Introduction to the New Testament Notepack 1

Reading 1: What exactly is the New Testament

Definitions:

 Adoptionist: Those who believe that Jesus was not divine, but a flesh-and-blood human being who had been adopted at
baptism to be God’s son.

 Apocalypse: A literary genre in which an author, usually pseudonymous, reports symbolic dreams or visions, given or
interpreted through an angelic mediator, which reveal the heavenly mysteries that can make sense of earthly realities.

 Apocrypha: A Greek term meaning “hidden things” used for books on the fringe of the Jewish or Christian canons of
Scripture.

 Apostle: Generally, one who is commissioned to perform a task, from a Greek word meaning “sent”; in early Christianity,
the term was used to designate special emissaries of the faith who understood to be representatives of the Christ.

 Apostolic Fathers: A collection of non-canonical writings penned by proto-orthodox Christians of the second century who
were traditionally thought to have been followers of the apostles; some of these woks were considered Scripture in parts of
the early church.

 Athanasius: An influential 4th century Church Father and bishop of the large and important church in Alexandria, Egypt.
Athanasius was the first church writer to list our 27 New Testament books as forming the canon.

 Canon: From a Greek word meaning “ruler” or “straight edge”. The term came to designate any recognized collection of
texts; the cannon of the New Testament are thus the collection of books that Christians accept as authoritative.

 Ebonite: A group of 2nd century adoptionists who maintained Jewish practices and Jewish forms of worship.

 Epistle: Another designation for a private letter. Some scholars have differentiated between “epistles” as literary writings in
the form of a letter, which were meant or general distribution, rather than for an individual recipient, and “letters” which
were nonliterary form of personal correspondence.

 Gentile: A Jewish designation for a non-Jew.

 Gospel: When this word is capitalized, it refers to a literary genre: a written account of the “good news” brought by Jesus
Christ, including episodes involving his words and/or deeds. For example, the Gospel of Luke.

 Manuscripts: Any handwritten copy of al literary text.

 Marcion: A second century Christian scholar and evangelist, later labeled a heretic for his docetic Christology and his belief
in two Gods – the harsh legalistic God of the Jews and the merciful loving Go of Jesus- views that he claimed to have found
in the writings of Paul.

 Nag Hammadi: Village in upper (southern) Egypt, near the place where a collection of Gnostic writings were discovered in
1945.

 Proto-Orthodox Christians: A form of Christianity endorsed by some Christians of the second and third centuries
(including the Apostolic Fathers), which promoted doctrines that were declared “orthodox” in the fourth and later centuries
by the victorious Christian party, in opposition to such groups as the Ebonites, the Marcionites, and the Gnostics.
 Law/Torah: A Hebrew word that means “guidance” or “direction” but is usually translated to “Law”. As a technical term, it
designated either the Law of God given to Moses or the first five books of the Jewish Bible that Moses was traditionally
though to have written” Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

Reading 2: The World of the New Testament

Definitions:

 Alexander the Great: The great military leader of Macedonia (356-323 B.C.E) whose armies conquered much of the
eastern Mediterranean and who was responsible for the spread of Greek culture (Hellenism) throughout the lands he
conquered.

 Apollonius of Tyana: A pagan philosopher and holy man of the 1st century C.E reported to do miracles and to deliver
divinely inspired teachings, a man believed by some of his followers to be a son of God.

 Augurs: A group of pagan priests in Rome who could interpret the will of the gods by “taking the auspices”.

 Auspices: A form of divination in which specifically appointed priests could determine the will of the gods by observing the
flight patterns or eating habits of birds.

 Divination: Any practice used to ascertain the will of the gods.

 Epicureans: Ancient group of followers of the Greek philosopher Epicurus, who maintained that the gods were removed
from the concerns of human life and so were not to be feared or placated. Happiness came in establishing a peaceful
harmony with other like-minded people and enjoying the simple pleasure of daily existence.

 Equestrian: The second highest socioeconomic class of ancient Rome (below senator), comprising wealthy aristocrats.

 Extispicy: A form of divination in Greek and Roman religions in which a specially appointed priest (haruspex) would
examine the entrails of a sacrificed animal to determine whether it had been accepted by the gods.

 Genius: A man’s guardian spirit.

 Greco-Roman World: The lands and culture around the Mediterranean from the time of Alexander the Great to the
Emperor Constantine, roughly 300 B.C.E to 300 C.E.

 Haruspex: In Roman religion, a specially trained priest skilled in the practice of extispicy.

 Hellenization: The spread of the Greek language and culture throughout the Mediterranean, stating with the conquests of
Alexander the Great.

