Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Planning Theory and History
Planning Theory and History
Definition of Planning
Planning as a basic human activity that pervades human behavior at every level of society
- “a plan is any hierarchical process in the organism that can control the order in which a sequence of operations is to be
performed”
Planning as a rational choice that meets certain standards of logic
- “ a process for determining appropriate future actions through a sequence of choices”
Planning as control of future action
Planning as a special kind of problem solving
Planning is: Societal, Future-oriented, Non-routinized, Deliberate, Action-oriented
Planning is the deliberate social or organizational activity of developing an optimal strategy for achieving a desired set of goals
Planning aims to apply methods of rational choice to determining a best set of future actions addressed to novel problems in complex
contexts
It is attended by the power and intention to commit resources and to act as necessary to implement the chosen strategy
Rational Comprehensive
Communicative
Model Radical Political Equity Planning Radical Planning
Advocacy Planning Model Action & Social
(Rational-Adaptive / Economy Model Model Model
Learning Models
Synoptic Planning)
40’s: Herbert Simon‟s
Jürgen Habermas,
Synoptic Model in
John Forester,
Decision-making (1945)
Anthony Giddens,
instrumental rationality
60’s:Paul Davidoff‟s Patsy Healy
as a tool (Simon:
“Advocacy & Pluralism in
bounded rationality;
Planning” (1965) - advocacy planners
Lindblom: incremental
- the Civil Rights movement went to the field &
decision-making; 70’s:David Harvey‟s
gained momentum: set the 80’s: Norman learned about local
Etzioni: mixed scanning) “Social Justice & the City”
Period & climate where dissenting Krumholz (inheritors knowledge and
(1973) and Manuel
proponents opinion is heard of the advocacy political skills of the
*Instrumentalism theories Castells‟ “The Urban
- Sherry Arnstein: Citizen tradition) community
are only useful tools for Question” (1976)
Participation and Allan D. - shift from
making predictions, they
Heskin: concepts of instrumental
are only guides to
„empowerment‟ rationality to
successful action; Spatial communicative
analysis and concepts may rationality by
not accurately reflect Habermas
reality. Results are what
count.
Belief in greater Planning aims to
rationality in public understand &
decision-making describe social
Comprehensive – strives interaction for
to coordinate more & meaningful
more activities Emerged from the
Planners should advocate discourse,
recognition of
Allocative or Regulatory: for those who are The objective of harmonization of
unequal relations
concerned with solving powerless and planning is to interests, and
& distribution of
chronic problems by disenfranchised consciously collaborative action
power
way of allocating Creation of multiple Planning is an redistribute power (interpretive)
resources efficiently and The goal is to work
plans to reflect diverse inherently political from the elite to Expert knowledge
Tenets for structural
enacting rules & values & interests activity lead by the the poor vs. experiential
standards transformation &
instead of just 1 dominant class It is ethical for the knowledge
to empower those
Notion of the public is masterplan planner to side Emphasis on
who have been
homogenous Belief in due process & with the human worth &
systematically
Reason for dominance enlightened plural marginalized reciprocity
disempowered
Offers planners democracy Planning:
procedural input „transactive‟ finding
“scientific” – common ground,
professional rather than
legitimacy „transactional‟
Compatible with
economists‟
rational resource
allocation
(Chicago School)
Planner as the
Planners should
“handmaid” of power Planners:
choose the Planner engages in
Planner as the “knower” community-based
Planner as advocate who politicians they dialogue and social
relying on his expertise Planner: revealer of practice;
Role of the informs people of costs, work with learning with client
Planner as self- contradictions & agents allegiance is with
Planner benefits & consequences Planner: good through
correcting Scientist of social innovation the community
of alternatives communicator, “transactive” style
searching for the “crossing over from
directs public of planning
“correct” way to plan the state”
attention to issues
The state‟s role is to The state is
Concept of Assumes the state is
accumulate capital & it antagonistic
the State neutral
sides with the elite towards CS
Normative Utopian
Top-down planning is
anti-democratic Planners still make the
May strive to be
on instrumentalist view: plans; the “represent” Did not explicitly
inclusionary but
Critique When there is no overall without including them provide what planners
still top-down in
theory, actions tend to in the process which is can do
approach
become segmented and not empowering
un-integrated
Disjointed Incrementalism / Incremental Planning (Lindblom): partisan mutual adjustment Unified public
interest cannot be defined; determined through negotiation and political compromises
- Planner acts as mediator to determine common interest.
