See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240973989

Anisotropic Micromechanical Creep Damage

Model for Composite Materials: A Reduced-Order
Approach

Article in International Journal for Multiscale Computational Engineering · January 2008

DOI: 10.1615/IntJMultCompEng.v6.i2.10

CITATIONS READS

5 93

2 authors:

Erez Gal Jacob Fish

Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Columbia University
44 PUBLICATIONS 420 CITATIONS 224 PUBLICATIONS 6,733 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Structural Uncertainty Quantification in Composite Materials View project

Microstructure Upscaling to Obtain the Compressive Mechanical Parameter of the Lattice Discrete
Particle Model View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Erez Gal on 25 January 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 International Journal for Multiscale Computational Engineering, 6(2)xxx–xxx(2008)

Anisotropic Micromechanical Creep Damage

Model for Composite Materials: A
Reduced-Order Approach

Erez Gal
Department of Structural Engineering, Ben Gurion University, Beer-Sheva, 84105, Israel

Jacob Fish
Multiscale Science and Engineering Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA

ABSTRACT

An anisotropic micromechanical model aimed at characterizing the response of composite

material to creep is presented. The constitutive model of microconstituents is based on the
Kachanov-Robotnov creep damage model for isotropic materials. An anisotropy of the model
is introduced through homogenization, which derives macroscopic properties from microme-
chanical properties of microconstituents. A reduced-order micromechanical model is formu-
lated to substantially reduce (up to several orders of magnitude) the number of unknowns in
the microscopic problem compared to the direct homogenization approach. The reduced-order
model is based on the reduced-order homogenization with eigen-strains, which describes the
inelastic part of the microscopic displacement field by means of eigen-deformations. An adap-
tive algorithm has been devised to evaluate the time step needed to ensure solution accuracy.
Numerical studies are presented to demonstrate the efficiency of the model.

KEYWORDS

xxx

*Address all correspondence to fishj@rpi.edu

c 2008 by Begell House, Inc.

1543-1649/08/$35.00 ° 1
2 GAL AND FISH
1. INTRODUCTION
Creep is characterized by the formation of perma-
nent strains and material degradation due to appli-
cation of load over extended periods of time. For
certain materials, such as metals, this phenomenon
occurs when material reaches about 30% of its boil-
ing temperature [1,2]. In other materials, such as
concrete [3], creep occurs at room temperatures.
Kachanov [4] used a continuum damage mechan-
ics model to evaluate material degradation due to
creep. Based on Kachanov’s model, Robotnov [5]
developed a creep model for the uniaxial state of
stress. Leckie and Hayhurst [6], among others,
extended the model to the multiaxial case. Vari-
ous variants of the Kachanov-Robotnov model have
been widely used (e.g., see [7–13]) to analyze the
response of structures made of isotropic materials.
The manuscript extends the Kachanov-Robotnov
model to anisotropic heterogeneous materials.
In the present article, the material degrada-
tion of each constituent in the micromechani-
cal representation of the material is modeled via
an isotropic Kachanov-Robotnov model [6]. The
continuum damage model represents the damage
state using damage parameters and evaluates the
creep strain in each microconstituent. The over-
all anisotropic macroscopic strain vector is obtained
using reduced-order homogenization [14].
Homogenization provides macroscopic material
properties from the properties of microconstituents
(e.g., see [15,16]). The direct homogenization
method, which accounts for detailed microstruc-
ture, has been successfully used in various indus-
trial applications for linear problems. On the other
hand, nonlinear homogenization (e.g., see [16–30])
requires a repetitive solution of the unit cell prob-
lem, and therefore a reduced-order approach is crit-
ical to reduce the computational cost. In the present
article the reduced-order model developed by Os-
kay and Fish [14], which generalizes the transfor-
mation field analysis [31–34], is applied to solve the
micromechanical problem. The method exploits an
additive decomposition of strains into elastic and
inelastic contributions and expresses the inelastic
part in terms of eigen-deformations, which include
eigen-strains and eigen-separations. The resulting
stress field is residual-free, i.e., it satisfies equilib-
rium equations in the unit cell for arbitrary eigen-
deformation. The eigen-strains can be discretized in
terms of a small number of unknowns and thus re-
duce the computational cost significantly compared
to the direct homogenization approach.
Since creep is a time-dependent process, it is nec-
essary to control the time step to ensure solution
accuracy. An adaptive time-integration algorithm,
which evaluates the nearly optimal time step size, is
proposed. The primary objective of the article is to
develop an analysis and design framework for creep
of heterogeneous solids. The reduced-order creep
model has been seamlessly integrated in ABAQUS.
Numerical studies of the heterogeneous model are
conducted on several industrial applications.
2. THE DAMAGE CREEP MODEL
This section describes an isotropic creep damage
model of microconstituents: the anisotropic macro-
scopic creep model obtained via reduced-order ho-
mogenization and the adaptive time scheme.
2.1 The Creep Damage Constitutive Equations
In the following, we describe a phenomenological
creep model of Kachanov [4], which postulates the
rate of creep strain and damage as
ε̇c = f (σ, T, ω)
(1)
ω̇ = g (σ, T, ω)
where σ is stress, T is the temperature, and ω is the
damage parameter describing material degradation;
f and g are the creep strain rate and the material
degradation rate, respectively. For the uniaxial state
of stress, Robotnov [5] proposed the following ex-
pressions:
ασn βσp
ε̇c = m ω̇ = q (2)
(1 − ω) (1 − ω)
Equation (2) is known as the Kachanov-Robotnov
equation, where α, β, n, m, p, and q are temperature-
dependent material parameters. For the multiaxial
state of stress, Leckie and Hayhurst [6] proposed the
following relations:
−n
ε̇cij = 32 ασ∗ij S n−1 (1 − ω) (3a)
βσpr
ω̇ = q (3b)
(1 + q) (1 − ω)
International Journal for Multiscale Computational Engineering
ANISTROPIC MICROMECHANICAL CREEP DAMAGE MODEL 3