 Isis: Egyptian goddess worshipped in mystery cults throughout the Roman world.

 Lares: Household deities commonly worshipped in homes throughout the Roman world, thought to protect the home and its
inhabitants, and often identified with the spirits of the family’s ancestors.

 Magic: A term that is notoriously hard to define, “magic” usually refers to religious practices that are not sanctioned by
society at large or by the community in which they are found. Sometimes magic is referred to as the “dark side” of religion,
involving sacred activities and words that are socially marginalized.

 Mithras: A Persian deity worshipped in a mystery cult spread throughout the Roman world.

 Mystery Cults: A group of Greco-Roman religions that focused on the devotees individual needs both in this life and in life
after death, so named because their initiations rituals and cultic practices involved the disclosure of hidden things that was to
be kept secret from outsiders.
 Octavians/ Augustus, Caesar: The first Roman emperor, ruling from 27 B.C.E – 14 C.E Octavian was the grat-nephew and
adopted son of Julius Caesar, and a great general who brought unity to Rome after it had experienced prolonged and bloody
civil wars. Early in his reign Octavian assumed the name “Caesar Augustus” which means something like “most revered
emperor”.

 Oracle: A sacred place where the gods answered questions brought by the worshipers to the resident holy person – a priest
or, more commonly, a priestess – would often deliver the divine response out of a trace-like state; the term can also refer to
the divine answer itself.

 Penates: Household deities commonly worshipped throughout the Roman world, thought to protect the pantry and
foodstuffs in the home.

 Platonists: People who believe in the famous Greek philosopher Plato from the 4 th century B.C.E. Athens, many whose
ideas – including the tension between the realms of matters and spirit – influenced Christian thinkers in the early centuries of
the church.

 Polytheism: The belief that there are many gods, a belief that lies at the heart of all of the ancient pagan religions.

 Roman Empire: All of the lands conquered by Rome and ruled, ultimately, by the Roman Emperor, starting with Caesar
Augustus in 27 B.C.E, prior to that, Rome was a republic ruled by the Senate.

 Son of God: In most Greco-Roman circles, the designation of a person born to god, able to perform miraculous deeds and/or
to convey superhuman teachings; in Jewish circles, the designation of a person chosen to stand in a special relationship with
the God of Israel including the ancient Jewish Kings.

 Stoics: Greco-Roman philosophers who urged people to understand the way the world worked and to live in accordance
with it, letting nothing outside of themselves affect their internal state of well being.

 Antichus Epiphanes: The Syrian monarch who attempted to force the Jews of Palestine to adopt Greek culture, leading to
the Maccabean revolt in 167 B.C.E.

 Associations: In the Greco-Roman world, privately organized small groups of people who shared common interests and met
periodically to socialize, enjoy a common meal, and conduct business; two of the best-known types were trade associations
(composed of members of the same profession) and burial societies.

 Covenant: An agreement or treaty between two social or political parties that have come to terms used by ancient Jews in
reference to the pact that God made to protect and preserve them as his chosen people in exchange for their devotion and
adherence to his Law.

 Cult: Shortened form of “cultus deorum”, a Latin phrase that literally means “care of the gods”, generally used of any set of
religious practices of worship. In pagan religions, these normally involved acts of sacrifice and prayer.

 Daimonia: Category of divine beings in the Greco-Roman world. Daimonia were widely thought to be less powerful than
the gods but far more powerful than humans and capable of influencing their lives.

 Day of Atononement: In Hebrew, Yom Kippur, the one day of the year when the high priest was allowed o enter the Holy
of Holies in the Temple, to sacrifice first an animal to atone for his own sins, and then another animal to atone for the sins of
the people of Israel.

 Dead Sea Scrolls: Ancient Jewish writings discovered in several caves near the northwest edge of the Dead Sea, widely
thought to have been produced by a group of apocalyptically minded Essenes who lived in a monastic-like community from
Maccabean times through the Jewish War of 66-70 C.E.
 Diaspora: Greek for “dispersion”, a term that refers to the dispersion of Jews away from Palestine into other parts of the
Mediterranean, beginning with the Babylonian conquest in the sixth century B.C.E.

 Essenes: An apocalyptic and ascetic Jewish sect started during the Maccabean period, members of which are generally
thought to have produced the Dead Sea Scrolls.

 Fourth Philosophy: A group of Jews that Josephus mentions but leaves unnamed, characterized by their insistence on
violent opposition to the foreign domination of the Promised Land.

 Hanina ben Dosa: A well-known Galilean rabbi of the 1st century, who was reputed to have done miracles comparable to
those of Jesus.

