X-ray Production, X-ray Tubes,

and X-ray Generators

X-ray Tubes
• Tube insert (vacuum
container)
• Cathode → Anode
• Oil bath
• Heat dissipation
• Electrical insulation
• Lead shielding
• ‘Window’
X-ray Tubes
• Tube insert (vacuum
container)
• Cathode → Anode
• Oil bath
• Heat dissipation
• Electrical insulation
• Lead shielding
• ‘Window’
 < 100 mR/hr @ 1 m
(21 CFR 1020.30)
X-ray Tubes
• Tube insert (vacuum
container)
• Cathode → Anode
• Oil bath
• Heat dissipation
• Electrical insulation
• Lead shielding
• ‘Window’
X-ray Generators
• Provides high voltage between cathode and anode of x-ray tube
• Transformers are principal components in the power circuit
• Converts low voltage into high voltage through a process called electromagnetic
induction (where a changing magnetic field induces a voltage)

• Law of transformers:
X-ray Generators
• Provides high voltage between cathode and anode of x-ray tube
• Transformers are principal components in the power circuit
• Converts low voltage into high voltage through a process called electromagnetic
induction (where a changing magnetic field induces a voltage)

• Law of transformers:

120 V → 120 kVp

𝑁𝑆
= 1000
𝑁𝑃
X-ray Generators
• Alternating waveforms change between negative and positive voltage
polarity
• Electrons flow from cathode  anode and then from anode  cathode

• Rectifier: allows current to flow in one direction only

Diode
 Diode Bridge
DC Input DC Input

AC Input AC Input
X-ray Generators
• Alternating waveforms change between negative and positive voltage
polarity
• Electrons flow from cathode  anode and then from anode  cathode

• Rectifier: allows current to flow in one direction only

Vmax −Vmin
% voltage ripple = x 100
Vmax
X-ray Generators
• Three phase generators combine multiple rectified single phase waveforms
• Reduce voltage ripple → more constant voltage
• Voltage ripple ~13%-25%

• High frequency generators

• Voltage ripple ~4-5%
Cathode
• Source of electrons
• Comprised of a filament or
filaments made of tungsten wire
• Electrons released from the
filament in a process called
thermionic emission
• Most x-rays tubes have two
filaments of different lengths
• Focusing cup focuses the
electrons
Cathode
• Source of electrons
• Comprised of a filament or
filaments made of tungsten wire
• Electrons released from the
filament in a process called
thermionic emission
• Most x-rays tubes have two
filaments of different lengths
• Focusing cup focuses the
electrons
Cathode
• Source of electrons
• Comprised of a filament or
filaments made of tungsten wire
• Electrons released from the
filament in a process called
thermionic emission
• Most x-rays tubes have two
filaments of different lengths
• Focusing cup focuses the
electrons
Anode
• Metal target where electrons strike
• Needs to handle substantial heat deposition
• Anode usually made of Tungsten (Z = 74)
• High melting point and atomic number
• Rotating anodes usually used because of greater heat loading
Anode
• The physical size of the focal spot determines
image resolution
• Smaller focal spots have smaller geometric
blur but we need a larger focal spot to
spread out the amount of heat
• Anode is tilted to produce smaller ‘apparent
focal spot’ (aka line focus principle)
• Apparent focal spot smallest on anode side and
largest on cathode side
• 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × sin 𝜃
Anode
• The physical size of the focal spot determines
image resolution
• Smaller focal spots have smaller geometric
blur but we need a larger focal spot to
spread out the amount of heat
• Anode is tilted to produce smaller ‘apparent
focal spot’ (aka line focus principle)
• Apparent focal spot smallest on anode side and
largest on cathode side
• 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × sin 𝜃
Heel Effect
• Reduction in the x-ray beam
intensity toward the anode side
of the x-ray field
• Caused by greater attenuation of
x-rays toward the anode side of
the field
• Position x-ray tube such that
cathode side of the tube is over
the area of the body that is more
thick or dense
Collimator
• Two pairs of adjustable parallel-
opposed lead shutters
• Positive beam limitation (PBL) limit
field size to the useful area of the
detector.
• Collimators can:
• Reduce patient dose by limiting
exposed area to the region of
interest only
• Improve the contrast resolution
by reducing the scattered x-rays
and off-focal x-rays.
Filters
• Material through which x-ray beam passes
before entering the patient
• Includes inherent (e.g. x-ray tube port,
housing oil) and added filtration (e.g. Al,
Cu)
• Adding a filter will:
• Increase effective beam energy
• Reduce x-ray beam intensity
• Reduce patient dose by removing the
low energy x-ray photons
In an x-ray tube, a smaller focal spot size:
a. Decreases exposure time
b. Increases magnification
c. Decreases geometric blur
d. Increases heat load
e. Increases x-ray flux
In an x-ray tube, a smaller focal spot size:
a. Decreases exposure time
b. Increases magnification
c. Decreases geometric blur
d. Increases heat load
e. Increases x-ray flux
In mammography, which direction is the x-ray
tube’s cathode  anode oriented?
a. Chest  nipple
b. Nipple  chest
c. Patient left  patient right
d. Patient right  patient left
In mammography, which direction is the x-ray
tube’s cathode  anode oriented?
a. Chest  nipple
b. Nipple  chest
c. Patient left  patient right
d. Patient right  patient left
Scatter Radiation
• Projection x-ray assumes that x-rays travel
in a straight line
• Scatter radiation not detected by image
receptor
• No effect on image
• Concern for surrounding personnel
• Scattered radiation detected by image
receptor degrades image quality
Anti-Scatter Grid
• Anti-scatter grids are used to reduce scatter
• Alternating layers of interspace material and septa
material
• Grid ratio: ratio of interspace height to width
Bucky Grids
• A faint image of the grid lines may be visible on the radiograph when
using stationary grids
• Moving grids (“bucky” grids) are used to blur the grid lines
Bucky Factor
• Not to be confused with bucky grid
• Increase in x-ray intensity needed when a grid is used due to slight
reduction in the amount of primary radiation detected