where the subscripts ij denote spatial components; and ũi is the displacement induced by creep within
α, β, p, q, and n are the material parameters, σr is the microconstituents and at their interfaces. Fol-
the creep rupture stress, σ∗ij is the deviatoric stress, lowing [14], ũi is expressed in terms of the eigen-
and S is equivalent von Mises stress. strains, µij , and the eigen-separations, δi , as
Considering that the rupture stress is a function
of the effective stress and the maximum principal Z
stress, σ1 , Eq. (3b) can be rewritten as ũi (x, y, t) = hph
ikl (y, ŷ) µkl (x, ŷ, t) dŷ
p θ
[γσ1 + (1 − γ) σvm ] Z
ω̇ = β q (4)
(1 + q) (1 − ω) + hint
im (y, ŷ) δm (x, ŷ, t) dŷ (6)
where γ is a material constant introduced to reflect S

the influence of the multiaxial stress states on the

where hph int
ikl and him are phase and interface damage
rupture. Equation (4) was used by [8].
influence functions, respectively (for more details,
The reduced-order model, or so-called spatial up-
see [14]).
scaling, is described in the next section.
The unit cell equilibrium equation is given by

2.2 Spatial Up-Scaling

σij,yj = 0
The spatial up-scaling adopted in this article is h i (7)
based on the mathematical homogenization theory σij = Lijkl (y) ε̄kl (x, t) + u1(k,yl ) − µkl
with eigen-deformations [14], which has its roots in
various eigen-strain-based formulations [17–20,35– where σij is stress and µkl is eigen-strain computed
37]. In the mathematical homogenization theory by time integration of ε̇cij :
with eigen-deformations, the unit cell is subdivided
into phase and interface partitions. The kinematics Z Z
3 ∗ n−1 −n
of the unit cell is fully described in terms of these µij = ε̇cij dt = ασ S (1 − ω) dt (8)
eigen-deformations, which are the unknowns in the 2 ij
t t
unit cell problem. Thus the computational complex-
ity of the unit cell problem is significantly reduced Following [14], the partitioned fields are given as
in comparison to the direct computational homog-
enization method, where the nodal values of the Z
(γ) 3 ∗(γ) (γ)n−1 ³ ´−n
discretized unit cell displacement field are the un- µij = ασij S 1 − ω(γ) dt
knowns in the unit cell problem. This reduction 2
t " #
of the computational complexity is, in particular, X (9)
K
pronounced for nonlinear problems, such as creep, σ(γ) (γ)
= L A ε̄ + (P (ηγ)
− δ I)µ (η)

