MODULO 7 - Capitulos 1 A 9

BaIlY.
College
, "'"
IR Part-66 ICAT
nternational Centre
Aircraft Maintenance Licence for Aerospace Training
Barry College
ICAT
International Centre
for Aerospace Training
Cardiff .Airport Business Park

Pon Road
Rhoose
Vale ofGlamorgan
CF62 3DP
+4-1(0) 1••67 1982 1
info@part66.com
www.pa rt66.com
CopyrighT (l Darry College 2006 - 2007
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Liabiliry
',1\(
Whilst [h~~kc and infom\adon in this book are bcliC'.'c:d 10 be: true and aCCUl1l.lC
at ~lrrrof going to press, neither the author !lor the publishcr can accept any
• '?l';\~(\ h:b,l responsibility or liability for any enun or omissions that may be madc .
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Author: Chris Strike

Barry College
ICAT
for Aeros pace Train ing
IR Part-66 Module 7
Maintenance Practices
Knowledge Levels
The basic knowledge requirements for cltegories A, B l and B2 certifying staff
are indicated in the contents list of the module notes by knowledge leyci
indicators 1,2 or 3 against each chapter.
Level 1
A familiarisation \",th the principal elements of the subject
Objectives
The student should be familiar with [he basic elem ents of the subject.
The student should be able to give a simple description o f tbe whole subject
using cornmon words and examples.
1.1\1l~1e1;'tl.~dent should be able to use typical terms .
o?-
. C0\\C~
.., "'O.~~0 Level 2
,~
.X;
~~\Y. .A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. An
G°'Q· ability to apply that knowledge.
r ,
Obj ectives """

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The student should be able ro understand the theoretical fundamentals of the
subject. e
The student should be able to gi,c a general description o f the subject using, as ;?
appropriate, typical examples. .~ =
The student should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with 6:
p hysical laws describing the subject. :R::::':
The student should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and (~
schematics describing the subject. ,.ff'
The student should be able to apply knowledge In a practical manner usin.!h:
detailed procedures. .ss
Barry College
ICAT
Intemational Centre
for Aerospace Trainmg
Level 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of rhe subject.

A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a
logical and comprehensi\-e manner.
Objectives
The smdenr should know the theory of the sub ject and interrelationships with
other subjects.
The student should be able to gi"e a detailed description of the subject using
theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
The smdent should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae
related to the subject.
The srudenr should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple
dra\vings and schematics describing the subjecL
Contents - Volume 1
Chapter Zero - Forward
F orwarde. '1C\l,b -. 1.f~~~. . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 1

.CoW,~
, ,?>,<'Chapter One - Safety Precautions - Aircraft &
. ~
."?,, - Workshop
......,,,,
1..)"
Knowledge Level: A - 3, Bl- 3, B2 - 3 ~.
..,'0
J lazards
Inrroduction ............................................ .
E-\SA Part-i45 Requirements .................... .
3
3 -.ffi
Accidents
4
4
'"F-
Hazard & Risk ............ .. 4
Recognising I fazards 5
Aecidenr Prc\'ention ............................ . 6
Health & Safety al \'(/ork Act (1974) ................ .. 7
Employer's Dury ............................. . 8
Employee's Dury ............... . 10
Safety Representatives & Committees Regulations ........ . 10
Health & Safery Commission ................... . 11
Health & SafelY Executive ................ . n
Associarc::d Regulacions ................................... . 11
"
Barry College
ICAT
Ir1!emational Centre
Safet... Precautions - Aircrnf[ 13

Airpon .-\pron Safcty 13
Airpon Lighring 14
Vehicles 15
Noise 16
Jet Blast . .. . ........ _... ..... . 17
Fuelling Zones .......... . 18
Apron Control .... _. . . . _....... _.. . 19
Foreign Object D amage .... _....... _.. _............... . 20
Line Maintcnance ......... . 21
General Precautions - \'('orking in and Around Aircraft 21
D ress .. . . . . . .. . ........ _...... . 23
Elcctrical SafelY ........... . 23
Compressed Gases - Airc raft & Workshop 26
Storage of Compressed Gas C~'linders 27
Precautions when Charging Gaseous Systems ?-
_I
Compressed Air ........ . ........................ . 28
Aviation Breathing O:'>ygen 29
Chemical O:'>ygcn Generators 31
Nitrogen ......... . 31
Helium .... '?
>-
Acetylcne 32
Oils 33
Turbine Engine Oils ... . .... .. .................... . 33
Reciprocating Engine Oils ................. . 34
Hydraulic Auid .. . . . . . ..... . ............................. . 34
"1 )o.lr-ubricating O ils . . . ............. .. . .. ....................... . 35
.,\."\6(.heci\lcals . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .... . ... . ...... . . . 35
, l" .(')\\C~e.'" Flammable Chemicals . .......... . 36
_._ \" ;:"~~~ CorrosiYe ChCll1lcals 36
. ~... ;,. Toxic ChcmICals .... ......... . ............... . 37
,<S,::, Reaetin: Chellllcals 38
L- ....''\ . Hazard Warning Labels 39
Material Safer... Data Shcets 41
COSHH Regulations 41
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Em'ironmcntal Protection .......................... . 42
Personal Protccti\·c Equipmellt .......................... . 42 r-" ~
Rcspuarory Protecnon ................................... . 43

Protecu,'C Clothing
Safety Signs
................................... .
...................................... .
43
44
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Bancry i\lainrcnance ................................... . 45
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Ilcaring Protection .......... _........................ . 48
l\1anual Lifting ... ...... ............................................ . 50
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Lifting Slings . . . .. . .............. ......... . . ... . .... . 50
Fire 51 .i;"
O:1ssificatioll of Fires 51 ~u
Exunguishants 51v
iii
Barry College
ICAT
Dcalingwlth Emergencies ... • _•• ___ .. _........ ..... ....... . 54

Fire ... ....... ........ .... . .......... ....... ..... ........ . 55
i'.lultip!e Casualties .. ...... ......... .................. . 57
~Iultiple Injunes.......................... . ............... . 57
Elecmc Shock ........... .... ............................. . 57
Shock from I I1gh Vollage Lines .................. ........ . 58
.".ccidenrs !m'ol,-tng Dangerous Substances ........ . 58
POIsoning ...................... . ............ . 58
Sel'ere Burns & Scald s .................. . .......... .. 59
Shock .. ......... ..... . ................... . 59
Summoning .\ssisrance 60
Revision ............... .................... .. . 62
Chapter Two - Workshop Practices

Knowledge Level: A - 3, B1 - 3, B2 - 3
Tools 67
Care o f Tools 67
COlltrol of Tools 69
Shadow Boards ...................................... . 70
Centralised Tool Stores .............. . 71
r-olamtenancc Day Tools & Eqwpmenl 72
..\U'Crafr M:umenance Bay Control 72
Carriage of Tools ......... .. 72
Lost Tool5.,\\( ... ....... .............. .. ................ . 73
,ll, - -
~1Si\ l)arl-1 45 ............................................ . 73
U(e--* r\X'orkshop r-.latcrials .................................. . 73
,~, \"'1-~{': Certification of Materials ............................ , .. , .. 7-1
,,>('\'.......
f" , - . 5
Quaranonc lOre .................................. . 74
(\...."\' . Bonded SlOres .... . . . . . . . . .. ...... .. . ... . . . . ........ . 74
IdencifiCllljoll ............ . . ..................... . 75
Proof of Conformity ................................... . 75
Inspection & Test Starus ... . ............................... . 75
I-leal TrcaUllent of Metallic ~ [alenals ................. . 76
Dimensions, .Allowances & Tolerances 77
Dimensions 77
Allowance 78
Tolerances 79
Standards of \'{Iorkmanship .......................... . 80
Standards ........ .................................... . 80
Barry College
ICAT
Intern ational Centre
Calibration of Tools & Equipment, Calibration Standards 82

Accurac\' & P reoSlOn in i\[easuremenl 82
Measurement Error 83
Calibration 83
l\Icasurement Standards 83
Physical Standa rds 84
Narural Standards 85
Variables 85
Attributes 85
National Ph~;slca l Laboratory (NFL) ..... .... . 85
International Orgamsation for Standardisation (ISO) 85
Traceability .......... . .. ......... .. . . . ...... . 86
Calibration Rooms 87
NA!\LA.S 87
Quality Systems 87
Calibration ReqUlfemenrs ..... . ..... ...... . ..... ... . 87
Revision ... .......................... . 90
Chapter Three - Tools

Knowledge Level: A - 3, Bl- 3, B2 - 3
Gripping 'rools 93
Bench Vice 93
Hand Vice . ........................ ....... ... . 95
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oolmaker's Clamp ........ . 96
')\"'ICl6 ~ .. Pliers . . . . . . . . ....... . ........... . 96
co\\c'?:-':''' Cutting & Shaping Tools ........ . 99
.= ~",\\'l Steel Hammers ... ......... . 99
\. b ' Soft Faced Hammers 100
R',.~\~' CIUKS
' I ......................... . 101
(.,-, . Hacksaws . ... . . .. . .... . . .. .... . 103
ri k~ .. . ....... . .................. .... ..... . 105 r,
D rills 109 ..,
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TWISl Drill 109
O ther Metal Drills 113 €" ~
\'\food Drill Bits . ............. . ..... . 115 ~.

Countersinking Tools 115 ~
CO
Counter-boring Tools 116 .::j
Reamers 116 n
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T hread Fanning 119
Taps 1'19
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Dies ........ ....... . . . 120 'v
SUlci Fitting & RemO\·al Tool> 122 ,0," "
Scrapers 122 &
Snips 123\1 "
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Barry College
ICAT
International Cenlre
Dism:lnding & Assembly ' J'ools 124

Screwdri,'crs ...........................••..•.. 12·'
Punches 126
Drifts 128
Spanners .................................... . 129
Torque Lllnlllng \,\'renches .................. . 134
Torque Indicaung Wrenches ................... . 138
Torque Wrench .\da pto rs ............. . 139
l\larking-Out & l\lcasuring Tools .......... . 141
Steel Rule~ ......................... . . . ........ . 141
Spnng Di\'lders ................ . 141
Scriber .................... . 141
Scnblng Block ............ . 1·1:2
Finer's Square ........................ . ........ .. .. . 142
Feeler Gauges ............................... . 143
Cahpers ................................................. . 143
Trammel 14-1
Combinanon SCI 14·1
Surfacc Tables [..]5
V· Blocks 14G
Common Power Tools 147
Drillmg fo.ladunes ............... ................ .. 147
General Purpose ,\ir-Operated Dnlls .. .. .......... . 147
Off-ScI & /\nglcd I le:ld Drills ........................ . 148
Dnll AU:lchmenlS ......... ... ............ . 148
Rotary Saw ........................ . .............. .. _.. _ 1·18
S!lears '':'1 \I.'r ······· . 149
N'ilW' ." ............. ................. ........... .. ....... . 149
_ o\\i:~ nndillg i\ ladunc ................................... . 150
. ~_;\~<cs>~eracion & Use o f Precision l\reasuring Tools 151
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Dial Gauge .................................. .... .. ,-
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~. . . ' - The Vernier System ................................. .. IS.]
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I... " The Cm\'crsal "crruer Ca.lJper Gauge ................. . 160
\'erruer Ilctght Gauge ................................... . I G3 ~
Vernier Depth Gauge ................................... . 164 ..,,

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Vernier Be\'e! Prouaclor ................................... .

r-.Iicromcler Calipers ............................................ .
164
167
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External i\·!JcrOlllclers IG7 ~
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i\!Jcromctcr 1 leads
TIle Imcrnal l\llcrolllclcr
USing the Mlcrometcr ...................... ..
173
173
176
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Dead \'\'eighrTeslcr
Non-Adjustable Gauges
................................... .
........................... .
177
178
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Lub rication Equipment & r-. rcthods .......................... .
Lubricating Oil ............................................ .
181
182
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Grease ..................................................... . 182
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Lubrication RequltemelHs ................. ...... .
Methods of Lubrication ................ . .................. .
182
184 "
Barry College
ICAT
Intemational Cenlre
Equipment . . . . . . ...... . .... .... .... .. ..... .. ...... . 185

Operation, Function & Use of Electrical General Test Equi pment 188
l\'ioving Coil Instrwnents 189
Basic (Horseshoe l'\lagnet) lnstnltllent ............ . . 189
Cylindrical i\fagn et l'\loying Coil Instrument 192
Long-Scale i\!o\-ing Coil Instrument 193
Volunelers & .r\mmeters .. 193
Monng Coil Voltmeters 194
Moving Coil Ammeter 19 5
Converung to AC l\-lcasuremcnt ... ...... . 196
Mo'\ing Iron Instruments ........... . 197
Rep ulsion Type Instrumem .. ........ . 197
A rtraetion Type Instrumenr . ........ . 198
Ohmmeters ... ....... .... ........ . 199
Series Ohnuncters 200
Shunt Oluruneters 202
Ratiometcr Ohnlll1cters 203
Insulation-Resistance Testers 205
l\ legger ..... ........ . .......... .. ...... .. .. 205
High Tension Ignition Tester .... ........... . 208
Safet), Ohmmeter (Insulation ReSIstance Type) 209
Low Range Obmmeters ........ . ....... . 210
Bonding Tester .... . ................ . . 210
Safety Ohmmeter (Continuity ReSIstance Type) 211
Bridge l\leggcr Testers ........... .... . 212
E lcctro(h'namometer (\'X·arum:.ter) 217
:-IX estmetcrs & l\'I ultimelers 218
,)(\06 - - ' l~la
'10llD . . I l\ I u Inmeters
. 222
. (,o\\e,?::-i! -- Odler Measurement Devices 223
.. \'\~t~~ Potentiometers 223
. ~,\,'I. -h Hot \'X'ire fnsuu mems 224
,:.,<..y.~ 111enno-Couple I nstrumems 225
U~~· ?? -
Electro-Static Voluneter . --?
Transfonncr Rectifier l\leter ,?-
--?
Tong 'fest Ammeter 226 "-<>
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Oscilloscopes ........................ ..... . •••.. . ••• 226 "'
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TinIC Domam ReOectometer 227
Re"ision
ConclUSIOn 228
229
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Barry College
ICAT
for Ae rospace Training
Chapter Four - Avionic General Test Equipment
Knowledge Level: Bl- 2, B2 - 3

Ponable Air Data Test SCI 24-t
Q Codes ............. . 2-t6
Pilot/Stacie System Leak Tests 2-t6
.A.!cirude Leak Test 2-t7
Airspeed Leak Test 2-t8
Altirude & Airspeed Switch Tests . 2-t9
Altirude Switch Test ........ . 249
Airspeed S\\;tch Test ............... ............... ..... . 250
Vertical Speed Test ..... ' .... . 251
Air Data Test Set ........... . 251
StanC Tests 253
Pilot System Tests .......... . 254
Combined PiLOt/ Slatic System Tests 1"'
Indicated & True I\irspeed
-"
255
?--
Mach Test & Consta nt Mach Te sl
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)
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256
Tmnsponder/ Or..IE/ TCAS Test Set 256
General DescriptiO!1 o f Test Set .. . 257
Transponder . . . . . . . ...... .... .... . ... .. .. ... ..... . 258
Transponder Tests ................................... . 259
Distance Measuring E'Iwpmem (Dl\1..E) .................• 261
DME Test~lC . ... ... ........... ...... ............. . 262
T qffil:!Afb.\t & Collision 1\ \'oidancc System erC.\S) 263
. o\\C.g.C\S Tests . . . . . ............. ........... . ........ . 263
2 . \ " ) ) .... <;V·bR/ lLS, VI-IF Communications T cst Set ........... .... ..... . 26-t
;......\. ~ Gencr:J.i D escription of Test Set ........ . 26-t
:,\..:5\.'t' Marker Beacons .... ......... . 265
,. ~"\\ .
"- Localiser 265
Glide Slope (G / S) 266 ~
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VHF Omni-Directional Radio Range ('lOR) 266 -col
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Tests ............. ................. ................... ....... . 266 ~
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NAV COr..[J\! Test Set.... .......... ....... . .............. . 267 ~
VHF Commurucations Tesring ............. . 267 c

VOR Testing
ILS Testing
............... . .... ............... .
.................... .......... .
267
268 .3
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Fuel Capacitance/Quantity Test Set ............................. . 268 .~
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Test Set... ........ ....................... .... .. . ..... . ... . 270
Calibr:J.t.ion 271
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Conclusion 271 'v
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Revision .. ...... . 272 .~
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Barry College
ICAT
for AerospaCl!! Training
Chapter Five - Engineering Drawings, Diagrams &

Standards
Drawing 277
Drawing Sheet Sizes 278
Dra\ving Formats 278
Pictorial Views 279
Orthographic Projection 280
First Angle Projection 282
Third Angle Projection 283
Views 284
Types of Drawing ............. ........................ ' .... . 285
.~crafl Dra\vings .. ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. , .. ' ..... .. 287
Scale ....... . .. ".. .. , .............................. . 289
Lines 290
Dimensioning 292
Dimensioning from a Darum 293
Dimensioning Curvcs 294
DimensIOning Tapers 295
Tolerances 295
Geometric T olcranccs .......................... . 296
l\fachining & Surface Texture Symbols .......... . 298
Com'eOlional Representations .......... . 299
Abbreviations & Symbols 301
,l?rocess & Identification i\larkings 302
'1(\l\ r , ,
'1 \)\)6 - - Dra\\"lng Amhont)' .................... .... ..... .. 302
:;..\e,?-C - Identifying Title Block Information 304
~:-.~~\ 0 J\{icrofllm, t 'ficrofichc & Computerised Presentations .. . 308
..: ,\" l\ficroGlrn ................................. . 308
.0~"' --
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Microfiche 309
L· Computcnsed Presentation ............ . 309
Specification 100 of the ATA of :\mecca ...... . ................... . 310 ~.
. \TA Spec 100 Zoning System ......................... .. 317 >;

Station Kumbenng ............................ ' 318 ""-.
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Aeronautical & Othcr Applicable Standa rd s ..... ' ........... . 320
A"iation Standards ............................ . 321 "0
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Standards for Materials & Components ........... . -~
"('iring & Schematic Diagrams ............. . 324 .3
Circuit Diagram .... ........... ...... ................. . 324 0
SdlClnallC Diagrams ................................... . 324
Location Diagrams
Wiring Diagrams
.... ................ .
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\\firing Diagram i\Ianual ..................
Symbols
" ........... ..
.'.,......... .... ........ ... ...... , .. ... .
327 OJ
327 ~
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Hydraulic System Drawings ............ "', .......... . 3305'
Revision . . . . . . . . ... . ............... ........ , ........ . ... . . 332
LX
Barry College
ICAT
tnlerna!lOflal Centre
forAerospace TrOlnm9
Chapter Six - Fits & Clearances

Firs & Clearances ...................................... . 341
Dnll Sizes for Bolt Iioles ................................... . 342
Tap Drill Size Tables ............................. . 345
Classes of Fits (threaded fasteners) 345
·Iluead Inserts 347
Fastener Clearance I loles 347
Classes of Fit ................... . 348
Common sy~tems of Fits & Clearances .................. 350
Newall Sr~tem orl...i.mirs & Fit ........................... 350
Shnnk & Contraction Fits .................... . . . . . .. 350
Boosh Standards SrStem ................................ 35 I
Schedule of Fits & Clt:arances for ;\U"craft & Engmes 355
Limits for Bow, Twist & \'·ear .................................... 357
Bowmg Lum\:> ............................................ . 357
Twist ...... ... .......................................... . 358
\'(/car 359
Standard ~Icthods for C hecking Pans ............. .... 360
Lun!1 CaUSing ..... ......... .................. 36 I
~\hgnmellt ClI(.'cks .................................... 36 1
Run OUI Checks . . . ... . . . . . ......... ..... 362
Revision 368
Chapte,{\\Se\}~h - Electrical Cables & Connectors

"Ow. >;\!. ...
\",ID,owledge Level: A - 1, B1 - 2, B2 - 2
c
\"\,,, Electrical Bonding Techniques ............................. . 374
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(.0";;: Bonding Conductors ...................•..•.••••••••.... . 375
Bonding of Metal.Urcraft .......................... . 376
Bondmg of N"on·i-. letaUic ;\ucrafl ....................••..... 376 .-
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Bond.mg. Refuelli ng/ De·Fuelling Operations
Bondmg Connections
...• •••. •
................................•.•.
377
377
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Flc..xible Bonding Connectors ....................•.... 379
Earth TCrn1inals ........................ . 380
Main Earth System 380
ReSistance Values 380
Bond Tesling 381
Circuit Testing - General 383
Continuuy T esong .....•...... 386
Milhvolt Drop Tesl .......................... . 387
Insulation Rcsislanee Testing .......................... . 387
l\[.illlmum Insulalion Resistance V:ducs ............. . •••. 388
Functional TeSlS ............................................ . 389
Fuses 389
x
Barry College
ICAT
lor Aerospace Traming
Aircraft Electrical Cable Classificaoons 390

Conductor Pl:u..ing ................................... . 39 1
Aircraft ElccUical Cable FaliUfes .......................... . 39 1
Crimp Tools: Hand & Ilydraulic Crimped Connections 392
In-Line Splices ..................................... . 393
Preparing the Cable ........................ . 39-1
I land C.rimpmg Tool ... .... . . . . ........ . ........ . 39-1
.\/\IPRange .............................. ........ . 395
I-I),drau!ic Operated Camping Tool .. .. .••....•• ..••• 3%
Testing of Crimp J oints .......................... . •. .. ..... 396
Checking of Crimplllg Tools 397
Connector Pm Remo\'aJ & Imeruon ....... . ••••.•• 397
Remonl o f \\'ircd Comacts .......................... . 398
Remonl & lnscruon of L'n-\'\ired Contacts 399
Crimping Contacts -100
,\F Crimping Tools 400
Jnscruon o f \\'ired COntacfS -100
Tesung Contact Sockets .................... ....•.•.. .. •..• . -101
Co-a.x.ia.I Cables ........... . -101
Installation of Co-aXJaJ Cable -402
Testing Co-a.Xlai Cables -103
Fibre Opne Cable -103
\'\!iring Protection Tcchniclucs -103
Introduction ................ . ...... .. _____ . .... . -103
Cable Loommg & Loom Support ....... ....... .... ...... .. . -10-1
Cable Rounng & Protection ........•••••••. 405
Cable Clamps ................ .............••.... . . .. .... -106
-,\\\' .
- Protecu\'e Slcenng
. -107
Shielding ..... ..... . -108
Conclusion -108
Revision ................. . 409
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Barry College
ICAT
for Aerospace Tralnmg
Chapter Eight - Riveting

Knowledge Level: A - 1, B1 - 2
Ri"ctcd Joints ............. . 415
Shear 5 m:ngth ..... .. .. ..... 4 16
Beanng Sucnglh ·117
Shear Suength Vs Bcanng Strength 41 7
Load Transfer ............................................ . 41 9
~pjoints .................. . 420
Bun JOints .......... ............................... . 421
Flange jouus ............................................ . 422
Sphere of Influence ............................ . 422
Ri"Ct Layoul TernlS ..........• . •................ 423
Ri"ct PilCh & Spacing .... . ..... . ................ . 424
Tools L:sed for Ri,'eting & Dimpling .................. . 4'-
-)
Action of a R1"CI 4'-

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Solid RI"CI Dimensions ................................... . ·126

Allowance ............................................ . 426
Drilling 427
Iiole Si7.e -129
Countersinking ................. . . . .•••••• . .......... . '129
Dimpling .............. . ............... . 431
Sheet Crippmg Pins ............... ... ... .. ..... . . . . .. . . 432
Jomtins Compounds & Sealants ......••••••••••• ,., ..•.... 433
Jigs. Fboures & jury SUUts ............. . ............ . 43·1
Installing Solid Ri\' c~s ....................................... . 434
" ,Wl
H ~~'&-c :l1'nlent ... .... ................ ...... .. . . . .......... . 435
. ...)\\~'i1'i;,1C1 Riveting ........................ ....... ..• . ....... ••. 435
l- P . . 436
. \").~(" ncumatJC Rwcllllg ............... . .. ......... ........ .
_ ,,(\' ... Pneumatic Ri"cting '-Iammers ............ ... .... ...... . . 437
......;,...'I'i- L:slIlg a H.weung Ilammer ..... .. ....... .. .......... . 437
\. " Reaction R1"cting ................ .. 438
Squeeze Ri\'cting ................. .. 439 ~.
Ri\'CI Milling ................. _ .. .................... .. . 440 ..,':

Removing Solid Rl,'Cts ............. . ..................... .
Removing Dome Ilcat! R,j,-ets ...................... .
4-11
442
~.
~
-
Removing Countcrsunk Rj"cts ....•..... . . ........ . 442
Blind Ri veting ..... ....... ................. .............. ........ .
G~ ..................................................... .
443
443
,
.;0
-
Installing th'del R.lvets ................................... . 444 .~
o·
Installing Chobcrl Rivets ............•....................... 447
Installing Cherrylock Rj"crs .......................... . 449 '"
:P
0'
'0
Inslalling I luck Rivets ........ ........................... . 450 :;
<0\-
Tucker Pop & Imel! R..i,·cls
I nSlalling Tucker Pop & I mc.x Rivcrs
............ .
................. .
450
451
,
Removing Bllllt! Expansion Ri"cts ................. . 453 """
~
v
Removing r.k-chanical Lock R.i\·ets ................. . A53
xii
Barry College
ICAT
Special Purpose Fasteners .. . . . .......... .. . ... . 454

Installing lli·Shcru: RiYets ... . . ...... .... ...... ..... . -i34
lnst:llling III-Lok Bolts .... . .. .. . .. ......... . ....... . 455
IIlST:lllingJo-Bolts ..................... . -iSS
Installing I luck Bolts & ~A.\'delok Fasteners .. . . .... • -i.36
Inst:llling Rinmts ........................... .. .. .. .. -i57
Ikmonng Specml Fasteners ................... . -iSS
Inspectio n ...................... ............ ..... . .. ••••• . -iSS
Inspecuo n o f Rj\'cted J oints -iSS
Inspecung New Joints -iSS
Inspecting Blind Ri\'ets 461
Inspecung Special Fasteners 461
POSt Repair Tests ................. . .... ...... . . -i62
Scheduled Inspection of Riyeled JOIlUS -i62
Rcyisio n .................... .............. ....... . . 464
Chapter Nine - Pipes & Hoses
Knowledge Level: A - 1, B1 - 2
Rigid Pipe Materials .... .............. .. .. ...... .. -i72
SiZe of Rigid Tubing .... . . ........•••. 473
Rigid Pipe Bending . . .... .. .. ...... . 473
Pipe Bending ~o\acll1nes ........... . 474
Draw Bending Machines ....... .. ... .
""'~,\\c
.. . ' ompresslon . Benuulg
", '_, [ acIllIles
' ...... ••....•.
.
. . . . . . . .. .... 474
476
Simple I land Bending ................ ...... .... .. 477
Bend R.,d.ius & Method ........................ .. ........ . 478
Fusible Allo\"5 478
Filling .......... . 479
Rcmo\'lilg the Filler ................ .............. . 480
.\!ternati\·c Pipe Bending Fillers ........ ..... . 480 ~.
Po mio rung Bends ........... . 48 1 ';
Flaring Rigid Pipes ........................................ . 481 '", ~
Expandcr Conc Raring Tool .......................... . 484 ~

Roller Flanng Tool ............................ . -iSS 'P':
Double Flaring ............ ... ......................... . -iSS
Inspecting a Completed Rare ............. . 486
,::t
'!
Pipe Beading .... ........... ..... ......... ............. . 487
,".~
[nspection & Testing of Aircraft Pipes & Hoses .... .... . 488
lnspcct:ion of Locally r-.lanufactured Rigid Pipes ........ . 488 :J?
o· '"
Identification of 1llicraft Pipes .... .. .. .... . 489 'v
A'
Testing Rigid Pipes . . . ... ....... . ....... . 494 ~
Inspcction of Jlls talled Rigid Pipes ... . ...... . 4%k
Testing Installed Pipes 49N
X III
Barry Colleg e
ICAT
Intemabon al Centre
Ai rcraft I-loses .................................................... . 498