dose with grid

• Bucky factor =
dose without grid

• Save dose by using grids sparingly

Grid Cutoff
• Alignment of grid with focal spot is important
• Misalignment can lead to grid cutoff
Grid Cutoff
Air Gap Method
• Image receptor placed at larger distance from the patient
• Proportionally more primary x-rays than scattered x-rays will reach
the receptor.
Grids tend to ______ dose and _____ image
contrast
a. Increase, improve
b. Decrease, improve
c. Increase, degrade
d. Decrease, degrade
e. Same, improve
Grids tend to ______ dose and _____ image
contrast
a. Increase, improve
b. Decrease, improve
c. Increase, degrade
d. Decrease, degrade
e. Same, improve
Grids are most useful for:
a. High kVp
b. Large thicknesses
c. Low contrast objects
d. Large field of view
e. All of the above
Grids are most useful for:
a. High kVp
b. Large thicknesses
c. Low contrast objects
d. Large field of view
e. All of the above
Technique Factors
• Control of x-ray production accomplished
through manipulations of mA, kV, and
exposure time.
• mA selection: determines the number of
electrons which flow from cathode to
anode (i.e. x-ray tube current)
• “Quantity” of x-rays produced
• kVp selection: defines the amount of
kinetic energy given to electrons
• “Quality” of x-rays produced
• Exposure time: amount of time the x-ray
beam is on
• Often used together with mA (“mAs”)
Automatic Exposure Control (AEC)
• AEC detectors measure the radiation incident on the image receptor
and terminate x-ray exposure when the proper radiation dose is
obtained
What kVp is used to generate the energy spectrum
below?
a. 65
b. 75
c. 80
d. 90
e. 100
What kVp is used to generate the energy spectrum
below?
a. 65
b. 75
c. 80
d. 90
e. 100
The x-ray quantity is approximately proportional
to?
a. Ztarget × kV 2 × mAs2
2
b. Ztarget × kV 2 × mAs
c. Ztarget × kV 2 × mAs
d. Ztarget × kV × mAs
The x-ray quantity is approximately proportional
to?
a. Ztarget × kV 2 × mAs2
2
b. Ztarget × kV 2 × mAs
c. Ztarget × kV 2 × mAs
d. Ztarget × kV × mAs