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Equivalent Circuit of The Loop Antenna. The Small Loop As A Receiving Antenna. Ferrite Loops.)
Equivalent Circuit of The Loop Antenna. The Small Loop As A Receiving Antenna. Ferrite Loops.)
Fig. 1: Alternative constructions for shielded Faraday loop. [from Leigh Turner VK5KLT, “An
overview of the underestimated magnetic loop HF antenna,” courtesy of Dr. James R. La Frieda
(N6MV)]
1
John H. Dunlavy Jr., US Patent 13,588,905: “Wide range tunable transmitting loop antenna”, 1967.
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The small loops, regardless of their shape, have a far-field pattern very similar
to that of a small electric dipole normal to the plane of the loop. This is expected
because they are equivalent to a magnetic dipole. Note, however, that the field
polarization is orthogonal to that of the electric dipole.
As the circumference of the loop increases, the pattern maximum shifts
towards the loop’s normal, and when C ≈ λ , the maximum of the pattern is along
the loop’s normal.
1
ηβ 4 ( IA ) .
2
Π= (12.7)
12π
Radiation resistance:
2
8 A
Rr = η π 3 2 . (12.8)
3 λ
In free space, η = 120π Ω, and
Rr ≈ 31171( A / λ 2 ) 2 . (12.9)
Equation (12.9) gives the radiation resistance of a single loop. If the loop antenna
has N turns, then the radiation resistance increases with a factor of N 2 (because
the radiated power increases as I2):
2
8 A
Rr = η π 3 N 2 . (12.10)
3 λ
The relation in (12.10) provides a handy mechanism to increase Rr and the
radiated power Π . Unfortunately, the losses of the loop antenna also increase
(although only as N ) and this may result in low efficiency.
The directivity is the same as that of an infinitesimal dipole:
U
= π max 1.5 .
D0 4= (12.11)
Π rad
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loop-antenna analysis as the approach is used in the solutions to circular loop
problems of nonuniform distributions, too.
The circular loop can be divided into an infinite number of infinitesimal
current elements. With reference to the figure below, the position of a current
element in the xy plane is characterized by 0 ≤ ϕ ′ < 360 and θ ′ = 90 . The
position of the observation point P is defined by (θ ,ϕ ) .
The far-field approximations are
R ≈ r − a cosψ , for the phase term,
1 1 (12.12)
≈ , for the amplitude term.
R r
In general, the solution for A does not depend on ϕ because of the cylindrical
symmetry of the problem. Here, we set ϕ = 0 . The angle between the position
vector of the source point Q and that of the observation point P is determined as
cosψ =rˆ ⋅ rˆ ′ =(xˆ sin θ cos ϕ + yˆ sin θ sin ϕ + zˆ cosθ ) ⋅ (xˆ cos ϕ ′ + yˆ sin ϕ ′) ,
z
θ R
a ψ
ϕ y
ϕ′ r′
Q
I0
x
sin θ cos ϕ ′ .
⇒ cosψ = (12.13)
Now the vector potential integral can be solved for the far zone:
µ e − j β ( r − a sin θ cos ϕ ′)
A ( r ,θ , ϕ ) =
4π ∫ I 0 r
dl (12.14)
C
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where dl = φˆ ′adϕ ′ is the linear element of the loop contour. The current element
changes its direction along the loop and its contribution depends on the angle
between its direction and the respective A component. Since all current elements
are directed along φ̂ , we conclude that the vector potential has only Aϕ
component, i.e., A = Aϕ φˆ , where
2π
µ e− j β r
Aϕ ( r,θ ,ϕ ) =
φˆ ⋅ A ( r,θ ,ϕ ) =
4π
( I 0a )
r ∫ (φˆ ⋅ φˆ ′)e jβ a sinθ cosϕ ′dϕ ′ . (12.15)
0
Since
⋅ φˆ ′ (xˆ cos ϕ + yˆ sin ϕ ) ⋅ (xˆ cos ϕ ′ + yˆ sin=
φˆ = ϕ ′)
= cos ϕ cos ϕ ′ + sin ϕ sin ϕ ′ = (12.16)
=cos(ϕ − ϕ ′) ϕ =0 =cos ϕ ′,
the vector potential is
2π
µ e− jβ r
=Aϕ (θ ,0)
4π
( I 0 a)
r ∫ cosϕ ′ ⋅ e jβ a sin θ cosϕ ′dϕ ′ , (12.17)
0
µ e− jβ r π 2π
=Aϕ (θ ) ( I 0 a) ∫ cos ϕ ′ ⋅ e j β a sin θ cos ϕ ′
d ϕ ′ + ∫ cos ϕ ′ ⋅ e j β a sin θ cos ϕ ′ dϕ ′ .