- Asks what is politically feasible politically (instead of what is technically efficient and effective)
- Policy-makers have “cognitive limits” decision-making is a succession of approximations.
Traditional Planning (e.g under authoritarian rule): Imperative planning (top-down) – tends to command and to issue
specific directives
- detailing or fine-tuning grand concept from a dictator or ruling elite
- Planner as hired consultant or technician
Strategic Planning: Innovative Planning: improve or develop whole systems, introduce new goals, shape change
- Oriented toward results or outcomes
- Planner as a visionary or entrepreneur
Planning as Social Physics: positivist Regional Science and Regional Economics) Planning aims to discover
presumed natural laws or regular occurrences in social phenomena so that these phenomena can be better predicted
and managed.
Planning and Social Darwinism: Planning studies human societies as biological organisms subject to the laws of
natural evolution such as competition, adaptation, predation, parasitism, co-evolution, survival of the fittest
Planning as Social Engineering: Planning is a State function that aims to create purposive change by directing human
behavior through a combination of persuasive and coercive strategies.
Systems Theory of Planning: Planning functions like a machine or computer unit that utilizes information and
feedback in an iterative, cyclical, self-feeding fashion in order to effectively describe, simulate & forecast societal
conditions.
- System: set of interconnected components interacting to form an integrated whole; Relationships tie the system
together
- Anything affecting one component will affect all the other components
- A change in one component will result in a change in the other components
- “Cybernetics” (Norbert Wiener, 1948; Ashby,1956) – interdisciplinary science dealing with communication and
control systems in living organisms, machines, and organizations
-
URBAN SPATIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES: explains how cities change their form
THEORIES OF SPATIAL PLANNING (URBAN GROWTH = identify reasons why urban areas grow or decline)
Also includes the gravity model
Firms location: firms will always choose to locate where there is minimum production and transportation cost
- If inputs have multiple sources – firms locate to where there money weighs more
- Other determinants: natural resource, cheap labor, inexpensive land, presence of natural amenities, pleasant weather
Theory of Cumulative Causation (Gunnar Myrdal 1957 – backwash & spread effects)
Capitalism is characterized by income and welfare inequalities; Disequilibrium in economy is due to market forces; Market forces create regional inequalities
A region or country becomes richer, the poor becomes poorer because of cumulative process where forces work in circular causation to reinforce development
Spread effects – positive effects initially felt e.g. raw materials but backwash is stronger
Backwash Circuits – Capital is attracted to the center, young workers migrate to the center = lack of growth / retardation of and aging labor force in the
periphery; Widening gap between core and periphery = smaller purchasing power and decline in local services
Center-Periphery Model (John Friedman, 1966 – also Urban Industrial Growth pole Strategy)
Industrialization leads to a dualistic structure; periphery that is dependent to the center but is stagnant
General theory of Polarized development and underdevelopment
Core-Periphery Model: periphery as the source of raw materials, cheap labor and dumping ground for goods
Export industry has a higher multiplier
Others
Spatial Image of the World Capitalist System (Andre Gunder Frank) – LDCs are the periphery/ satellite with developed countries as the core
Domination Theory by Hilshorst: spatial distribution of decision-making, regional devolution of power
Dependency Theory by Randy David
Colonialism and Spatial Structure of Underdevelopment by David Slater
Shared Space by Milton Santos – upper and lower circuit or formal and informal economy
Strategy of Core Neo-populist Regional Development Strategy – redistribution of growth and engaging people in the development process
Regions as
Centers of During the 1970s development was not merely economic – development strategies took into account poverty and employment and should foster
Innovation – self-reliance
growth originates Priority to rural development, equality & community, small scale enterprise evolution, promotion of agriculture by peasants, engaging people in