Inspection of Insralled I lose Assemblies ...... . 500
Inspection of New Hose with Reusable End Fitungs 502
Testing of :\lfcrnft Hoses ................... .. 503
Installation & C lamping of Pipes .......................... . 504
f nstaUauon of Rigid Pipes ...... ............... . 505
Supporting Rlgid Pipes ................................... . 507
Post lnsrallauon Tests 508
Installing Flexible! loses 509
Gcneral Installation POUlts 509
Insrallauon ................... . 509
Supporting Flcxlble I loses 512
Post lnstallation Tes[s .......... . 5J3
Insralling FleXible i\lclalhc Hoses........................... 513
Re\ision . ................ .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 514
xiv
FOREWORD
Foreword
\Velcome to Module Seven. '{ou could desccibe this module as being the
sequel to ivlodule Si.'.;. In Module Six we were dealing predominantly with the
theoretical aspect of the hardware used in aircraft engineering. In this module
we will be dealing mainly with the practical use of that hard\vare. Knowledge is
little more than a mental store of facts whilst understa nding has more to do
with the ability to use those facts to solve problems. T hat tho ught coul d be a
pretty good introduction to this module.
The structure of the examination for this module will depend on the C ategory
of licence examination you ha\"e applied for. Category A candidates will bc
given 70 multi-choice questions and 2 essay questions (I'ime alIo\ved 90
minutes plus -1-0 minutes). Category B1 candidates will be given 80 multi-choice
questions and 2 essay questio ns (Time allowed 100 minutes plus -1-0 minutes).
Category B2 candida tes will be given 60 multi-choice questions and 2 essay
questions (Time allowed 7S minutes plus -1-0 minutes). Note that whatevcr
Category you take there will be 2 essay questions. I will include an Annex to
dlls module where I will gi,-e you a few essay questions and some ideas on hO\\-"
to set about answering them.
Like il.lodule S1.'.;, t"llodule Se'·en is a big and \-aned subject that may, on
occasions, ~ccm rather dull and heavy. If you need a self-study plan, may I
sugg6tr a three-stage approach? In the first stage, set a deadline date to read
,,~ 1.0Qfh~ough the complete m<:>dulc once. Tf you get sruck at aoy point, no~e it and
. CP\\e..,- qUIckly move on. At !.his s rage, you can also make up a set of flip cards
,: \'~"" containing key points thaI you can use as a ready reference and guick revision
."I.~""\. tool. In the second stage, set another deadline to read through me module
(,0"\':\ " again, a lirtle more carefully this time. Just as before, if you get stuck at any
point, note it and then moye on. You arc likely to find that the re will not be so
many notes this time . The final stage is to re~d through tbe complete mod{~e
yet again, lhis time spending more time on the points you had previously not~
as being difficult. To achieve this srudy plan you need to start well before ad~
proposed examination date - three months would not go amiss . The proces&.
\\rill ingrain facts in your memory and highlight areas where vou hay~
weaknesses so mat ym; can attend to them in good time. Your llip-"cards \>.;-iii.
also senTe as a useful coffee break revision guide. Finallr, do make time < t9
practice answering those essay questions and do remember that you \vil}~e
using a pencil and a rubber in the examination, not a word processor! Nf~ke
sure that you can write legibly using these implements. ,§\.J
~
1
CQl!p ighf rg Bm?)· COlIl§ 2006 - 2007 All rights m m -rd
FOREWORD
The longest journey in a course of self-study c:tn be from :t comformble

armchair to :t rable. You should not anempt to study in an amlchai r - you will
f:tll asleep! Sit up :tt :t table, gi,-e yourself clear start and finish times and turn
this into a daily routine. Set benchmarks for what you w:tnt 10 achieve in [enTIS
of progress.
\Vid, the preamble out of the way, ' ....e can concentrate on what this module is
:til about. l lumans ha,-e always been fairly adept at employing lOols to help
them o,'ercome the problems posed by their ,-arious undertakings. l\ \any of the
hand tools that we use todar had their origins in ancient civilisations. The only
obstacle to human ingenuity was the cboice of materials fl\"ail:tblc at any
part.icular time. This was not such a big problem to Early i\lan because there
were no long-haul pterodactyls around to worry about because Ihey had been
rather abruptly withdrawn from seryice sixty-five million years earlier!
I [owe\'er. Ancient Egyptians had to make do \\lith copper chisels to hew the
giant component stone blocks of their pyramids. The chisel sharpening
industry at th:t t time must ha'-e been a considernble one! Quire wh:n the
pyramids wcre intended to achie,-c was, howe\-cr. a bit tOO obscure for us to
comprehend. Today, we ha\-e an immense choice of materials and tools to
assisr us in our task of getting all those cbeap charter flights [0 the hedonistic
hotspots, which \VouJd have seemed an equally obscure undertaking to the
Ancient Egyptians!
\Vic will be smrting wi(h aircraft and workshop safety precautions, because
humans also rend to be the most accident prone of species, \,\ 'e will then move
01110 the tools and equipment, that [hey im'ariably h:wc Ihe accidents wit h,
before moving on to deal with the engineering processes and procedures used
in aircraft maintenance. So, \\ithout further ado, ler's movc on [0 the first
chapter.
2
COPJ1Jjhf e Barry Colkgt :!OO6 - :!OO- AU "ghll rmTP!d
CHAP T ER ONE
SAFETY PRECAU TIO NS
Safety Precautions - Aircraft &

Workshop
Introduction
The title of this chapter clearly states that we are dealing with two safety related
topics - the aircraft and the workshop . Although there ma:, be commonalities
between the two, we must not make the mistake of concentrating wholly on
the latter at the expense o f the fo rmer. \"\'e should also esrablish what the
o bjectives are when \ve examine safe practices. Certainly, we can establish a
clear link with the health and safe ty of people at work. Howeyer, the work that
we do is surely related to the safety of those people who arc going to be
affected by it. By this I mean the aircraft crews, passengers and the general
public who wander beneath the flight paths. That is a lot o f people!
The safety culture of an aircraft maintenance organisation is critically important

and is a rdleccion o f eYCTyone working in it. \\fe need the confidence of the
public or we are going to be out of a job. If we are to achieye this, we need to
be sure that our work is safe. So, we are not just going to concentrate on those
practices designed to protect only our colleagues and us at wo rk. \"\·c will also
be gh-ing some consideration to practices that influence flight sa fety. In many
cases there is a link between thcse.
')\..\c'wlie1~-are numerous publicaciom dealing with safe practices in diffe rent

. C~)\\c't-c. - engineering em·ironments. Polan: of these tend to concentrate on \vorkshop
_700 \...,~f,.{' I~sues and mar unintentionally give you the impression that aircraft always
.,~
1(\1.. \,;. reside inside covered buildings . .A lot of aircraft maintenance lasks are carried
- ('i~'.\ " OUl in the open, on an airport apron for example, where, notwidlsranding the
L, wcather, there are specific hazards stemming from the close proximity of the
aircraft manoeuvring areas and vehicle and pedestrian traffic that is n'8t
necessarily associated with, or familiar with, engineering maintenance activitia .
Man\' people find that their first encounter with the environment found an i.
busy· airport apron is a bit like straying into unfamiliar territory and findin g"
yourself on someone else's patch. For that reason, I \vill be including a sectios:>
on apron, or ramp. safety as a topic in tlus chapter. .3
,~
The interprelation of what comprises a \vorksbop is also a fairly loose one. 1f!le
diccionary definition is simply fa room or shop where work is done'. Air~aft
hangar maintenance bays, mechanical and electrical com ponent bays, m;w uoe
shops, cleaning plants, battery rooms and basic bench tool work are~ each
have their own particular safety-related features in regard to the work Wocesses
being undertaken in them. I will be drawing your attencion to [h~e where
approprlate.
3
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CHAPTER ONE
SAFET Y PRECAUTION S
As far as the aircraft is concerned, we will only be dealing with general safety
related issues in this chapter. l\Iore detailed aircraft handling procedure:,;, and
their related safel), precautions, are contained in Section 7-17 of the syl labus.
EASA Part 145 Requirements

E . ASA Part 145 - 25 (Facility Requirements) Imposes some requirements on
approved maintenance organisations that afC rele\-anr to what wc havc been
discussing. I will quo tc the extracts for you.
' Facilities mUSl be provided appropriate for all planned work, ensuring in
particular, protection [rom the weather elements. Specialised workshops and
bays must be segregated as appropriate, to ensure that environmental and work
area contamination is unlikely to occur.' (EASA Pan 1-t5 -25(a).
'Officc accommodation must be prm-ided appropriate for the management o f

the planned work including in particular, the management of quality, planning
and technical records.' (EASA Pan H5 -25(b).
'The working environment must be appropriate for the task carried Olll and in
particular special requirements observed. Unless otherwise dicrared by the
parcicuhr rask environment, the working environment must be such that the
effectivcness of personnel is not impaired.' (EAS_r\ Part 145 -2S{c).
You may have construed from what we have been discussing that aircraft
maintenance tf!~ks arc carried au[ in a numbcr of different environments.
Howcver, there is one common factor in that humans inhabit all o f these areas,
and they arc the root cause of most accidents. ,'eith thar in mind, we can make
a starr by taking a look at what an accident is.
'!-"'~(
I\n accidenr is an unforeseen e,-ent that may result in the injury or death of
people and/ or damage to equipmem or facilities. _-\ccidcnts arc not narural
phenomena or 'Acts of God' - there is always a cause. The cause may be
rooted in either an uns,lre human condidan or an unsafe environmental
condition. In the lauer case, we should remember that humans afe normally
responsible for choosing or creating tbe environments they work in so lhe
cause of accidents can invariably be traced back to them_ ''{Fe normaUy describe
unsafe conditions as being hazards and, in the light of what we have said - it is E
people who create them!
3
Hazard & Risk

1\ hazard can be described as an)'thing that has the potential to create danger
and thus harm. The likelihood of it actually doing this is described as the risk
aod tills can be evaluated as being high to low risk. The consequences of the
4
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CHAPTER ONE
SAFE TY PRECAUTIONS
danger, should it be realised, would indicate how serious the risk is. A risk
assessment would involve identifying a hazard and then evalua ting the risk in
the light of the precautions that are either in place, or required to be in place,
to reduce the danger or rcmO\'e it.
Recognising Hazards
J\hny of the more common hazards occur as a result of dar-to-day activities in
and around the workplace. Slippery floors, untidy work areas, cluttered
walhvays, blocked exits, unreported cqwpment faul ts, insecure handrails,
defective tools and spilt chemicals arc just a small sample of the unsafe
environmental conditions that can stem fro m poor husbandry by the
workforce and any of these may conspire to crcate a 'window of oppornlllity'
for an accident to occur.
Management may also overlook d1e presence of unsafe environmental

conditions . Inadequate lighting, poor "enwation, lack of equipment,
uncontrolled use of dangerous materials and equipment, excessiye noise,
cramped work areas, poorly maintained and defective buildings and equipment,
inappropriate storage conditions and lack of emergency equipment and
procedures are again a small sample of the unsafe environmental conditions
that may exist as a result of management oyersights.
T he way people behave in the wotk environment can also create hazards.
Apathy, boredom, negligence. complacency, disobedience, tomfoolery,
showing off, oycrconfidencc, fatigue, stress, la ck of fitness, inappropriate or
incorrectly worn dress, long hair, poor personal hygiene, routine "iolation of
work instructions. drug and alcohol abuse are all examples o f unsafe human
conditions that may stem from individual behaviour and group culrure.
(j'
.,\.\\)~ga}g, management can inadvertently illtroducc unsa fe human conditions.
_co\\~'f:-"" Lack o f proper supervision and training, use of inexperienced sta ff, poor
'O':.~'t' morale, poor planning and organisation, inappropriate disciplinary procedures
,,\....<...
Q and a lack of regard for safety arc a sam ple of fac tors that may create unsafe
(f:§t,"....,.. human conditions that may in turn open a \", ndow of opportunity' for an
accident to OCCllr.
~
T hese hazards may lead to accidents at the time we are working but they m~'
also create 'latent fai lures'. \'\.'hen someone is careless at work and m akes :R
mistake, the misrake may remain hidden for a considerablc time before it"
reveals itself in an accident when a given set of circumstances coincide with it. ~
In a perfect world we would all have comfortable, air-conditioned, \\'ell-lit airrl

spotless hangars . T he cost of building and maintaining such facilities at evfiy
loca tion llsed by airlines and maintenance organisations is not al\\fuys
conm1crcially feasib le. A 1m of aircraft maintenance tas ks are carried out ~~der
less tban perfect conditions. TillS includes work that is carried o ut in th~pen,
in inclement weather. at rught, ill poorly lit hangars and in noisy condi~ons. \X1e
need to be able [0 recognise the hazards that appear when these h3ndicions
deteriorate to below acceptable levels.
5
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CHAPTER ONE
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
\':rhen peopte become more concerned with their sur..-i,'al than the safet), of the
work in hand there is bound to be a conflict of interests. Narurnttr, we should
be cquaUr concerned with both, but not comptetety o\'erwhetmed by the first.
Clinging on for dear life on a swaying, slippery higlHise servicing pt:uform in a
Force Nine \Vintcr's gale with one hand, whilst holding a f:lst fading (orch in
the other, is not conducin: to carrying OUt detailed work safety!
A f.1clor that often gets overlooked is the hisrary of the buildings in which
some people work. Man)' buildings were in use long before the introduction of
[he tight measures that we see in force radar. Some may have been in
ope ration before the Factories Act 1961. I will usc a simple example to briefly
make my point. Imagine that you were maintaining aircraft in a building !1m
had, sometime in lhe distant past, been used as a paint spraying faciliry. Over
rime, spray dust laced with rhe chromates and isocyanares used in primers and
paints would almost certainly have settled thickly on the top of roof girders
and on high ledges. Opcn the hangar doors in a fresh wind and this miglll
disturb [his legacy. The point is made here is nor ra alarm rou but to poilU Out
lhal we should nOl be blinkered by JUSt the presem when assessing hazards at
work.
\',/hen we were examining samples of the variolls hazards that can appear, we
were attributing responsibility to either lhe workforce or management. In
realit)·, bOlh these groups ha\'e a collective responsibilit)· for the safety of
people at work and lhis will become clearer when we look at the legislation
contained in the Ilealth and Safety at Wrork Act ( 197..1). Defore we take a look
at rhis, we should discllss how accidems might be prevented.
Accident Prevention
Prm'iding th:lI ,)\,,<ff' identify the hazards that exist, there are a number of
strategie~ : th':\\ 've can usc lO prevenr accidents occurring, or reduce their
~;I.~
imr\"l '
.(,.. ".....
•
h .
\tr the\' do .
,,\:<\. 1.... I. Remove (he haz:lrd This should be the first principle of accident
.{\"..
,. ~'\..... prc,'ention. Reducing noise to \\1thin sa fe limits would be one example.
2. Replace (he hazard \'Ce may be able to reduce me danger by finding

a safer ahernatl\·e. This could mean replacing a hazardous material with
a safer one or amending a work process.
3. S hield (h t..· h:lz:lrd I f we cannot remove the hazard or reduce the risk
then we need to find a means of protecti.ng ourselves from it by
modifying it. Fitting guards to moving machinery, or safety rails to high
platforms, arc good examples of this.
4. Shield (he person rf we cannot shield the hazard then we must take
steps to shield the person by wcaring appropriate prOlecti\"c
equipment. This is really a las( resort where we ha\'e been unabte 10
implement any of the above solutions. Providing car defenders,
6
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CHAPTER ONE
S AFETY PRECAUTIONS
respuators, gauntlets, safety helmets and goggles arc good examples of

this.
:l. Train th e perso n . Educacing people o n the nature of the dangers in

the workplace and the correct procedures to follow arc vitally
unportant tools in preventing accidents . TIns is now an unavoidable
legal dury.
\Vhen an emergency occurs as the resul t of an accident, rour personal safety,

and the safety of your colleagues, must always take priority. No pile of bricks
or lump of machinery, howeyer e:.;pensi\·e it is, or however much you might
admlre it, is eyer worth a human life. \'Chen dealing with emergencIes, you
must never put yourself at risk. Becoming a casualt), will just add to the
problems and danger faced b y others.
H ealth and Safety at Work Act (1974)
The need to make an organised approach to ensuring the health and sa fety of
people at work is reinforced by the fact that employers and employees are
together legally obliged under dle provisions of Part 1 of the Heal th and Safety
at \'·ork Act (1974) to haye a 'duty of care' for the health, safety and welfare of
people at work. All nl.r craft maintenance acthirics are subject to the provisions
o f this Act. Part 1 of the Acr has four basic objecti\-es:
1. 'To secure the health, safety and welfare of people at \vork.'
2. 'To protect persons, other than persons at work, against risks to health
and safety arisIng out of or in connection with the activities of those at
work.'
1()Qb - W& e that this also places a duty of care on employers and employees alike
_u\\e'?c. - for the health and safety of VIsitors to the place of work as well as to the
... ~,..s(' C general public. One effeel of this is that \risitors must be brie fed on the
. ,\,,- ~. hazards and be issued \'lith protective equipment where appropriate. This
_ ,"Q';.'\-"'" needs to be carefully considered because visitors who do not speak
t..J- English, or who have sight or hearing impediments must be briefed in a
wav that the,- will understand and all hazard-warning signs mUSt be ItY"a
form that is clear to tbem. ~ ~.
f~
3. 'To control the keeping and use of explosiyc or flammable or tOXl ~
substances and to preyent the unlawful acquisition, possession and usts
of such substances.' Ef
4. 'To control the enusSlo n into the atmosphere of noxious or hann@l
substances.' :pZ:::
0'
'u
.As we can now see, the Act cm-ers all people at work, in all working ac@ ties,
and is extended to con.'r yisitors, sub-contractors and the general public as
well. These legal obligations are expressed as general duties that are e~rceable
,
7
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CHAPTER ONE
S AFET Y PRECAUTION S
in criminal law so there is a lot of imponance attached to them. Both the

employer and the employee haye general duties under the Act.
Employer's Duty
'It shall be rhe duty of every employer to ensure, 35 far as J:" re:lsonfl b~t ·
pr.'Jcn·cabJe the health, safety and welfare at work of all his/her employees.'
T ills duty includes in particular:
• 'The provision and maimenance of plam and systems of work that are,
so far as is reasonably practicable. safe and \\ithout risks to health.'
The term plan! used here refers to all macillnes and other equipment
used at work. The term 'sntems' refers to work processes and
procedures used at work.
• '_-\.rrangement for ensuring, so f.'l.[ :l.S is reasonablr practicable, safet~

and absence of risks to health in connection \\ith rhe usc, handling,
storage and transport of artides and substances.' This is wide-ranging
and incl udes for example, the safe handling of hea\"}' objects and
chemic;t\:;.
• 'fhe prOVISion of such infonn;tuon, mstrucDon, training and

supervision as is necessary to ensure, so far as is re;tson;tbl), practicable,
the healt h and safety ar work of his/her employees.'
• 'So far as is reasonably practicable as regards any place of work unde r

the employer's control, the maintem.nce of it in a condition that is safe
and wit hout risks to health and the provision and maintenance of
access a ~,d (egress from it that are s;tfe and without sllch risks.' The
~tt-~i\ta;emeOl would include fire lanes and exits.
C..."'\\.;.~
.\:.. \"\).{{' • 'So far as is reasonably practicable, the pro\'ision and maintenance of a
\..~-'\. working environment that is safe, \\ichoUl risks to health and adequate
(Co",' as regards facilities and arrangements for the welfare of employees at
work.' TI,e i:mer statement would include the prm.-ision of adequate r
washing facilities and rest rooms. ..,-.,
,
<
• 'So far as is reasonably practicable, to ensure char persons, not ~

employed by the employer wbo may be affected by tbe aCli\·ities of thai -":
employer are nor exposed to risks to their health and safery, 'J'his
includes the provision of infonnaaon about the wa)" in which the
undertaking is conducted that might affect their heahh and safety.' This
would include the general public as well as ,.-isitors.
T he Act also requires that an employer must also produce a written sta1ement
o f rhe comp;t!lY's health and safety policy, and the arrangements fo r ca rrying
OLlt that policy, and th;t l this is to be brought to the attention of all the
8
Up)"T1ghl CI Barry ell/kgt :006 - 200 - riU njhll Ttstfrrd £I'£I'1I'·Pt1f166.tum
CHAPTER ONE
S AFETY PRECAUTIONS
employees. The employer must nor levy any charge on employees io respect of
personal protective eq uipment or ciafcty-related training that may be required .
The employer is obliged to proyide this.
An employer'S general dunes also require him/her to assess risks and record
them, together \vith any precautions to be taken, and to make these records
available to all employees at thei r place of work. 1 will include a brief
description for a few of the more common assessments .
Risk Assessments
To meet their obligation to prm-ide safe plant and safe systems of work,
employers haye to ensure that e\"ery work process is assessed for risks in
rebtion to the place the process is [Q be conductcd in and the equipmem used.
These risk assessmen ts must be recorded and made a\"ailable to the employees
at the place of work. An assessment must identify the hazards and the steps
that employers and employees must take to remove, reduce or protect
themselves from danger. This would, for example, be the procedures and
p reeauuons to be observed, the personal proteetiye equipment to be worn and
the limits to be observed where required
COSHH Assessments
Employers han: to ensure that the use of any substance that is cons idered
hazardous to health i~ assessed and controlled in relation to [he place and the
process that it is to be used In. Again, these assessments have to be recorded
and made available to the employees. Note that a separate assessment is
required for a giyen hazardous substance in each process or location it is used
In - unlversal assessments do not satisfy the requirement. T he assessments
must identify the occupational exposure limits, precauuons and the
specifications for the personal protective eqwpment required. \I/e will revisit
tlus tOPic in more detail when we deal with chemicals.
'1\)\1"
,Q\)6 " -
. coW:.-;c. - Noise Assessments
,""\.':\~.'("
:L' v·
,~ Employers have to ensure [hat noise Ieycls are assessed by a suitably trained
....\J5'
:', specialist where these levels may cause damage to the hearing of personnel.
(}'\! .
The occupational noise threshold limits haye to be observed and the
em plo:-ees must be trained in the use of any hearing protection that ~;;
provided_ \"Ife will deal with the limit~ and actions later in this cbapter. ~
~
Manual Han d ling Assessmems S-
To mect thc general duty for safe handling, stornge and transportaoo;T
methods, emplo,ers are required to assess and record the risks in relation fit,
moving heavy objects in the workplace, including the safe loading of storr@!
racks. The assessment record must identify the equipment to be used, the W~ d
limits and the methods to be used. Empl~rees have to be warned of there sks
and trained in the approved methods and tile use of any equipment #kt is
provided. t\J
;j~
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Employee's Duty
'Ir shall be the dut), of evcry employee while nt work to mke reasonable care
fo r the health :1nd s:1fery of himself/herself and of other persons who may be
affected by his/her acts or omissions at work.'
Irresponsible beha,"iour, engaging in work thar you arc nor qualified or

experienced enough to do and ,"jolating procedures or taking 'short cutS' are
classic examples of this. Other examples would be creating unnecessary noise,
fumes or operating mO\'ing machinery that putS personnel in the vicinity in
danger.
This general dUly includes two further requirements:
t. '~\sregards any duty or requirement imposed on his/her employer or

any OTher person by or under aoy of the reie,-ant statutory provisions.
to cooperate with him/her so far as is necessary to enable that dUly or
requirement to be perfonned or complied with.'
This means that employees are legally obliged to cooperate with their employer
to enable him/her to fulftlthe general duties of ao employer under the ,\Cl.
2. 'No person shall inrentionally or recklessly lnterfere Wilh or mIsuse

anything provided in the interesrs of health, safe£}" and wdEl re.'
Examples of infringements of this would be where an employee removed

safery guards from machinery, played about irresponsibly with fire appliances
or misused c(luipmem.
Safety Repre ~entatives & Safety Committees

. 'H¥.
R e~~W·'bns
:'-.).'t&~ployers are also obliged (Q allow a recognised trade union to appoint a
\' safe£}' representatiyc from among the employees who is to be consulted on all
safety m.'mers. lbe safe£}' represenL'lth"e has the authority to investigate
potential hazards and all dangerous occurrenccs at work. TIler may also
im'estigale safety-related complaints made by an employee and make
representations to the employer. The safety reprcscmati,'e may carry Ollt safc£}' -
~,
inspections in cvcry area of the organisation and represent the employecs in

consultation with inspectors appointed by the H ealth and Sa fery Executi ve.
'"'2:-
/,
~,
The employer is obliged to allocate sufficient time for thc safety reprcsenmti,"e
to carry our his/her duties and to provide any training thar may bc requi red.
In large organisations there will be more than one safcty represemacivc. \"'here
two or more representatives requesr it, the employer must establish a safety
comminee. T he safety committee is normally chaired by a senior m:lnagcr and
it may carry om sttldies of nccident and disease statistics in the workforce,
examine snfery inspection reports and develop safety rules and employee
training programmes. It :llso monitors the effec tiveness of s:lfery tr:lining and
the adequacy o f health and safety communications in the workplace.
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CHAPTER ONE
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Health & Safety Commission

The Health and Safety Commission is a goyernment appointed body that is
responsible for the issue of regulations and CodCfj> of Pracdcc. The
regulations are legally binding. Codes of Practice are issued for guidance o nly
but observance of them docs provide evidence that an organisation is doing
everything 'that is reasonably practicable' to fulfil its obligations.
Health & Safety Executive (HSE)

The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) has the task of enforcing [he
regulations made by the Health and Safety Commisslon in cooperation with
local autho rities and other goyernmcnt enforcement agencies. The HSE has
regional offices and these appoint tnspectors with wide-ranglllg powers to
legitimately access any place of work, carry out any investigation they think is
appropriate, question staff and collcct and take away any supporting e\-idence..
T he HSE has the power to prosecute employers or employees and to Selye

lmpro velnent Notices or Prohibition Nou·ces on employers. 1\ Prohibition
Notice would be sen~ed for example if an HSE inspector \\-ere of the opinion
that an employer had contrayened, or was about to contravene, a statutolJ
prm-ision of the HSA \,\i Act and that there was such evidence of an imminent
risk of serious personal injury that tbe acti\rity must cease llnmediare.ly. All
notices have a rime limit put on them where actions required by the notice
have to be completed . Tllerc is also an appeals procedure where an employer
feels a notice to be un justified. :\ failure to comply with any Notice issued by
th e HSE is likely to result in a criminal prosecution. The HSE does, however,
operate on the principle of 'pre\·emion rather than prosecution' but this does
require the full cooperation of employers. One final point is that HSE
ins ~Jors will point out hazards but nOt give specific advice on how to
..,.e. :..\:I~Ve;come them in relation ro a particular workplace - that is the employer's
(.1..1\\<:'-:- responsibility.
~{'
,\' <'"
,~
, Under the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences

~~\.'Y'
(P~ Regulations 1995 (lliDDOR), employers also have an obligation to fo rmally
report certru.n ins tancc~ of disease, injury or a dangerous occurrence at work to
the HSE who may at their discretion conduct a formal inquiry into t{!e
circumstances. These repons have to be submitted within a given time of t~
occurrence. In addition to this, all places of work have to maintain a separat§.
record o f all accidents and injuries to employees and any first aid treatment.
given. HSE inspectors haye the right to examine the accident and first-aif-
books. All places of "\york are now required to have an adeCjuate number ,riJ
trained first aid personnel among the workforce. p
~
cP
Associated Regulations
.,"
'v
,ct
~u
You may h ave already guessed from the foregoi ng that the Health anctSa fety at
\\fork Act (1974) invokes compliance with a number of other regulations.
11
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CHAPTER ON E
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There would not be space to list all of these and rou would nO( be expected to
remember them all ..\ few examples are:
• Factories Act I % I
• Control of Subs tances Hazardous to Health 1988 (eOS I II I)
• Safety Representati\"es and Safety Commirrees Regulations
• Health and Safety (First .-\id) ReguJacions 1981
• Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences

Regulations 1995
• Manual Il andling Regulations
• Electricity at \"'ork Regulations 1989
• Em;ronmental Protection ~-\ct
• Noise at \"'ork Regulations 1989
• Manualliandling Regulations
• Disposal ofTo:cic Waste Regulations
• Protcction of Eyes Regulations 1974
• Safety Signs Regulations 1980
• Classi fication, Packaging and Labelling of Dangerous Substances

R~~!~,ti~l'll I984
. l'\\":'';''<:' ...
~;\~f' l.. Abrasive \X 'heels Regulations 1970
I think that is sufficicnt to let you see there are: a lot of regulations! \'re will
re\·isit a few haer in this chapter but, for now, we will look at some of the
em;ronments thlH maintenance personnel mar wadi: in and the sa fe practices
associated with them. As promised earlier. I will include some general
informacion on apron sa fety on the basis that a number of employers now ask
for this topic to be included in training courses so it e\~idently has significance
for them. '11111t is as good a place as any to starr. .~
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Safety Precautions - Aircraft

