, which helped factories produce goods. This helped
big business to grow. The railroad also let people from the
country move into the city, which helped provide a work force
for the factories. This helped big business even more.

 The steamboat

Back in 1807, Robert Fulton had adapted a steam

engine for use in a boat called the Clermont. This
kind of power allowed the boat to travel up the
Hudson River as easily as it could travel down.
Firstly, it was used for military purposes. Some
people doubted it could be commercially successful.
They were wrong; within four years, passengers and
goods could travel by steamboat all the way from
Pittsburgh to the Ohio River and from there to the
Mississippi.

Also, maritime transport adopted the steam engine

after new inventions like the propeller and the metal
structure (iron hull).
Industrial capitalism

During the Industrial Revolution, industrialists replaced

merchants as a dominant factor in the capitalist system and
affected the decline of the traditional handicraft skills of
artisans, guilds, and journeymen. Also during this period, the
surplus generated by the rise of commercial agriculture
encouraged increased mechanization of agriculture.

Industrial capitalism appeared because new factories required

larger quantities of money to buy machinery or build factories

It marked the development of the factory system of

manufacturing, characterized by a complex division of labor
between and within work process and the routine of work tasks;
and finally established the global domination of the capitalist
mode of production.

 Financial partnerships and banks

Entrepreneurs sought partners to obtain the financial means to

promote their businesses. Limited partnerships or public
limited companies, whose capital was divided into small
amounts, called shares, were established to promote industries
and share profit and risks among the shareholders.

Private and investment banks appear here and stated to

diversify and multiply. Led their clients to invest in their
deposits to provided credits to companies and businesses,
and finance to industries buying shares from industries.

Trade
Domestic and colonial trade benefited from the revolution in transport.

Thanks to new forms of transport, manufactured products on a global

size exchanges were promoted, especially in that regions and
countries where cheaper goods could be produced.

Trade would greatly benefited from the construction of canals.

England had a long history of channels that connected their large river
systems, and by mid 19th century several countries engaged in a
major quest to build the Suez Canal.

This channel created a permanent connection between the

Mediterranean Sea and the Indic Ocean. It contributed to reduce the
number of travel journeys needed to transport good from Asia to
Europe.

However, many European countries and the United States applied

protectionist measures to protect their national industries from British
advanced stages of industrialization.

Governments would impose tariffs on imported good in order to make

them more expensive and therefore unprofitable to export.

 Opinion

In my opinion, thanks to the fact that industrialization extended with the help of some
transports, now we can obtain products that would be almost impossible to have if it were
not for trade. It must also be said that those entrepreneurs who invested in banks to
finance these trade routes made this possible.
 Social Consequences

• The new working class

• Proletariat

• Working conditions

• Living conditions

• Labour movement

• Early protests

• Working class political battle

• Bourgeoise

• First International
The new working class

The Industrial Revolution made drastic changes on the lives of

individuals. Social differences will now be based on personal merit
and measured by wealth.Two classes that benefited from it were the
"middle" and “upper” classes. These two classes were composed
of people that had wealth and success. Even though most could
afford goods anyway, the prices lowered even more, so that those
who could not afford them before could now enjoy the comfort and
convenience of the new products being made. The dominated class
was formed by the industrial workers and the peasants.

 Proletariat

The term proletariat designated the class of wage workers who

were engaged in industrial production and whose chief source of
income was derived from the sale of their labour power. This
group comprised peasants who had emigrated to the cities and
former city artisans that had gone bankrupt due to industrial
mechanization.

They were the work force for industrialization. Unskilled and

unqualified workers. men, women and children of young age,
that would work for very small wages, under harsh conditions.

Working conditions
Simply, the working conditions were terrible during the Industrial Revolution.
As factories were being built, businesses were in need of workers. With a
long line of people willing to work, employers could set wages as low as they
wanted because people were willing to do work as long as they got paid.
People worked fourteen to sixteen hours a day for six days a week. he
workers only received a break for lunch and a break for dinner. However, the
majority were unskilled workers, who only received about $8-$10 dollars a
week, working at approximately 10 cents an hour. Skilled workers earned a
little more, but not significantly more. Women received one-third or
sometimes one-half the pay that men received. Children received even less.
Owners, who were only concerned with making a profit, were satisfied
because labor costed less. 

Factories were not the best places to work. The only light present was the
sunlight that came through the windows. Machines spit out smoke and in
some factories, workers came out covered in black soot by the end of the
day. There were a plethora of machines with not many safety precautions.
Loud and constant noise from machinery, lack of ventilation and

extreme temperatures were causes of many work related illnesses and

accidents that would result in job loss or retirement. No insurance would
protect workers for the job loss or impeding conditions.