from a small the development process through participation, removing bias from the big cities – decentralization
area; innovations o US Aid Strategy for Rural Development to establish inter-urban linkages
spread downward o Integrated Area Development Strategy
and outward from o Stohr and Todtling, 1979: Selective Spatial Closure as a regional Development Strategy
centers o Friedman and Weaver (1979): Territorial Regional Planning – plan from below; shift from functional to territorial approach (integrated
mobilization of human and natural resources); decentralization and devolution
o Stohr and Taylor (1981): Alternative Paradigm of Development from Below
o Agropolitan Development: city in the fields – integration of rural and urban agricultural development
Accelerate growth and development 1. Supplier of goods and services: allocative function – market failure &
Build infrastructure to support development externalities, standards promotion
Eliminate monopolies and Provide competition to the priv. sector for public welfare 2. Regulator-facilitator esp. the private sector; optimal conditions of the
Generate employment and strive for eradication of poverty market
Balanced growth 3. Social engineer / intervenor: (a) adjust market outcomes for noramative
Redistribute wealth and remove inequality goods; (b) what society ought to be is not what it is; (c) redress social
Invest in areas no one invests imbalance and maintain fairness for disadvantaged groups
Promote ancilliary services 4. Arbiter: between Labor, Capital and State
Import substitution and industrialization
Pre-Colonial
Spanish Colonial Period American Occupation Marcos Regime (Cory) Aquino Regime
Era
Communal Brought in the concept and practice US Federal government sent Architect- Late 60‟s to 80‟s Ratification of the Urban
land of private property Planner Daniel Burnham to materialize Adopted the paradigm Development and Housing Act
tenure – Regalian Doctrine: all lands are its ambition to build a tropical empire of planning as the of 1992 (RA 7279)
land owned the king who invested in the Manila & Baguio were surveyed sites to function of the state = - Reliance on private
belonged conquest – rights and ownership are become tourism areas to “cure American the state as the developers for urban
to the clan bestowed by him Fatigue” (health sanitarium, market manager of resources housing
/ tribe Natives were clustered into center and large parks for recreation) The Urban Land Implementation of New Land
which is barangays to be conquered and Plan resembled Chicago & San Francisco Reform Law (PD 1517) Classification Scheme in 1987
held in Christianized (move towards greater under the “City Beautiful Movement” was ratified to promote Creation of the HUDCC – which
trust by concentration) - Architecturally influenced by Neo- equitable & rational became the primary
the chief classicism which symbolized distribution of wealth coordinating body for physical
Laws of the Indies (applicable to democracy and education (from the There was an absence planning
Philippines and Latin America); set of Greeks) of standards and 1991 Ratification of the Local
instructions on how to organize - Orderly, efficient and healthy – regulation the start Government Code – where in
colonies which is in stark contrast to the of blighted areas planning was devolved to LGUs
1. Grid-pattern streets (for military conditions of the Industrial instigated the creation Creation of plans became
surveillance of the colonies and revolution of the Ministry of mandatory
symmetrical growth of settlements) Attempted land reform by purchasing Human Settlements Sustainable Development was
under the Greco-Roman Tradition friar lands for distribution (from the which acted as the adopted as the paradigm of
2. Central plaza – the function of Vatican, the lands ended up with coordinating body for resource use
open squares are essential to the Inquilino families) physical planning Other concerns were also
function of socio-economic life The Torrens Title System was introduced mainstreamed in land use
3. Defensive wall i.e. Intramuros which further strengthened private (gender, participatory, then CC
4. Hierarchical arrangement property and DRRM later on
5. Used zoning for churches (given an Introduced the practice of land
entire block; there is no structure subdivision to improve security of tenure
allowed beside it), hospitals &
slaughterhouses