where a unit cell has to be solved repeatedly at ev- η

ery Gauss point of the macroproblem and at every

load/time increment.
The reduced-order model is based on the approx-
imation of the second term in the two-scale asymp-
totic expansion, u1i , which represents the unit cell
displacement field within the unit cell as (see also
[14,17–19])
u1i (x, y, t) = Hikl (y) ε̄kl (x, t) + ũi (x, y, t)
where Hikl is a periodic function in the microscale
coordinate y; ε̄kl is the macroscopic strain vector,
which is a function of the macroscale coordinate x;
and the overall constitutive relation is
γ=1
X
σ̄ (x, t) = L̄ε̄ (x, t) + M̄(γ) µ(γ) (x, t) (10)
n
where A(γ) , P(ηγ) , and M̄(γ) are coefficient tensors
precomputed prior to nonlinear analysis [14].
(5) The spatial multiscale model is schematically
shown in Fig. 1. It features an intermediate (or
meso-) scale (Fig. 1(b)) at the scale of the mi-
crophases and their interfaces. The link between the
mesoscale and the microscale is established at the

Volume 6, Number 2, 2008

4 GAL AND FISH

(a) microscale
model (b) mesoscale (c) macroscale
model model

FIGURE 1. Microscale, mesoscale, and macroscale models

preprocessing stage (i.e., prior to the macroanaly-
sis). The mesoscale model is then linked (two-way
coupled) with the macroscale problem (Fig. 1(c))
during the nonlinear solution process, rather than
with the microscale problem (Fig. 1(a)), as in the di-
rect homogenization method (e.g., [15,16]). The ac-
curacy of the model is controlled by increasing or de-
creasing the number of phase and/or interface par-
titions. The computational cost is closely related to
the number of partitions, i.e., each additional phase
partition increases the number of unknowns by six,
while each additional interface partition increases
the number of unknowns by three.
(m)
where ∆ωt+(∆t/2) is the damage increment related
to the state of damage at the time t + ∆t/2. In case
the difference between the values obtained by Eqs.
(11) and (12) is larger than the user-defined toler-
ance, the time step is reduced by a factor of 2. This
process is repeated until convergence is achieved.
3. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
This section describes verification and computa-
tional feasibility studies of the proposed multiscale
model.

2.3 Adaptive Integration Scheme 3.1 Verification Studies

An adaptive scheme is proposed where the initial Consider an isotropic bar subjected to uniform ten-
time step is selected and subsequently adjusted to sile stress values of 150, 175, 200, 225, and 250 MPa.
preserve desired solution accuracy. The value of the Material architecture considered in this study is de-
creep damage parameter is selected to control the picted in Fig. 2. The reduced-order model consists
time step. Alternatively, or in addition, creep strain of one matrix partition, one fiber partition, and zero
invariants could have been used for this purpose. interface partitions. The material properties used
The phase damage at time step t+∆t is computed
as
(m) (m) (m)
ωt+∆t = ωt + ∆t∆ωt (11)
(m)
where ωt+∆t is the damage parameter at the end of
(m)
the time step, ωt is the damage at the beginning
(m)
of the time step, and ∆ωt is the current damage
increment related to the state of damage at the be-
ginning of the time step. This value is compared to
the value obtained in the following expression:

(m) (m) ∆t ³ (m) (m)

´
ωt+∆t = ωt + ∆ωt + ∆ωt+ ∆t (12) FIGURE 2. Unit cell finite element (FE) model
2 2

International Journal for Multiscale Computational Engineering

ANISTROPIC MICROMECHANICAL CREEP DAMAGE MODEL 5

for creep and damage calculations are as follows: Ef
= 89.5e3; νf = 0.3; αf = 5.623e-18; nf = 5.911; βf =
1.114e-15; qf = 4.8; pf = 5.416; Em = 89.5e3; νm =
0.3; αf = 5.623e-18; nf = 5.911; βf = 1.114e-15; qf =
4.8; and pf = 5.416, where subscripts m and f denote
matrix and fiber material, respectively.
3.2 Analysis of the Industrial Components
Two composite structural components, the compos-
ite tailcone exhaust and a stiffened composite panel,
were chosen for demonstration of multiscale capa-
bilities.