4π r 0 π
We apply the following substitution in the second integral: ϕ=′ ϕ ′′ + π . Then,
µ I 0 a e− jβ r π π
Aϕ (θ )
= ∫ cos ϕ ′⋅ e ∫
j β a sin θ cos ϕ ′ dϕ ′ − cos ϕ ′′⋅e − j β a sin θ cos ϕ ′′ dϕ ′′ . (12.18)
4π r 0 0
The integrals in (12.18) can be expressed in terms of Bessel functions, which are
defined as
π
Here, J n ( z ) is the Bessel function of the first kind of order n. From (12.18) and
(12.19), it follows that
µ e− jβ r
Aϕ (θ ) ( I 0 a) π j J1 ( β a sin θ ) − J1 ( − β a sin θ ) . (12.20)
4π r
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Since
J n (− z ) =−
( 1) n J n ( z ) , (12.21)
equation (12.20) reduces to
µ e− jβ r
Aϕ (θ ) = j ( I 0 a ) J1 ( β a sin θ ) . (12.22)
2 r
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
J1(x)
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
x
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[Balanis]
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For small values of the argument ( β a < 1 / 3 ), the first-order approximation is
acceptable, i.e.,
1
J1 ( β a sin θ ) ≈ ( β a sin θ ) . (12.25)
2
The substitution of (12.25) in (12.23) yields (12.3)-(12.4).
It can be shown that the maximum of the pattern given by (12.23) is in the
direction θ = 90 for all loops, which have circumference C < 1.84λ .
Here, A = π a 2 is the loop’s area. The integral in (12.26) does not have a closed
form solution. Often, the following transformation is applied:
π 2β a
1
∫ 1
J 2 ( β a sin θ )sin θ dθ =
βa ∫ J 2 ( x)dx . (12.27)
0 0
The second integral in (12.27) does not have a closed form solution either but it
can be approximated with a highly convergent series:
2β a ∞
∫ J 2 ( x)dx = 2 ∑ J 2 m +3 (2 β a ) . (12.28)
0 m =0
The radiation resistance of small loops is very small. For example, for
λ / 100 < a < λ / 30 the radiation resistance varies from ≈ 3 × 10−3 Ω to ≈ 0.5 Ω.
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This is often less than the loss resistance of the loop. That is why small loop
antennas are constructed with multiple turns and on ferromagnetic cores. Such
loop antennas have large inductive reactance, which is compensated by a
capacitor. This is convenient in narrowband receivers, where the antenna itself is
a very efficient filter (together with the tuning capacitor), which can be tuned for
different frequency bands. Low-loss capacitors must be used to prevent further
increase in the loss.
Here, ϕ ′ is measured from the feed point. This way, the derivative of the current
distribution with respect to ϕ ′ at ϕ ′ = π (the point diametrically opposite to the
feed point) is always zero. This imposes the requirement for a symmetrical
current distribution on both sides of the diameter from ϕ ′ = 0 to ϕ ′ = π . The
2
E.A. Wolff, Antenna Analysis, Wiley, New York, 1966.
3
A. Richtscheid, “Calculation of the radiation resistance of loop antennas with sinusoidal current distribution,” IEEE Trans.
Antennas Propagat., Nov. 1976, pp. 889-891.
4
J. E. Lindsay, Jr., “A circular loop antenna with non-uniform current distribution,” IRE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-8,
No. 4, July 1960, pp. 439-441.
5
H. C. Pocklington, “Electrical oscillations in wire,” in Cambridge Phil. Soc. Proc., vol. 9, 1897, pp. 324–332.
6
J. E. Storer, “Input impedance of circular loop antennas,” Am. Inst. Electr. Eng. Trans., vol. 75, Nov. 1956.
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complete analysis of this general case will be left out, and only some important
results will be given. When the circumference of the loop approaches λ , the
maximum of the radiation pattern shifts exactly along the loop’s normal. Then,
the input resistance of the antenna is also good (about 50 to 70 Ω). The maximum
directivity occurs when C ≈ 1.4λ but then the input impedance is too large. The
input resistance and reactance of the large circular loop are given below.
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(Note: typo in author’s name, read as J. E. Storer)
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The large circular loop is very similar in its performance to the large square
loop. An approximate solution of very good accuracy for the square-loop antenna
can be found in
W.L. Stutzman and G.A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, 2nd Ed., John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1998.
There, it is assumed that the total antenna loop is exactly one wavelength and has
a cosine current distribution along the loop’s wire.
λ
x 4
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5. Equivalent Circuit of a Loop Antenna
Rr
LA
Cr
Li
Rl
Z in′ Z in
Cr - resonance capacitor
Rl - loss resistance of the loop antenna
Rr - radiation resistance
LA - inductance of the loop
Li - inductance of the loop conductor (wire)
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⊗ J1 J 2⊗
When the spacing between the turns of the wound wire is very small, the loss
resistance due to the proximity effect is larger than that due to the skin effect.
The following formula is used to calculate exactly the loss resistance of a loop
with N turns, wire radius b, and turn separation 2c:
Na R p
=Rl Rs + 1 (12.33)
b R0
where
Rs , Ω, is the surface resistance (see (12.32)),
R p , Ω / m, is the ohmic resistance per unit length due to the proximity
effect,
NRs
=R0 , Ω / m , is the ohmic resistance per unit length due to the skin
2π b
effect.