 Hasmoneans/ Maccabans: An alternative name for the Maccabans, the family of Hewish priests that began the revolt
against Syria in 167 B.C.E and that ruled Israel prior to the Roman conquest of 63 B.C.E.

 Herod the Great: Ruler of all of Galilee, Samaria, and Judea from 40 to 4 B.C.E; this Herod was allegedly ruling when
Jesus was born, and is known in Christian history for killing all the baby boys of Bethlehem in an attempt to destroy the
infant Jesus.

 Holy of Holies: The innermost part of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, which was completely empty, but in which God’s
presence on earth was believed to dwell. No one could enter this room except the high priest on the Day of Atonement, to
make a sacrifice for the sins of the people.

 Honi the “circle-drawer”: A 1st century B.C.E Galilean who was reputed to have done miracles and had experiences
similar to those of Jesus.

 Josephus: 1st century Jewish historian, appointed court historian by the Roman emperor Vespasian, whose works The
Jewish War and The Antiquities of the Jews are principal resources of information about life in 1 st century Palestine.

 Judas Maccabeus: Jewish patriot who led the family responsible for spearheading the Maccabean revolt.

 Maccabean Revolt: The Jewish uprising against the Syrians and their king, Antiochus Epiphanes, starting in 167 B.C.E, in
protest against the forced imposition of the Hellenistic culture and the proscription of Jewish practices such as circumcision.

 Messiah: From a Hebrew word that literally means “anointed one”, translated into Greek as Christos, from which derives
our English word Christ. In the 1st century C.E, there was a wide range of expectation about whom this anointed one might
be, with some Jews anticipating a future warrior-king like David, others a cosmic redeemer from heaven, others an
authoritative priest, and still others a powerful spokesperson from God like Moses.

 Mishnah: A collection of oral traditions passed on by generations of Jewish rabbis who saw themselves as the descendants
of the Pharisees, finally put into writing around 200 C.E.

 Monotheism: The belief that there is only one God (sometimes distinguished from “henotheism”, which acknowledges that
other gods exist, but insists that only one is to be worshiped.

 Pentateuch: Literally, the “five scrolls” in Greek, a term used to designate the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, also
known as the Torah or the Law of Moses.

 Pesher: An ancient Jewish way of interpreting Scripture, used commonly in the commentaries from the Dead Sea Scrolls, in
which a text was explained as having its fulfillment in persons or events of the present day.

 Pharisees: A Jewish sect, which may have originated during the Maccabean period, that emphasized strict adherence to the
purity laws set forth in the Torah.
 Qumran: Place near the northwest shore of the Dead Sea, where the dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in 1946, evidently
home to the group of Essenes who had used the Scrolls as part of their library.

 Resurrection: The doctrine originally devised within circles of apocalyptic Judaism that maintained that at the end of the
present age those who had died would be brought back to life in order to face judgment: either torment for those opposed to
God or reward for those who sided with God. The earliest Christians believed that Jesus had been raised, and concluded
therefore that the end of the age had already begun. In Christian apocalyptic thought it was believed that the rewards and
punishments in the future resurrection would hinge on one’s relationship to Christ, as either a believer or a nonbeliever.

 Sadducees: A Jewish party associated with the Temple cult and the Jewish priests who ran it, comprising principally the
Jewish aristocracy in Judea. The party leader, the high priest, served as the highest ranking local official and chief liaison
with the Roman governor.

 Sanhedrin: A council of Jewish leaders headed by the high priest, which played an advisory role in matters of religious and
civil policy.

 Septugint: The translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, so named because of a tradition that seventy Jewish
scholars had produced it.

 Sicarii: A Latin term meaning “daggermen”, a designation for a group of first century Jews responsible for the assassination
of Jewish aristocrats thought to have collaborated with the Romans.

 Synagogue: Jewish place of worship and prayer. From a Greek word that literally means “being brought together”.

 Talmud: The great collection of ancient Jewish traditions that comprises the Mishnah and the later commentaries on the
Mishnah, called the Gemarah. There are two collections of the Talmud, one made in Palestine during the early fifth century
C.E and the other in Babylon perhaps a century later. The Babylonian Talmud is generally considered more authoritative.

 Temple: In pagan circles, a temple was any holy place devoted to one or more divine beings where sacrifices could be made
in accordance with established religious principles. For Judaism there was only ne legitimate Temple, the one in Jerusalem,
an enormous complex that contained the holy sanctuary and, within it, the Holy of Holies, where God’s presence on earth
was believed to dwell.

 Traditions: Any doctrine, idea, practice, or custom that has been handed down from one person to another.