The variation of the damage parameter and the
creep strain versus time as obtained for the different
values of stress levels are shown in Figs. 3 and 4, re-
spectively. In Figs. 3 and 4, the y-axis represents the
value of the damage parameter (0 for undamaged
and 1 for the totally damaged material) and creep
strain, respectively, while the x-axis represents time
in hours. These results are in perfect agreement with
the results obtained by [8].
3.2.1 The Composite Tailcone Exhaust
The composite tailcone is subjected to pressure on
its upper surface, as shown in Fig. 5. The tailcone
attachment is modeled using springs. To be noted
are the four cut-outs in the tailcone that give rise to
stress concentrations and damage initiation. Owing
to symmetry, only one-eighth of the component, as
shown in Fig. 6, have been modeled.

1
0.9 S=150 S=175
0.8 S=200 S=225
S=250
Damage Parameter

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time (Hr)

FIGURE 3. Evolution of creep damage in uniaxial loading

1.8

1.6 150 175

200 225
1.4 250
1.2
Creep Strain

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time (Hr)

FIGURE 4. Evolution of creep strain in uniaxial loading

Volume 6, Number 2, 2008

6 GAL AND FISH

applied The microstructure is depicted in Fig. 2. The

pressure
reduced-order model consists of one matrix parti-
tion, one fiber partition, and zero interface parti-
tions. The rescaled material properties were se-
lected as follows: Ef = 410e3; νf = 0.127; αf =
5.623e-18; nf = 5.911; βf = 1.114e-15; qf = 4.8; pf =
5.416; Em = 210e3; νm = 0.127; αf = 5.623e-18; nf =
5.911; βf = 1.114e-15; qf = 4.8; and pf = 5.416, where
subscripts m and f denote matrix and fiber materi-
als, respectively.

cutouts springs The macroscopic finite element mesh consists of

FIGURE 5. Tail cone exhaust
3627 composite shell elements, as shown in Fig. 6.
Each composite shell element consists of three lay-
ers, with a total number of nine Gauss points
through the thickness. The top and bottom layers
are reinforced in the peripheral direction, while the
middle layer has fibers aligned in the longitudinal
direction.

The distribution of the damage parameter is de-

picted in Fig. 7. The white color represents elements
where the damage exceeded the critical value. The
red color represents a high-damage parameter (but
less than 1), while the blue color represents a mod-
est damage state. The damage initiated in the vicin-
ity of the cut-outs and propagated along the attach-
ments.

The multiscale creep model was integrated in

FIGURE 6. FE model of one-eighth of the tailcone ex- ABAQUS and ran for about 7 hours on a 32-bit Intel
haust Pentium M 1400-Hz single-processor computer.

Zoom

FIGURE 7. Damage distribution in the tailcone exhaust

International Journal for Multiscale Computational Engineering

ANISTROPIC MICROMECHANICAL CREEP DAMAGE MODEL 7

3.2.2 The Stiffened Composite Panel

Figure 8 depicts a stiffened composite panel sub-
jected to axial displacements representing deforma-
tion of an aircraft wing.
The geometry, boundary conditions (Fig. 8), and
composite material layout are as follows: panel ra-
dius R = 938 mm; panel length l = 660 mm; arc
length la = 680 mm; number of stiffeners n = 5; lay-
out of the skin [0; -45; 45; 90]; layout of each stiffener
[-45; 45; 0; 0]; ply thickness t = 0.5–1.0 mm; and stiff-
ener height h = 20 mm.
The rescaled material properties are as follows:
Ef = 410e3; νf = 0.127; αf = 5.623e-18; nf = 5.911;
βf = 1.114e-15; qf = 4.8; pf = 5.416; Em = 210e3; νm
= 0.127; αf = 5.623e-18; nf = 5.911; βf = 1.114e-15;
qf = 4.8; and pf = 5.416, where subscripts m and f
denote matrix and fiber materials, respectively.
FIGURE 9. Stiffened panel finite element model
The macroscopic finite element mesh consists of
4320 composite shell elements, as shown in Fig. 9.
Each composite shell element consists of four layers,
with a total number of 12 Gauss points per element.
The distribution of the damage parameter is de-
picted in Fig. 10. The white color represents
elements where the damage exceeded the critical
value. Elements that were totally damaged initiated
creep damage. It can be seen that the damage initi-

Axial displacement
fixed edge

45º 0º
S.S. edge

S.S. edge

90º
Skin
L= 660mm

FIGURE 10. Damage within the elements

1

ated along the edges in the vicinity of the stiffeners

and propagated along the edges between the stiff-
Stiffeners eners of the panel. This multiscale simulation ran
for 19 hours on a 32-bit Intel Pentium M 1400-Hz
single-processor computer.