Children were paid less than 10 cents an hour for fourteen hour days of
work. They were used for simpler, unskilled jobs. Many children had physical
deformities because of the lack of exercise and sunlight.

 Living conditions

Workers in Britain lived in small and crowded tenements.

Families with four to five children shared rooms. There was no
running water, no windows, and no backyards. The stairs were
steep and dangerous to climb. Families had to share an outside
bathroom and water pumps. Smoke produced from factories
polluted the air blocked the sunlight. Trash was thrown on the
streets, and the streets were so dirty that more than 31,000
people died of diseases like cholera in 1832. Basically, tenement
conditions were horrible and unsuitable for living in. People only
lived in them because they were poor and had no other choice.
Labour movement

A labor union is a group of people within a particular job or

industry that join together to fight for improved working
conditions.  Throughout history, labor unions have played a
vital role in the relationship between workers and owners
and have helped to improve conditions for working-class
people.  The labor movement first began during the time
period of the Industrial Revolution, in the 19th century.  At
the time, working-class people were often exploited by
wealthy owners and treated horribly. 
 Early protest and unions

Labour movement started as a from of protest against

mechanization of the textile industry, known as Luddites.
These protests would include the destruction of the
machines and factories that they considered responsible for
their lost of jobs.

Workers created friendly societies formed by members who

paid a fee and would receive aid in the case of job loss of
accidents, and made several petitions to the Parliament
concerning management abuses at the factories.

Workers' associations or trade unions were later created to

organize promote changes that would improve labour
conditions. They demanded reduced of working hours and
increased wages They organized negotiations, protests and
strikes to fight from their rights. The first trade formed in
Great Britain was legalized by Parliament in 1825.
Working class political battle
Workers also wanted universal male suffrage and right of association,
with the goal to achieve equal rights and to gain political power. This
political battle took different forms and ideologies throughout Europe.

In Parliamentary England, the London Workingmen's Association sent

their petition, known as the People's Charters in 1838, demanding
universal male suffrage, secret ballots and yearly elections of
Parliament. This political demands define Chartism.

Socialism was developed by Karl Mars and Friedrich Engels promoted

the end of private property. To achieve their objective they proposed a
revolution directed by the socialist party, that would bring the
proletariat to power. Once achieved, the proletariat would establish a
dictatorship based on common ownership, and a society with neither
classes nor state would be created.

Political anarchism goal was to achieve maximum individual freedom

by eliminating the State, private property and religious beliefs by
means of a spontaneous revolution led by peasants and the
proletariat. That will create egalitarian communities.
 Bourgeoisie

After the Industrial Revolution (1750–1850), by the mid-19th century the

great expansion of the bourgeoisie social class caused its stratification by
business activity and by economic function into:

The high bourgeoisie: Upper commercial and industrial bourgeoisie

obtained their wealth from manufacturing, businesses and agricultural
exploitations. They were at the top of the social group.

The petite bourgeoisie: A middle class formed by small merchants and

industrialist, civil servants and members of liberal professions, such as

doctors and lawyers.

The bourgeoisie formed part of a cultural elite due to secondary and

university education, and imposed their ideology, based on values of work
and personal success. Lived in large houses in the city center or residential

neighborhoods far from factories

First international

The International Workingmen's Association (IWA, 1864–1876),

often called the First International, was an international
organization which aimed at uniting a variety of different left-
wing socialist, communistnand anarchist political groups and
trade union organizations that were based on the working class
and class struggle. It was founded in 1864 in a workmen's
meeting held in St Martin's Hall, London. Its first congress was
held in 1866 in Geneva.

 Opinion

In my opinion, although work was created for all those who had emigrated from the place
where they lived, they suffered a lot working in the factories since they did not rest at all
and they were there for many hours and also the children had to work to win a misery and
not being able to live as they should. On the other hand was the bourgeoisie who did not
have to worry about work or food, since they lived very well. For this reason, it seems to
me very well that the protests arose, which wanted this to change.
 The return to absolutism

• Reaction and Reform

• A new map of Europe

• The revolutionary wave of 1830

• Napoleon’s rule

• The consulate

• The Empire

• 1848’s revolutions
 Reaction and reform

After Napoleon's defeat in 1814, the leaders of Europe gathered

at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815).