Airport Apron Safety
/\s [ have already discussed, a lot of aircraft maintenance tasks take place on an
airport apron. So, we will start by gaining some understanding of what is meanr
by the various lerms used to describe the areas where aircraft may be
positioned at an airport.
Airside
Tlus is the area of an airpOrt outside of the mai n terminal building departures
gates where access is restricted to all bur authorised persons. rr nom1ally lies
within 1-11\'1 Rerenue and Customs and Hi\[ Tmmigrntion control and all
persons wirl1in it are liable to search or identity checks by their representatives.
In addition, at international airports in p:Jrticular, there may be a police (special
branch) p resence. You must always have photographic proof of identity with
you at all times. This is nonnall" your airside permil.
Apron
T lus IS the area that accommodates aircraft for the purposes of
10ading/oft1oading passengers and cargo, refuelling, parking and maintenance.
T his includes any aircraft nose-in parking stands. \"\ -irhin the apron there will
be designated areas fo r the storage of aircraft handling equipment when it is
not in use on aircraft and there ate strictly enforced rules in place to prevent
our of use equipment being left lying loose around the apron. All apron
egw \\1Cnt must be properly secured and cleared of loose articles to prevent
lO
,QCVbem Geing inadvertently moved by jet blast, prop -wash or high winds. 1t is no
_O)~<:.~c - fu n trying to chase after a set of aircraft steps or a pair of airborne O\'eralh that
< ~,;\.\1:': is heading for the adjoilung parking stand!
:. 5\~
.
. ~\ \. '>
Manoeuvring Area
CP~ ·
T his I!1cludes the area, other than the Apron . that is used for the movement ,of
aircraft on the ground and for take-off and landing. ~ ~>
<
Movement Area
This area encompasses both the i\fanocuvring Area and the Apron.
,~
Airside Roads 0'
'"
T hese arc areas that are designated as roads by the Airport Authority>
If you are required to work on an airport apron then, for your person~'];]Jety,
!S'
,:s '"
o
and the safety of others, it is essential that rou are familiar with the @'es. The
apron environment is often a busy one and you need to be awafe o f the
dangers posed by jet blast, aircraft movements and large moving velucles and
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SAFET Y PRECAUTION S
equipment. The Airpo rt Operau'ons Instnlcu'on s comain the niles :ind you
will h:ive to familiarise yourself with them before you are issued with a permit
to access any airsidc area. I will merely givc you a few broad cxample!; of what
rhcsc m:ly Iypically con min.
Access
You cannot enter an airport apron \\;thoul prior audlOrisation or permit from
the Airport Authority. If you do not work for rhe Airpon Amhorit)'. rou
nonnally ha\'e to be sponsored by your employer before a pennit is gmnted
and your sponsor \\;11 be held responsiblc for your beha\"iour in addition to
you should you break the rules. \'nen so authorised, rou ha\'e an obliga tion to
com ply wilh the Airport O perations Instructions. If you are a visitor you arc
obliged to have an :luthorised escort and you must comply wirh :lny
instructions given . .\irpon authorities have to comply \\~th Ci\'i! .\irworthiness
Procedure (CAP) 362 'Airside Safety A/anagem en~ so your compliance with
their instructions is a legal obligation. You are also obliged to comply with the
Flca/rh and Snfer), at Work A c t /9J.1 whilst eng:tged in work in the airs ide
area.
I f the occasion arises, entry to the manoeuvring area \\ill recluire further
clearance from the Local Air Traffic Controller in each and c\'ery case and you
would need a vcry good rca son before rhis would be granted . Wh ilst in rht.:
manoeuvring area, aU your mo\-ements musr be notified to and clea red by the
Local Air Traffic Controller.
Airpo rt Mark ing s
Personnel engaged in mainrenance tasks on an apron need to be aware of, and

comply \\~th, the various signs and markings. There arc road tmffic signs and
these comply \\~th the Tmftic Signs Regulations (1981). Vehicle rOUles arc
normally identi fi ~~-br white line markings. The yellow line markings afC strictly
for ai rC1'a{t\..'lm~'ements whilst green line markings will normally indicate
Ptt..~; routes. "nle delineation berween [he apron and dIe manoeuvring
\...,).< ~irea will also be indic.'lted by line markings such as double white lines.
Airport Lighting
l>. laimcnance activities at an :Urporr are not JUSt confined to the daylight hours
and good weather. ' nlis means there will be lights and they can be con fusing to
the uninfomled eye. There arc likely to be StOP lights, particularly at vehicle
routes OLlt of the terminal passenger and b?ggage areas and at access poims to
thc manoeuni ng :!.re:!. and at holding points \\~thin it. The aircraft taxiways arc
norm:!.l1y identified by blue edge lights and sometimes hayc green ccntrc·line
,.
lights. TIle aircraft taxiways also have red stop b:l.r lights at various holding
points to warn you whcn aircraft arc abom to cross the path. Runways h:l\"e a
sophis ticated array of aircraft visual approach indicators and dues ho ld lights
fi nd afC also identified by bright white edge and centre-line lights.
14
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The apron is normally illuminated by an array of oyerhead pylon lights . The

aircraft parking stands may ha\"C illuminated side marker boards or pressure
pad indicating systems. These adapt to the type fmd size of differenr aircraft.
Nose-in stands arc ohen eguipped with AGNIS (Approach Guidrl!1ce Nose-in
to Stand) lights in the form of red and green bars tha t are used to direct the
pilot into correct alignment \vith the stand. The operat.ion of all airside light.ing
is normally under local air traffic control. Airports hfwe an emergency electrical
po\\'er sys tem that switches on within seconds of a pO\ver failure.
Ve hi cles
Personnel must be in possession of a ...alid .Airfield Dri"ing Permit (ADP)

before they can drive a ,"chicle on the apron or the manoeuvring area.
Nonnally. [here are separate permits applicable ro each area so a person with a
pennit to drive o n an apron only caanO[ legitimately access a manoeuvring
area . .\ll \·chicles used in these areas also haye to carry and display a pcm1it.
Private \·chicles arc prohibited from usc on the apron unless specifically
authorised. This indudes bicycles. ACCJuiring an AOP usually im·oh"es a wriuen
test and a colour vision check. There arc strict nilcs governing rights of way
when drh'ing airside.
I. Aircraft have priorit~, over all vchicle movements.
2. Fire and rescue vehicles on emergency callout have prlomy over all
o ther road vehlCles.
3. Pedestrians ha\·e priority over vchlcles on the apron.
-l. Refuelling ,·chides haY(; priority oyer all other road \·ehicles except fire
...and rescue vehicles when on emergencv callout.
].\)ll •
,\\1)6
.~,\\c-;"~'" I have included these priorities merely to show you that there arc some
• \"\,~~{' t.. significant differences bet\yeen driring on the public highway and at an airpon .
. ,\,... ~
.{\"-
,\11 \·chicles used airside normally display a roof mounted nashing yellow
0-.,,;:;. . .
obstruction light whilst they are mo...i.ng 011 the apron or manoeuvring areas
and arc resuicted to 1Smph on the apron. The obstnlction lights are normally
switched off o n stationary ychicles. Fire and rescue ,·chicles display a nashi ~
blue light when on emergency callout and are also subject to the apron speeR
limit unless specifically authorised to exceed it. At night, all mo\·ing vehicles:
usc dippcd headlights and display sidelights only when stationary. Vehicle£.
must not approach an aircraft until the aircraft is chocked and its engines ha\"f
been shut down and the anti-collision lights ha\'c been switched off. Personna
arc nor permiued rn ride on any pan o f a vehicle or item of ground equipm!:!:!.~t
that is not specifically designed for the carriage of passenge rs. ::?-
'"
Pllfticular care is reCJuired when to'.ving hea\·y eq uipmen t with vehides. J?'oors
on ground power sets, toilet trolleys, and de-icing bowsers etc. must b q;,jecu rcd
dosed to prevem collis ions occurring because of the increased width §f1ese may
give when they are inadvertcnrly left open.
15
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Mob ile Phones
Mobile phones are a '>ery significant fire hazard when they arc lcft switched on
within me apron fuelling zones>
Radi os
>\pprO\~ed portable radios are often carried. Radio lCanSffilSSlons require the
use of a call sign and standard radio tra nsmission procedures arc rC'luired.
J\ irporr ground radio freque ncies should nor be used for lengthy conversations
as this jams oth er users who may h;we more urgent requirements. You will
soon be reminded if you abuse this rule. Your sponsor company mar ha"e a
dedicated frequcncy for your use and this should be used. There may also be
security restrictions on the in formation that efl n be tmnsmiued - radios fl re not
a secure form of transmission and can be heard by unauthorised pe rsons.
Airports normally haw a dedicatcd emergency freCjuency for lire and rescue
operations and this should nOt be used for other purpose. Radio waycs may
also present a hazard when used in dose proxImity to some electronic
eCluipment.
Clothing
Personnel working airsidc arc nonnally required to wear approved high

"isibility :tnoraks or tabards at all nmes.
N oise
"l11c noise from turbine engines can cause temporary :tnd long~term damage to
lhe hearing. T empora ry damage can cause personnel ro insrant.ly lose their
scnse of ba lance _and head ng. The noise also blankets the sound of
approachiR~{yegWes and will drown out shomed w:trnings. All personnel on
Ihc ,~1-will be wearing car protection that funher exacerbates the problem.
_. \'\;\'t~fl~ese arc haza rds nor always appreciated by personnel working in and :lround
_,\'\\. l,.. :tircra ft. I have included an illustration for you of a typical noise haza rd plot
. ,,~..:,<''C from a single turbo-jet engine.
c
"
Fig ure 1.1 • T~' pi c a l Noise H aozard Areas (SI:lrboard e ng ine running)
16
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It is \-cry unlikely that engines would be clearcd to run a[ full power o n the
apron, there are usually dedicaled areas where this may bc authorised by the
Local Air Traffic Controllcr. However, the lOner red circle al 30ft radius
displays the area where exposure to the noise at full power will damage hearing
even if ear defenders are worn . The red and amber areas up to 60ft radius
indicate the area where all personnel must wcar ear defenders when the engine
is operating at idle power. As power is increased, this area stretches out to
150ft. In reality, YOll will need to wear car defenders anY'.vhere on the apron
when engtnes arc running
Jet Blast
Apart from the effect noise has on unprotected hearing it also creales another
problem. \'j/hen several engines arc running on the apron area it becomes
difficult to determine the direction of the sources. Aircraft thal are being
'pushed back' out of the stands are oflen 10 the process o f starring their
engines so particular care is required. \'{lith this in mind, personnd must be
alert and not stra~- into the danger areas in front of cngine intakes, propellers or
imo the jet blast or prop-wash danger areas. I have included an illustration for
YOll of typical turbo-jet engine inlet and exhaust hazard areas.
!dl~ Thrust
-10ft- _ I OO f r _
Entry
- 15fr - 1500 ft
~faximum Thrust
Figure 1.2 - Typical E ngine Inlel and Exha ust Hazard Areas (Fo rward thrust)
co
T he red areas indicate the idle po\vcr hazard areas. N ote that even at 10Qg
behind the aircraft the jet blast can still be hot. T here is also an added fisk tl~t
small scones and grit in this area can be flung rearwards. The red area in fr~t
of the intakes and around the sides of the nacelle indicates the low-pre~re
zone that exists at idle power. The 100v pressure deepens towards the inlei-This
is suffiCient to lift rou off the ground and the rest is obVIOUS. The low p&ssllre
may also suck in debris and loose equipment. Take a note how the h.a~\.M areas
grow as power is increased from idle. There are red stripes painted o r{ the sides
of an engine nacelle that warn personnel nOt to approach any further along the
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CHAPTER ONE
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sides of the nacelle from the rear at idle power settings .. \t power settings
above idle no one should be there. I will also include an illustration for you of
the typical hazard areas thaT exist when re\rerse d1nJst is used just to show you
rhe danger.
lligh Thrus
I bgh Thrust
140 " - - - - 20(1 f , - - --
Low Thrust
Figure 1.3 - T ypic al Ellginc Inlct a nd Exhaust I-Iazard Areas (Rcvcrse thrus t)
Reverse thrust increases the forward hazard area and any debris or equipment
within lhis area may be flung forwards. There is srill a significant jet blast
hazard behind the aircraft. It is unlikely tbar reverse thrust would be selected
on the apron bur it js well to be aware of the effect of doing it.
"I,,\...I
",b -
Ear D t (e1\(1ers
. (,0\\... ·
~ \....:-.<:~\ ll personnel working on the apron should be in possession of car defenders
that comply with the apprO\red British Standard (l3S). ll1ese have to be worn
whenever there arc aircraft on the apron and during the running of main
engines or auxiliary power units. \\'e will discuss hearing prmccrion and the
regulatory noise threshold limits later on in this chapter.
Smoking
Smoking is prohibited anywhere on an apron or manocU\+nng area for the F

ob\·ious reason that it is a fire risk. .3
Fuelling Zones
'nlcrc are a number of rules applicable to the area surrounding an aircraft that
is being re.fuelle.d or dc-fuelled, Ir is \;tally important that fuelling vehicles are
afforded unobstmcted access and egress wben attending an aircraft. The
18
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C HAPTER ONE
S A FETY PRECAUTION S
fuelling \"ehidcs havc ro be poslUoncd so that they do not have to rcvcrse in

o rder to leave the zone. \\ ncn fuelling or de-fuclling operations arc in progress
o nly aut ho rised \'chidcs and persons are allowcd inside the fuelling zonc.
G round power units and "eludes must be pos itioned well deu of the aircra ft
fuelling and vcnting poin ts. Thc Airport AUlhority may restri ct o r prohibit
fuelling o perations during lightning risk periods. \Vc rcyisit fuclling/de-fuclling
procedures in Chapter 17.
Fuel Spi ll s
These arc taken \'Cry seriously, nm jus t because of the fire risk thcy prescnt but
also because of rhe risk to Local Authority drainage systems and the local
waterways if the spill tilfearens to oycn.... helm the airpOrt drainage tmps. The
fines arc significant! T he _\Upon Operations I nsrrucuons will contain the
procedure to be followed and me agencies to contact in the evcnt of a fuel
spill. In gcneral renns, me source of the spill should be shut off or limitcd if
possible. Ali sources of ignition should be remm-ed or IIlhibilCd. All engines in
ground power unitS and ychides in the area should be turned off and the area
should be cordoned off to preyent furthe r access. I f the spill IS significant,
effortS should be made to limit the spread and the area should be c\'acua ted if
deemed necessary in the interests of safety.
E m e rge ncies
The emergency scn'lces internal telepho ne number at airports IS no rmally 'all

the t\\'os' i.e. 2222 . The senior fire offi cer present is normally the no mi nated
incident controller and rou should ens ure that you meet, direct and brief
him/her and comply with any instructions that you Illay be gh-en.
Ap~(W Control
11)\.)6 -
-~"l\\':'~":'" The ,\irpon .\uI:horit)' operates and malntains the airport f.'l.ci lities. In many
~ ~,,~\' L cases, this task is sub-contacted [0 a specialist aircraft handling company. All
. ,\....'- \,. requests for airpon controlled equipment, including fu el and towing vehicles
0"\''<:' may ha\'c 10 be passed through a dedicated control point [hat allocates these
(. facilities on a priority basis. Some resident airlines have thei r own handling
eqUIpment.
The Local Air Traffic Controller deals wim clearances to tow aircraft o r run
main engines and their instructions have to be complied with at all times. Thi~
realiy tells you that you cannot just please yourself on an apron - there ar£:
rules. Airports employ security personnel who have a remil to en force airsidf
safety so it is not a quesnon whether you \"ill be caught breaking the rules bit
rarher whcn you will be caught. The penalties can be scvere and range fr ~il
suspension of permits to instant dismissal. .?f
Task Ligh ting ~"
" not
'rhe Q\'crhcad pylon lights are capa ble of illuminnting che area bur rhi~ocs
help when pcrsonnel are working under aircraft o r in equipment bays. There is
19
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CHAPTER ONE
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a danger that the lighting in these areas ma), be well below what would be
considered adequate for conducting maintenance msks. Hand held torches may
seem to be an idcal solution bur thcir batteries gradually deplete and they do
restrict the user to one-handed operations. You need to ensure that task
lighting is adequate and of an approved flamepro of type. Lighting is onc area
where there is a risk of complacency and a 'can do' attitude whcn personnel are
working at night in the open ..\nother consideration is glare. \\then using
porrablc lighting units or vehicle lights you must be conscious that the glare
can affect other apron users who may require night adapted ';sion.
Foreign Object Damage (FOD)

The detritus of maintenance work can range from off-cuts of locking wue and
split pins to nuts, screws, bolts and washers. All these objects pose a serious
safety risk to all aircraft types when they are carelessly dropped ooro the apron.
Assorted litter in the fonn of drinks cartons and plastic bags can be blown
omo the apron from rhe airpOrt surrounds and \'c!licle eyre treads can also
impo rt stoncs and grit. rf any of these objects arc drawn intO the intakes of
opcracing turbi ne engines they can cause cat:ls rrophic damage. They can also
be picked up and drawn through rot:lting propellers causing seriolls notch
damage to the blades. -nlese are the most publicised hazards but there is also a
risk that FOD can be picked up in lligh velocity jet blasts and flung onto
personnel or OntO neighbouring aircraft to lodge in intakes, \'ems and control
hinge apermres. There is also a risk that some of these objects will become
embedded in aircraft and vehicle tyres and be carried out onto the
manoeu\'ring area. I have seen lengths of locking wire woven into a bird nest
that was constructed in a flap track void on a parked aircraft. Aircraft eyres
ha\'e burst on take-off and landing, in one \vell-reported case with very tragic
results, when they have encountered foreign objects on the rUllway. All
personnel who, ~ik in the vicinity o f aircraft need to be diligent in disposing
of l;qp '2.~"'H~o suitable containers. It is essential that the apron is kept
(-.c tll[:SUiously clean.
, ,,;I:t
' ¢'
:','\\ .
-
.....- Freezing Conditions
,
. . ~~.
The apron surface can become extremely slippery during freezing conditions
and care is required when walking, driving or handling equipment. Particular
care is required when manoeuvring vehicles or hea,,)" equipment ncar aircraft.
There haye been a number of reported incidents of collisions and subsequent
structural damage resulti ng from personnel underestimating stopping distances.
When an apron is dc-iced, or is affected by de-icing fluid from aircraft, ir is
initially very slippery and care must be exercised.
I hope that you have found the above discussion useful in orienting yourself ro
what to expect when working on an airport apron. It is one area where you
have 10 work alongside people who are engaged in equally important tasks that
also re{luire them (0 observe safe practices. I n turn , they also rely on you
obser...ing the rules. This alone justifies rbe inclusion of tills topic in this
chaprer.
20
COp]nJ!,hl Q &'D' Co/ltgt ::006 . 200 - All nghls rmr.'td 1J'IJ',v.parl66.tVm
CHAP T ER O N E
SAFETY PRECA U T I ONS
Line Maintenance
Staying wIth aircraft, we will now take a look at some of the safe pracnces
associated with line maintenance. Aircraft arc comple..'.; systems that are
pnma.ri1y designed to be in the air rather than sitting on the ground. Like anr
machine, aircraft require maintenance and their systems need replenishing. The
chocking, securing, jacking, towing, refu elling! de-fuelling, de-icing/ anti-icing
and storage procedures and the associated precautions are all topics coycrcd in
section 7-17 of the syllabus so we will not deal \vith these at this stage.
Additionally, \ve will deal \\1th fire precautions and tire extinguishing
equipment later in this chapter.
The _Aircraft r.Iaintenance Manual is the guiding publication for all equipment
\vhen it is ins talled in an aircraft. The ATA Spec 100 (now incorporated in to
AT A i Spec 2200) format o f this manual is coyered in section 7-5 o f the
syllabus. All Aircraft !"[amtenance r-.hnuals contain infonnation on s tandard
practices, the safety precautio ns associated with individual maintenance
processes and the specifications for the approved fluids and gases to be used.
It is essential that maintenance personnel observe the authorised procedures
and use only the approved products. Component !'>.faintenance Manuals arc
prm~id ed for equipment that is removed from the aircra ft.
\Ve will make a start b y taking a look at some general prccautions to be taken
when working in and around aircraft.
General Precautions - Working in and Around Aircraft

1. Wear appropriate clothing. \\?ear suitable foom·ear to avoid scratching
surfaces or scu ffing anti-corrosi\'e treatments. Do not wear foo twear
w1th steel ups that could cau~e ::;parks Ensure that overalls arc clean,
'"loIS" intact and pwperl\.' fastened and that the pockets are sealed to prevent
'"I\§)6 - -
\\ c!,!.t: - loose objects dropping into the aircraft strucrure. Do not carry
. Cp l' " unnecessary 1oose objects In pockets. Do not wear jewellcry. Do not
'"' ~~~5"
'- <..., carry any means of uncontrolled ignition such as non-sa fety matches or
:-:...:..\~ lighters in or around the aircraft. Ensure you arc in possession of
(r'\l apprm·ed ear defenders and are weartng these on the line when
auxiliary power unitS o r main engtnes are running in the ·dcinity (S.e.-e
N oise - Precautions and Limits). Do wear app ropriate cold wea~
clothing when required. "-:3..
'T-
o
2. Be aware that it can rake up to an hour to gain fully night-adaptecb.
vision when moving [rom a brightly lit area to a dark area. The cye¥
adapt faster when moving from a dark area to a brightly lit area but t~
glare is initially a problem. This is a problem often overlooked \v~n
working at night on a line. Do consider others when you are usfug
bn ght light sources. '":l
"0 "'
3. Aircraft mus t be connected to an effeccive earth point before /l~ng, '"'
de-fuelling, fuel transfer or \vork on o x--ygen systems is to ~v carricd
out. Reliance on the conducting nose or tail wheels is noi-' normally
considered sufficient in these instances. Other systems work may
21
COJ!Yrighf © Bar,)· Collt~ 2006 - 2007 All FighfJ mervrd Il'IVW·P(l,166.rom
CHAPTER ONE
S AFET Y PRECAUTION S
require that the aircraft is connected ro an effecrin eardl and this will
normally be indicated in the Aircraft r-,'Iaimenance Manual.
4. Approved fire exti nguishers should be loc:lled where they 3rc easily
recognised and easily accessible. Check that you know how to operate
them.
J . Aircraft should be correctly chocked Wilh the appropriate clean covers.

blanks and locks fitted where necessary.
6. \"'\l1en operating aircraft systems on the ground you need to be aware

of the effect this will have on the aircraft and any other systems that
may be activated as fl result of yOLlr actions.
7. \'Chen mo\-ing night controls o r selecting motoriscd cqtUpmem you

must ensure that their movement is not obstructed by ground
equipment and that they do nO( present a hazard LO other personnel.
8. \'\llcn applying ground electrical, hydraulic or pnewnaci.c power to an

aircraft you must ensure that the flight deck controls are not set [0 a
position where equipment will be activated [0 mm-e unexpectedly and
pose a hazard to other personnel or foul ground equipment.
9. \'nen opening a component or system, the operation should be

carried out in a controlled fashion to avoid dust, grit etc. emenng.
_"-pproved, clean blanks should be used where appropriate.
10. Replenishment equipment sbould be kept clean and only used \\lith the
fluid that it is dedicated for. AU fluid containers should be kept sealed
when out of use and the contents should not be used if contamination
is suspected or the identity is sllspect.
11. \~'l"ffiO rc~9;;lling> de-fuelling or transfercing fuel, do ensure that there

o\\..:'t-Q~\ no obstructions under or around the aircraft that will foul the
{(" (. strucrure when the aircraft settles or moves as a result of changes [0
\w
~,\. '- the centre of gravi[)'.
\~
,,\""(
(. ~,'\
12. Take ca rc not to introduce corrosion or fatigue risks by scratching dIe
aircraft paint finis h or scoring the ai.rcraft structure through careless
use of rools and equipment.
13. Ensure that alrcra ft electrical bonding wires and static dischargers nre
left in tact and connected after wo rk has been completed.
14. Ensure that all work areas arc clear of tools. egwpment and debris
before signing off work. Do include the surrounding floor areas in
four checks.
IS. Fuel and oil spillages must be cleaned up immediately. ~ta n y of these
fluids present a fire risk and will also create spongy regions if lher
impregnate the rubber of aircraft (yres. l>. fodern ester oils can strip
cellulose and acrylic paintS and also act as an irritant ro human skin as
well as bei.ng very toxic. Contact with these oils and aviatio n rurbine
22
uppi.ghl C Bnrry C(JIIIgt :006 - :!OO - A D righfJ trJtf1Jtd
CHAPTER ONE
SA FETY PREC A U T ION S
fuel is a major cause of dcnnatitis. Prolonged contact can lead to morc

serious long-term health problems. Pcrsonncl should makc use of
barrier cream and be diligent in wearing protectiyc clothing and
washing affectcd areas of ski n. r can assure you that you will remembcr
this if you cver get contarninated \vith phosphate ester-base oils such
as Sk'ydrol or Chcnon B. 'l"urbine fuels can also cause vcry painful
burns to sensitive areas of the skin.
I ha,'e included a lot of safe practices in the foregoing bur the list is not
exhaustive. }'1any of these are purely denved from COTnInon sense and that is
going ro be the one human system thar needs to be permanently 'switched
on'. \\"'e are now going ro rakc a look at some sa fe practices that arc spccific to
parricular hazards. These apply wherever you may be working.
Dress
T he form of dress worn will depend on the environment but there are a few
general precautions that must be observed. A workshop may contain movmg
machinery tha t can snag clothing, Cnls b fingers and throw metal swarf into the
eyes. Equally, aircraft also haye sharp protrusions and moying parts that can
snag or crush the unwary. Most machines, including aircraft, have \'oids that
\vill trap fo reign objects in the moying parts.
Personnel should not \vear jewellery. Rings, necklaces and earrings can be
snagged in moying machinery or on projections and have been the cause of the
most dreadful injuries. The slee\Ces of overalls should be securely fastened and
tics or scan-es should not be worn for the same reasons. Overalls should be
clean and not ha\-e torn or loose material dlat can be snagged and mey should
hayc secure Vclcro type fastenings. Long hair is another ITap hazard ""hen
\vo~ with powered equipment - if you must have it, wear a hair net.
"1 \}\)0 - ...
_ \\c'Lc ...
. l .I."l\' -
~ \~ ].~{'
L'
\.i;:.'1.. ". E lectrical Safety
,,;< .
U,~ ·
Virtually all the environments where aircraft maintenance is carried out will
contain electrical power sources. The human body is an electrical conductor::-
it contains water and is co>crcd in perspiration so we must have no dOl~
about its capacity to act as a conductor. \\"11cn electrical current passes througJi
tbe body it will affect the central nervous system and the muscles. This caq,
produce muscular spasms that may 'freeze' tbe grip, the respiratory system anct
the heart. There is also the likelihood that the 'victim' will suffer burns at d"f
entry and exit points of the electrical current. Sparks from electrical equipm<At
also create fire and explosion risks when the equipment is used in ar~s
containing flanunable gases or substances. ::?
f,v
People are at .ask o f becoming m-er- familiar with the use of many of th€1'lnore
common portable electrical po\vcr tools and oftcn fa il to crcat th,f~ \\o;th
proper care or recognise the risks associated ,,·; th using them in wet c&'ndirions.
These are a major cause o f accidents involnng electrocution in the workplace.
23
COPJ'rigbt © BaI"Q' Colltge 2006 - 2007 All right; mend u'lUW.pmI66_ colll
CHAPT E R ONE
S AF E T Y PREC A UTION S
\,\'hen faced with a person who has been electrocuted you should nO[ touch the
"'ictims' skin with your bare hands under any circumstances until you have Cut
off the electricity supply. If the 'dcrim' has been electrocuted br a high voltage
supply, sllch as that found in mains power external distribution lines or
overhead cables, and is either still in contaCi with the source or is lyi ng within
20yds of it, you must nm approach until the power has been cut off. EleClrical
power from these high voltage sources can 'a rc' over considerable distances
and comact with them is invariably fatal. \~'ith those cheerful thoughts in mind
we will look at a few ways of ayoiding becoming a "'icti01'. There arc quite a
few 'dos and don'ts' and many of them are simply 'common sense'.
1. Always check that the supply voltage is compatible "~th the equipment.
Always ensure that the current is switched off when connecting or
disconnecting electrical tools and equipment from the mains outlets .
. \lways ensure lhar the tools or equipment are selected off before
switching on the mains power to them.
2. _h'oid handling electrical equipment when you arc smnding on wet

floors or you are wearing wet footwear. Ths just pro,·ides a path to
'eanh' and completes tbe li"f"e circuit thar you may have become a pan
of. Do nm handle electrical equipment with wet hands.
3. Most 240V electrical ground equipment is fined with a three-core cable

th:u includes an eanh "ire. Ensure [hat all electrical equipment is
correcdy earthed. Frayed, pulled and badly kinked cables or exposed
wires may produce a situation where an exposed Ih-c conductor
contacts the earth conducror. \\'hen dlls occurs, [he eCluipmell1 body
will become live and comact with it will put you in the live circuit. Do
not use eCluipmenr that bas damaged cables or cracked connectors.
-L \,\'here step-down transformers are required, ensurc [hal these arc of

the corr~\\hvoltage rating and are serviceable.
'"I\"-'u -
. U':»":'~\~'here residual cllrrem detectors are fitted, check that these operate
• \\~<'t' when tested.
~
,,\'\.
,<'-'
,
• 1....."\. 6. Electrical current Oo\\"ing through a cable produces heal in proportion
to lhe resistance of the cable. If the currem being drawn by the
equipment is higher than the rating of the cable there is a risk that the
cable insulation will o\-erhear. melt or bum and [he equipment bod"
mar become lh-c as a result.
7. Neyer use extension leads that contain cable that has [00 Iowa raring
for the equipment. Always unwind extension leads fully o r there is a
...,:
\"ery high risk that the cable insulation will melt through overhcating.
8. Do not Q\'crload power outlet sockets.
9. Isolate equipmen t from the power source before attempting to

disman tle or carry out adjustments to equipmenr.
24
upJnjhl e Bony CD/~ ::006· :!OO- rWrighls mm~d J111'J1>.part66.rp",
CH A PTER ONE
SAFETY PRECAU T IONS
10. Do nm carry or hang electrically powered eqll1pment from the supply

cables.
11. Do not leave supply cables and extension leads trailing on the fl oor
where tbey may be run over by equipment or pose a trip hazard to
personneL
12. Report all electrical faults immediately, disconnect the cCjuipment from
the supply and do not attempt to use it until a competent person has
properly repaired it.
13. Remember that the latest Buildings Regulations state that only NICE1C
accredited persons can work on the mains electrical installations in
buildings so do nor permit unauthorised persons to repair or modify
these installaoons .
1-L l\hvays ensure that fuses or Clrcuit breakers arc o f the correct ....alue and
make sure that the faults that cause them to blow or trip arc p roperly
investigated. Do not keep replacing or re-setting circui r protection
devices that continue to fail. Always ensure tbat replacement circuit
protection devices are of the correct rating.
IS. Ensme that all electrical equipment is inspected before use for o bvious
damage and that it has been re-inspected at the stipulated intervals by a
competent person.
16. EleCTrical equ1pment should not be used in areas where there are
flammable gases or substances present unless the equipment is
specifically cleared for use in such areas .
17. Electrically powered hand tools must never be connected to lighting

_sockets because they will not be earthed.
("It! - 0\'1'
~
, "cce ~'J 18. \\fhen connecting an external electrical power source to an aircraft you
C,\~\ "
("\{'\:~ must first check that the supply \'oltage, frequency and phase are
:\ i,; ". compatible \,,;th the aircraft system. ·n1e ground suppl)' must be
~0Jt switched off prior to connection and you must ensure that the ground
U"'·~ · to aircraft connector is clean, dry and undamaged . "n1C connector must
be full" mated before the supply is s\\;tchcd on. Always check that t~e
aircraf~ electrical system instruments are d1en registering the requir~
voltage and freCjuc;1CY readings. -:::;.
%
19, \'{!hen moving items o f ground equipment you must take care that the)~
"
do not foul overhead electrical lighting or supply cables or run ov~
electrical cables on the ground . This is a real hazard that is someti.m~
overlooked i.n busy hangar and apron environments. p
Agalll, J must emphasise that the list 1S not exhaustive and common s",v '"
;"..0
#nse
must always prevail.
<f
"
'"
~
25
Copyight ·:&J Bo,?)" Colleg~ 2006 - 2007 All right! IrJmed n'IJ'W.porl66.tWll
C H AP T E R ON E
SAFETY P R ECAUTI ON S
Compressed Gases - Aircraft & Workshop