fixed edge
4. CONCLUDING REMARKS
La=680mm
An anisotropic multiscale creep damage model for
FIGURE 8. Stiffened composite panel geometry and composite materials and structures was developed
boundary conditions and verified in a model problem, and feasibility

Volume 6, Number 2, 2008

8 GAL AND FISH
studies have been conducted on two structural com-
ponents.
The model is based on the reduced-order homog-
enization with eigen-deformations. The reduced-
order model substantially reduces the number of
unknowns in the unit cell problem. The application
of the reduced-order model was found to be feasi-
ble on two problems of reasonable size utilizing a
single-processor machine.
In our future work, the model will calibrated to
test data. A two-step calibration procedure consist-
ing of calibration of elastic properties and calibra-
tion of damage model parameters to creep test data
will be pursued.
REFERENCES
1. Kassner, M. E., and Hayes, T. A., Creep cavi-
tations in metals. Int. J. Plasticity. 19:1715–1748,
2003.
2. Leckie, F. A., and Hayhurst, D. R., Behavior
of materials at high temperatures. In Material,
Behaviour of Materials, ICM4. Carlsson, J., and
Ohlson, N. G., Eds. Pergamon Press, Oxford,
1195–1212, 1984.
3. Bazant, Z. P., and Kaplan, M. F., Con-
crete at High Temperatures. Longman (Addison-
Wesley), London, 1996.
4. Kachanov, L. M., On creep rupture time. Proc.
Acad. Sci. USSR Div. Eng. Sci. 8:26–31, 1958.
5. Robotnov, Y. N., Creep rupture. In Proceedings
of the XII International Congress on Application
Mechanisms. Springer, Berlin, XX–XX, 1969.
6. Leckie, F. A., and Hayhurst, D. R., Creep rup-
ture of structures. Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A
340:323–347, 1974.
7. Murakami, S., Liu, Y., and Mizuno, M., Com-
putational methods for creep fracture analysis
by damage mechanics. Comput. Methods Appl.
Mech. Eng. 183:15–33, 2000.
8. Becker, A. A., Hyde, T. H., Sun, W., and Anders-
son, P., Bench-marks for finite element analysis
of creep continuum damage mechanics. Com-
put. Mater. Sci. 25:34–41, 2002.
9. Hayhurst, R. J., Mustata, R., and Hay-
hurst, D. R., Creep constitutive equations for
parent, Type IV, R-HAZ, CG-HAZ and weld
material in the range 565–640◦ C for Cr-Mo-
V weldments. Int. J. Pressure Vessels Piping.
82:137–144, 2005.
10. Hayhurst, D. R., Goodall, I. W., Hayhurst, R. J.,
and Dean, D. W., Lifetime predictions for high-
temperature low alloy ferritic steel weldments.
J. Strain Anal. 40:675–701, 2005.
11. Mustata, R., and Hayhurst, D. R., Creep con-
stitutive equations for a 0. 5Cr 0.5 Mo 0.25 V
ferritic steel in the temperature range 565◦ C–
675◦ C. Int. J. Pressure Vessel Piping. 82:363–372,
2005.
12. Hyde, T. H., and Sun, W., Elastic-creep behav-
ior of a three-material plate subjected to a bi-
axial stress states. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 417:74–181,
2006.
13. Hyde, T. H., Becker, A. A., Sun, W., and
Williams J. A., Finite-element creep damage
analyses of P91 pipes. Int. J. Pressure Vessel Pip-
ing. 83:853–863, 2006.
14. Oskay, C., and Fish, J., Eigendeformation-based
reduced order homogenization. Comput. Meth.
Appl. Mech. Eng. 196:1216–1243, 2007.
15. Guedes, J. M., and Kikuchi, N., Preprocessing
and postprocessing for materials based on the
homogenization method with adaptive finite
element methods. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech.
Eng. 83:143–198, 1990.
16. Terada, K., and Kikuchi, N., Nonlinear homog-
enization method for practical applications.
In Computational Methods in Micromechanics,
vol. AMD-212/MD-62. Ghosh, S., and Ostoja-
Starzewski, M., Eds. ASME, XXXX, 1–16, 1995.
17. Fish, J., Shek, K. L., Shephard, M. S., and Pand-
heeradi, M., Computational plasticity for com-
posite structures based on mathematical ho-
mogenization: Theory and practice. Comput.
Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng. 148:53–73, 1997.
18. Fish, Q., Yu, J., and Shek, K. L., Computa-
tional damage mechanics for composite mate-