 Zealots: A group of Galilean Jews who fed to Jerusalem during the uprising against Rome in 66-70 C.E, who overthrew the
reigning aristocracy in the city and urged violent resistance to the bitter end.

Reading 3: Mark and Matthew: Jesus, the Jewish Apocalyptic Preacher

Definitions:

Baptism: From the Greek term baptize, which means “to immerse”. The earliest Christian practice of baptism in water appears to
have been an imitation rite and probably derived from the practice of John the Baptist, who baptized Jews, including Jesus, in
anticipation of the imminent arrival of the end of this age and the coming of the Kingdome of God. Later Christians assigned
other meanings to the rite: the apostle Paul, for example, saw it as the mystical act of dying with Christ to sin.

Chief Priests: The leaders of the priests in the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. Many of them would have been actively involved in
the Sanhedrin; their ultimate leader was the high priest.

Herodians: A group of Jewish leaders, according to the Gospel of Mark, who were allegedly allied closely with the family of
Herod and were thought, therefore, to be collaborators with the Romans.

Honi the “Circle-Drawer”: A first century B.C.E Galilean who was reputed to have done miracles and had experiences similar
to those of Jesus.
Messianic secret: This is a technical term used for one of the intriguing literary features of the Gospel of Mark, which is that
even though Jesus is shown to be the Messiah, he tries to keep his identity a secret.

Passion: From a Greek word that means “suffering”, used as a technical term to refer to the traditions of Jesus’ last days, up to
and including his crucifixion (hence the “Passion narrative”).

Scribes: Christian scribes were literate Christians responsible for copying sacred scripture. Jewish scribes were highly educated
experts in Jewish Law (and possibly its copyists) during the Greco-Roman period.

Septuagint: The translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, so named because of a tradition that seventy Jewish scholars
had produced it.

Son of Man: A term whose meaning is much disputed among modern scholars, used in some ancient apocalyptic texts to refer to
a cosmic judge sent from heaven at the end of time.

Antitheses: Literally, “contrary statements,” used as a technical term to designate six sayings of Jesus in the Sermon on the
Mount (Matt 5:21-48).

Apocalypticism: a worldview held by many ancient Jews and Christians that maintained that the present age is controlled by
forces of evil, but that these will be destroyed at the end of time when God intervenes in history to bring in his Kingdom, an
event thought to be imminent.

Beatitudes: A Latin word meaning literally, “blessings,” used as a technical term for the sayings of Jesus that begin the Sermon
on the Mount.

Fulfillment citations: A literary device used by Matthew in which he states that something experienced or done by Jesus
“fulfilled” what was spoken of by a Hebrew prophet in Scripture.

Golden Rule: Found in Matthew’s Sermon on the Mount, this is Jesus’ saying that you should “do unto others as you would
have them do onto you.” A similar teaching can be found in a range of pagan and Jewish ethical teachers both before and after
Jesus.

Pontius Pilate: Roman aristocrat who served as the governor of Judea from 26 to 36 C.E, and who was responsible for ordering
Jesus’ crucifixion.

Prophet: In ancient Israelite religion, a prophet was a person who delivered God’s message to his people; eventually the term
came to refer to writers who produced literary accounts of God’s word (prophets such as Isaiah and Jeremiah). In Christian
circles prophets were those who spoke God’s message in the community’s services of worship, possibly, on occasion, in a state
of ecstasy.

Q: The source used by both Matthew and Luke for the stories they share, principally sayings, that are not found in Mark; ffrom
the German word Quelle, meaning “source”. This document no longer exists, but can be reconstructed on the basis of Matthew
and Luke.

Redaction criticism: The study of how authors modified or edited their sources in view of their own vested interests and
concerns.

Sermon on the Mount: The sermon found only in Matthew 5-7, which preserves many of the best-known sayings of Jesus
(including Matthew’s form of the Beatitudes, the Antitheses, and the Lord’s Prayer)

Reading 4: Luke and the Book of Acts: Another Way to Tell the Story

Definitions

Apology: A reasoned explanation and justification one’s beliefs and/or practices, from a Greek word meaning “defense”.
Comparative method: A method used to study a literary text by noting its similarities to and differences from other, related
texts, whether or not any of these other texts was used as a source for the text in question.

General history: A genre of ancient literature that traced the significant events in the history of a people to show how their
character (as a people) was established. Examples of the genre include the Acts of the Apostles.

Genre: A kind of literature with specific literary features; in the modern word, for example, there are short stories, novels, and
limerick poems. In the ancient world there were biographies, epic poems, general histories, and many other genres. The major
genres of the New Testament are Gospels, Acts, epistles, and apocalypses.

Historiography: The literary reconstruction of historical events, the writing of history and the study and analysis of historical
analysis.