2a
2c
2b
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The ratio R p / R0 has been calculated for different relative spacings c / b , for
loops with 2 ≤ N ≤ 8 in:
G.N. Smith, “The proximity effect in systems of parallel conductors,” J. Appl.
Phys., vol. 43, No. 5, May 1972, pp. 2196-2203.
The results are shown below:
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The inductance of a square loop with sides a and wire radius b is calculated as
a a
=LsqA1 2 µ −
π b H.
ln 0.774 (12.35)
The inductance of a multi-turn coil is obtained from the inductance of a single-
turn loop multiplied by N 2 , where N is the number of turns.
The inductance of the wire itself (internal inductance) is very small and is
often neglected. It can be shown that the HF self-inductance per unit length of a
straight wire of cylindrical cross-section is
µ0 a 4 − 4a 2 c 2 + 3c 4 + 4c 4 ln( a / c )
′ =
Lint H/m, (12.36)
8π ( a 2 − c 2 )2
where c= a − δ and δ is the skin depth. To obtain the total internal inductance
of the wire, simply multiply Lint ′ by the overall length of the wire used to
construct the multi-turn loop antenna.
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Rin
Gin = ,
Rin2 + X in2
(12.39)
−X
Bin = 2 in 2 .
Rin + X in
The susceptance of the capacitor is
Br = ωCr . (12.40)
For resonance to occur at f 0 = ω0 / (2π ) when the capacitor is in parallel with
the loop, the condition
Br = − Bin (12.41)
must be fulfilled. Therefore,
X in
2π f 0Cr = , (12.42)
Rin2 + X in2
1 X in
⇒ Cr = . (12.43)
2π f ( Rin2 + X in2 )
Under resonance, the input impedance Z in′ becomes
1 1 R 2 + X in2
′ R
Z=
in =′
in = = in , (12.44)
Gin′ Gin Rin
X in2
⇒ Z in′ = Rin + , Ω. (12.45)
Rin
i
ψ H
a θi Ei optimal
0 y incidence
ϕi
Voc
x
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(θi ,ϕi ) are the angles specifying the direction of incidence;
ψ is the angle between the H i vector and the plane of incidence.
Finally, the open-circuit voltage can be expressed as
= ωµ SH i cosψ sin θi j β SE i cosψ sin θi .
Voc j= (12.48)
Here, S = π a 2 denotes the area of the loop, and β = ω µε is the phase constant.
Voc is maximum for θi = 90 and ψ = 0 .
6. Ferrite Loops
The radiation resistance and radiation efficiency can be raised by inserting a
ferrite core, which has high magnetic permeability in the operating frequency
band. Large magnetic permeability µ = µ0 µr means large magnetic flux Ψ m ,
and therefore large induced voltage Voc . The radiation resistance of a small loop
was already derived in (12.10) to include the number of turns, and it was shown
that it increases as N 2 . Now the magnetic properties of the loop will be
included in the expression for Rr .
The magnetic properties of a ferrite core depend not only on the relative
magnetic permeability µr of the material it is made of but also on its geometry.
The increase in the magnetic flux is then more realistically represented by the
effective relative permeability (effective magnetic constant) µreff . We show next
that the radiation resistance of a ferrite-core loop is ( µreff ) 2 times larger than the
radiation resistance of the air-core loop of the same geometry. When we
calculated the far fields of a small loop, we used the equivalence between an
electric current loop and a magnetic current element:
jωµ ( IA) = I ml . (12.49)
From (12.49) it is obvious that the equivalent magnetic current is proportional to
µ . The field magnitudes are proportional to I m , and therefore they are
proportional to µ as well. This means that the radiated power Π rad is
proportional to µ 2 , and therefore the radiation resistance increases as ( µreff ) 2 .
Finally, we can express the radiation resistance as
2
8 A
Rr = η0 π 3 N µreff 2 . (12.50)
3 λ
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Here, A = π a 2 is the loop area, and η0 = µ0 / ε 0 is the intrinsic impedance of
vacuum. An equivalent form of (12.50) is
4
C
Rr ≈ 20π 2 ( N µ reff )2 (12.51)
λ
where we have used the approximate expression η0 ≈ 120π and C is the
circumference of the loop, C = 2π a .
Some notes are made below with regard to the properties of ferrite cores:
• The effective magnetic constant of a ferrite core is always less than the
magnetic constant of the ferromagnetic material it is made of, i.e., µreff < µr
. Toroidal cores have the highest µreff , and ferrite-stick cores have the
lowest µreff .
• The effective magnetic constant is frequency dependent. One has to be
careful when picking the right core for the application at hand.
• The magnetic losses of ferromagnetic materials increase with frequency.
At very high (microwave) frequencies, the magnetic losses are very high.
They have to be calculated and represented in the equivalent circuit of the
antenna as a shunt conductance Gm .
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