Compressed gases are found in use in hangar, workshop and apron
environments. Compressed nitrogen is inert and is used to inflate aircraft lyres.
landing gear struts and hydraulic systcm brake accumulators whilst compressed
oxygen is used to replenish crew oxygen s}'Slems and. in older aircraft types,
the passenger o"-ygcn systems. Compressed helium is used in some instruments
and is also used 10 fill airships. Compressed acetylene and oxygen will be
encountcrcd in welding shops whilst compressed air supplies are used to power
pneumatic tools and test rigs. in rhis last case, thc compressed air is normally
fed to inS[alIed storage cylinders before being distributcd around the work area.
You may identify thc pipelines d1:tt carry shop compressed air by their light
blue colour.
l\1an~' firc cxtinguishams arc of a vaporising rype where a fluid with a low
vapour pressure is stored i.n a steel cyli nder that delivers a high-p ressure flow
of \"":lpour when the discharge \":tJ\'c is opened. Some fluid extinguishants arc
pressurised with nitrogen or carbon dioxide. Other extinguishers contain an
inert gas under pressure and the most f.,miliar of these is carbon dioxide. \'-e
will deal with pressurised extinguishcrs later in this chapter.
All compressed gases present seriolls hazards. The high pressure ca n blast dust
and grit into the eyes and pinhole leaks in pipes can create jets of compressed
gas that can inject the skin and blood vessels \\~th potentially fatal results.
Oxygen can react with petroleum products to calise spontaneous fire and
cxplosions. Although it does 00[ itself burn, oxygen is highly reactivc and can
chcmicall), combine with a ,-cry wide range of substances and make them
flammable.
All compressed gas bottle discharge stop "akes and pressure-regulating nlh-es
should be operated by hand pressure onl),. YOli should nevcr attempt to
m~chanica 1!y fO~Rt1~or hammer ~ seized valve. I f ~ compressed gas bottle is
1111streatc(h.w.Y:ldr6pped and dle discharge stop valvc IS fracNrcd, lhe rcaction to
the. ,CSC:tpfng gas can propel the bottle like a missile. In rhc same vein, if air
\\~~aeliverr hoses arc not connected, a high-pressure discharge of gas from them
~" ., can causc thcm to snake and whip around .
. ~"I.~
.:. ~'V.. .
.A particula.r hazard associated with fhe lISC of compressed gases during ai rcrnfr
maintenance is the selection of tbe "'TOng gas. '111e thought of charging an oil
filled landing gear strut with high-pressure oxygen is not a pretty onc! So, we
can Ha.rt this section by learning to recognise some of me comprcssed gas
cylinder.;.
.:;J
26
CDp)"'jht 0 &my Colb§ ::006 - JO()- All rights rtstn~d ='1Ioa,.parl66.mm
CHAPT E R ONE
SA FE T Y PRECAUTIONS
Gas CYlinder Colour Lettering Prcssure(max)
,\ir u ght grey .\IR (block) 4000psi (2'0 b,,-)
i'iuugcn ught g rey wIth NITROGEN (black) 4000psi (rO bar)

black neckhand
Oxygen Black with white Ol\)'GF.l,\: (\\-hitc) 600 psi (248 bar)
neck hand
Acet\·lene ;\[aroon .\CETYLENE (\"'hite) 225 psi (15.4 bar)
Helium Brown mI 2500 psi (170 ba r)
Table 1.1- Identifieation of Compressed Gas Cylinders
Storage of Compressed Gas Cylinders

Compressed gas cylinders should be fined with tmnspowuion caps oyer their
stop Yah-cs and be stored in unheated, well-venwared buildings and not
exposed to direct sunligbL Bortles should not be in direct contact with any
cover. Wfhere combustiblc gases are stored, the lighting shouJd be flameproof
and there should be no sources of heat, sparks or fire. Full and empty bottles
should be stored in sepanue rooms and oJo..-ygen and combustible gases sLlch as
acetylene should not be stored together. Aviation breathing oxygen and
welding oxygen bottles should be segregated. Bordes should not be placed on
damp ground or exposed to any corrosive substa nces o r conditions. Acetylene
cylinders should always be stored in an upright position. Bottles with rounded
bottoms may be stacked horizontally but no more than four high and they
sho1fi'\\"be wedged to prevent movement.
11)'Uo-
• '·,cc,c'"
l.l'\ .
'. \w((~
.f,,§-'-!,; General P recaution when Charging Gaseous Systems
- 0';;:': .
L· I will JUS t gi,e ~-ou some general precautions at chis stage. Further precautions
arc required depending on the gas involved and these will be shown under t~e
respective headings. 3_
~
,
1. E nsure that you have the correct speci fication gas for the system o~
component and that the pressure remaining in the borrles is adequate.:;:
,"
2. When charging an aircraft system \\~th a high-pressure gas, the bot~
must be connected to a p ress ure r egu/fIlor before being connectect!0
an aircraft system or component. The ground servicing trW1-Cy
normally incorporates a pressure regulator. This is essential to ~ ow
control over the pressure after the storage bottle Stop vah-e is opened.
Connection of a borcle directly to a component like a;:C,uyre or
accumulator will inevitably carry a '-cry serious explos ion risk~
27
Cl1p)'righl CJ &"!J Cl1luS! 2006 • 200 - All rigbt1 rmrwd 1l'1l71'.ptlrf66. CPH1
CHAPTER ONE
SAFETY PRECAUTION S
3. Before connecting a deli"ery hose to a system. the hose should be

inspected to ensure that it is clean and free of debris, moisture, oil or
grease. All hose outlets should be properly blanked when not in usc.
Beetles and other 'creepy crawlies' love to explo re opcn hoses but do
no! ~lppreciate being blown into an m crafl system! Purge the dcli,'cl}
hose with gas to clear il of ambient alI' lind moisnJre before connecting
it to the charging poinr.
-1-. All charging operations should be carried OUI slowly. Raising pressures
quickly creates excessi"e heat from tbe compression and this increases
me risk of explosive reactions with contaminants. Additionally, when
compressed gas is expanded qUlckly through restrictions such as
inflation or charging \'alves there is a high risk that any mo isture
contained in tbe gas will instantly freeze and block the ,alve .
.). FinaIl)" when charging is complete, it is a very good idea to close the
aircrllfr sySTem charging \'<Ike lind the borde discharge stop ,-a1n:! and
tben slowly release the pressure in the charging line by closing the
pressu re regulator valve before lIttempting to remo,e rile charging
bose from the aucmft.
6. Do nor expose gas cylinders to an external hear source, as Ihis can

cause a dangerous rise in pressure in the bottle. Do not mishandle a
bottle - a fracrnred stop \'a!ve can transfonn it into a gas-propelled
rocket!
Compressed Air
This is the cheapest compressed gas and comists of 21 % oxygen, 78%,
nitrogen and 1~t)l..p.re gases plus some absorbed moisrure. The presence of
oxygen h~~IJ1,acre it unpopular as a gas for many aircraft uses because of the
ri~SPl1:~ explosive reaction bct:ween tbe oxygen in the air and any oil or grcase
,,~'(aeposils when the air is suddenly pur unde r \Tery high pressure. This effect is
'\~'\\ L. appropriately called 'dieseling'. Compressed air also has a high moisture
- (,~,\ - content making it unsui.Iable for many uses. It is still used to charge the
\.. pressure storage accumulators in high-pressure pneumatic systems and the
low-pressure tyres found on some light aircraft types.
Care needs to be taken with all compressed air systems in that they produce
free water by condensation that can pass through connected equipment and
can ice up at low temperatures or pressures. In the longer tem1, the water
poses a corrosion risk. \'(/hen water traps are provided 10 pneumlltlc systems
they have to be drained on a frequent basis.
Compressed air is also the favoured choice for workshop air systems and is
used for example to power pneumatic tools, test rigs and plastic media Strip
plants. In this Cflse, the supplies are at significllndy lower pressures than those
contained in compressed air systems provided for aircraft use.
28
Cupyigbl 0 Barry Collfgt :!OO6 - 200- All right! rmT1Jtd 1I'11111'j>flr166.(O",
CHAPTER ONE
SA FET Y PRECAUTIONS
Extreme care needs to be taken when high-pressure air systems spring leaks.
The favoured method for leak checking is to use mild soapy water and a brush.
Ho\\"cyer, in most cases. the leak can be heard in quiet surroundings . You
should never check high-pressure gas systems for leaks by hand. Care also
needs to be taken that workshop shop air hoses are properly connected to
pneumatic LOols. The hoses may sna ke and whip if they suddenly become
disconnected.
Low Pressure Air Systems
Aircraft lo\v pressure pneumanc sys tems use hot air at -1-5 pSI. for the air
condinoning, thermal ant-icing and engine air start system s. The only occasion
that you will haye to supply this air o n the ground is when using a low-pressure
air trolley. There are a couple of precautions to keep in mind. The air is very
hot, over 100 degrees centigrade, and this can cause burns to the skin if you
put your hands in its path or on the ducting. The supply ducting has a diameter
o f J to 4 Inches and a surprising catalogue of apron wild li fe, seeking warmth
in tbe cold weather, \vill easily access this if it is left open . .All low-pressure air
ground supply hoses must be blanked off when not in use.
Cabin conditioning trolleys are often used in hot weather to cool aircraft cabins
on dle ground. These have large diameter delivcry trunking that is large enough
to house feral cats! I t has happened! These ducts must always be covered
when not in usc.
Aviation Breathing O",. ygen

O:..-ygen is an odourless, colourless and tasteless gas. 1t is very reacti,·e and will
combine with \'irtually any element or compound. Reactions between fuels and
pur~ ~"'-ygen produce sufficient beat to inirutre a fire that will then be sustained
"11."\c.~y- tfile oxygen. Contact with oil and grease deposits, for example, can cause
. (,.....,\\co;c - spontaneous combustion. Oxygen is not in itself flammable - it merely
T \,;,>~(': supports combustion. The problem is that many substances that would not
_,"'. . ~ normally be considcred fuel s become highly flammable when they arc in
(,.....,(('<...\":'" contact with high concentrations of m.'}'gen.
Gaseous o xygen is uscd in flight crew and sometimes passenger emcrgen!;y

systems both 10 6...xed installations and in portable 'walk round' sets. T~
oxygen that is used is called Adaoon Breatlung Oxygen or, in the US, Aviator~
Breathing Oxygen. The commercial specifications of oxygen used for weldin~
and medical purposes are not suitable fo r aviation use because they have to~
high a moisrure content. A\-iation breathing oxygen has maximum moistu ~
content limit of no m ore than 0.002% or 2ml per litre. The reason why thisJ:"s
so important is that any moisture condensing oul of the gas will freeze· at h~h
altitudes or if it is expanded toO rapidly through restrictors. This will blod <i}th e
system regulators and valves and stop the f1qw . .A funher problem£with
moisture is that it will accelerate corrosion in the bottle because ,oq' the
oxidising influence of the pure m;ygen - it also creates a bad sm~ in the
breathing oxygen supply. It is -drall)' important that YOli do not inadvertently
29
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CHAPT E R ONE
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introduce mOisture 111[0 the gas when you arc tasked \\;th charging oxygen
sysTems.
1 think timt you will have now become aware that m;ygcn requires careful
handling. When this done it is as safe as ao)' other gas. I will list some of the
important precautions .. \gain. c o rnfllOn sense prcYrtils.
I. Nc"cr charge an air or nitrogen system \vlth oxygen. The mixture \\;11
prescnt a significant fire and explosion risk. These systems ha\'e
different charging connectors to prevent you from inadvertently doing
this. Never mi.x oxygen \\·; th other gases.
2. Ensure that you are using the correct speciticacion of oxygen. Tbe
bottles arc black with white hemispherical tops and arc marked with
rhe word O-xl'GEN and me chemical symbol 02 in white lenering.
The bottle also carries rhe warning 'CSE NO OIL O R GRc..\SE' in
red lenering on a whire background. .Americans usc green as [he
identifying colour for m.")·gen bortles. If in doubt - check.
3. Do nOt attempt ro re-charge an o:\,gen cylinder that has been fullr

discharged. There is a strong possibility [hat it contains condensed
moisture and it will need purging by the contracrcr..\ircmfl srs1em
bottles have 1800psi ma..... so [here is little point in using a t.ransport
baltic lhal has below this because you \\--iJ1 not be able to fully charge
the system.
4. Ensu re that there is no moisture, oil or grease on the cCluipmcnt and

lools or in the vicinity. This includes your hands and you r clothing.
5. Ensurc that clolhing worn during oxygen system servicing is kept clean
and dry and is only worn for dlac purpose. Personnel should wear
clean lint-\r.ce cotton gloves. Remove clothing and hang it in a well·
"'ilWiou?a\\ area for at least a '1uarter of an hour afler completing the
lP\\': -~ask. Oxygen will penetrate fabrics and make them highly flammable. If
,,).~(' rou light a cigarette, or come imo direct comaet with one, in the crew
;......\ '- rest room after work you could just as likely go up in flamesl
.~\~
, " -,' 6. Do not expose oxygen to a source of sparks or fire. :\ small fire rapidly
becomes a "ery big one in the presence of oxygen.
7. Ensure that you ha\'e a pressure regulator in the line between the
transport bottle and the aircraft or component charging poim.
8. \Xllen charging aircraft systems ensure that the area is well ventilated
and that the aircraft is earthed. Also ensure that the grollnd charging .~
troUey is earthed. Place NO S1IOKING signs oursidc rhe aircraft and

avoid all testing of electrical or radio systems. Ensure that an
approprt:lte fire extinguisher is positioned where it can be easily
accessed.
9. Do not allow the open eod of a charging hose to trail in puddles or on

damp ground. J\lways clean rhe charging hose connection \vlth dry
30
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CHAPTER ONE
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lint-free cloth to remO\'e any m oisture. Open the regulating valve

slowly and allow a low flow o f m;ygcn out of the hose to purge it of
moisture and air for about 30 sec before connecting it to a charging
point. Keep the flow on whilst connecting the hose to ayoid
introducing air into the system.
10. Always open vah-es slowly by hand and do not altempt to force them.
Keep charging rates low to prevent creating excessive heal.
11. \Vhen charging is complete, you should close the aircra ft system
charging \'alve and the transport cylinder stop valve before releasing
the charging line pressure by closing the regula tor valve slowly to
prcyent a rapid release of pressure.
12 . .Always blank off any open ports in m...ygen system s and charging hoses
when these are not in use.
13. N ever lubrica te the threads of o:-..-ygen equipment \\o;th o il or grease.
14. O xygen that emits a bad smell is mos t cerralnly contaminated with
mOlsture. Do nor use it.
Chemical OX'Ygen Generatocs
Chemical oxygen generators produce oxygen by burning a candle of sodium

chlorate in the p resence of iron powder in a steel cylinder. The chemical
reaction produces a fl ow of low-pressure oxygen . These generators are now
widely used to supply passenger emergency oxygen 'drop down' masks. A
generator is activated when a fi.ri.ng lanyard attached to the mask triggers a
firing rpecharusm. \Vhen fired, a coloured band on the s teel container changes
"l0cR91an~' to indicate timt the generator has been expended .
. (,o""e~c. -
".
,''loP
C hemical oxygen generators are completely safe as there is no oxygen p resent
• v'
~ until they are activated . It is \'ery important, however, that the correct
. ;...,'.
, ...\\2' protection cap is fined m-er the firi ng end when the generator is remm-ed,
-<..'~
~. transported or stored. If tlus is not done there is a risk o f snagging the lan),ard
and inadvertently activating the firing mecharnsm. 1\ m..... jor air disas ~
occurred in America when a conSignment of chemical oxygen genera tog;
caused an intense fire in an aircraft baggage hold because they were n~
equipped with rhe correct protecti\-e caps. :::
Nitrogen f
0-
Nitrogen is a colourless, odourless inert gas that is not flammable and \viJ(not
support combustion or oxidation. f or that reason, it is now the fa Wi..l[ed
"
choice for mflating tyres, charging landing gear oleos and brake £ ressure
accumulators . Some aircraft systems require lugh purity nitrogen th:&11as low
moisture content. The precautions for charging aircraft syslems with nitrogen
31
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arc similar to the general precautions given cartier in this section except thai
(here is no fire risk associated wim this gas. It is still important to purge the
charging line so as not [0 imroduce air intO a sysrem when charging and to usc
a pressure regulator.
Helium
This is a vcry liglu, colourless and odourless inen gas rhal is nOt flamln:lblc and
docs nOt support combustion or oxidacion. Helium is notable in tha I it will nO[
combine with oxygen or water. Its use on aircraft is \"ery limited but it mar be
found in some detectors, switches and instrument systems. It may also be
found in ii'luid form in cryogenic processes. Helium is also supplied as Balloon
Gas to fill airships and this specification has an air coment that is less than 2°10.
Bottles containing this gualitJ heliwn arc brown \\;th a cream ncckband.
Though heavier than hydrogen, it is the inert nature of helium [hat makes it the
attracti,·c choice. For those airship buffs, It is imponam not to inadvertently
introduce air when filling the bags, as this \\ill direct.lr affect buoyancy.
Acetylene
/\cerylcne is a colourless gas that has a disanctive and disagreeable smell and
will ignite instanlly if exposed to a spark or a hear source such as hOI metal. It
also has an:lesthetic properties and this coLlld pose a hazard to personnel.
I lowever, the fire and ex plosion risks are far higher. It burns with exceptional
light intensity, particularly in contact with oxygen, and care should be trIkcn to
protect the eyes with welding goggles to prevem 'Arc Eye' which wi ll damage
the sight. II is lIsed together with welding m...ygen in the oxy·acctylene welding
process. ;'i\n-:
"I\'I\~6
SReO)")(f ~p;ecalitions arc required not to confuse the oxygen and acetylene
~).~t\linders. \,(/elding o""ygen cylinders are b!ack and ha"e a right h:wded stop
valvc thread :lnd hose thrcads whilst acetylene cylinders are maroon and ha"e a
Icft handed stop \'al"e thread and hose threads. Thc twO cylindcrs also ha,"c
distincc\"c shapes. 'nle o"""}"gen cylinder has a rounded bottom whilst the
acerylene cylindcr has a flat base. Acet)"lene is '"cry reaco,'c when in contact
with some mctals and alloys, for example copper :wd siln:r, and can form
cxplosive compounds. The fire hazard associatcd "ith acct)'lene makes it
doubly important that the equipment does not leak. You must never attempt to
check for leaks with a naked flame. Soapy water and a brush is the favoured
F
-
method for dctccting leaks.
\Ve ha,'c now co\'cred [he gases that yOLi are most likely to encounter apart
from carbon dioxidc, which we will deal with later undcr fire extinguishants.
We will now movc on to examine the practices associated with oils and
chemicals.
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SAF ETY PRECAUTIONS
Oils
l11ere is a range of oils used on aircraft for: engine lubrication sysu:ms,
ancillary gearboxes, oil filled landing gear StrutS, hydraulic s~-stems and a host
of general lubrication pointS_ \'\-e need to look at these sepanHe1~'.
Turbine Engine Oils
Turbine engine lubricating oils are low viscosity, synthetic ester-base otis and
ace fonned from a cocktail of chemical compounds that arc toxic. First
generarion turbine oils are referred to as Type I oils. These do not meet the
operating requirements of modern gas turbines. Type 2 oils were dcYclopcd to
withsmnd the higher operating tempcrarures of later engines. 111e two types are
NOT compatible ·I.vith each other and must never be mixed together.
The irritant narnre of turbine engine lubricaring oils means that it is essential
that you read the safety instructions. Simply, you must avoid prolonged skin
canmer with these oils and you must neyer inadvcrrencir ingest them. In the
shorr [can, skin comact produces Demlaoos. In the longer Tenn, dlere is a risk
of health problems occurring as a result of prolonged comact and absorption
through the skin.
Ester-base oils are hygroscopic in thal they tend ro absorb moisture from the
air. It is imponanr that dispensing eguipmem and oil containers arc kept clean
and sealed. Dispensing equipment should be dedicatcd to one oil specification
and ne\"er be used for anything else. Open containers of oil should never be
used and they should be disposed of. Oil systems do not contaminate
themseh-es - it is people who introduce the contamination.
Ester-bilse oils are also aggressive to most aircraft paint ftnishes. Polyurethane
"1..,\RJ'li a~~.nis hes offer the best protection from them.
. i\\C.~o.:-
~~, LP T he safe IJtacnces associated with turbi ne enoinc oils should now be clear.
_
,,\,'1.
, \,.~' o·
, ~,,
. I. Never mL.... Type I and Type 2 oils rogether. So, check you have the
U'\; correct specification oil. It is in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual and
marked dose by the replenishment points. ,....
·6 ..,
2. \Vear protective gloves, apron and face shield when handling lhe oil§.
and are at risk of direct skin contact. .~
3. \\·ash hands thoroughly after contact with Ihe oil and do not smokq
drink or eat until you ha,e done this. Jf oil enters the eyes, seek medicjl
anennon. ,. ~
"-
0-
4. Ahvays use the correct dispensing equipment and make Sll r e it is cla n. ,~
2
::>. Clean up spillages immediately before they attack surf.'lce finishes~
'u
.§'
U
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6. Ensure you follow the correct repleni shment proceciurc. Turbine

engine oil tanks usually han (0 be rcplenished wiThin a given time of
cngine shut clown or there is a risk of overftlling the system.
Reciprocating Engine Oils

Reciprocating engines usc higher nscoslI)' mineral oils that often ha\"c a
detergent additivc. They are NOT compatible with rurbine cngines and, \-ice
versa, rurbine oils cannot be used in reciprocating engines. Unlike rurbine oils,
reciprocating oils get vcry diny with use and this increases their toxicity.
J\linernl oils arc aggressive to the skin, particularly when they arc dirty and carry
the products of combustion like carbon and gum deposits. The chief risk is
Demlatitis bur prolonged contact with old engine oil has been suspected of
being ca rcinogenic.
The safe pr:tclices are similar to those we have discussed. Do not usc the
wrong oil. The usc of thin turbine oil in a piston engine will quickly lead to
failure .. \lways usc the correct dedicated clean container to replenish the
system and do nOt introduce contaminants.
Hydrau lic Fluid
The low viscosity fluids used in aircraft hydraulic systems may be either
mineral based or synthetic oils. Vegetable oil was used:u one time but you arc
unlikely to find it in use LOday. Fire resisrant phosphate este r-based oils arc
now commonly llsed in modern systems bur mineral oil is still found in usc in
some aircraft sysIR\YlS and in landing gear shock absorbers. "111ese oi ls arc NOT
inrerchan!!wrblc ~~nd have a devastating effect on seals if the wrong oil is used.
Tltc;.ij,l-."'Ii~ompaubility is so pronounced cllat it is e\"en dangerous 10 maintain
\,;\{componems using mineral oil in the same area as components using the olher
~.\ ~ because of Ihe risk of cross comarnination. The seals and most of the flexible
"- '-...\......~~" hoses used arc also not imerchangeable. Din also quickly renders many
hydraulic components inopernuyc.
Vegetable and miner:t! oils are flammable but (he phosphate ester-base oils
carry a low fire risk in that ther are ,-ery fire resistam. They can burn in certain
conditions.
i\linernl oils arc not normally irritating when ther contact the skin. The
phosphate ester-base oils on the other hand cause se\'crc lrritation and are also
very aggrcssi\'c to all paint finishes except polyurethane. TI1e vapOUr5 from
phosphate estcr-base oils is sufficient to strip cellulose paints off walls and ruso
seem to be a vcr)' effective fly killer, looking at the hcaps of dead nies that
sornetimes accumulate on the window sills of hydraulic component bays!
These oils arc particularly irritating to the eyes and also to the respiratory
system ir the mist or vapours are inhaled.
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Hydraulic fluids absorb moisture from the annosphere and can become
contaminated by frce water as a result. It is essen,tial to keep containers tightly
sealed when not in usc. Phosphate ester oils can also become acidic when
overheated or contaminated.
The safe practices assocIated with hydraulic fluids should now be clear.
I. Always check that you have the correct specification fluid. Consult the
Aircraft Maintenance .:'Ilaoual and also check the markings on the
aircraft replenishment points. Ne\'er mL"; mine ral and synthenc fl uids
together.
2. \"\lcar protective glm'es, a face shield and an apron when replenishing

systems that use phosphate ester oils or when \vorking around
p rcssurised systems. \'Cash affected areas of the skin with soap and
water If you come into contact with either type of fluid. Do nOl
smoke, cat or drink until you ha\"e done this.
3. If the eyes arc affected, flush with water. If the eyes or respIratory
system are affected by phosphate ester oils YOLI should seek medical
aSSIs tance.
-I . Alwavs use dean sealed cans for replenishment or a dedicated, clean

scaled replenishment rig. If there is any suspicion that a fluid could
have become contaminated you must not use it.
Lubricating Oils
Lubricating oil~ are specified for components on the basis of their properties in
rciau(lf to the operating conditions of the component. J t is pointless applying
'\lClbW"\~scosity oil to a heavily loaded component thar runs at high temperatures
. U)\l.C~c - if the oil cannot maintain a film in those conditions. That is why it is essential
, 'b~~~"" to check that the correct specification oil is applied. It is also pOl!1tiess applying
:'1.,\ ~ the correct oil if ,au allow it to become contaminated with dirt, moisture or
~,~\~
(:--"'\ .
other oils and it b~caks down as a result.
T he message is to use the correct specifications and scrupulously cle\ID

equipment. Do not use ti1e same piece of equipment for different oils . AlwaS>
seal containers after use to prevent dirt and gn·t entering and do not mix oils . :;.
S-
Chemicals .-0
The very word, chemicals opens a 'Pandora's Box' of possibilities becallse~e
can descri be just about any substance as being a chemical. The chemicals ?ihat
we have most safety concerns about \vill fall under one o r more the i!'
following headings: flammable, corrosi\"e, toxic and chctn1cally reactiye:' They
mar be solids, liquids or gases. \\·e can look at a description for eac~i5 f these
groups and a few basic precautions that apply. In the latter case, you-'"\vill need
to consult the relevant material safety data sheet and the COSHH assessment
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fo r all substances that arc designated as being hazardous. These sou rces of
information :Ire explained :It the eod of tlus section.
F lammable Chemicals
Sparks, heat or a naked flame mar ignite chemicals in this category. They will
have a flash point, which is the lowest temperature at which the chemical
produces enough \'apour to burn should it be ignited. Ibis is Ilonnallr the
figure we would be most concerned about. Substances that we commonly meet
in this category arc fue ls, oils, solYCnts and paints.
Simple precautions indicated by the nature of these chemicals are:
I. Do nOt expose them to sources of sparks, heat or flame. This includes

sparks generated by static electrici~'. For example, aircraft. fuel tanken:
and bulk fuel conL.uncrs must be connected to eanh.
2. Do not bring more than you need into the workplace.
3. Ensure that there is adequate \'encilarion to prevent a dangerous

concentration of vapour. Remember the flash point.
-I. Keep containers scaled when not in use and cnsure they slored in a
designated flammable store.
5. Ensure they arc kept in a suitable container. Risks here stem from
decanting fluids into unsuitable containers that are affected by the
chemical.
6. Ensure there are adequate fire extinguishers available. Also ensure they
arc s('rv~~ble and thar YOU know how to operate them .
• 1.~"-\O .
_ ;,,\0;..;....
~..; (..'1. I f the chemical is ruso (Oxic \'oU should wear glO\-es and, if necessan"
~
Well[ a respirator.
. .
Dust
This is as good a place as anr lO draw attention [0 the danger that can be posed >
when high concentrations of airborne dust occur. People who operatc flour "1,
mills, grain storage tanks and wood saw mills will be more than aware that high '%
concenrrarions of dry dust mi:-;:ed in air foml a very high e..,<plosion risk and "
they take extensi\·c measures to exclude sources of naked flame, heat and
sparks from these areas. \,\'e should keep in mind that these are not the onlr
areas where dust may prcscm a hazard.
Corrosive Chemicals
These will rcact with and attack metals and will morc often (han not cause
burn s on your skin. Etching agents, battery electrolyte solutions and corrosion
36
CiJpyighl e ~'CtJlk§ :006 -:!OO - AIln'ghJI rtlfn1td ~'1I'lP.part66,(f)",
CHAPTER ONE
SAFETY P RECAUTIONS
remm-al o r passivauon fluids are a few examples of these. I"vfost corrosive

chemicals arc 10 liquid fonn but you ca n encounter powder fonns such as salts.
Use of these chemicals will need a few basic precautions :
1. E nsure tha t they do not corrode the container you put them in or any
containers that you store them near.
2. Do nor inadvertently let them contae[ sensitive material.
3. Ensure you do not leat'e anr residue when removing the chemIcal.
4. \\iear swrable protecove clothing such as goggles or a face-shield,

glm'es and apron .
J. Check the eyewash facility.
6. If the chemical is also toxic and/or flammable you must also take the
preca utions applicable [Q these hazards.
Toxic Chemicals
Toxic chemicals are poisonous and have the potential to cause injuries or
diseases in the body that can appear in the shorr or long Tenn. Examples o f the
diseases can range fro m illdusmal asthma to tlle deterioration of the fU Ilction
of internal organs and yarious cancers. Some toxins . such as solvents used in
cleaning plants, may have anaesthetic properties and produce effects similar to
intoxication. In the extreme, these may have narcotic effects that can be lethal
whilst others may attack the central nervous system and the immune sys tem.
They have a number of routes into the bod"\'. \Ve can breathe in the \'apOllr,
~1e }i~ can absorb liquids and pass them 'into the bloodstream and we can
','o.:\!'c ~\.\qiiadverteotly carry substances onto food and into drink and ingesr them .
. CP' '
\"\,;:,s"('
T.
Some substances may be hannless ill their delit-ered state but become harmful
. x.-\
:-:..(\~
~
when that state is altered through a work procc~s . For example, a solid may
(~'\ . produce harm ful dust when machined. A substance may emit hazardous fumes
when it is heated o r brought into contact with reactive chemicals . Higltl~,
yolatile and flammable toxins are likely to produce high concentrations 9f
o
vapours in poorly t"Cntilated areas. -~-
The precautions [0 be taken here will depend on facto rs such as the risk anet
the occupational exposure limit (OEL) given in the safety data sheet, and th,f
COSHH assessment applicable to the area you are working in and the wan;.:
, ,
process.
6'
1. Wear the required personal protectiye equipment and observe".'t he
exposure limits . t" '"'"
0\" "
2. Ch eck that the required environmental cpntrols are availabl~nd use
them. This may lOciude extraction fans, filters etc. Refer w "COSHH
asscssn1cnt.
37
Coppighl :0 BtII1)' Co/kge 2006 - 2007 All nghls wfrvtd
CHAPT E R ON E
SAFET Y PR ECA UTION S
3. If the chemical is also flammable ensure [hat yOll also absente the fire
precautions.
4. Be aware of any symp toms that may occur and eyacuate the area if the~'
arc recognised. Do nor forget to warn others in the vicinity and alert
the supervisor.
Reacti ve ChemicaJs
Rcacu"e chcmicals are those that experience a chemical change when they arc
brought into contact with other chemicals. r-. Iany chemical reactions il1"ol\'e
the releasc of heal cnergy. Depending on the reactivity of the chemicals. the
intensity of rhe reaction may range from a slow change in properties to a
violent explosion. Some chemical rC:1ctions may produce temperatures that
cause materials to ignite and burn. Examples of highly reactive chemicals arc
the catalysts and accelerators that arc used in composite repairs. Peroxide is a
good example of such a chemical. ~Iany surface treatmen! and plating
processes such as '.\lochrom' and cadmium placing invoh-e the usc of reactive
chemicals. Some reactions result in the emission of toxic ,-apours sllch as
phosgene, chlorine and ferro-cyanide.
Again, the precaurions will be related to [he type of chemical and what you arc
using it for and where. You really must check the COSHI I assessment.
I. \X 'car appropriate personal prorecti"e equipment.
2. Chcck the re'lwrcd elwironmenral comrols are in place and usc them.
3. Learn to recognise the symptoms of toxic effects .
.L E'~c. fh~\ you follow the instructions on quantities. Explosions can