Kingdome of God: In the teachings of Jesus, the Kingdom of God appears to refer to an actual Kingdom that will come to earth
to replace the wicked kingdoms that are now in control of affairs, and God’s people here. This would be a utopian Kingdom
where the truth, peace, and justice were restored; it would be rule by God’s anointed one.

Markan priority: The view that Mark was the first of the Synoptic Gospels to be written and was one of the sources used by
Matthew and Luke.

Martyr: From the Greek word martus, this literally means “witness”. Christian martyrs are those who “bear witness” to Christ
even to the point of death.

Theophilus: The person to whom “Luke” addressed both of his volumes, the Gospel and the book of Acts. Scholars debate
whether Theophilus was a real person, possibly a highly placed Roman administrator or whether the name was instead symbolic.
It literally means either “beloved of God” or “lover of God”. If symbolic, it would refer to the Christian individuals or
communities who were the author’s intended audience.

Atonement: The doctrine that indicates how a person who is condemned by sin can be placed in a right standing before God by
means of a sacrifice. In traditional Christians teaching, it is Christ’s death that brings atonement.

Novel (ancient): Ancient genre of literature. Novels in the Greek and Roman worlds were fictionalized narratives that normally
told of the tragic separation of lovers and of the various mishaps they experienced in their attempts to become reunited. Novels
typically included stories of travels, shipwrecks, piracy banditry, enslavement, and persecution; they typically contained
dialogues, speeches, and private letters. Some scholars have argued that the book of Acts is very much like an ancient novel.

Pentecost: A Jewish agricultural festival, celebrated fifty days after the feast of the Passover.

Thematic method: A method used to study a literary text by isolating its leadings ideas, or themes, and exploring them seeing
how they are developed in the text, so as to understand the author’s overarching emphases.

Thucydides: Famous historian of Athens in the fifth century B.C.E, nest known for his account of the twenty seven year
Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. Thucydides’ account contained a large number of speeches, which he frankly
admitted to have composed himself as appropriate for the occasion.

Tiberius: The second Roman emperor, succeeding Caesar Augustus and ruling 14-37 C.E. It was under his rule that Jesus was
crucified by Pontius Pilate.

“We” passages: A term used to describe a set of 4 passages in the book of Acts in which the author stops speaking in the third
person about what Paul and his companions were doing, and speaks instead in the first person about what “we” were doing. Some
scholars take these passages as evidence that the author of Luke Acts was a companion of Paul; others believe that in these
passages, the author of Luke –Acts has utilize a travel narrative as a source.
Reading 5: The Gospel of John: Jesus the Extraterrestrial

Definition

Beloved disciple: Nickname for the “disciple whom Jesus loved” in the Gospel of John, who plays a prominent role in the
Passion narrative but is never named. Older tradition identified him as John the Son of Zebedee and claimed that it was he who
wrote the Gospel /

Biography: A literary genre consisting of a narrative of an individual’s life, often within a chronological framework, employing
numerous subgenres (anecdotes saying, speeches) so as to reflect important aspects of his or her character, principally for the
purposes of instruction, exhortation, or propaganda.

Christology: A teaching about the nature of Christ.

Farewell Discourse: The final discourse that Jesus delivers in the Gospel of John. This discourse may have been created by
combining two different accounts of Jesus’ last words to his disciples before his arrest.

“I am” sayings: A group of saying found only in the Gospel of John, in which Jesus identifies himself. In some of the sayings he
speaks in metaphor and in others he identifies himself simply by saying “I am” which is a possible reference to the name of God
from Exodus 3.

Johannine community: The community of Christians in which the Gospel of John and the Johannine epistles were written. We
do not know where the community was located, but we can reconstruct some of its history using the socio-historical method.

Passover: The most important and widely celebrated annual festival of Jews in Roman times, commemorating the Exodus from
Egypt.

Signs source: A document, which no longer survives, thought by many scholars to have been used as one of the sources of
Jesus’s ministry in the Fourth Gospel; it reputedly narrated a number of the miraculous deeds of Jesus.

Socio-historical method: A method used to study a literary text that seeks to reconstruct the social history of the community that
lay behind it.

Synoptic Gospel: The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke which narrate so many of the same stories that they can be placed
side by side in parallel columns and so “be seen together”.
Important Concepts

1) Can we speak of early Christianities?

Yes were many different forms of Christianity but the main ones are the Jewish Christians, the Marcionites, the Gnostics,
and the Proto-orthodox Christians.