rials based on mathematical homogenization.
Int. J. Numer. Meth. Eng. 45:1657–1679, 1999.
19. Fish, J., and Shek, K. L., Finite deformation
plasticity of composite structures: Computa-
tional models and adaptive strategies. Comput.
Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng. 172:145–174, 1999.
20. Terada, K., and Kikuchi, N., A class of general
algorithms for multi-scale analysis of heteroge-
International Journal for Multiscale Computational Engineering
ANISTROPIC MICROMECHANICAL CREEP DAMAGE MODEL
View publication stats
neous media. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng.
190:5427–5464, 2001.
21. Matsui, K., Terada, K., and Yuge, K., Two-scale
finite element analysis of heterogeneous solids
with periodic microstructures. Comput. Struct.
82:593–606, 2004.
22. Smit, R. J. M., Brekelmans, W. A. M., and
Meijer, H. E. H., Prediction of the mechanical
behavior of nonlinear heterogeneous systems
by multilevel finite element modeling. Comput.
Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 155:181–192, 1998.
23. Miehe, C., and Koch, A., Computational micro-
to-macro transition of discretized microstruc-
tures undergoing small strain. Arch. Appl. Mech.
72:300–317, 2002.
24. Kouznetsova, V., Brekelmans, W. A., and Baai-
jens, F. P. T., An approach to micro-macro
modeling of heterogeneous materials. Comput.
Mech. 27:37–48, 2001.
25. Feyel, F., and Chaboche, J. L., FE2 multiscale
approach for modeling the elastoviscoplastic
behavior of long fiber sic/ti composite materi-
als. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 183:309–
330, 2000.
26. Ghosh, S., Lee, K., and Moorthy, S., Mul-
tiple scale analysis of heterogeneous elastic
structures using homogenization theory and
Voronoi cell finite element method. Int. J. Solids
Struct. 32:27–62, 1995.
27. Ghosh, S., Lee, K., and Moorthy, S., Two
scale analysis of heterogeneous elasticplastic
materials with asymptotic homogenization and
Voronoi cell finite element model. Comput.
Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 132:63–116, 1996.
28. Michel, J. C., Moulinec, H., and Suquet, P.,
Effective properties of composite materials
with periodic microstructure: A computational
approach. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng.
Volume 6, Number 2, 2008
9
172:109–143, 1999.
29. Geers, M. G. D., Kouznetsova, V., and Brekel-
mans, W. A. M., Gradient-enhanced compu-
tational homogenization for the micro-macro
scale transition. J. Phys. IV. 11:145–152, 2001.
30. McVeigh, C., Vernerey, F., Liu, W. K., and Brin-
son, L. C., Multiresolution analysis for mate-
rial design. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng.
195:5053–5076, 2006.
31. Dvorak G. J., and Benveniste, Y., On trans-
formation strains and uniform fields in multi-
phase elastic media. Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A.
437:291–310, 1992.
32. Laws, N., On the thermostatics of compos-
ite materials. J. Mech. Phys. Solids. 21:9–17,
1973.
33. Willis, J., Variational and related methods for
the overall properties of composites. In Ad-
vances in Applied Mechanics, vol. 21. Yih, C. S.,
Ed. Academic Press, New York, 1–78, 1981.
34. Dvorak, G. J., On uniform fields in hetero-
geneous media. Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A.
431:89–110, 1990.
35. Moulinec, H., and Suquet, P., A numerical
method for computing the overall response
of nonlinear composites with complex mi-
crostructure. Comput. Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng.
157:69–94, 1998.
36. Berlyand, L. V., and Kolpakov, A. G., Net-
work approximation in the limit of small inter-
particle distance of the effective properties of
a high-contrast random dispersed composite.
Arch. Rat. Mech. Anal. 159:179–227, 2001.
37. Michel, J. C., and Suquet, P., Computational
analysis of nonlinear composite structures us-
ing the nonuniform transformation field anal-
ysis. Comput. Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng. 193:5477–
5502, 2004.