. c-..~\..:~~cur when you get this wrong with catalysIS and accelerants.
\..,;\~<' -
:l. Ensure that the correCl fire appliances arc ;'inilable ... \gain, do check
they are sen"iccablc and that you know how to use them.
r
o
-0
I ha,"e gi,"cn you "Cl')' broad descriptions of safety precautions associated \\~th '.,
the groups of chemicals. It would be impossible to give every precaution for ~
every chemical in usc. This is why we h:n'e COSSII assessments to idemify the o
controls that arc needed. Remember, these relare to the usc of each hazardous
substance in relation to where you use it and what you arc using it for. A point
worth remembcring is that COSHH assessments are no use [0 )'OU if you do
not read them.
Wi thin the groups therc arc a lot of chemicals that belong to marc th:m one
group. \X'e could find this a bit daunting when trying to idcntify the hazards.
We can make a logical approach [0 this by dividing up [he properties of all the
hazardous substa nces we might encounter under a few headings. These arc:
38
CspJ7igM 0 Bany Cslkgt .YJ06 :!OO - A/I right! miMi _'lj •.p.uf66.<1Int
C H A PT E R O N E
SA FETY PREC A UTIO NS
• Flammable
• H ighly flamm able
• Explosi,c
• Toxic
• Very roxic
• Trrimnt
• Harmful
• Oxidising
• D angerous to the enyironmcnt
Hazard Warning Labels

r.hm- hazardo us chemicals will share mo rc th an one of these properties.
Looking at the list we have made, unlike D r. Jekyll, I would like to bave some
warning b efo re usi ng the co ntents some innocent looking bottle o r can .
Fortuna tely, there is a legal re<jlurement o n manufacturers to place hazard -
warning labels on all containers carrying hazardous subs tances that have one or
more o f those properties. These labels sho uld not be remo,ed or defaced. In
;lddition to the labels, manufacrurers also provine a m aterial safety data sheet
for ~QI1 hazardous substance.
')\...)\)6 - ~
.\'e~c ~
_l,l'\~ -
~ \,)(t~
c
.\V:'-" -
;;.\ .
U,'X '
Toxic Irritant/ Harmful l lip;hly Flammable

-
Explosive 3.
o
-.
-f~
CorrosIve O xidi sing Dangerous for

the Em-ironment
Figure 1.4 - Hazard Warnin g La b els
39
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C H APTER ONE
S AFET Y PRECAUTIONS
"nle problem is that when an accident occurs, for example to a \"Chicle carrring
hazardous malerials, rhe emergency services and other specialist personnel
often need to know a bir more detail about the hazards ther face. It is not
always wise, or possible, to access the contents to check container labels and
material safety dara sheets. In these ci,rcumstances, additional hazardous
material identification labels may be displayed that carry codes and other
infonnation that giY(~ more specific ad\·ice about fire hazards, health hazards,
the reacth-e nature of rhe chemicals and any specific hazard that may be
present such as radioactive or corrosive materials for example. Specialist
chemists decide on the coding and trained persons such as fire and rescue
personnel imerpret it. Jf you arc at the scene of nn accident !nYolving a vehicle
or container ca rrying a hazardous subsm nce and you do nor understand the
codes, keep away from it! You may have noticed these types of labels on
vchicles.
2XE
1235
Specific
I inzard
Fig ure 1..5 • Examples ofVebiele H1za rd Information P ane ls
'l{)\)i
1\,.\1..,6 ...
T11e0 \tU:.1fi -illustration shows that the substance being carried is an oxidising
~;}~~~nt and that it is chemically reactive. The substa nce is identified by code and
~\,\. 1-, there is sometimes a contact telephone number for gaining specialist advice.
,. :'I'Y.'.f,\"" You often see signs similar to this on the back of rankers on the road .
The second illustration is based on tbat of the National File Protection

Association in America and is an example of the type of label that would be
used on vehicles in that country. It is provided here merely for your imerest
and you arc not expecred to know all the definitions of the associated codes. In
this example, the code figure in the red scp.mre indicates the flash point. The
code figure in the yellow square warns of rhe degree of chemical stability. The
Icners in the white square in this example warn tb:'ll the material is an oxidising
{'
chemical and the figure in the blue square indicates tbe lel"d o f the danger to
. 0~
health. There are a lot of codes related to this, too man}' to pur here. Very Ii
simply, higher the figure code is from 0 to 4: the greater the hazard associated
~"
with ir.
'"
40
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C H AP TER ONE
SAF ET Y PRE CA UTI O N S
Material Safecy Data Sheets
Jt is a legal requirement that each hazardous substance \vill ha\'c a material

safety data sheet that is pro,ided by the manu f.' lcturer. The sheet h<ls sixteen
puts and includes in fon11ation that identifies th e subs tance and any trade
names used together with the man ufacrurer. It also identities each of the
ingredients <lnd any hazards associated with them and the safe m<lximum
occupational exposure hlllits. Chemical formulae are pro\' ided 10 each c<lse.
T here is <llso detailed infonnation on the physical properties, flre and explOSion
d<lta, health hazards and ad\ice, and the chemical reactivity of the substance.
T his includes advice on fire extinguishing agents . T h e sheet also carries
infonnation on speCIal protection measures, precaunons <llld disposal
measures . There is <llso <ldnce on the procedures to de<ll with emergencies
following a spill or leak. These sheets are \'ery detailed and <Ire an es sential
source of infonnation for anyone carrying out a COSHH (Control of
Substances Hazardous to Health) assessment.
COSHH Regulations
T he Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1988 reCJulle th<lt
employers protect people who may be exposed to health risks arising fro m the
hazardous substances they work with. The COSHH regu lations apply to every
substance that is classi fi ed as being very toxic, LOxic, harmful, corrosiyc o r <In
irritant under the Cl<lssification, Packaging and Labelling of Dangerous
Substances Regubcions 1984 and those substances that have maX1l11um
e.xposure limits or occupational exposure limits. The C O SHH regulations also
app l~' to substances that may produce chronic or long-term harm ful effects. An
industrial related disease such <IS 'industrial asthma' would be an e.xample of
this.
"101.f
t: ~\""I}~ ~s~bstance is regarded as being hazardous to health if it is hazardous in the
..; C,,\\I:.1f. form in which it occurs III the work acti\iry. For example, different form s of
_ \"\~'i~ the same substance can present different hazards . A solid may not be
~
. ",,:,
;-:,~\~
considered hazardous but the dust crealed by machining it may. be very
(pO;;: ' h<l zardous . In a similar \'cin, the compounds produced by chemical re<lctions
o ccurnng 111 some \vork processes may be more roxie than the original
r .
eonsaruents.
E mployers are obliged to carry out an assessment to evaluate the risks (~

hcalth arising from work im-ol\i.llg substances hazardous to health and to:
establish what bas to be done to meet the requirements o f the COSHlf
regulaao ns. Each assessment relates to the use of the substance in a giv!§.
work process at a given location. Assessments must be reviewed and updat.e 9
at regular iruen'als and if any of dlC circumstances of [he work should cha~e,
or if it becomes apparent that the original assessment has ceased to be \~d .
TillS would be required for example If the volume of produetion~'ve[e
increased or new infom 1ation became available. 0;
,$'
Assessments must only be carried out by gualificd person s \vho are c6 nsidered
competent in accordance \vi.th the regulations. An assessment in cludes
41
CopyiJ,hl © BtII!J' College 2006 - 2007 A ll right! mend WJlf/J.I.pmt66.rolJl
C H APT E R ONE
SAFETY PRECAUT I ON S
identifying all Ihe forms in which the hazardous substance may appear in a
work process, evallL'lting risk, identifying exposure limItS and the effects on the
body, introducing conrrol measures ro reduce exposure :md assessing the effect
o f deterioration in these measures. It is a thorough task. In forma tion from the
m:Herial sa fety dala sheers and other sources is used to support the assessmcllI.
All completed assessments must be made available to the workforce and any
equipmem or procedures required ( 0 suppOrt the control measures must be
pur in place. '!11ere are a number of general arrangcments that would ha\'C to
be made in respect of any process that im-oh-cd hazardous substanccs.
Examples of thesc \\'ould includc:
• Reducing the number of personnel e,"poscd
• Restricting access LO the area
• Reducing the rime of exposurc
• Prohibiting actions such as smokin& cating and drinking
• Providing washing facilities
• Providing changing rooms and safe storage arC!l.S for clothing
• Inuoducing decontamination measures for the work area
E nvironmental P rocection
The Environmental Protection _\cr is concerned with the effect that haza rdous
substances have on the environment. \\'hen these substances arc pa sscd into
the aunos~~c[{.'1~r imo [be ground water rable for example they nOt only
prc:sS,{~vJl?t"1.~ids to other people bUl also affect the ecosystem. Asse!>smenr is
t fC~ulred to es tablish the bazards and risks lind to identify the protection
\"0). measures required. TIlese may include filtrati on equipment and special
processing measures to effect safe disposal of subst:lnces and their by-
products. Local exhaust \-entilation ouden; (LEVs) that pass fumcs out of
buildings into the air and was[C fluid storage [.'!.Oks arc also subject TO the
regula tions and these ha\-c to be inspected and testcd at stannory intervals.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Idcallr, employers should seek to find safer aitematiycs 10 the processes and
substa nces that create the hazards. This is not always possible and steps ha\-e
lO be taken to prorecr the person. Employers arc responsible for providing
appropriatc PP E for all personnel who are exposed 10 the risks th:1I may be
idencified in the work processes they undertake. -nle equipment must be
pro\-ided, together wi.th any tta.ining required in its usc, and be properly
maintained free of any charge to the employee. I n this section we will take a
42
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C HAPTER ONE
S AFETY PRECAUTIONS
brief look at some of the PPE that is proyided for respiratory protection,
contamination of the skin, eyes or clothing and noise.
Respiratory Protection
Respiratory hazards include: dust, mist, fwncs, gases and \·apOLiI'S. These may
nXluire the use of breathing apparatus or a respirator. There is a difference in
the meanings of these terms.
Breathing Apparatus
This e'luipmem is designed to supply uncontaminated ai r through a line to a

regulalOr and a facemask. "nle source of the air may be a rn.ed installation or a
portable cylinder that may be earned by the indj.idual.
Respirator
Respirators are designed to clean the ambient air in the \vork area through one
or mo re filter cartridges that remm'e the harmful substances before rhe air is
inhaled. The choice of respirator and the type of cartridge to be used will
depend on the nanJre of rhe contaminanc, the fonn in which it is present in the
air fmd its concentration in terms of parts per million. Occupational Exposure
St:mdards will determine lhe class of fil ter used.
When donn ing a face mask, It is important to check it for correCI fit. A badly
fiumg mask offers no protection at all. An exam ple check procedure is to tlrst
ca rry oul a l1eg:llil"e pressure check. The wearer covers the inlet to the
respirator and then in hales and holds the breath for fi\re seconds . The flexible
part of the facemask should collapse slightly and remain so unt.i.l the !luer is
unco\'(:Ic(\. The second step is to carry out a POSilil'c pressure check. The
,\,,\«ea1~i covers rhe exhaust port and breathes om. The ~exible part of the mask
_ \',,;.\!.":' - should bulge and there should be no leaks around the SIdes.
l,.--.I\ .
\"\:l-~\"
,'C:. ~
\'\/hen wearing a respirator, the wearer should be alen to any difficulty in
...' --v'''''
~ . breathing or any unusual s~' mptoms such as irricauon or dizziness. If any of
(\,--,\
thesc occur, lhe wearer should e\'acuate the area and change the respirator.
Protective Clothing
Again, the nature of the clothing will depend on the hazard. Face protection:
ma~' require the lise of goggles or a full -face shield. The transparent part of thi
goggles or shield may be made of a tough shatterproof material such ,:<1s
polycarbonatc where there is an impact hazard. T he design of a full-face s l~'Md
may. also incorporate, or be a part o f, a full flow breathing apparatlls /s r a
respirator. Jj
,
,~
Glovcs, gauntlets, prorecnve aprons and footwear may also be rcq~cd and
these must be impermeable to the substance used and not be made of a
43
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CHAPTER ONE
S AFETY PRECAUTIONS
mrllcria! dlrll is detcnoratcd b\, it. \\there personnel have to work in high
concentrations of hannful ,·apours such as aircraft fuel tanks then a one-piece
irnpenneablc suit that incorporates inJe£s for breathing app:lr:lUls ha\·e to ,,,ill
be used. It is essential that all clothing is remo\·cd after usc and cleaned of
con taminants. There is tittle point in re-using contaminated clOthing.
. \dditionally, contaminated clothing should be stored in an appro\"Cd ventilaTed
area as the contamination presems a hazard in itself. Gases and \-apours can
penemne fab rics and remain in them for some time afterwards and be a
significant fire hazard. Oxygen is a classic example of this.
Safeey Signs
Places of work ha,e signs that have different levels of significance depending
on their configuration. These signs ha,·c to comply with the Safery Signs
Regularions 1980.
Pro hibition Sig ns
These signs arc round with a rcd border and crossbar against a white
background carrying a central black symbol. YOLI must not ignore these signs.
\'(ta rning Sign s
These signs arc Lriangular with a black border against a retiow background that
carries a centml black symbol. These signs arc cautionary.
Emergency Signs
Prnhibicion Signs \\.'arning Signs
Figure 1.6 - Safety Signs
M and atory Signs
These signs arc round With a blue background that carries a central white
symbol. These signs arc indicating a mandlllory action such as lhe wearing of
specific personal protection equipment.
E m e rgency Sig ns
These signs are either squ:trC' or rectangular \\~th a green background tbat
carries a central white symbol. These signs arc often used to indicate the
direction of emergency exit routes etc.
44
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CHAPTER ONE
Battery Maintenance
Kceping in mind the 82 students who arc e.ngaged in tillS moduJe J fcc! that we
should include the safe practices associated wi th aircraft battery maintcnancc.
The room that tltis is conducted In also fall s under thc heading of thaI' loosely
used term 'workshop. The battery is an integral pan of the elcctrical sys tem in
even' aircraft and mal' be a lead/acid banery or an alkaline batten'. These
desc'riptions alone suggest that mere arc ha~ards associated with ~ervicing
them. Battery chargi ng rooms are potentially Yery dangerous areas and there
must be strict guidelincs for personnel working in them or visiting them.
Ilydrogen is \'ellted during c\~ery stage of lead-acid banery charging and

rcachcs the highest concentration towards the end of the charging cycle.
Il ydrogen is also \'ented from fully charged alkaline battecies. 'Illcre arc also
highly corrosi\'e fumes created when electrolytes are mixed.
Battery M a inl en anc c Roo m s
Battery maintenance must be carried Out In rooms that arc dedicated to that
sale purpose. Therc must be separate charging rooms fo r lead/acid and
alkalinc batterics, a powcr unit room for the electrical supplies Ihat supply the
battery ch :1fging boards and a separate room that is used as a workshop for
minor repairs and storage. Cnder no circumstances should the smne rooms be
u ~ed fo r lead acid and nickel cadmlllm barrery charging. The \'cnulation o f the
charging rooms must be designed so that no cross-conta.mination can occur.
/\ 1\ equipment and tools should be clearly marked with the bauery type thcy
arc to be used o n, i.e., 'Acid Only' or 'Alkaline Only'. and should be kept in Lhe
related rooms. ~letal tools should be of a suitably insulated design. /\11
containcrs for electrolytes and neutralising agents should be dearly marked to
identify their coments and those used for lead-acid battcries should be kept
segrc~ted from those used for alkali batteries. Lead-acid and alkaline ba tteries
,~~\dl0tl\a' be stored separate from each other, in di fferen t storerooms if possible.
':-'; .\!....: ...
(.~~\ \.-
~ :\~(' The ambient temperature in the charging rooms must be maimained within thc
-
. ," \'1'
,\"\-
tcmperarure limits specified for rhe battery type_ for example. below 2rC for
,;..;'\'c- !cad-acid batteries and below 21°C for alkaline batteries.
('-~\: .
The charging rooms should be cool, \vell lit with explosion proof ligbting aad
be c'luipped \\;tb an air extraction system to prevent the accumulation o f diS
explosiye gases that are vented off from the baneries during charging. 'n~
gases are a ml.--'::Nre of hydrogen and oll.-ygen so they are potentially ver)!
d:lI1gerolis. The ventilation sntem should provide for a free flow of air around'
each battery on cha rge. . ::
:;
The floo r surfaces sho uld be dry, dust free and formed from a material tha SIS
proof agamsr acid or alkali attack such as concrete, tiling o r birumi l)~ls
compound. \,\/ooden duck boarding should be placed in from o f each cha.t;£ing
b{;!lch. Floors should be lcye\ and there should be no steps o r sEt"11ped
thresholds in the building, una\'oidab1e changes in floor b·ds shoul':!.:instead
be linked by inclined ramps where possible. f~
45
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CHAPTER ONE
S AFET Y PREC A UTION S
The benches should be constructed from hard wood with surfaces that are acid
and alkali proof such as thin lead sheet. The recommended height for charging
benches is lOin (O.Sm) from the floor {Q enable clear inspection and to reduce
lifting effore. Batteries should not be aUowed to rest directlr on surf.'1ces such
as wood, concrete or lead bur should instead be supported on l:miced panels of
waxed wood during charging.
Each charging room should contain a la rge sink with a draining board and an
adequate fresh water supply tap and be connected to a safe disposal drainage
sys tem. A bot water wp should also be made a\'ailable, Doors to the rooms
should bc designcd to open outwards for casy evacuation.
The baucry charging supplr is nonnally DC and this is supplied from the AC
powcr distribution system through lransiormcrs and reccificrs. These are
normally held in a dedicatcd power unit room. The indi"idual charging boards
should be mounted adjaccnl to cach charging point :Uld be mounted directly
above and to the rear of thc bench to minimise the need for long connecting
cables. The cha rging cables and connectors should be properly insulated and
have the correct rating for the charging current. No connections or
disconnections should be made before the powcr supply has been switched
off. \X 'hen disconnecting baneries, the cables should be remo"ed from the
bauery first and thcn from the charging board.
CO~ fire extinguishers should be strategically placed around the facilitt

togcthcr ,,;th buckcts of sand.
E lcctrolyte Materials
Lead acid ba ttery electrolyte comains sulphuric acid and distilled water. The
acid is corrosi,'c and is stored in glass carboys or bottles, ea rthenware
containers or lead~lined wood containers. These should be kcpt lightly sealed
because the fumR~.-:1re also highly corrosive. The quantity of acid kept in the
charging [~l'r1" ~\lould be strictl}' limited to that required for immediate usc.
TIt~ :retTtaI"nder should be stored in a separate localion that is approved for the
\....).<s)orage of acids. N e arer pour ll'.·u e r into acid :\cid is added to the water and
~. . . . ~ it is done very 510wl\' with thorough mixing.
~\v- •
(.~.;:'" .
Alkaline batteries usc a solution of potassium hydroxide and distiUed water.
The potassium hydroxide is supplied in solid foml in scaled steel dnuTIs. \"ben
a dnlm is opened, the whole contem should be used immediately because the
compound is "ery prone to deterioration when it contacts rhe carbon dioxide
in the surrounding air. Alkaline solutions are also prone to similar deterioration
and , once made up, should be either uscd immediately or stored in a sealed
glass container.
Distilled water should be stored in dean, sealed glass containers. The stoppers
of containers must be replaced immediately afte r usc. Do take note of the
correct order, acid is added [0 water not the other way around.
Safety Precautions:
46
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CHAPTER ONE
SAF ETY PRECAUTIONS
I. Rubber glo\'cs and aprons should be worn when handling or

maintaining baneries.
2. PrOICCn\'e goggles should be worn when h:l ndling ~lcid or mixing

alkaline solution,
3. No naked lights should be used 11l the battery charging room

(e xplosion risk)
4. Spa rks should not be generated in a cha rging room (explOSIon risk)
:l. Do n ot place batteries in positions where they can be knocked over or

dropped.
G. Do nor run or rush about when in a charging room.
7. Keep tools and utensils clean and return to dedicated stowages when
not 1n use.
8. Do not wear metal jewelle.ry such as nngs, metal watches. metal

w:ltchstraps or metal bracelets when handling b:meries.
9. Ncr 'er pour wafer into acid. (Acid is always slowly trickled :lnd
mixed intO the w:lter)
10. Check th:lt you know where the neutralising :lgcnrs are stored and
where the fIre extinguishers arc kept and that you know how to use
them.
II. Swnd on the dry, wooden insulation duckboards when carryi ng out
charging procedures.
"'~h~ Connect banery terminals correctly to ayoid spa rking.
Electrolyte Spills:
I. Spilled c1ectrol~,te should be soaked up with sawdust and then disposed

of in an approved place. ~
2. Su rfaces affected by sulphuric acid should be washed in a sarur:ltcq -

-:>
solution o f bicarbonate of soda and ulen rinsed with fresh wateg

Other neutralising agents are: ammonia powder o r borax powder.
-
"
3. Surfaces affected by alkaline solutio n should be w:1shed in a satura .. etI
solution of boric acid and then rinsed with fresh watcr. t\nod±er
neuualising agent is boric acid crystals or powder. ;:j '"
'u
#
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CHAPTER ONE
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
First Aid
'111e following is for general infonnation only. You must adhere to the
instnicnoJls (hat arc in force at your place of work.
I f battery acid contacts the skin it should be neU[rniised \\;(hout delay using a
saturated solution of bicarbonate of soda followed by washing \\;lh wann
water. . \n~- burns can then be treated as burns _ _\dd splashed into the eyes
should be neutralised by using eyewash solution comaining 5°/0 bicarbonate of
soda followed by wann water.
I f alkaline barter)T electrolyte solution contacts the skin it should be neutralised

without delay using a sarurated solution of boric acid followed by was hing with
wa rln water. I\ ny burns can then be treated as burns. ,\lkalinc solution
splashed into rhc eyes should be neutralised by using eyewash solution
containing 5% boric acid followed by warm water.
_\11 neutralising agents and eyewash soh.:tions should be ayailable in the

charging room together \\<;th posters shO\\;ng their application and usc.
Hearing Protec tion

\,\ 'e react to sOllnd faster than sight when we sense danger_ ~oise heightens me
sensiti\-ity of the nervous system so much that it can C:luse fariguc and health
problems. Noise intensity is measured in decibels (dB) and exposure to high
levels can cause pennancm damage to the ears. The Noise at \,\'ork Regulacions
1989 stipulate the measures that must be taken at stated action le,'cls_ These
arc:
1" Ac tio n Level

1n\r
8SdB .QE 1\lH~re - a normal conversational voice cannOl be heard clearly at a
Ri$J.!l{}~~ of 2m or 6ft. T he emplorer must assess [he risk to the elllplo~-ee's
\.. ~).tl,earing and inform them about the risks and what the proposed precautions
_ ~,~....\ arc. 'n,c employees are to be pro\;ded with personal car protectors and briefed
\. ~~': on their use. The choice whether to use them in this case rests with the
cmploree.
r d
Action Le"e1
90dB or where a nonnal conversational \'oice cannot be he:trd clearly at a

distance of 1m o r 3ft. "111e employer must do all that is reasonably practicable
[0 reduce exposure to [he noise by means other than JUSt pro\' iding hearing
protectors. The zones where the noise exceeds lhe 2".j action le\'e1 ha\-e fO be
marked wieh recognised mandatory signs that restrict entry_ Personnel entering
these zones must wear ear protection and observe the occupational noise
ex posure limi ts that detail me maximum time that indi\'iduals can remain
exposed to lhe noise intensity. In this case, employers must enforce the
wearing of ear defenders. "
,,
"
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CHAPTER ONE
SA FET Y PRECAUT ION S
It is possible to quantify exposure to sound in the Conn of a noi"e dose that is

a combination of the noise imemity and its duration. Exposure to any sound
[eye! oYer SOdB can be measured in temu of an :l\'erage nluc m-er an 8hr
period. T his is called the Time nreig/Jfcd A I'Crtlgt: (l1f04). A T\v'A
exceeding 85dB for Shr can result in damage 1"0 the inner ear. A 1'\\1A
exceeding 90dB for Shr can cause permanent deafness. I f there is any rISk that
you will be exposed to a sound intensity of IISd13 or above for any duration,
howe,er short it is, you must wear ear defenders. :\ furrher prm-ision of the
Noise at work Regulations is that no employee should ever be exposed to the
risk of a peak sound intensity of I-lOdB on the unprotected ear.
Noise experienced on an airpOrt apron can regularly exceed 85dB due to the
dose proxmuty of nmning engines. Continuous exposure to these le.els will
cause pcnnanem hearing damage so hearing protection must be \vorn . Ear
defenders reduce the sound intensity you receive by :lbout -lOdE . Earplugs arc
much less effective and only reduce intensity by up to 20dB. Noise in a hangar
environment C:ln also exceed tills level, p:uticularly if pneumatic tools are being
used. I will gi\'c you some example of the sound intensity lcn-ls we might
encounter.
Typic::t!
Source lntcnsin'
Le\-el
\\'hi sper ?Odb

Speech :It ~1ll 50db
Typcwrlte r at 1m 65db
,\Iotorcarat 15m -Udb

Hea,,' vehicle at 1Sm -Sdb
Petr(ll lawn mower at 2m 9Ud b
Pr opeller c\ri\-en ai rcraft 30(lm I (lfldb

"
JCt ,\ircrafr ar 300m IIOcib
St:lnding next to a propeller dri\'cn ai rcraft 120db
Pain threshold 140db
Immcd l:lte he:ll1ng d::l.!ml.ge 150db
o
Table 1.2 - T~'Pic3 1 Sowld IJllc n s ity Levels
,1?'"
.0
'<I'
Before we mo\"t~ on to look at the second part of tlus ch:lpter that ~€:a ls with ""
fi re protection and emergency procedures, there is one area th~[ is not
highlighted in the syUabus but is nonetheless important and that is -lifting.
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CH A PT E R ONE
S AF E T Y PRECA U TION S
Manual Lifting
~ Iost back injuries at work result from incorrect lifting. TIle spine is Ilot a good
le,"cr or a good lifting machine. The following docs not replace the ad,;ce that
will be found on the safety posters and should not be used in lieu of it.
General ad,"ice is that the back and anns should be kept stmight and the leg
muscles should be used to take the strain. \'(1)cn picking a load up from the
floor, crouch and bend the knees not lhe back. Grip rhe load fi rmly and
keeping it close to the body lift br straightening thc legs kceping lhe back and
arms stmight. \X!hcn mo\"i ng the load, keep the back and aons straight, head up
and the chin rucked in and keep the load close to the body. \'('hen a load is
assessed as being toO great for one perSall, assistance must be souglll or a
mechanical handling device should be used. r [ere is where the 'can do' attitude
so often raises its head and people get injured as a result. Just StOP and think. Is
somc box of bits worth a li fetime of back and hip problems?
Lifting Slings
I ha,"c included this to bring a few poims to your attention. 111e first is simple
and that is nOt to stand or < walk under a suspended load. The second is to
cnsure that the safe working load of the sling is suited (0 what you intend to
lift. That will be found stamped on the metal tag auached to the sling. If it is
not there do not usc it. Thirdly. do nm forget 10 inspect the sling. ~Iy other
point is to recognise the effect of using a sling when you set the legs at an
angle.
IkN I kl\:
O.Sk.l'\i
I lk:\ I lk:\ ~.
Figur~ 1.7 - EIT~cl of Ang l ~ of Sling o n th ~ T~ ns i o n in U:g1