Jewish Christians believe that they have an alliance to the Christ of God. They considered him a plain and common with a
superior virtue. Unlike what some people say, they think he was the fruit of the intercourse of a man with Mary (not a virgin
birth). They were Jewish, thus attached to Jewish Law. They did believe that he was the son of God (adopted by God) but
Jesus was not God himself.

Marcionites was created by a guy in the 2nd century named Marcion, a flamboyant evangelist preacher, very successful in
the eastern part of the Mediterranean. He had a particular understanding of salvation. Marcionites believed that there were
two gods: God of Jews, who was spiteful, vengeful, strict, etc. and God of Jesus: nice, kind, loving, etc. They reject the Old
Testament and are very selective of which gospel (only the Gospel of Luke) they use. In fact, Marcion mutilates the New
Testament by removing quotes from the Hebrew Bible. Some scholars believed that he and his believers believed in Jesus
and made his own cannon of authority of fate, thus triggering others to make their own cannon.
Gnostics are a group of individuals, some were Christians, and some weren’t. They also emphasized particular way of being
saved and that the material world was evil. They believed that you are not saved by the death of Jesus but through
knowledge and spiritual insight into one’s true origin. Even if they are stuck in the material world, they have an inner spark
and once “turned on” you can move onto a higher realm. They also believed that when Jesus came to earth to reveal the
insight. Christ’s spiritual entity possessed/embodied a man in flesh and returned as the man flesh died on the cross.

The proto orthodox Christians were forerunners of “orthodox” Christianity. They decided what constituted the New
Testament. They also wrote the most. The questions they struggled with were answered in the Nicene Creed. (Is Christ God
or Man?; If he’s both, is he 2 people?; etc.)

2) What is the synoptic problem and its solutions?

Matthew, Mark, and Luke are often called synoptic Gospels. This is because they have so many stories in common that they
can be placed side by side in columns and “seen together”. Not only do these gospels share the same stories, they often use
the very same words. This phenomenon is virtually inexplicable unless the stories were derived from a common literary
source. But what is it? This question is complicated by the fact that not only do the gospels agree extensively with one
another but they also disagree with each other. There are stories found in all three of the gospels, some in only 2, and others
in only a single gospel. Moreover, when all three gospels share the same story, they sometimes give it using precisely the
same or different wording. And sometimes 2 out of the 3 will word it the same way and one of the gospels will word it
differently. The problem of how to explain a wide range of agreements and disagreement among these 3 gospels is called the
Synoptic Problem.

Another theory proposed by scholars to explain the Synoptic Problem is the “Two-Source Hypothesis”. The two-source
hypothesis is predicated upon the following observations: Matthew and Luke used Mark, both for its narrative material as
well as for the basic structural outline of chronology of Jesus’ life. Matthew and Luke use a second source, which is
called Q not extant, for the sayings found in common in both of them.

One of the theories proposed by scholars to explain this problem is the “Four-Source Hypothesis”. According to this
hypothesis, Mark was the first Gospel to be written and was used by both Matthew and Luke. In addition, both of these
Gospels had access to a source called Q. Q provided Matthew and Luke with the materials they have in common that are
not, however, found in Mark. Moreover, Matthew had a source of his own, from which he drew stories found in neither of
the other gospels. Scholars have simply labeled this source M. Luke had a source for stories that he alone tells which we call
L. Thus, according to this hypothesis, four sources are behind the three Synoptic Gospels.

There are other theories countering the existence of the Q source including the Farrer Goulder hypothesis, the Agustine
Hypothesis, and the Griesbach Hypothesis.
3) Explain the baptism of Jesus.
Mark denotes his text, in the introduction, that he is writing a gospel. It opens up with someone crying in the wilderness and
calls back on a scriptural quote from the Hebrew Bible from Isaiah and Malachi. The author of Mark is, in other words,
reworking the Hebrew Bible given that he is combining quotes from two characters. In Mark 1:3, John the Baptist is
introduced as a character whose purpose is the remission of sins in the river Jordan. His message was to “repent for the
Kingdome of heaven is coming”, thus get baptized “for the forgiveness of your sins”. He was directly challenging the
authority of the Temple which was, at the time seen as the central religious institution of the land where the religious elites
conduct the forgiveness of sins.
In this gospel, Jesus actually goes to get baptized by John, evoking the sense that John the Baptist has some sort of authority
over Jesus. This notion of John the Baptist having authority over Jesus is also reinforced by the fact that Jesus is the one who
is being attracted to John’s movement/message. Jesus eventually disassociates himself and makes his own movement. Early
Christian writers had to minimize the role of John given that having some sort of authority over Jesus was seen as somewhat
of an embarrassment. Thus the author of Mark uses the Hebrew Bible, particularly the part of the Holy Spirit descending (a
voice from heaven), to justify why Jesus had to go through that baptism with John the Baptist. In other words, Mark uses
theology to explain historical events. When Luke talks about John the Baptist, John is actually in prison. Furthermore, the
quote of the voice coming from the heavens in Luke’s version doesn’t have Isaiah 42:1 but Pslam 2:7, provoking an
alignment with Jewish Christology, which reflects a very old tradition of adoption. In Mark and Matthew, they use Isaiah
42:1, a less controversial passage given that it symbolizes a voluntary theological change to align with Christology. When it
comes to the Gospel of John, there is no such mention of a baptism. The gospels progressively in their narratives make the
baptism disappear thus deemphasizing the event/character’s theological meaning. The writers of the New Testament are also
retroactively reading and reinterpreting the Hebrew Bible and reading Jesus into the Bible to legitimize their interpretation.