The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term

peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the
French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal
was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main
powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace.
The leaders were conservatives with little use for republicanism
or revolution, both of which threatened to upset the status quo
in Europe. They restored pre-Revolutionary monarchies
(including France). Although not authoritarian, civil liberties such
as freedom of expression or press were restricted, and
censorship was heavy. This period is know as reaction or
restoration.

A new map of Europe

The four major powers of Europe (Britain, Russia,
Prussia and Austria) redesigned the map of Europe to
their advantage. The Napoleonic territories were
divided among these four powers, and France's
borders returned to its 1792 limits, new countries were
established without consulting their nationals,
separated or joined together without consent.

The Congress of Vienna established the ideological

principles of the Restoration, such as the legitimacy of
the absolute monarchs and the denial of national
sovereignty of citizens, and did not respected the
liberal and nationalist principles of the emergent

and wealthy middle classes.

Liberals defended individual liberties, equality under

the law and the suppression of privileges, as well as
the creation of constitutional regimes, based on
national sovereignty and separation of powers.

Nationalists believed that common traits such as

language or culture were the base of a nation-state,
and their objective for each nation to have its own
State. Some nationalist movements in Germany and
Italy wanted to gather the many territories to form one
single nation-state. Nationalists in large empires,
wanted to split away and establish self-rule.
 The revolutionary wave of 1830

Liberalism moved the revolutionary burst in France and Poland, were

middle class wanted to increase the power of elected parliaments. It
movement began in France when Charles X, the monarch who
succeeded Louis XVIII, years after Napoleon's rule, attempted to restore
an absolute monarchy. People from different social classes came
together to fight for liberty, and the king was overthrown in July 1830,
and Louis Philippe I "the Citizen King” became the new constitutional
monarch of France.

Revolts broke out in Poland in 1831, which was under the autocratic rule
of the Russian Empire, and protesters were harshly reduced by the
tsarist army.

The first people to claim self-rule under nationalism principles were the
Greek that remained under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, they rebelled
and demanded independence by 1821, and finally obtained it in 1830.

In 1830 nationalist riots broke out against the Dutch rule in the Belgian
city of Brussels, and in October 1830 the Belgians declared their
independence from Dutch control.

By mid 1830's the old political order seemed to be restored, but the
appearance of stability did not last long.

Napoleon’s rule

Napoléon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French

statesman and military leader who rose to prominence during the French
Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French
Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon, he was Emperor of the French from
1804 until 1814, and again briefly in 1815 (during the Hundred Days).
Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade
while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars.
He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, building a
large empire that ruled over continental Europe before its final collapse in
1815. One of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns
are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleon's political and cultural
legacy has endured as one of the most celebrated and controversial
leaders in human history.
 The consulate

The Consulate (French: Le Counsulat) was the government of France

from the fall of the Directory in the coup of Brumaire in 1799 until the
start of the Napoleonic Empire in 1804. By extension, the term The
Consulate also refers to this period of French history.

During this period, Napoleon Bonaparte, as First Consul, established

himself as the head of a more authoritarian, autocratic, and
centralized republican government in France while not declaring
himself sole ruler. Due to the long-lasting institutions established
during these years, Robert B. Holtman has called the Consulate "one
of the most important periods of all French history.”

Napoleon brought authoritarian personal rule which has been viewed

as military dictatorship.

The Empire

In 1804 he crowned himself emperor of France. His military

victories (1805-1811) against Holland, Spain, Austria, Warsaw

or Naples made France the most powerful nation in Europe
until 1815. He defeated European monarchies and brought
the ideals of the French revolution to those territories by
writing constitutions for the countries he conquered.
 1848’s revolutions
The 1848 revolutions were more extensive, radical and had greater
participation than the 1830's revolutions. They began in France, were
the French 2nd Republic was created, implementing a constitution
that established universal male suffrage. Revolutions reached
Prussia, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland, the German confederation and
some Italian states.

In all of them, revolutionaries set up barricades in the streets and

demanded more rights, as well as popular sovereignty, universal
males suffrage and social equality.

The bourgeoisie gained these revolutions,. They suppressed the

revolts and implemented conservative and liberal reforms. May
westerns countries adopted liberalism, wrote constitutions and male
censitary suffrage was recognized.

Labour movements were defeated and did not achieve deeper social
and political transformation. However, they did developed class
consciousness and began to organize themselves in order to stand
up to the bourgeoisie and the liberal States they had helped created.
 Opinion

In my opinion, thanks to the Vienna Congress, Napoleon could not govern and managed
to restore old limits and change the size of the main powers so that they could balance
and remain at peace. This meant that there were no more wars and that all countries
could lived in peace without anyone conquering their territories.
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