",
-0
.~
Imagine a r\\'o-Iegged sling is attached to a load weighing IkN.111e angle at the

apex of the sling will determine the tension in each leg of the sling. As the apex
angle is increased, the tension in each leg will be increased. At 120 degrees, the
tension in each leg will be the same as the load i.e. I kN. At greater angles, the
tension in each leg will be greater than the load!
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CHAPTER ONE
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Fire
Fire is :I term used ro describe a process where o;\:ygen chemie:llly combines
with a subs tance :It high temperature and releases more heat energy as a resulr.
This mefl ns thflr there are three essential ingredients rC'luired 1'0 initiHe fl nd
sustain a fi re - o.\ )'gcn, hem and a fuel All three must be present, should o ne
be removed, the [LtC cannot sun·h·e. T here arc fou r classifications of fire and I
will describc these for you. Cnder the current classification codes there is no
separate classification for an electrical fire because all classes could equally
im-ol\"(:! a li\-e electrical source. I will also gi\"e you examples of extinguishers
that might be appropriate in each case but you must usc the extinguisher types
prescribed by your particular orga nisation.
Classification of Fires
Class A
Fires Ih:ll im'oke solid materials such as paper. \\-ood and cloth. Can be
extinguished with water-based excinguishers apan from cases where there is a
live electrical source that cannOI be isolared. BCF (Halo n 1211 ) or C02 may be
used in such cases.
Class B
Fires that im-oke flammable liquids such as petrol, ll\"iauon turbine fuel,
solvents. lubricating and hydraulic oils . Typical extinguishers arc: C02, 13CF
(11:t1on 12 11) and foam. \X'ater must never be used on a class 13 fire bcc;lUse it
will instantly spread it. Some foam extinguishants are water-based but may be
appro\'ed for flammable liquid fires because they do not spread a fire like plain
waler does.
'I,ll
1\",t, ...
t
• ' \ .:.\!.I.: ...
,~1'\ •
Class C
\'\).~~ .. Fires that involve flammable gases. You should not attempt to fight these fires.
<
;\.~. ~
,<.\":- Turn off the supply if possible and then you can figlll the subsidiary fire s
U\~ depending on what rhe classification of [hem is. If tlle supply cannot be turned
o ff you must call for professional help. __.
..,
'0
Class D <
,
S-
Fires that im'olve metals such as titanium and magnesium. These fires are-
particul:uly diftJcult to extinguish and require the usc of dry powdcE
extinguishers to cut off the ol\."Tgen, ::;
Extinguishants
\'\!hen faced with a fire we haye [Q decide whether to smother it and ~p[i ve it
of oxygen, displace the air from around it to remove the oxygen, coo1 it ro the
point where combustion will Stop or tnrermpt rhe chemical process with
51
COp'pi,l',IJI '~ BII'!) C,luy ~OO6 - :!OO- AU dghts rmmd
CHAPTER ONE
SAFETY PREC A UTION S
another rcaction. A further common-sensc action is to cut off dlC supply of

fucJ to the fire. There is a range of c.."Hinguishants 3nilable that will suit the
different fire classifications. Fire extinguishers should be wall moumed and be
positioned adjacent to flre exits o r along the fire exit routes.
Watc r
\,Iater quenches and cools the matcrial that is acting as the fuel to bclo\.... tbe
combustion tempemUlrc. It is only suitable for usc on Class A fires but must
nevcr be used where then: is a li,'e electrical source. T),pical water extinguishers
contain around nine litres of water and may either be pressurised with stored
gas or be pressurised on selection by an installed CO~ gas cartridge. In the CK
these extinguishcrs arc coloured red
Some aircraft carry small portablc water extinguishers in thc passcnger cabin
and these carry an additive such as ethylene glycol 1"0 act as an ami-freeze agent
and also inhibitors that preyent corrosion.
C arbon D ioxi dc (COJ
Carbon dioxide is about one and a half times hca\·icr than air and is a non-
corrosi\'C agent thai is suited to electrical Fires and fires involving flammable
liquids. A hazard exists in thal when large yolumes of the gas arc discharged it
rapidly displaces all the air and if lIsed in a Yery confined spaee it plaees
personnel in the area at risk of suffocation. It is not therefore suited for in-
flight use in cabins. ,\nother hazard exists in the drop in tempcramre that
occurs when the gas expands through the discharge vru\"e. This is sufficient to
create a mist that reduces yisibility and rua)' also freeze the users hands to the
metal parts of the discharge lance and horn. Care must be taken to grip the
lance by tbe insulated handholds. There is also some risk of it causing damage
[Q high temperature parts such as brake discs because of tbe low temperatures
It creates. '1(\0"':
"l\,)l\() - -
Ct r!3tm..'ilioxide is a popular choice of ground firc extinguisher for acti\'ities
, "O~(such as engine starting. It is supplied in single or double bortle appliances that
~\,\. . . are equipped with a lance and a remo\"able discharge horn. The botrles tend to
_,,'\. . . ~\"!- be heavy and are coloured black The type of C01 ground fire extinguisher
L used for cngine starts has a telescopic metal lance thai automatically extends
when the extinguisher is triggered. Care !:as to be taken not ro cause injury
with this. :\ircraft engine nacelle cowls h:\.\'c sprung fire extinguisher access
doors and the discharge nozzle on the lance should be used to opcn these. You
should not discharge any extinguisher into the intake of a Ulrbine engine - it is
'~
pointless!
Brom oc hlorodifluorom e thane (BCF)
BCF (Halon 1211) is semi-wXlC but IS not considered to produce any

significant problems in moderate usc. It is suitable for Class A and 13 fires and
electrical fires and can be used safely all a wide mnge of materials. (BCF) is a
,'aporising fluid that converts to a gas at normal room tcmperamrc and rapidly
interfcres \\oith the combustion process. It is nomlally non-corrosi,~e except
when its post combustion residue is brought into contact with water. This can
52
Cop-pi,gh! ~ Barry Colltgr ~OO6 " 200 - All nghlJ mrrwd IJIJ/·JJ·.part66.rom
CHAPTER ONE
S AFETY PRECAUTIONS
produce halogen add thal is Ycry corrosiw. BCF is a popular cboice of ground
fire extinguisher and is also used in portable extinguishers llsed in aircraft
cabins and in engine fire extingu.ishing ~rstems . It has a drawback in that il is a
'greenhouse gas' and is thus now su.bject to manufacturing rCStriC lions .
Extinguis hers in the UK arc normally coloured greel1.
Bro mo trifluo ro m c thane (BTlvl)
13Tl\! (I lalon 130t) is semi-toxic but is considered to bc the safesl of the Iialon
group of extinguishanrs . I [ is \\;dely used in commercial ayi:Hion today for
power plants, auxiliary power units and cargo bays. It is stored und!.:r high
nitrogen pressure so it is not nonnally found in use in aircraft ground fire
extinguishers but may be found in use in those used in component test rigs.
Bro moc hloro m c lha nc (B CM)
13Cl\1 (ilalon lOll ) is highly toxic eyen in small concentrations. It has largely
been replaced by the safer I lalon 1301 in for example tCSI rig facilities.
Dry Powd er
This is stored as a fine powder in a blue coloured extinguisher thai is

pressurlscd b~· a CO~ or a nitrogen cartridge. It is suited for lise on aircraft
bnlkc fires and Class Band D fires including eleclrical fires. ,\ disad\·anlagc is
lhat it has little cooli ng effect and tires may smoulder and re-ignite. It can also
create significant problems wben the heated residue bakes onto equipment
making it difficult to remove.
Foam
There arc fWO types of foam. fluoroprotein and aqueous film. The li rst is
spccifisally intended for use on Class B fires whilst the second can be used on
Sla ss \~.\ or 13 fires. Neither is safe for use on li\·e electrical fires or class 0 fIICS.
'~"'\J t >IS norma),
_ 1-.\.:.,;0.::'" U store d to> \V hi> te or cream cxnngws
> > hers >In 1hc UK [1aL I arc
~{" 1....,1 pressurised with CO, or nitrogen.
, \.... :- -
~\.~"\.\ -
....... ' .
There arc 01 her cxtin01lishants
b-
that are now either \\;thdrawn from use or
(~..,\ rarely found. i'-[ethyl I3romide (Halon lOOt ) used to be a common aircraft
engine fire extinguishant but its \-cry high toxicity and co rrosive properties hAs
seen it replaced by BCF and BC~J. It was recognised br its peacock blJ1;!
coloured cylinders. Carbon Tetrachloride was once popular for fightil~~
electrical fires but has no\v been withdrawn from usc because of its higlF
toxicity in that it produced phosgene when heated. I mention these because
rOll still hear of them e\"cn though they arc no longer used. _
.j
The current alarm o\·er climate change has seen a total ban placed on the n ~'
manufactu re of Halon cxtinguishants but ther can be salvaged ~l11d re-lIsed~o
they will be around for a while yet. \Vben stocks are finaUy exhausted, wr~vil.l
be seeing new excinguis hants being brought OntO the scene. §'
'"
53
u~'IlI.p.lrr66.,T)J"
CHAPTER ONE
S AFETY PRECAUTIONS
Dealing with Emergencies

I ha,-c [Quehed on Ihis topic in ~Iodu1e Nine - Iluman Faclors and much of
what I dealt with there is equally applicable here. The clinical procedures for
dealing wilh emergencies and applying first-aid oflen fail to take into account
the fact Ihal humans ha\·e [Q implement them and they may inhabit any
number of memal and physical states after an accident. \'\ ·ith Ihat in mind_ I
will repeat some of the information here.
I emphasise lhal you must adhere to the procedures in force at rour place of
work. Infonnation on procedures and flrst-aid given herc is provided solely for
preparing you for an examination and does nOI supersede anr authorised
Instructions.
\,\' hen you arc faced with an emergency. you ha\'e to rely on what you know al
that time. You can look up Whal ~'ou didn't know after the e'-ent but it can
never change the past. The problem with an emergcncy is that you get \'cry
li ttle norice thar it is about to occur or what fom1 it will take. It may be an
immediate inju ry to you or a colleague or a pOlcntial injury in the sbapc of a
fire or a chemical spill fo r example. Injuries comc in all shapes and sizes that
may include an)' combinations of: electrocution, burns, fractures, lacerations,
asphyxiacion. poisoning etc. and may occur to more than one persoll.
Organisations are required to proride training, guidance and equipment for

dealing with emergencies and should appoint nominated first-aid personnel.
This is all "cry well providing the first-aider is to hand when YOli need one and
people actually know how to use the emergency applianccs. l\lurphy's Law will
ha,-e somcthing to say about thac! I f you arc faced ,,;th ha\'ing to copc, you
should remember tbat the main objcct:i,·es of first-aid 10 casualties is fO
prcsen'e lifc. prc\"em the casualty's condition worsening and to promote
recovery.
If you ,,'lC '11 dcaling wlt

wtt<
ac~pl.\cca 'h an emergency SInt.1.t101l,
' , t I1ere arc three
con~-se n sc steps yOll can take and each contains somc basic actions:
\\,,'«( ". 1...
..:: I. Assess the situation:
'\'\.
~
c'
....
"i,\......
• Remain calm ("ital)
• Identify what has happened (quickly and accurately)
• . \sscss the danger [0 you and others
• ,\ctivale warnings (shout warnings and aCD'-arc appropriate alarms)
• Do nor put yourself a[ risk ,-
2. l\lake the area safe:
• Protect "l"'oursclf and others from furthcr danger (e"l"'acuatc if

required)
54
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C HAPTER ONE
SA FETY PRECAUT I ONS
• ldenti£)' and protect casualties (remm·e fro m danger)
• Remove the danger if feas ible (i.e. switch off sources)
• Kno\\' your limitations
• If e\·acwl.tion is necessary, ensure no one is missing
3. Summon assistance:
• Engage hclp of others if this does not place them at risk and the,·
arc co mpetent
• C311 emergenc: sernces (do this before attempting to fight a fire

~·o urs cl f)
• Call fo r local first aid equipment if appropriate
• i\ leer, brief and h ando n:r ro emergency services (you arc no longer
in co mral)
• Offer assistance within mur limitations
These arc rhe sort of thoughts and actions that give you a plan of acllon. You
may of course not be the person dealing with the emergency b ut your
participation with the person who is can be of equal importance. \Xle can now
look at a few types of emergency and the common features tha t arc us ually
included in the procedures to follow but rou must follow {he drill pre~cribcd
for your particular organisation.
.,\)\.,~
..,\,,-,b ...
\\ .• \!.o.: ...
(.\"\ ....
..
,
, \ ')~\' Fire
c
,\,,,-
... \ ......
L~-.'\;. . . I f r Oll arc f:tced with an outbreak of fire , you must obsen' e your organisation's
fire drill. T his may look something like this:
• Rais!.: lhc alarm "

~
~
"
13-
• Call thc fire scrvice (do this before anempting to tackle a firc yourself) -:.
• Shut off any power isolation switches or valves LO the affectJ}

C'llllpment o·
• O nly if feasible, trr to extinguish the fire with the correct fi r!}..f::aid
extinguishcr (make sure you have called the emergency scn' ices ReTo re
""'"
doing dus, if YOLl are subsequently oYcrcome you will not be abJ~~o!)
~
• I f the fi re involves toxic chemical fumes o r gas - evacuate imrhediarely
55
CopJ"'i~hf C {;I1I11) Colny :!OO6 . :!oo- .AJI right! mm'fd
CHAPTER ONE
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
• E,'acuarc all personnel to the nominated fire assembly pain! closing

doors after you where possible, Check thai no onc is missing!
• Report 10 a supemsor and do nO[ anempl to re-enter the building
• \'Chen all are e,"aclI:Ited, shut off the main power isolation switch to the
building
• :\wait the emergency sen'ices and direct them to the scene
To prepare for the eventuality of an emergency involving fire there arc some
common-sense things you can do:
• Learn the organisarion's fire drill
• Know where the fire appliances are, what the\' arc used for and thelr
operfLlIon
• Know where the nearest fire alarms are
• '\Iemorise the escape routes and fire assembly points
• ~ lemorlse the fire emergenq telephone number
• Observe the fire precautions
\'\ 'hen the source of a fire is elccuical, you must uy to switch o ff the source, If
you cannol <Io tJui( you must only use extinguishers suited for electrical fires.
For &X~u"$l(l.) CO2and BCF extinguishers arc suitable and dcy powder is also
r-.r( laprion bUI it does make a mess! Never use water or watcr-based
\,,;o.~ extinguishants such as foam on electrical fires. Do not usc plain walcr on fires
in"oh~ng flammable liquids or metals. Foam is nonnally acceptable for
flammable liquid fires as is BCF and CO~. If the fire invoh-es flammable gas,
you must lry to shut off the source or c\'acuate immediately if you cannot.
Jf you are faced with an individual who has clothing on fire. rou should render
assistance quickl), before severe burns occur. StOp the person from rushing
around or racing out of the building into the breeze and fanning the flames.
L'ly ehe person down with the burning clothing uppeonost to prevent the
spread. QlllCkJ)' put out the flames by dousing with water or a non-flammable
liquid or wrap Ihe person rightly in a non-flammable covering such as a coat or
a blanket (not nylon!). Do nm anempt to roll the casualty on the ground as this
jllSt spreads the burning [0 othe.r areas of the body. If rOll[ clothing catches
Gre then wmp yourself tightly in a blanket or similar malcrial and lic down.
56
up)"n"ghl . 1la'!) ulkgr }OO6 ' }OO- AUn"ghIJ rrmwd
C H AP TER ONE
SA FETY P REC AU T ION S
Multiple Casualties
If you arc on your own, or you are the most competent person present, you
may have to make an assessment of which casualties to attend to first. The
ones making the most noises are not likely to be the \vorst affected . There is
lilue to be gained by spcnding time skilfully bandaging someone's sore thumb
if there is another casualtr, choking to death next door! On the o thcr hand, if
~·ou han! to e,-acuate casualties, there is little point in remo,·ing dead people
first or people who \\ill die if you mm-e them. Get me walking casualties out
first and then work down the list of priorities on who has the best chance of
sur,·ival. YOLI will actually gC[ c,-eryone out much quicker if you Ihink about
tlllS. 'r'ou can employ th e help of colleagues if this does not put them in
danger.
Multiple Injuries
In a se rious accident a casualty is most likely to bave several different in juties.

You need to assess which is the most serioLls in teons of preserving life and
deal \vith that first. Once that is acbic,-ed, you can deal with the others
prodding there are no other priorities . Again. there is little to be gained by
bandaging a sore thumb only to find that the casualty has bled to de~llb while
~·ou were doing this!
Elecrric Shock
.As I have stated predously, the human body is an e!ecrncal conductor. \\"ben
faced with a person who has been electrocuted and is still in contact \\;th the
con ~l.ldor you should:
, \..,.,,~"('
()" "
"")\\\,(:0
':-"ccc ...
.
...
Not touch the casualtr's ski n wirh you bare hands under an\'
cIrcumstances
,\,'.
~;'\''''
(~'\ ' • Cut off the electricity supply if possible
• I f this is not possible, move the casualty clear of conmcr with t!i.e
c1cctncal supply Llsing a dry insulator (broom ha ndle or wooden chairb-.
Stand on a dry insulating surface while doing this (thick newspaper or ~
wooden box)
.~
• I f the casual\!· is nO[ breathing, commence resuscitation straight away"J
• Call for medical assistance and continue resuscitation until relieved :hi-
,,..t
• The two methods for applying rcsusci~ation for breathing ag.§l'v the
method for applying heart compressions arc displayed by law 9n~afety
posters at places of work. You would need to have familiarisccfYoursdf
with these before attempting to apply [hem. ~
57
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CHAPTER ONE
Shock from High Volrage Lines

I f the casual!)" has been electrocuted by a high voltage source such as that
found in overhead powcr lines or underground power cables and is cithe_r still
in contact with the conductor, or is lying wit11in 20yds of it, you must not
approach until the power has been cut off. The currem from these conductors
can 'arc' m-er considerable distances. Contact \\~dl them is innl.nably fatal and
insulators such as dry paper and wood will oat protect you.
Accidents Involving D angerous Substances

Whcn an accident involves the spIllage of dmgerous chemicals o r the emission
of dangerous fumes rou must not attempt any rescue acnon that will put you
into danger of coming into contact with the substance. \'\'e haye already
discussed the hazard warning labels on containers and the warning nonces
carried on ych icles. If you do not know the meaning of thesc you should keep
your distance. Take nolC of any symbols or codes that arc displayed so that you
can pass these on to the emergency services . .\1\ personnel in the ,cicinity
should be evacuated and be madc to stand well upwind of the drift of any
poisonous fu mes that may be escaping from tbe scene.
The list of poisonous substances is too big [0 indicate the derailed acnons
required to deal with each one. The most common fonus of poisoning at work
actually occur as a result of exposure to industrial gases and the toxic fumes
gi,"cn off by volatile chemicals. :\ casualty who may be affected by d1{~se would
obviously need air but you should not attempt to rescue him/ her if this means
you will also be m-ercomc. I f this is a risk. or if lhe casualty is in an enclosed
space, the rescucr must be equipped with breathing apparatus and be attached
to a safety line . The rescuer must be trained and experienced in the use of the
breathing apl?a~tui
"ill\>
\ "e'"
r..:.o\\o:.~
~ ~).{~~
,
\~,\ ~ Poisoning
, ,<"
I f you are presented with a casuall1· who has been poisoned, and rou are not at
risk of being similarly affected, there arc a few common~sense actions YOli can
take:
• Try to get infonnarion from the casual!)· and bysmnders to find out
what substance is involved, how it has entered the body and how
much. Bear in mind that the casualty may lose conscious ness aT anv
moment.
• Take nOte of any containers that may be nearh)" and note the substance
and the warning labcls.
• Take note of any symptoms or signs such as asphpcia or burning

around the mouth
58
Copydghl 0 Barry Colltg<' 2006· 200- ~II ngb!J rtIelved JJIJJIJJI.parf66. ("ON!
C HAPTER ONE
SA FETY PRE C AUTIONS
• Do NOT induce ,'omiong
• [f there arc signs of burns In the mouth, water Or rnilk may be used to
cool them.
• [f the casualty is unconscious, check Airway. Breathing and Circul:nion

(ABC) and if necessary resuscitate if this docs not invoke
contanunating yourself with the substance.
• Place the casualty into the recovery position whether conscious o r not
and evacuate him/her to hospital without dela\".
Severe Burns & Scalds
The classification of burns is a complex topic and beyond the scope of this
module. Burns can be the result of contact with naked flames o r hot objects,
scalds from hot fluids and .apours, chemicals, electrical current, 10\"
temperature sources or radiation. A burn coyering an area of more than lin
diameter (2-3cm) or penetrating deeper than the surface layer of the skin
requires medical attention. Anothcr factor to consider is t.hat the greater the
burn area, the more likely it is that the casualty will be also suffering from
shock.
T he general advice fo r the first-aid treatment of a serious burns victim is to lay

the casua lty down and then pour cold water over rhe affected :lrea and
continlle to do this. Do not apply lotio ns or fa tty substa nces. [n all cases yOll
mus t send for skilled assistance. Do nor let the area affected by the burn (ollch
the ground. Do ensure that [he casualty is well clear of live electrical
conductors before applying water or you \vill both have another problem!
Rcm~ am' rings, watches or belts that ma\' cause constticnons to al1\'
~C ~\\i~~vclling rha~ might occur as a result o f the injun''-
(~,\\.:;':- .
.,"" \:>:-~('
,.;."\\.~v
If a chemical has caused the burn and this is still present in the clmhing, the
contaminated clothing should be remm-ed but do not remO\'e clothing in areas
U"'"\' where it is stuck to the skin. Continue to apply a plentiful supply of cold water
.
while doing this. Ensure that vou do not come into contact with the substance
that caused the burn. Do not attempt to puncture any blisters that ha!,C
~
formed. C0\'cr the affected area \"\1th a clean, non-fluffy dressing like a clean
linen sheet. A clean plastic bag is ideal for co,'cring hand or foot burn injurie1j.
[f rou covcr facial burns, do ensure the casualty can breathe! T reat the casualtY--
fo r shock and get lum/her to hospital as a stretcher case. ;::-
"
6:
;"
Shock
'"
~~
'v
c?
[ am incluchng tlus because it is quire important to recognise the sympt8rns as
you Inight be suffering from ir yourself! People ~an die from shockc:-&hoc k is
actually a failure of the body's circulatory system as a resuit of the blood
pressure o r volume f:llling to a dangerous leveL This may be caused by the
59
CopJ righl C' B(fT7) Co/It!! 2006 ,200- A I! riJ,hls rrsm't'd
CHAPTER ONE
SAFETY PR E CAUTIONS
stress of injury bur could also be the result of imernal or external bleeding.
Because dlC imernal organs rely on a supply of oxygen from rhe blood they will
ultimatelr start to deteriorate ,"\;th possible fatal results. 111C body reacts by
diverting all available blood away from tissue such as the skin to the \'ital
orga ns and this causes the skin to become pale or grey, cold and moist with
swcat. Thc victim feels cold, faint and anxious and has a weak, rapid pulse and
breathing becomes shallow and rapid. 'l1le affected person may become \"cry
restless and be gasping or yawning to compensate for lack of oxygen.
t\ddirional symptoms may be a feeling o f thirst and nausea. The person mar
lose conscious ness,
ProYlcling there are no Olhe r serious injuoes that require immediate treatment,
the basic guideline is to lay the person down out of draughts with the head low
and to one side so that he/she will nOt choke if yomicing occurs, loosen any
tight clothing around the neck, chest and waist and wrap him/her in a blanket
and, proyiding they are not fractured. raise the lcgs aboyc the lc'"el o f the head
and rest them on a cushion or rollcd lip blanket. You can moisten the person's
Li ps but do n o t gi'tc him/ b er ;mY lhing to C1I1 o r drink Do not apply direct
contact bear appliances such as hot water bottles as tllls attracts blood to the
skin and srarves the organs. Unlike the image of casualties in old war films, do
not offer the casualt}' the oppoftuniry to smoke as tills further restricts oxygen
intake. Do nor leave the person unattended and remember [0 be reassuring. If
the casualty loses consciousness, you should check airway, breatillng and
circulation (AI3q and resuscitate as required. It is important to get specialist
medical assistance as quickly as possible,
If you do have ro e\'acuate a person who is in shock, Lise some fonn of

stretcher and keep the casualty's legs propped up.
Summoning ~S"Sistance
"ll.'t\.)() -
c-
~CQiP~~ vitally important part of dealing with any emergency. \,'hen calling the
© y,~"(. e m e rgen cy services
YOll ~ h ould keep ca lm and not dramatise or ~bbl c . You
.\~"\.\ need to pass your location and the telephone number of the place you arc
\..~'X
,,' .
calling from. If you get cut off, the emergency scn"ices can then locate yOll or
call YOll back. Gh"e tIle exact location of the incident and any landmarks. Gi.e
r,
an indication of the type rmd gravity o f the incident and the number of ·0
casualties if you know it. Do mention if [here arc any specific medica.l
conditions like imminent childbinh or heart attack. Additional information like
.
.."
<
.;;0
~
the sex and age of casualties is useful. Do mention any specific hazards sllch as
the presence of spilt chemica.ls, flammab le fluids or collapsing buildings. Do
not replace the telephone receiyer until the emergency services controller does.
Controllers rclay infomlarion on to other agencies that might be required and
will indicate whemer they need to refcr back to you, They arc very good at
what they do so rOll so you will be guided.
If you send someone else to call the emergency scn'ices do make sure they
know where they are, who to call and \vhat to say. Get thcm to repeat it back
to rou if YOll ha\"e doubrs. Sending a fo reign tourist who does not understand
the la nguage and barely know where thcy are may not prove to be one of your
60
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CHAPTER ONE
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
bes t dcci~ionsl Do get the person to report back to you to confiml that help
has been summoned. Do remain at the scene [Q guide the emergency sen"ices
in and to brief (hem. Once you haye done thar, your job is oyer.
Conclusion
The wording of [he syllabus for cllls chapter tends to be all encompassing
rather than being specific, lea,-ing 'quizm:lstcrs' :Ill the scope in the Wo rld to
ply their tr:lde. T here 15 also a lot o f scopc for posi ng ,\11 essay questio n in
addition to multi-choice :lns\\"er questions. lr is fo r that rC:lson I hayc included
as much infonnation as possible on a wide range of topics. I am acutely aware
that many of these topics may appear 'dull' and present you with difticuhy in
holding the attention for long periods of study. 111 c~" arc nonetheless importam
and arc a Lcyei 3 Knowledge Requirement for all categories of candida te.
Much of the knowledge comained in this chap ter ,vill be greatly reinforced
with actual obse!Tation and practice in the work emiromnent and r encourage
you to take ad\"antage of this during periods of practical work. Take notice of
the emp hasis placed on safe practices and procedures, not just in :Ollf \'iciniry.
but in as ma ny areas you Cfln \·isit. Yo u desen'c a coffee brea k for ha\·ing got
tills far . Before you decide to replace this wiIh a visiT to th e pub - strictly for
counselling of course - I ha\"C included a few multi-choice ques tions for you to
try. They arc ani: a small sample so do not :lssumc that merely answering them
will be proof of ~-our readiness to take the exam. 1 Iake up a few more.
.-';
61
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CHAPT£R ONE
SAF£TY PR £ CAUTIONS
Revision
Safety Precautions
Q ues tions
1. The firs t p rinciple in accident prevention is to:
a) slucld the person
b) shield the hazard
c) remove the hazard
2. T h e H ea hh and Sa fety at Work Act 1974 p laces duties o n :
a) Ihe employer only
b) the employer and the employees
c) the employees onl y
'1nn-
3. A h a~ (d) nf'ay be d efin e d as :
,\\.:.-;..':' ...
'?>;\~~' l a.) something with the pOlenria.1 [0 cause hann
~
,\,.'-
~~\'" b) the likelihood that hann rna\' bc realised
(,,~
c) an unexpected C\'CIlt that results in hann
4. T he cos t o f p roviding and m aintaining persona l pro tection

equ ipm en t is: 2=
:3
a) the emplo)'ee's responsibility
b) the employer'S res ponsibility
c) shared between the employer and employees
62
Copyi/,hl e &111)' Co/It&t ;}OO6 !OO- A U n,gbu rtmvtd
CHAPTER ONE
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
5. \'Vhe n c h a rgi ng a g as eous o")'gen sys lem th e ml c o f c hargi ng s h o uld

be:
a) (:lSt
b) slow
c) irrcle\'ant
6. Wh en c harg ing a compo n e nt with g a s fro m <l hig h -prcss ure boule,
Ih e b a ili e mus l be conn ect ed thro u g h :
a) a dIver
b) an oil and water separator
c) a pressure regulator
7. T he hum an body:
a) does nOl conduct eJeClricit\·
b) will always conduct electricity
c) will ani\'. conduct electricin'. when wet
8. O~gc n is:
l\.)\1
, ) not flammable bur suppOrtS combustion in other materials
b) flammable and will burn if ignited
c) inert and will not bum or support combusuon
9. Ni trogen is :
a) nOI flammable but suppons combustion in other materials
b) flammable and will bum if ignited
c) inert and will not burn or support combusuon
63
1J'I./w.purr66.rol"
C H APTER O N E
S A ,- ETY PREC A UTIONS
10. T he phosph a te este r-base grou p of o ils used 10 a ircra ft h yd raul ic

system s are:
a) nOD- irritantS
b) irnranrs
c) i.rritaotS ooh' when in vapour form
11. T he 1" action level ide ntified in th e Noise at Work Regulati ons is:
, ) 85dE
b) 90dB
c) l-lOdB
U . U nder the Safety Sig ns R egu lations 1980 a sign tha t is d esigned to
pro hibit an actio n would be :
a) triangular \\~th a black border o n a yellow background
b) circular with a blue background
c) circular widl a rcd horder and crossbar on a wrute background
13. Wh en fa ced with casualti es that have been overcom e by gas YOli
')I.I\.~
sh o u '$-.,6 - -
\' .~e
( 0\'... ·
'(l';\~{' 'a) turn off the gas supply, venwatc thc area and tben evacuate (he
"\. k casualties
\,~....
,<!, .,...
" ,~~ .
... b) c\""acuatc the casualties thcn turn off [he gas supply and \'cntilate the
arca
c) "cnWate [he area, evacuate the casualties then turn off the gas supply
14. A spillage of a lkaline b a ttery electrolyte m ay be ne utralised with a .~
saturated solutio n of:

o "
a) bicarbonate of soda
"
'"
J::'
'v
c>;'
b) boric acid 0<
c) sulphuric acid
64
CIJPyighl 0 Bo'!)r Colugt JOO6 . 200- A ll n"ghti rutf/ltd IPll'w.P0/166.CO,"
C HAPTER O N E
SAFETY PRE CA U T ION S
15. T he fl ash pain! of a substance is defined as t h e:
a) lowesr rempcr:nurc at \vruch the material ignites
b) lowest tcmperarure at which rhe materi:ll prod uces enough \' apo ur to
burn
c) the flame temperature of a burning material
16. Electrica l fires can be fought us in g:
a) water or foam extinguishers
b) foam or d ry powder cxcinguishers
e) CO 2, BCF or city powder extingwshers
17. Class D metallic fi res can be fo ught using a:
a} dry powder extinguisher
b) fo am extinguisher
c) CO 2 extinguisher
18. When faced wit h a fire you s ho uld:
,,-,,yb . a~\I~
L)
first call the fi re semce before anempcing w Ilut cl1e fire o u[
\>,\\\..:~":
. --
b) first attempt to pur rhe fire out and then call the fi re scmce
, \\)~("
C
,{,..,..~....\ c) o nly call the fire service if the fire is too big to extinguis h
( P~ ·
19. An im portant rule when dealing wit h a person in s h ock is to :
a) giye the person plenty to dcink
b) keep the person upright and mO\~ng about
c) not allow the person to eat or drink
65
1l'1l'W.parl66.r(JIJ'
CHAPTER ONE
SAFET Y PRE CA UT I ONS
20. A single COSHH assessm e nt for the use of a give n hazardous

substance can be used:
a) in all work locations and wo rk processes where tbe substance may be

used
b) o nly in the related work process in the related location only
c) in the related work process o nly regardless oflocaoo n
Revision
Safety Precautions
Answers
l. C 16. C
2. B 17. A
3. A IS. A
4. B 19. C
1~)\.'-
5. Bl\~'G " '" 20. B
,cow..;...;."
~",1:(' 6. C
g
_ ,\,'t
,,\\~
1... ..'1~
7. B
S. A
9. C
to. B
11. A
12. C
13. A
14. B
15. B
66
CQ/!p i,ghf C Ban] ulk,gt 2006 . JOO- ,--III rif.hlI rm rotd wu'IP.paI166.rom
CHAPTER TWO
WORKSHOP PRACTICES
Workshop Practices
Introduction
\ Vc!COOlC to chapter two. Before we make a start I would like to sOrt OLit a few
problems with the seC)ucnce in which the sylbbus for module 7 is presented.
There are three parts to this chapter. The first part includes the care of tools .
There arc aspects oi this topic that are related to specific tOols that arc a part of
the common hand and power tools described in chapter three. It would be
more logical for me to link these aspects to the descriptio n of the actual tools
to avoid unnecessary duplicacion and cross- re ferencing. In this chapter,
therefore, T will onl), concentrate on the general requirements of tool ca re.
The syllabus for chapter two also includes reference to rhe LIse of workshop
materials. The identification of materials is a module 6 topic and rou wi.ll find a
detailed descripoon of ierrous. non -fe rrous, composite and non~me [ailic
materials and their identification in the first three chapters of module 6. There
arc also a lo t of refe rences to me mo re detailed Lise of materials in sLiccessiYe
chapters l!1 dus module. I will co ncentrate here o oh· o n the general
requiremen ts relating to the use of workshop materials.
There is also a section in this chapter on the calibration of tools and