4) What is the Theology of accomplishments? [include diagram of retrospective reading]

Matthew presents what Jesus had accomplished in his life as predicted, given that the Gospels were a retroactive perspective
of the Hebrew Bible. Rather than go back to the Bible, the authors of the Gospels take the predictions of the Hebrew Bible,
interpret them, and relate Jesus’ life to the Hebrew Bible traditions by referencing/quoting certain passages in order to
legitimize Jesus’ accomplishments. For example, in Isaiah 7:14, there is a referencing of the virgin birth and a description of
the political context of the time. “She will give birth to a son and will call him Immanuel (which means 'God is with us')”. In
Matthew 1:23, the author takes the Emanuel quote and gives it a whole new meaning: the arriving of the messiah (birth of
Jesus).

The subject of theology of accomplishments can be further illustrated and understood in the infancy narratives surrounding
Jesus. I it can be argued that these narratives were written with the story of Moses as template. Just like Moses, Jesus will
bring a New Law that will supplant the old Law. Just like Moses, Jesus gives a serment on a mountain. By having Jesus go
through the same ordeals, Matthew is implying that Jesus is the New Moses, even further that Jesus embodies the New
Israel. The reason why Joseph, Mary, and Jesus had to go to Egypt was to fulfill what had been spoken by the Lord through
the prophet. “Out of Egypt I have called my son” is stated in the Hebrew Bible and references the story of the exodus
(leaving Egypt). Similarly, this quote also references Jesus leaving Egypt for the Nazareth in the New Testament.
Furthermore, where Israel fails, Jesus succeeds. For instance, in the Hebrew Bible, the 1 st generation of Israelites succumbs
to temptation and fails to survive 40 days in the desert. Jesus, on the other, comes out victorious, not succumbing to
temptation during his 40 days in the desert, as stated in the Gospel of Matthew. Ironically, all the quotes used by the devil
are the same in both texts.

5) What is retrospective reading?

 The subject of retrospective reading can be understood through Jesus’ messiahship. The reason why we say Luke’s Gospel
is linked to Act’s is because of the prologue. Scholars are saying that the prologue might indicate that these 2 documents are
in fact from the same author. In his gospel, Luke recognizes the fact that several people have set down an orderly account of
the events that happened and he is not unique. Those writers received traditions from eyewitnesses. Luke decided to write
his orderly account because he might have had doubts (not satisfied with previous accounts), and also enable theophilus to
discern among the various narratives surrounding Jesus. In Luke Acts 1:30-33, there is reference to the throne of his [Jesus’]
ancestor David, Son of the most High, which can also be seen as alluding to a messiahship.

Which type? A messiah could be a king, a priest, or a prophet. The moment when the messiahship was declared on Jesus
was his baptism [Pslam 2:7]. Jesus is linked to the king but was he ever a king in Luke’s gospel? How does Jesus exercise
his messiahship? It is illustrated that in Luke;s 4:16-33. This passage actually speaks about Isaiah but when Jesus reads the
scroll, “this is now me”. In other words, God has anointed Isaiah but Jesus applies it to himself, he sees his mission as a
prophetic mission. At the end, in Luke 24, there is a reference to a suffering messiah, a messiah that needs to suffer before
ruling. For Luke, Jesus is the messiah who doesn’t actually rule. In Luke Acts 1, Jesus has resurrected and the people of
Israel are asking Jesus “what are you going to do?” He answers you will receive a power (kind of avoids the question).
Because he was crucified and raised up, he becomes not only messiah but lord also. His disciples have received the Holy
Spirit and God has accepted Jesus as Holy Spirit. They have become witnesses and must know preach Jesus’ message
throughout the world. That’s how Jesus rules, a pneumatic rule. That’s how Luke envisions Jesus’ rule.