equipment. Again, the operation, function and usc of precision measuring LOols
and1Alc:c tricai and avionic general test equipment appear in the syllabus for
e. ~S"\~hap ters 3 and -1-. I will concentra te purely on the general calibratio n
. (.1l\\C.~ requiremcnts and standards in this chapter.
, \\';"«'
:.,.....'. Finally, there is a refercnce to dimensions and tolerances that is rcpeated in the
<,.\'-
(.0~' s,·llabus for chapter fi,"c. Hopefully, having explained these apparent
it~consistencies, you wi.ll understand that we will not be lea\' ing anything our,
just putting a few things in an order that will make things casier for you. ;-
..,
~
-.
Care of Tools
. -\ ircraft maintenance tasks are carried out in a range of different woJ..
e!wironments but all of these im'oh-e the usc of tools and equipment in soWe
form or other. Tools have one thing in common with humans, if you do-~~t
tfea l them p roperly the)' will not perform as wei! as ),ou would wish fOf2aod
may let you down when yOll least expect it. I f we add mis use to the ncgle~<r o f a
tool, \VC have a \-ery real possibility that the tool will cause you or a cO ~~'lgue to
suffer a serious injury or, it will damage the aircraft. \"Vith that said, ~re are a
number of common-sense rules wc can apply:
67
Copyighl O I3tJfT)' Collfl.! 2006 - 200~ All nl,hl> rr:mlJ(n 1V11.~I.p{/rl66. l"o",
C HAP TER TWO
WORKSHOP PRACTICES
1. \"'hen nOt in usc, tools should be properly s(Ored in an envi ronment

that will not crCtlte problems with loss, corrosion or damage through
impact \\~[h orner tools and equipment.
2. The old adage of 'picking the right tool for the job' was nl.·nr tnlcr.
.:\lwars usc the correct sized spanners and screwdri\'ers and do not be
[emp~ed to substitute these by misusing grips and pliers that will not
only damage the part but the tool as welL
3. Hard, brittle cULting tools such as drills, reamers and fues , when not in
usc, sholud be kept separated to avoid contact with each other. I f these
tools arc allowed to make contact they will be at risk of chipping and
blunting each other . .r\ procedure followed in many stores is to rerain
reamers in their individual boxes and place drills or fi les in indi\'idual
stowages that partition them from each othcr. TI,e method used for
storing brittle tools is always a fa\'ouritc larget for quality auditors
when visiting tool stores.
-t Othe r cutting tools such as hacksaws and chisels should be s(Ored out
of contact \\~th each other and other tools and equipment.
:>. i\larking out tools such as scribers and spnng dividers. when out of
use, should ha\'e thcir sharpened points protected.
6. Precision measuring insrruments, when not in use, should be kept in

their special to type boxes together wilh any supporting calibration
dOCll1llenrS and retained in the srote. T he instnlmems should be within
their prescribed calibration dares. Proteco\'e oil films should be
restored where required. 111ey mUSt nOI be left lying around the work
area or be intenningled wlth, or be in contact with, other tools in
toolboxes. If dropped or otherwise damflged they must be withdmwn
from US~t""
.,~\I.-,6 -
\.>~.:.~pecial tools and gauges, when not in should be kept in their
lISC,
",,{'t' specia l to type containers find retai ned in the store. They should be
labell ed to identify their use.
8. The striking end of impact tools such as hand punches, drifts find
chisels shou1d be inspected before usc to ensure thar these ends arc not
split. peened over or burred. Using these tools in that condition risks
bilS breaking off and entering the component being worked or the eres
of rhe operator. The ends should be reground to the correct profile
before usc.
9. :\lways use tools for the purpose they were designed for. Screwdri\"Crs
are not substitute IC\-en; or chisels! Spanners are not substitute
hflmmers! Socket set extension bars arc not substirute drifts!
10. Always inspect a tool before using it and, just as importantly, before
reruming it. TI1C head of a hammer must be secure on its shaft and the
shafl should not be split. File tangs should be righdy fitted in handles
that arc not split or worn and have Lhe co rrect ferru le in pl ace. File
68
Coppighl C lin'!)' Colkgt :!006 . :u(r All n'ghfJ TtUtvffl JJIU~JI."'lrl66. co",
CHAPTER T WO
WORKSHOP PRACT I C E S
tangs ba\-e speared the hands of quite a few unfortunate people.

Scre\ydriwr blades should be undamaged and haye the correct profiJe.
The jaws of spanners should not be sprung - you risk skinning your
knuckles if they arc.
11. E lectrical pmvcr tools must be kept clean and free from swarf and dust
and be inspected by qualified persons at regular inter.als. Ther should
be correctly stored when not III usc and ne,er left lying :lround. Cables
and connectors should be inspected for signs of pulling or any damage
to the outer sheath. Any signs of o\·crhearing or burning should be
reported and the 1001 withdrawn from usc.
! 2. Bench \-ices should be secure, clean and ha\·e adecjuarc lubrica tlo n on
the threads and release mechanisms.
13. Ne,er return :In unsen;ceable tool to a 1001 kit where it ca n be

reissued. Repon it and return it to the store properly labelled with the
defect identified.
14. Tools should be cleaned before returning them in to store. Tools that
have been used for work with resins used fo r composite material
repairs should be cleaned With acetone or l\[EK.
15. Tools lhat ha\·c to be used for specific tasks only may require
segregation from other tools. For example, tools used for dismantling
dirty h~-draulic components should be kept in the area reserved for [his
and not be moved into the clean component assembly area. The same
rule would apply to tools used to maintain alkaline and acid ba tteries
for example.
",i his.lrt all fairly common sense stuff but you would be amazed al what some
_ ~\\c'f-c"}.\ people do to tools to get a job done. For eX:lmpl~, there are occasions when a
iI,"\....
\..
~
'
_<" (.~ .
spanner may be deliberatelv bent to achieve a diffi cult access. If this really. has
to be done, the spanner should be \vithdrnwn :tnd held as a cleady identified
~,\'-:"" special tool for that job. It should not be returned to a tool kit for general uses
(.0'\ that it is no longer able to fulfil!
Control of Tools
I am going to start this section by painting you a preny black picture of sam5;="
of the activities in a maintenance organisation that have the potential ~
become a threat to flight safe~- if subject to poor tool control. The disco,~
that you ha'-e mislaid a tool after working on an aircraft is nOt a plea~ t
experience, either for you or [he people charged with trying to locate it. ~ot
knowing that you have mislaid a tool could prove to be an even ~ore
unpleasant experience fo r others in the future. C"\
.("
<;
\,\'hen we start to eX~ll11ine how we can exerr control over the tool!!', and for
th:lt matter the equipment. used in aircraft maintenance tasks, we may find the
69
COPJ·rigbl .~ /3arry Col/ell :'>006 - 2001 All riJhli n'Itn'fd ~'1I'1l!.pilr166. "Of7/
CHAPTER TWO
WORKSHOP PRACTLCE S
problem extends a lot funher than first thoughL °nle [eon 'loose article' does
nor specify any particular breed of article - there is a big range of things lhat
could fit the description. It is pretty ob,;om thai the ream direcdy cngaged in
the work will be using tools bur there still remains the issue of random visits by
migrants from outside agencies such as electrical, avionic. structural and
inspection bays. "111ese people may be importing tools and equipment that h:1\"e
been drawn from their respecri.e stores, not yours. They may h:we indeed
carried this equipment across se.. eral alrcrafr before reaching rOll. \'\!e could
then ha\'e a real problem in identifying in precisely which aircraft a mislaid item
might reside, if indeed is has been lost in an aircraft at all.
To complicate the situation further, lhere may be items of c(luipme!1l such as

drills, reamers, special tools, gauges and measuring instnullents that arc held in
a cemrnl tool store serving several tcams working in different areas and on
different aircrafl. Some of these mar not aCllmlly be single items but kits
containing several ilems. I know that I am painling a peell)' black pic Nrc here
but it is sometime surprising how many people o,oerlook exactly how many
sources there are for ob taining tools in a large maintenance organisaLion, and
how these tools can migrate if nm checked. The quesrion remains, how many
of thcse sources are going 10 be checked when an aircrnft is being cleared for
service, and when? Hearing that part of a l1luitimeter electrical test set is
missing from the electrical bay the day aftcr an aircraft has departcd is not
somelhing rou would wish to hear, particularly if rou had released the aircraft
back to sct"'.ice!
Before we fin ish with rlus preamble, I will draw }Oour attention [0 pieces of
equipment that people do not often regard as being stores controlled items.
Replenishment rigs and test rigs, for example, often ha,oe items such as
charging hose connCClOes, blanks, caps and boule keys. \'{11ar if we find one of
thosc missing? Personnel using this type of eCluipment are responsible for
ca rrying out a pre-use check and a post-usc check. 111is would include
checking that albaernchmems were present. hems such as borde keys are tools
and theie ~~<e would be subject to the same controls .
. \.>\\\~L~
"=. \"\:'~~x{ending this a bit further, what about the blanks wc lise [Q close open
('-!.\'\ pipelines and eleclrical connectors? Surely dlese arc just as capable of januning
(~~\..,. . ' a control as any Olher itcm? The quesrion is, arc they tools or consumables?
The conclusion we might reach is [hat everything we bring to an aircraft is a

potential 'loose article' including nurs, bolts, washers, rivCts, rubes of grease,
cans and locking wire and the detrirus that our dealings with these crcate. If we
cannot exercise proper control moer tbe rools and equipment we use, what
hope would there be for the rest?
Shadow Boards
It would be a bit chaotic ro try and centralise e\Oer)' tool and piece of
equipmcnt we use in one centralised lool storc. "nIcre is oftcn a need 10 carry a
range of common tools to the work site to save nwcs of foot slogging and
qucuing. Where thcse tools are [0 be made available ro a rcam of people we
70
COPJ'nghl Barry COIH§ :!006 . ::00- AHrighls T"(It17td ~1D1D'.pnrt66.rom
C H AP T E R TWO
WORKSHOP P R A CTICES
need to know whar tools arc in llse and b\' whom. The tool shadow board
prm-ides a simple solution. The silhouette of-each 1001 is painted on a board so
that it conrras{s "ith the background colour. I'- or example. black silhouettes on
a light green background ..'ny tool remo\-ed from the board exposes its
si lhouetTe and indicates clearly that it is not there. Each silhouette has a hook
designed to accept a marker that carries a numeric or alphabetic code that
rdates to the person who remm"ed the tool. \,'e now have a means of
establishing what is missing and who has it. _\t cease work. the shadow board
is easily checked and we know whom to question if it is not complcte. The
board is cOIlL1incd within a lockable cabinet that can itself be secured in a safe
area. Sounds too simple!
The shadow board system that we ha ve jllst described [c(luires c;\ch tradesman
to ha\-c a set of 'tags' or markers [Q hang on the board when tools arc drawn_
The question is what do we do with the spare 'tags'. If these arc carried onto
the aircraft they can be mislaid and the), often fire. So, we need to check that
each person has the correcr number of 'tags' fit cease work. \\:-e could, of
course, keep the spare tab'S mounted on fI separate board against each named
individual. 'Ilus syHem would be easy to check :lod not present a 'loose article'
haz:lrd_ Now we hayc the question of tniSI. \'(lb:l1 if a person lIses someone
else's tag, either \\;th or without that pcrson's pennission? -11,ere ha\-e been
occasions when migram technicians require tools and 'borrow' tags or worse
still dmw tools \\;thout placing a rag. \'"orse than tlus. these people may carry
the 1001 across to another ai.rcraft, This is where supenisors have \0 exert strict
control. These infringements would have to be treated as gross breaches of
professional bchayiour. 111e alternativc would be to return to a centralised
stores system and sign e\"erything out.
Centralised Tool Stores

"llt\
I.: "!\'!IPort.'lble team shadow boards are nonnally restricted to a mnge of simple hand
(.\.)\\.:.~ tools, The more speci:llised range of tools and equipment is normally kept in a
\\;\.«' ccntralised tool store. This reduccs the numbers of specialised tools that we are
rccluired to hold and makes them available to all who wish to use them. In
some org3lusations this slore also handles the storage and issue of
consumables as well. :\ rube of gre2se or a can of fluid is JUSt as much a 'loose
article' hazard as a tOol. Shado\,,- boards scil! ha\'c a role to play in these stOl! S
but wc now ha,'e the problem of location. II is "ilfllly important that we ha\C1I:
signing OLlt system thflt identifies the destination of that tool in addition to wh~
has it. 111e alternative would be a system of registering the tool onto ~
particular nircraft. Some organisations may operatc both systems.
\,\'ithin the centralised tool store there must be a system that quickly indicates
whar is out, who has it and where_ Tool stores will normally issue tools oj a
dflih, bflsis or for a shift period. At the end of each working day or shif& he
sto;c-man will check the returns and inform the app ropriate supcn,jsor rf!any
discrepancies_ \\:'hen an aircraft is in the process of being cleared for §trvice
the store must be checked in addition to any local shfldow boards, ,}v
,
71
1l'1l'1l l pan66.rolll
CHAPTER TWO
WORKSHOP PRACTICES
An important requirement within a tool store is the segregation of

ullSelyiceable tools and equipment from tI:'.e serviceable stock. Unserviceable
tools should nor be stored where they can Je accessed and pur back into use .
. \ll unsCI".iceable tools should be dearly labelled and quarantined. The reason
why a tool has been classified as unserviceable may not be apparelll by its
phrsical appearance. An inslrument that is inaccurate or is our of calibration
time is unserviceable. If tile calibration records appertaining to an instrument
are missing then the insU'umell( is unserviceable.
Maintenance Bay Tools & Equipment

l\ lany specialist maintenance bars carry specialised equipment. For example,
non-dcstnlCtive testing sections carry a range of differenr probes and
conneclors. Elecr..rical and avionic bays carry test sets. In addition to these, the
bars oflen carry hand tools for work inside t.he bay. The situation we ha\'e here
is that these items may randomly be required on aircraft work as well as for bay
workshop use. Each area must ha\'c a system. Either all the tools and
equipment are held in the centralised store or the areas must have a means of
idencif;.;ng wbom has drawn what and where has it been taken. In this case,
these slores must be included in the tool and equipment checks when an
aircraft is being cleared for scn·icc. _An alternative is to register the presence of
the equipment with me supcn-isor of the aircraft when the item is brought 011
to it and to register its remO\'al after work.
Aircraft Maintenance Ba,' Control
Some organisations use a form of barrier conr..rol where all tools and
equipment bein~ brought into the bay have to be booked in and OUI regardless
of whetb%\ wer\l\~\'e been signed Out of olher stores. This is done using a
re~5~'tnat makes open emries and the idemiC)' of the responsible person
\.... :.{t:!ear. Again, the system requires a certain amount of tnlst and firm action
when cases of abuse occur.
Carriage of Tools
\"{'hen tools are carried OntO an aircraft they should be done so in a way that
keeps them secure. Stuffing the pockets of o"eraUs \\;Ih tools is not
recommended. Small tools carried in top pockets are at a high risk of falling
our when the technician leans o,·er. .\ further problem is that projccrjng sharp
tools will usu,'llly find a way of obstructing hand mo\'emcnts and impaling the
owner. Tool caddies or tidies ate a solution provided that these are not then
used to carry around rubbish.
72
COPJ·ri!.hl e Bllrry ull~p/ :006 - 200 - AU nihIl rrsm·,J
CHAPTER TWO
WORKSHOP PRACTICES
Lost Tools
Organisations must ha\-e a procedure to follow when they receive a report of a
lost tool. Such a procedure usually inyoh~cs a check of all sub~srores and work
areas followed by a 'zone' search of the suspect aircraft by a nominated temn
I f this fails to re\-eal the tooL a further and more cxrensi'-e 'zone' search ma,-
be implemented that miglll im-oke selected dismantling and eyen [adiographi~
search techniques. You would nor wisb to be the person responsible for
causing this!
EASAPan145
There are a couple of references to tools and equipment in EA5r\ Part ! 45 -

25(d) and 40(a and b). Twill quote them for you.
'Secure storage facilities must be provided for aircraft componen ts, equipment,
tools and material. Storage conditions must ensu re segregation of sen'iceable
aircraft components, equipment. raols and material from unserviceable aircraft
components, materiaL equipment and tools. 1be conditions of storage must be
in accordance with tbe manufacturer's i.nstructions to prevent deterioration and
damage of stored items. Access 10 storage facilities must be restricted to
authorised personnel.' (EASA Part 1--15-25(d).
'The £.\5:\ Pan 1-1-5 appro..-ed maintenance organisation must have the
necessary e<juipment, [Ools and matetials to perform the approved scope of
work.' (EASA Part 145 ~ 4O(a).
,\,\Ihere necessary, tools, equipment and particularly test equipment must be

controlled and calib rated to standards acceptable to the .lA.A full member
a lltl~'nety ar a freguency to ensure serviceability and accuracy. Records of such
.,\}\'C:tli\J~ations and the standards used must be kept by the E.ASA Parr 145
O,\\c,?-c." approved mai ntenance organisation.' (EASl\ Pan ! --15 ~ 40(b) .
~,,-
,• \-...,,<.~""
. These references are neccssarily bricf but do impose the requirement fot tool
,.5"~ control and also calibration control. Also note the rC<juiremcnt for segregating
(~~"\ .
unsen;ceable items. TillS is of particular importance. When a tool is classified
as being unsemceable it should oeyer be allowed back into the system.
Use of Workshop Materials

I ha,-e mentioned earlier in trus chapter that the narure and identification of rti
materials used in aircraft maintenance are module 6 topics. However, there fP!
a few rather important rules go,-erning the handling of aeronautical mareriaJfin
the work environment that we should discuss. ,~.
The term material covers a \\;de range of products that would for ,e~mple
include: metals, composite materials, oils, greases and chemicals. Ait'ft from
"""
ensuring that YOll only lise the materials stated in the approved maIntenance
manual there are twO very important rules governing their use. These are the
73
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C HAP TER TWO
WORKSHOP PRACTices
continuing prese lyauon of the identity and inspection status of the materials
whilst we arc using them. Lose either of these and the material is sllspect and
must be withdrawn from use.
Ce rtification of Materials
Suppliers of materials establish and maintain procedurcs for identifying a
produc, from approvcd specifications during all stages of production and
dclh·cry . . \ppro\'ed manufacnlrers produce aircraft materials to scringem
specifications. l3efore they issue these matcrials they are obliged to certify that
lhe material confonns to specification. W'hen these materials arc delivered they
:lre accompanied by a Certificate of Conformity and also the unique batch
lJumber of the material. Man" matcrials are also marked \\~th the material
specification code ..-\ Rclctlse Cerrific.'Jfe will accompany materials intended
for ci\-il aeronautical use and this is often combined with an Appron:d
Certificate that certifies rhat the materials ha\'c come from a manuf:lcturer
appro\-ed by the a,-iation authority.
Quarantine Store
All materi:'lis reccind into store must be iniLially inspected for damage or
deterioration and then placed in a locked quamnrine store uncil the idenLifY and
balch details h:lve been confirmed and they can be related to the appropriate
certificate of conformity. All receipts of materials arc recorded in a 'goods
receiyed' register.
")\\\.f
Bonded Stores
u-'\\':-':"": ...
~ \"'t':,>ft-.'1falerials thar are inLendcd for aircraft usc and h:l\"c bcen satisfactorily
.\,\ ~ identified and proved to confonn to specification arc removed from the
, <:....~\r (IUarantine store and placed into a separate bonded store. \'\'hilst in the bondcd
store, thc identity of the m:lterial is presen-cd :Ind an)' shelf life limitations arc
obsen-ed. Petrol, oils and lubricants would be stored in a separate bonded
Slore resen'cd for flammable products. Gases would be in another compound.
?Iateria!s arc issued from bonded stores on receipt of a requisition to a task
:'lIld this will then be annotated with the batch number and release certificate
dem.ils to presen-e traceability to source. When part of a bar, sheet Or secrion
of l11etal is issued, the pan bearing the nmeria! identification mark should be
retained in the store. Materials issued from a bonded store are recorded in an
issues register and are traceable to tasks and arc also traceable back co theu
certificatcs o f confonnity and batch numbecs.
74
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CHAPTER TWO
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Identification
The identity of a material must be preser,ed at all rimes throughout storage,

tr:ll1sportation and usc. Solid ma terials may be CUt fro m bulk slack o r fluids
may bc decanted. \'(Ihcll this is done there is a risk that the material will lose its
identity as it progresses through a work process. I f this occurs, and you cannOt
be sure of what it is, it must be withdrawn from use and quarantined awaiting
disposal inst.ructions. The material is considered to be defecti\-e because it has
no proof of identity.
\X!hen replerushing aircraft with fluids :md gases we need to be sure of the
identiry of these up to the poim they enter the aircraft system. Fluid conrainers
have the specification number and batch number clearly marked on them. If
you decant these into a replenishment rig you must ensure that the rig also
identifies what is in it. I f you are not sure you cannm use it.
Chemicals used in the workshop must come from containers that carry dle
identity and any details regarding shelf life. \\'hen cheITllcals arc mixed they
form orher compounds. This becomes a stage in a work process and we need
to be sure what that stage is and whether it has been carried out success fully or
not. The task record should clearly show this.
Proof of Conformi ty
Using meraIs as an example. it is essential that material that is drawn from a
bonded store retalns both its identity and balch number and a means of tracing
it back to the certificate of confonnity should this be necessary. Certificates of
conformity for maor aluminium alloys also carry heat treatment figures and
times on them. You cannot use any other figures. Should this documem be lost
the~ I..,y,e material cannOt be used. Even if you can identify the material
c. ;,\~'ipeafication by other means, you have no documented evidence that it
. (.l'\\':'~ conforms to it, or any information o n how to heal treat it. \X' hen this occurs
\.....;\~~' vou must withdraw the material from use. label it clearly with the reason fo r
.\~<.. .... ~vithdrawal, and quarantine it awaiting disposa.l instructions.
,.:.' .
(0'\
Inspection & Test Status

:t..
I t is essential that rou can establish the inspection and test status of a1f
materials whilst they arc being used in a work process. up to and when [her ars:
installed in an aircraft. Let me giw you a classic example. If you hayc drawii
some sheet metal from the bulk stock you would ha\"c also been gi\'en tlXe
specification number. the batch number and the certificate of confo~
details. So far, so good, now you put the material through a precipitation h1"at-
t.rcatmcnt process using the figures provided - and go to lunch! f::
~
Your colleague arriycs and picks the material up to carry on wo rkin~-in your
absence. How is he/she to know that you ha\'e heat-treated it? On ~ piece of
metal looks n~ry similar to the next. That is what is meant by inspection and
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CHAPTER T WO
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test stams. If you have heat-treated the material you must have been aware
whemer rou had done this successfully or not. You may be awaiting further
confirmation from me reslIiLs of a tensile test on a test-piece for example. You
may e,en h:\\'e not carried au[ me helt-treatment. Your colleague needs to be
able to check Ihat the material is identifi:lble, what stage the wmk p rocess is at,
and whether it has passed through each stage successfully or not. If your
colleague cannot eSL1blish this he/ she must quarantine the item as defecu\-e
awairing disposal- or your return from an extended lunch!
J magine if you had realised that you had messed up the heat treatment and had
then just left the item on rhe bench. I f your colleague had assumed you did this
because all was well we will now have a non-confonning part being progressed
on through the process. , am using a real example here that did happen and
resulted in a failed part being fined to an aircraft. FormnatcJy, the releasing
engineer noticed that there was no reference to test results in the task records.
[11a similar vein, a pipe rhat has been pressure tested looks \·ery much like one
that has not. i\ cable that has been proof-loaded looks remarkably like one that
has not. I f an item has been tested there has got be an indication whether it has
passed or failed. \"imout tills we run tile risk of either passing a failed item on
to rhe next stage or missing rhe fact that the item was not acmally inspected.
\Xlhen dealing with materials in the workshop we need to ha\-c process controls
that identify precisely each stage that has been reached and whether the
material has passed through each stage successfully. 11lls can be done by using
'route' or 'task history' cards or adler documents that allow the o perator to
certify that the item bas sllccessfully passed it stage before being passed on to
the next. The next operator commences by checking the proof of inspection
from the previolls stage. The system must tie items to the related documents.
Someone is going to have to clear the linal release document fo r a parr rhal has
been processed '1 ~i,mt someone would like some assurance thaI all the steps in
the proces~\Mna oeen successful and that all the materials used were identifiable
a[1,£id\'Pp~~ved. 1f YOli mink this is overkill, imagine mat rhe piece of metal we
') \'l·).q~ave been discussi.ng is going to form part o f an aircraft's primary load bearing
. ;\,,,!e
.\'>-
5trucrure _ and 'vou have J·ust booked a discoun red fare flight in it! You migh'
(.,\!. . ' ' [hen like to know that the shark repellent came from an appro\'ed source!
r,
~<
,
Heat Treatment of Metallic Materials ~
",
The heal treatmenr processes for aeronautical metallic tn..1terials are critical and
sometimes change the mfltcrial spccificfltion. There are Britis h Standard tables
that relate various material specifications to hear treatment nmes and
temperatures. However, some aluminium alloys are 50 sensitive to change
during heat treatment they have specific temperatures and times for each batch
of the material. In these cases, the temperatures :md times for each p rocess are
:mached to the Cercilicatc of Conformity to specificacion or App ro\-ed
Certificate for the material. I f this documcnL1tion cannOt be located then you
cannot under any circumstances use figures from other sources. T he material is
76
COPJ·dghl (:I Bar!)· Collt!! 2006 200- All l"ightr rmrvd IIml!ll.pllrl66.rolll
C HAPTER T W O
WOR KS HOP PRACTICES
no longer fit for purpose and must be quarantined :lS defecu\'e i1waiLing
disposal instructions.
T ha( concludes (he rather important considerauons \ve need to keep in mind
when usi ng workshop m:lterials that are desti ned for :lircraft usc. Thefe is
:lnothe r consideration when we are actually using the m:tterial and that is th:tt
we should not wreck it through o ur actions. j\[,lterials are stored in a manner
tll:ll preserves their identilv and thelf condition. A sheet of metal may have
been issueu from the bond~d store in perfect condition. 'rhrow it on th~ floor
and walk aU O\'er it and its condinon will no longer be fit for purpose! In the
smllC n:in, jam it between the unprotected jaws of a \'ice and we will hayc
achie\'ed a similar result. :\ll solid materials used in a workshop should be
protec((~d from the fretting, scoring and corrosion that result from careless
:lcuons. r!uids should be kept in sealed contruners to avoid cross
cont:lminalion. FI:lmll1:lble fluids and gases should not be srored or used in a
workshop where they m:ly create fire and explosion risks because of [he n:lnlfe
of other acti\;oes taking place. W'e arc returning to chapter one here in
reiternting the need for safe working practices.
Dimensions, Allowances and Tolerances