It is a 2 fold messiahship. Jesus is announced as a messiah but his function is of special nature, a prophet. Essentially, the
book of Acts is a continuation of Jesus’ ministry. It starts in Jerusalem then spreads. What Luke focuses on is that Jesus’ rule
is through the spirit. The Kingdome of God is instilled in individuals through the sprint of Jesus that manifests within the
believer. Their understanding of the Kingdom theologically changes, thus enabling to reinterpret the delayed coming of
God/end of times.

6) Explain how Christology, Son of God, Christ, and Messiah relate to each other.
Christ is a term that comes from the Greek word Christos or Hebrew word Messiah. Essentially, it means the anointed one.
In ancient Israel, the way political leaders were selected was by God. It was done through the intermediary of prophets who
transmitter messages to leaders. Leaders were chosen through a symbolic act of pouring oil on an individual. It meant you
were anointed. Kings, prophets, and priests were anointed this way and represented God in the political/religious spheres of
society. Essentially, what we could do is say Jesus the anointed instead of Jesus Christ. Christ merely designates a role of
being God’s representative, the one God has chosen. However, things get a little out of hand when you start referring to
Jesus as the Son of God. Referencing the idea of son of God is in line with the Hebrew tradition. In the Hebrew Bible, you
have Psalm 2:7 which specifically address David as King, the moment when he becomes the anointed one. God is going to
say “I have begotten you as my son”. Is David God? No. He represents God. Psalm 2:7 is interestingly sung at Jesus’
baptism. God has chosen him as his representative here on earth. Thus the song of God = Messiah = Christ can be
thought of as synonyms.

7) What is John’s double Christology?

John introduces two ways of conceiving Jesus: As Son of God and as Son of Man.

Son of God
In the beginning of John’s gospel, Jesus is called the word of God but after verse 17-18, the author uses the preliminary title
of Son of God. John himself in verse 29 refers to Jesus as the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world. The use of
the animal resonates with sacrifices made in the Hebrew Bible, the ideal sacrifice for the sins of the people. In the Hebrew
Bible, the sins were transferred onto an animal and then sacrificed to satisfy God. For Jews, sacrifices had to go on once a
year and had to be repeated. In John, Jesus is the Lamb of God and takes the sins of the people away, but it only happens
once. Just like the lamb in the Hebrew Bible, Jesus’ bones were not broken during the sacrifice. Jesus will, in a sense, be the
atonement for sins. In verse 23, John the Baptist, for the first time, is going to testify that Jesus is in fact the Son of God.
Later, some of his disciples will come into the narrative and testify this also. In verse 38, one of the disciples refers to Jesus
as the Messiah. In other words, the designations Jesus is given are very much rooted in Jewish tradition. In the Gospel of
John, the penitentiary is defined as the Son of God who has the responsibility of representing the father in a certain way. In
Jewish tradition, the plenipentiary was invested with certain responsibilities as well including going on a mission, being
equal to authority, having to obey the one who sent him on his mission, and to reckon the events of the mission. When you
read the Gospel of John, Jesus actually fulfills these responsibilities. In fact, he is on a mission to save the world, a mission
God has sent him to complete (John 3:16-17) and must fulfill/complete his wishes (John 4:34). On earth he has equal
authority to God (John 5:22-23), and once he departs, must report back to God (John 13:1-3). These responsibilities, we can
call the Judiciary Clauses because these responsibilities were legally binding.

[Insert Son of God diagram here]

Son of man
The phrase “Son of man” portrays Jesus as an extraterrestrial; rooted in Jewish tradition as the heavenly son of man. Jesus is
a heavenly being who is sent from God to bring judgment to the world. In Daniel 7:13-14, at one point in his vision, Daniel
views this son of man as a celestial being. He [Jesus] comes from the clouds, and God will give him all the glory and his
authority here on earth. In other words, in sounds more like a triumphant Messiah that will rule. When Jesus refers to
himself as the son of man, he is in according with Daniel’s vision. The son of man descends from heaven, incarnated in a
fleshly body, lives on the earth, and dies in a crucifixion (on a cross). It is important to note that according to the Hebrew
Bible, crosses were for criminals/ cursed ones. However, according to Christians, the only way Jesus could actually return to
God is if the cross was reinterpreted/ redefined as his elevation to God. For example, in John 12:31, the cross symbolizes the
point of elevation of the son of man. In other words, the cross has been reinterpreted as a point of ascension, no longer an
object of shame. The disciples will be scandalized when they see Jesus elevated up because it’s a cross, however, for John, it
is a good thing because the cross depicts his moment of ascension.

[Insert Son of Man diagram here]