Jf \\'c need TO define a finished product accurately then we need to LIse
dimensions. The problem that we h:lve is that e\'(~n \vith modern engineering
techniques we cannOt guarantee :lbso]ute :lccuracy \0 :l discrete figure every
ti me. 1\lachines :lncl machine tools grad ually wear and material propertlcs va ry_
T he skills of people in the use of hand tools :lre even more \'ariable. Each o f
Ihese factors works to create a dn ft from the nominal size o f :l dimension,
13CC:lUSC of tills we have to decide by how far we C:ln pem1it this drift from
aCCUf:lCY to occur before the product is no longer fit for purpose. TillS means
that we must h:lVC a system of limits and fits. \X'e need to proddc upper and
. . \\\iow'l:~\limits within \vhich we are allowed to work. \\'e also need to provide
_(,,\\•.::,!..c - positiYe or negaciyc allowances to achie,e required fits her-veen m:lung
\:$(\ l_ components. These limits and fits are set by designers who have to consider
.\.... _..., \: [he intcrchange:lbility of pans :lS well :lS the functioning of individual parts .
....... ('......
(P~
Dimensions
..\ simple definition of a dimension is that it is a l11e:lsure of the distance-
between twO fL,"cd points or planes. The three dimensions of space are: lcngth ~
breadth and dcpm (ullckness). These three dimensions are IinC:lr :lnd arf
expressed qU:lnumti,-ely in discrete units or P:lf[S of those units th:lf :lrc rclatL-d
10 :l chosen scale o f measuremem. These can be millimetres in the mer:i'c
system or inches in the English system. Some dimensions :lre classifiec:r~ s
o
lill1ctiolUl/ dimensions in that thev directly affect the functio n of:l p rQ.Q:uct.
, .
N on-runc lion:li dimensions arc :lpplicd to manufactltL'e or inspecuG'p b ut '"
have no bearing on the function of the component. Au.,(jJiary dimen$..,(pns :lre
used for information and h:lye no bearing on a product'S conflj'tmiry to
specification.
77
CHAPTER TWO
WORKSHOP P RACTICES
T here is, however, a wide range of featu res in a product that can be measured.
I'or example, we can use linear dimensions to express: diameter, radii.
ci rcumference, pitch, flatness, par.illelism. concentricity, gradient and profile.
The measurement of angle, howe\·er. requires a slightly differem interpretacion.
An angle is defined as [he change in distance or direction between twO lines or
surfaces thac dh'erge from the same point and we h:n-e (0 employ a different
measurement scale. In this case we express angles in degrees (1/ 3601lt pan of a
circle) or radians (approx 57.3j.
A1Jowance
When we arc required to fi r tWO mating components such as a shaft and a hole
together, we need to know whether the fit should pro\'ide a positive clearance
or whether it is to be an interference fit, in which case the clearance between
the shaft and the hole will be negmh·e. "nle allowance is the t:Ie:mmcc thIlt
exists between the slmft and tlu? hole and is expressed as being ei ther
posiu\'e or ncgau\·e. In o rder to achicyc the specified fit there will be a stated
dC\'iarion from the basic size of the shaft or the hole that is designed to
produce that fil.
\[mm,umU
Clcamnce
:-------1-
;-"[aximum Interfcrcnce
Clearancc
n
Clearance Fir
n
Int(;rfen:nce Fit
Figure 2. 1 · Allowances
A tolerance is the dimensional difference between twO limitS but when we arc
dealing with the fit between two components, 0111." of the limits is normally
fixed whilst the other is varied by the tolerance. The teon allowance is applied
to tbe clearance that exists between a shaft and a hole when the), arc brought
together. This is not to be confused with the upper and lower size limits stated
for eacb component. The difference betwccn the upper and tower sizc limits is
the tolerancc and the shaft and me hole in this case will each have their Own
tolerance.
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wwII 1
C HAPTER T W O
WORK S HOP PRAC T LCES
There are a number of fir systems that are used to achieve :l. desired fi[. Some
are hole b.7scd where the shaft size is selected to fit a gi,'cn hole. Other
systems arc sh.7 ft based where the size of the hole is ,-aried to fit a gi,-en shafr.
\'('e will be re-yisiting the common system of fits and clearances in more detail
in chapter 6 of this module. For now, you JUSt need to know what aUowancc
means. Be fore we lea,·c this topic. it would be useful to take a look at rhe three
common classes of fir.
Clearance Fit
This class of lit is achieved when there is a posio,-e difference between the
smaUesl size of the hole and the largest size of the shaft. The shaft would be
smaUer than the hole.
Interference Fit
TillS class of fit is achieved when there is a negaciye difference bc"vecn the
smallest size of the hole and the larges t size of the shaft. The shaft in this case
would be bigger than the hole.
Transition F it
T his class of fit rna\" be either a clearance o r interference fit because the
lolc.ranccs applied [0 [he hole and the shaft oyerlap.
Tolerances
I think that \\'e ha'-e already re,-ea1ed what is meant by the lenn tolerance. "-e
do need to be clear though. The basic size of a dimension is the size in relarion
to whiSh all ]jnll tS of variation are assigned. \X'hen a basic size is given it may
~c.m:~b m panied by upper and lower limi lS of variation. For example. the ba sic
,,\\ . . .
. ~\.:...;..':' ~ size may be 8mm but we can accept a yanatton to an upper sIZe
. limi- to f8 .:)!nm
"
;>.. "\~('
l·...' and a lower size limit of 7.Smm. The tolerance in tillS case is 1mm. which is
... \ . ell(: difference between the upper and lo wer size limits.
-- ---- -- -- -
r====j:------
8.S Luwer Ih'lC Cpper
-.3 Limit Sile Limit
-.5 S__ . 8.5
--- -----------
'"
8±O.5
L_:._ _ _--'=:::::: ___ _ -

·rlllcrancc = L'ppcr 1.!llut - '..ower l.!m!l
~8.5-7.5
~I
Fig ure 2.2 - Toleronc c
79
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CHAPT ER T W O
WORK S HOP PR AC T I CE S
In some cases there may be onlY one limit. For example the basic size may be
80lm with a pennined ~pper siz~ limit of 8.Smm but no lower \·ariauon. In this
case the tolerance would be O.Smm (S.S - 8)
When limits arc applied to dimensions in drnwings they may be shown \\~th the
larger limit of size O\'er the smaller limit of size. For example: 8.50
7.50
Altcrnati\ely, the dimension may be shown as 8 ± 0.5
Standards of Workmanship
\X 'hen we hear people refer to Someotle's standard of work wc nonnally
associate this with a subjective opinion on whether the work is bcing carried
out badlr or wcU. \,\'e sometimes bear statements like 'he achieves the h.igheH
standards.' The problem is that the standard in these cases is not :lcruaJly being
identified and it is therefore not possible to measure someone's perfomlance
against it. In fact, these loose statements are a complete misuse of the term
'standard', If we can name a standard such as a known industrial proficiency
srandard, and we can test the indi\'idual against it, we may then comment on
whether he/she meers it or not. Similarly, we could reS( the whole nation
against it and be satisfied that those who passed had mCI a required standard of
proficiency.
Standards
In cngineering, a standard is defined as a technical specification or other

document approved by a recognised national, international or company
stnndardising bo~r for repenred application. You either comply with the
srandard ~,(yt;tJ do not. 111ere arc specifications for: materials, products,
pre~&$~S; inst.'l.llation, inspection, test etc. These specifications are very
,~;\.~Uetailed. For example, a maintenance specification describes in detail the
.\,\ " requirements of preveomtive and correcti\'e procedmcs to maintain a product
,~\~'~''c and specifics the materials to be used and the periodic timing of acu\Tiries. If
\.. rhis sounds like a good description of an aircraft maintenance manual you
would be right. You either succeed in complying with the specification or you
do nOt. In both cases, we need to have the standard identified before we can
comply \\;rh it,
There arc thollsands of national and imernarional smndards for just about
every product, sen'ice and \1lork process in existence. \'\'e met some of these in
module 6. These were the British and American Standards for dungs like
materials, fasteners, heat treatments CIC, TIlere are also national and
international smndards for design practice, drawing practice, manufacture,
maintenance, inspection, measurement, calibration etc.
In d1(~ United Kingdom, the body that issues and controls national standards is
the British Srandards Institution (BSI). There is also a European Standards
(EN) organisation and an American Srandards organisation (AN). ~[OS t
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CHAPTER T WO
WORK S H OP PRAC TI CES
coulllnes III the world han,: their own narional standards. The ultimate aim is
to bring all these differem national standards to&'Cther under one set of
internationally agreed standards. -[be lmcrn:nional Organisation for
Standardisation (TSO) exists fOr that purpose.
,\".arion authorities also issue standards, such as those for thc way that we
opcrate appro\'Cd maintenance organisations. These standards \vill p~im to the
technical spccifications that we must obsen·c whcn carrying OUt our work. Is
this beginning to sOllnd familiar? \'('e work to appro,'cd dnl\vings and wc
mainlain and repair aircraft and aircraft components to appro\·cd maintcnance
manuals. These are the approyed manufacrurer's standa rds. \,\ 'c can giye a
name to thcm and we can measure Ollr compliance \\itl1 them.
The application of standards ensures that all work processcs arc ca rried out
correctly regardless of location. Pro\'iding thc pcrsonnel arc correctly trained
and qualified to an apprm'ed anacion amhority standard like EAS,\ Part 66.
the smnda rds ensure that the work will be carried out corrcctly regardless of
who undertakes it. The organisation they work for would in turn havc to
comply with thc EAS1\ Part 1-1-5 joint ayianon requircments for approved
maintenance organisations. That is 'standardisation' - e"eryonc docs c,'crything
that is required in the appro.-ed mar-nero
Paris manufactured to all appro.-ed drawi.ng arc bcing manuf.1crured 10 a

standard . ill this case lhe drawing. so they should aU conform to it. In turn, the
dra\\.oings arc prepared to apprO\·cd drawing and design standards. \'(11cn wc
m:lIlufaerurc a part to an apprO\·ed drawing we ha"c to sa tis~· p r~scribed limi ts
and fits and any special requirements. If wc do not, the pari will f.1il inspection
and wc will ha,'c therefore failed to meet the standard. Aircraft maintenance
tasks are ca rried out in accordance WitJl the approl·cd maintcnancc manual
because that is the standard. I we fail to do this correctly wc will hal'e failed to
meet the standard.
1\'~(
,-
(.I,,\o.:t-:
1\\\ fn,rery simple terms, if we all agreed to measure the length of all hOllse bricks
with the same ruler, that ruler would have become the sta ndard for length for
\\;\(~~ hOllse bricks. \X'e arc of course reliant on the ruler being accurate so we may
check it against anothcr object that we know to be correct. That object now
becomes the reference standard.
Our ability to meet the standards we use for work will be hea\'ily influenced ~'
the qU:l.liry and condition of the tools. equipment and facilicies a\'ailable and t~
working em'ironment. The quality and conclinon of the humans who are doini
the work will also influence their ability to meet the standa rds. No\\' we can saf
that a person meets or does not meet the requirements of a specified standar~
such as a drawing bccause we can cbeck [he results of a final inspection cjf
his/her work against that standard. .~
o
,\ n interest.ing story shows the \'alue of standards. During the American ~~il
War, all the soldier's rifles were expensively hand made by skilled guns~ths.
The problem with this was that barely any of the parts wcre inrerchangc::r6Jc. If
your rifle bolt fracl"Ured yOll could not borrow one from anothcr ritle Wi tb any
certainty thal it would fit. f\lany weapons in use in times earlier than itis could
nOl even exchange ammunition. Today, all thcsc weapons havc to meet a
81
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stringent design, manufacru ring and inspection st:lndard so, just like the people
who passed our proficiency teS[, all the parts are intercbangeable - at least that
is the general idea!
Calibration of Tools & Equipment, Calibration

Standards
I n this topic we arc going to come into contacr with the science of weighing
and measuring called metrology. \'rhen we me equtpmenr for inspcction,
measuring and testing we nced [Q be sure that it is accurate. This is of
particular importance when the equipment is used as the sale criteria for
accepting or rejecting work. Tbis brings to mind the well-known story of the
wheel-tapper's hanuner. For those who do not know it, a spare of rail carriage
wheels being rejected for cracks ceased when it was discovered that it was the
hfl!nmer used for acoustically checking them that was cracked . If we were
constantly rejecting parts for being out of limits it would be embarrassing to
later discover that the measuring instrument was inaccurate.
\'\'e rely on a surprising range of de\·ices [0 measure ~arious parameters. \'\"e

llse gauges, instruments . sensors, specialised rest equipment and computer
programmes to give us confidence that we are conforming to required
specifications. \'\'e also rely on equipment like jigs, fi:xrurcs, templates and
patterns during manufacture, repair and maimenance tasks. These tools
nonnaUy do not measure anything but if they arc distorted or worn, they will
cause us to produce work that will be re jected. \\'e also usc torque setting
wrcnches and torque meters to join parts.
\'(Ie need to have confidence in [he inspection, measuring and rcst equipment
that we use. All measuring instruments have inherent inaccuracies and there
will always be... (~ome degree of uncertainty about the accuracy of a
measuremeriP. \Y/e need to know what that uncertainty is so that we can be sure
th[\>--~~<! ~quipmem we arc using is suited to th~ accuracy and precision
~ ~~{~:tquirements of the rask. Jt would be poi ntless using an instrument with a large
b
.\~,.... error tolerance to measure a pa.ramete r that had a much smaller tolerance. I
( ~~~.;,' . think we should take this opportunity to e..xamine exactly what is meam by
accuracy and precision and the types of error associated 'with these Ierms.
Accuracy & Precision in Measurement
Accuracy is de fi ned as the exactness o f a measurement. If we achieve the exact

reading without error then we have achieved accuracy. How accurate a reading
is depends on how close to the mean yalue it is. Precision is defined as the
repeatability of accuracy. J f we keep on achieving the same reading e\Tery rime
we take the measurement we have achieved precision. 1t is possible of course
to haye precision without accuracy. If a measuring instrument gi\TeS an
erroneous reading it is inaccurate. Jf it repeatcdly gi\Tes cxacdy the same
erroneous reading then it has precision c\'en though it does not have accuracy.
82
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CHAPTeR T WO
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Measurement Error
There are lWO lypes of error in quantir:ui,'c mea surements, sy~ !em:1 tic and
(~ndom, A .<;),slcm:aic error exist, when all the readings ;"I(e shift ed to one
side of the mean, There mar be precision but poor accuracy, T he readings are
either consisTently high or consistenuv low, .A r:mdom error exists when
successi\'c readings are scattered either ~ide of the mean, 'l1,e instrumclll never
gin~s tile s:lIne reading, '111ese measurements lack accurncy and precision,
The simple SOIUtiOll to our problems is [Q periodically check inspection,

measuring and test equipment to establish what degree of uncertainty exists
and to check for accuracy and precision, I-low often we do this would logically
depend on the amount of usage we gi,"e it. The question is. what do we check
it \\ith? \X 'hate,'er we choose may also become inaccuratc so we will be faced
with checking that against something else, \X'c could go on ,\;,h this until we
ha\'c a train of checking dences that must u1timardy lead back to a master
rcference de,-ice, It would be reassuring to know that de\'ice \\':\S accurate!
Calibration
Calibration is defined as detennining the true ,"alue of measurements in a way
that ensures that the mea surement uncenainty is known and is consistent with
the required measurement capability, For example, if an inST rument has 1O
mcasure withi n an accuracy of O,002in we need to be certa in that the
uncertainty is no greater than this anywhere in the measurement range o f the
instrument, 'l1lis is important when you conside r that a dimension that is ncar
in; upper or lower size limit could be [ejected when the instrument adds or
subtracts its error to the readings,
\Vc need to be certain that the units marked on the measuring scales wc use arc
truly representati\-c of the nationally agreed definition of {hose units, For
example. can we rely on the metric metre in Timbuktu being exactly the same
as the metric metre in London or Paris? In other words, where is the origi~
metric metre, and ",hat is it? This is a serious consideration in a glo~
marketplace where aircraft consist of parts that arc made by differen;.
manufacturing countries throughout the world, If each o f these countries holdS:
their own standard metric metre, can we be sure they arc all the s am~
!\merican's often claim they do not use the metric system for that reas ~
rather than the expense im'ol"ed in changing over [0 it, Sounds logicall ,.....
o·
You already havc some idL"a of wha t is meam by a standard, It is somecljing '"
that is universally accepted and complied with, \'{/ith tha t in mind. we wi!l'not
be surprised to know that there arc standards for each unit o f meas~ment
both in the English and the metric systems, r always shy away from~ragging
IIp history but in this case a ,"cry abb reviated his lOry of how we ar(i~d at the
units we usc is actually helpful because it emphasises lhe importance of
83
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smndards. 00 not try to remember tbe details just the need for haying
srandards for measurement and why we seem [0 have three different systems
today.
The flISt standards for the English units of measurement were introduced
around IS-l5. For example, the Imperi.'tI Srandard Yard (3ft) was defined by me
length of a specially made bronze bar. This remained the ultimate standard for
the yard until 196-l. So much importance was placed on preserving this
srandard that five copies were made that were distributed around the United
l(jngdom. A similar srandard was held for the pound mass. The srandard for
rime, the second, was initially based on a fraction of the Earth's rotation but it
is now based on a given number of cycles of radiation of the caesium :Hom.
There is :uso a standard fo r the Tmperial gallon. At first you may think all dus a
bit quaint but can you imagine the effect of losing these standards? All
measuring scales and clocks in commercial use would guicklr become suspect
because as they became inaccurate o\"er time there would be no standard to
check them against except other inaccurate devices and ch:I.OS would gradually
begin to reign,
From 1964, the standard yard was defined as being equal to 0.9144 of a metre
and the standard pound was defined as 0.45359237 kilogram, bringing them
into line with the old metric centimetre, gram and second (cgs) system. The
unit for the second was fortuitously the same. The current Sysleme
Internationale (S J) metric system is now based on the metre, kilogram and
second with the ampere and candela being additional unitS for electrical current
and luminous intensity respecri,ely, Some wmdards for the metric system arc
based naruml occurrences. The metre for example is based on the length of the
path of light in a vacuum during a given time intervaL On the Olher hand, rhe
kilogram is still based on the mass of a given block of materiaL The metric
system is a coherent system and there are easily derived units that arc used for
things like area, volume, velocity, acceleration, work, power and energy. The
English system i,,)liirher reckless and comes up with bizarre units like 3 feet in
fl yard~J 1!2'1,#ol;nds
. in one hundredweight and 1760 yards in a mile. Not so
bi2afft 'as dle furlongs, chains, bushels and quartS 1 had to learn at school!
~,,{f'i
\~
,~\~' The Americans did not accept the metric system but neither did they like some
\.. ...,;'\..... of the English unitS so ther haye come up with the US Cusronuuy units. For
example, they ha\Te 2000 pounds in a short ton, 100 pounds in a short
hundredweight and ha..-e different "alues for tbe galion, pint and fluid ounce
and also use the Fahrenheit temperature scale rather than the Celsius scale.
They also have rather strange units like the barrel and the kip. You would have
encountered all of these in module 2 - Physics,
Before we move on, we need [Q know a little bit more about the naturc of the
standards that are used.
Physical Standards ,,
~v
,
These are standards that have bcen manufactured. The bronze bar defining the v
standard yard or the kilogram mass are good example of these.
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CHAPTER TWO
W ORKSHOP PRACTICES
Natural Standards
T hese are standards that are based on stable natural phenomena such as the
speed of light in a vacuum or the cycles of radiation from a giyen element
under specified conditions. In earlier times, the introduction o f sidereal time
that \ve still use today to measure days and years was based on the rotation of
the Earth and its orbit around the Sun.
Variables
These are things that can be measured using a gi\'en systems of units. The
measurements are desctibed as being quantitative in that they can be expressed
in figures to required degrees of accuracy.
Attributes
These are things that cannot be measured in quantitative terms by using units.
They are properties . ror example, if you were to try to measure taste, colour,
smell or feel for example you would not be able to do this with figures because
they do not relate to any numencal scale. Attributes arc normally compared
with a standard that represents the rCCJuircd property. I f you were checking an
!tern for a particular colour for example you would have a sta ndard that \vas
the required shade of colour to compare it with. A problem with attributcs is
that tbey can be prone to subjccti,'c opinion depending on the person dOlng
the assessment. That is why it is important to have a clear and unambiguous
standard to work with . \Ve do meet attributes during inspections such as the
quality of a surface finjsh or \"lstml indications of detcnoration and we need to
haY~ !J1.:iclear idea of what is acceptable or not.
,\,\jb ~ ...
\\cg.c -
eLl\) .
<,
~ \)-:5 .
L
. :;.,.,'. - National Physical Laboratory (NPL)
,.. L"'\'
,:5\':'-
The National Physical Laboratory located at Teddington holds and maintains

the CK E nglish standards and the UK COpll~S of the International met£'c
standards . The onginal bronze bar fo r the yard and tbe standard pound ma~
will still be there. The UK has now adopted the metric SI system, as have man~
other countries throughout the \\Todd. This means the UK metric standard~
held at the NPL have to be checked against dIe international standards t~
ensure that thev continue to conform.
.~ -
International Organisa tion for Standardisation (ISO)
,
The metric system standards are held by ISO at Sevres near Paris. These arc
the internati~nally recognised metric sys~em standards against which ~e copies
of the metric standards held b" ,arious countries arc checked.
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CHAPTER TWO
WORK S HOP PRA C TICES
Traceabili ry
W/e now come to the second point. \X/h at do we check our Illc:lsuring
inSTruments, jigs and fixt ures against? \ XTc certainly do nor jump on :l bus and
hare off to the N PL at T eddington! WThat we do is check our ins tI umentS
using referencc standards that are verified in a way that can be (raccd back \0
those held at [he NPL who in rum ,-erify their standards against those held by
the ISO.
Refere nce Sta nd ards
These arc standards of pro\-en accuracy agatnst which the accuracy of

measurement devices arc checked.
Working Stand ards
These are thc refcrence standards that arc used in the workplace 10 verify Ihe
accuracy of measuring instrumems. For example, gauge blocks and weights
that arc kept locally and used in a dedicated calibration room.
T rave lling Sta nda rds
These arc reference standards that arc held centrally by an organisation or

laboratory and arc brought to places of work.
Reg iona l Sta nda rd s
T hese arc reference swndards that arc held in different regions around Ihe
country, usually in accredited laboratories, and arc used to veri(v the working
and travelling standards.
Nation al Sta nd a rds

'1\)\.f
The\~....~(C;t~'fcre~ce standards that are held at the National Physical LaboralOl")'
i(llth'e UK and arc used to verify the regional standa.rds. The smndards arc kcpl
"~\n a ,-ery strictly comroUed ennronment. 111e physical standards like the
kilogram mass are kept in c\-acuated glass cabinets :lnd are never dusled or
cleaned, as thcse actions alone would eventually compromise their accuracy.
In ternational St:lfl da rds
T hese are reference standards mat are held by the International Organisation
for Standardisation III Sevres and are used to verify the various nat..ional
standards.
.::1
An rhe ,·crificat..ion actions arc documented so the micrometer in your hand
will ha\-e been checked for accuracy by a reference standa rd lhal has II
calibration record trail leading right back to the international standard.
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CHAPTER TWO
WORKSHO P PRACTICES
Calibration Roon1s
Calibration rooms must meet strict environmental controls that arc specified in
calibration standards. A calibration room should be dust free and have a
controlled constant temperature of 20 °C (68°F) and a specified humidity. Tbe
room should be free of vibration and have an adequate lighting intensity. The
enyirorunental conditions of the place where mcasurement standards are
stored are similarly eonrrolled. The g.wgc and the insrrumem being calibrated
should both be at rhe eonrrolled rcmperature during calibration to ayoid errors
clue [0 differences in expansion or contraction values. There is little point in
used a wam1 gauge covered in grime [0 check a cold micrometer!
NAMAS
The calibration of precision measuring instruments is often sub-contracted out
to accredited metrology laboratories that operate strictly 1n accordance \vith the
specifications contained in the calibration standards. These laboratories are
approved by the Uruted Kingdom Accrcditation ServlCe (UKAS) under the
National Accreditation of 1 1easurement and Sampling (NAJ\'lAS)
reqtUrements .
Quality Systems
There are a number of ~uality systems. The best known is contained in the
rso 9000 series of quality system standards that coyer the requirements for
deSIgn, manufacmre, installation and maintenance. These equate to the former
Bricish Standard 5750 and EN 29000 series of quality standards. These
stan4.w0s include among orner things the requirements for the control of
}.0i.ffieaSuring and test equipment.
. "c"::'c
. C.L~ .
~ \.1:1(' Approved aircraft maintenance orgamsations work to EASA Part 145 and this
c_
:-.,....'- also inyokes similar requirements. EASA Part 1-1- -40 states:
1
-
''I.~
"
(~~'Y
'\Vhere necessary. tools, equipment and particularly rest equipment
must be controlled and calibrated to standards acceptable to the JAA(j.it
a frequency to ensure serviceabilin' and accuracy. Records of sueh..
calibrations and the standard used ~ust Ge kept by the E..ASA Part 14i
approved maintenance organisation'. (EASA Part 145-40). :::!
Calibration Requiremen ts o·
"0
The quality systems we have discussed contain or inyokc dctailed requircl~nts

fat the control of inspection, mcasuring and test le quipmcnt. We necd tS>--ttkc a
"
n'
look at these are. 1 am using my own words to expand the meanings. ,§v
"
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CHAPTER TWO
WORKSHOP PRACTICES
.-\ maintenallce organisanon is required to control, calibrate and maintain all

inspection. measuring and test equipment that ther usc. This applies nOI only
[0 equipment they own but also applies to any equipment that they may ha\'e
on loan from other organisations. New equipmem should be subject to initial
calibration prior to first using it to ascermin its accuracy and precision and to
verify that these are \\~thin the required limits.
The organisation must ensure that all inspection, measuring and test equipment
that will affeci their compliance \\;th the quality requirements of their work is
identified and that it is calibrated at periods decided by the organisation or
before its usc if this is deemed to be necessary. Cnlibration must be carried out
agninsl reference standards of known nccuracy that are tr:l cl.·a /)Ic by
d ocum enfed e vid en c e (0 n :lfion al or inlenulIion:II s (;md:lrds. \'<'here this is
not possible, the organisation must be able to produce documemed eyidence
to show what criteria was used for calib racion and what was the basis for doing
this.
The decision on quite what items should be subject to cnlibrntion is based on

what rou usc lhem for. The organisation mUSt establish the calibration status
of all its inspection, measuring and tes t eCJuipmcm. If an item is used as the.::
sole criteria for accepting or rejecting work then it docs fall under the
calibration re(luiremenr. In the extreme, if you used a piece of string as the sole
means to make a decision of acceptance or rejection rou would need 10 register
it as measuring equipment subject to check. The decision on the internJs when
equipment should be calibrated is based 00 its usage. I f a micrometer were
used connnuously throughout each day then the calibration interval would be
short, possibly weekly. If the same instrumenr were lIsed infrequently. say once
a week, then the calibration iruerval would be much longer, say three or six
monthly.
Some tools and equipment may fall outside the calibration rC(luircmem.
Examples of th'l~,;(\Vouid be a steel ruler or a fitter's square. Again it depends
on the criuc~1 nature of what the), arc being used for. Gene rally, a prc·usc
cht~";B}' the opera LOr will be sufficient. These items would normally be
\\.'-q~belled 'not subject to calibration' to alert operators who might be com;idering
using them as the final coteria for accepting critical work.
Jigs, fixtures, templates and panerns may not necessarily be used to accept or
reject work but they may become the cause for it being rejected. Again.
depending on their usage, they mar have to be subjected to a periodic recalJ to
esmblish that their form dimensions srill comply with manufactllrer's
specifications and that they ha"e the required accuracy. In some cases the
organisation may also impose a pre·use check requirement on these items.
An organisation must maintain a register of all items of equipment subject to

calibration. The register should det:til the equipment br type, identification
number, location. calibration staNs, calibration period, calibration method and
rhe accepmncc criteria. Each piece of registered equipment should carry a
suitable indicator such as a label to show its calibration status. An operator
using the equipmenr will need assurance that it is within its calibration period
so [he date due of the next calibration may be shown on the !abel. Some
o rganisations. where equipment is subject to very high utilisation, may use
88
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WII'lJ 1
CHAPTER TWO
WORKS HO P P RA CTICE S
colour-coded labels that relate to a month. For ex ample, in July the colour may
be green so you would not usc an instrument that does not bear that colour
label.
T he organisa tion must maintain records of rhe calibration of each item. These
records should bc legible and stored in a manner where they will not
deteriorate. The records should a.lsa contain the details of past calibrations and
the results. The,· should also show the measurement uncertainty \·alues for
ca.ch itcm. 'n1C records should also show what action was taken when the
calibranon results proved to be unaccepta ble.
These records arc useful in highlighting trcnds as

well as supplying evidence
that equipment is conrrolled. I f an instrument is recorded as continually having
to be adj usted to bring its error into limits we might iu~ t consider scrapping it,
or reducing its calibration period. o r using it for less critical work.
An organisation may usc an outside agency to provide calibration sen·ices . The

organisation is still res ponsible for ensuring that the requirements of the qualitr
standard they are required to meet are also met by that agency. Tnat is why
N.A!\L-\S accreditcd metrology laboratories arc chosen - the\- comply with the
rul es .
If the manufacturer of an item of test equip ment or precision meas uring

equipment does not supply the calibration procedures and data, the procedures
given in the British Standards fo r thc calibration o f rest and measuring
c(luipment must be followed. It is the operator's responsibility to cheek the
calibration status of test and measuring equipment before use. TillS normally
means checking that the equipment has a current. calibration cernficate. If the
calibration status cannot be ,~erified or the equipment is in any way faul ty or
suspected of being so, the operator must label it as defectlYc and return it
through th c stores for repair and re-calibration.
, DO'- so f ar campli ed \"\olt

,OIJRI av1ilg - h all
-" t b esc reqUlremems,
- t h e orgamsauon
-- must
c
. (,l't\\o.:.'f '- ensure that all this equipment is handled, stored and transported in a manner
o \W~{' that will not damage it or compromise its func tion. I f there are any special
. \~....<...'= requirements a~sociated with any item these should be s tated o n the calibration
. o'\;.... ~ . record for thar Item.
c-
Finally, if you lose the endencc of calibration status, or rou suspect t!rc
accu~cr of a piece of inspection, measuring or test equi pment, including to<ffu
such as iigs, fixture, templates or patterns, you must immediately label it ~ .
defective with the reason, withdraw it fro m use,1and quarantine it. A piece of
equipment that has no evidence of calibration is ju st as defective as a piece tha.r·
fails to o perate. 5'
Concl usion ~-:
0"
\'(Ie haye come to the end of chapter two. There is plenty of scope for ~ sa" "'"
questions in the topics we haye discussed here. I lwill be purring a few c;hl"nple
essay questions and specimen answers into an hnnex to this modul~v In tbe
next chapter we will be rensiting specific toolr and tes t equipmc&T. In the
meantime, I have devised a few multi-choice answer questions for you to try.
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CHAPTER TWO
WORKSHOP PRACTICES
Revision
Workshop Practices
Questions
1. Brittl e cUlling too ls should be stored :
a) together
b) out of contact with each other
c) in a sep:mue locarion to other tools
2. T eam too l control would be b es t achieved u sing:
a) individual tool bags or rolls
b) a team tool box
c) a team tool shadow board
3. If a multimcte r has no proof of calibration s tatus you shou ld:

'lnili
a) \~~urmv it from use and label it as defective
. ~\I;.I!.I,;
. L'-1\\ •
. ~).t~\. b) assume that it is nor subject to calibration

~'\:-\ ...
,-~~\~ c) check it against a multimeter that does ha\'c proof
4. A hand c hisel that has a 'mushroom ed' impact end should b e:
a) used because tills is nannal
b) scrapped because it is dangerous
c) reground before usc
,
,,'C~
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CHAPTER TWO
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5. If a cons ign ment of shee l m etal is received wilhout an

accompanying Cenificalc of Conformity you should:
a) quaranunc It
b) es tablish ils identity before using it
c) not lise it for primary structure repairs
G. Allowance is the:
a) difference between the upper and lower si:r.c limits of a dimension
b) clearance thai exists between a shaft and a hole
c) difference between the basic size and an upper or lower limit
7. A dimension that is 20mm plus or minus 2mm has a tolerance of:
a) ~mm
b) 2ml11
c) 24ml11
8. A negative allowance indicates a :
b) interference fit
c) an erfor because aJI allowances arc positive
,..
9. Precision in measurement is the ability 10: -'%-
"-
-0
•.
a) measure exact mean yalue
b) measurc within a gil-cn limit of uncertainty
c) repeatedly achieve the same measurement
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CHAPTER TWO
WORK SHO P PRACTICE S
10. Precision m eas urin g eq uipm ent must be ca libra ted using standa rds
th at are:
a) traceable to national or international reference standards
b) issued by the manufacturer of the equipment
c) approved by the client
II. The calibratio n inten.a l relating to a measuring device is established :
a) by the manufacturer
b) bv the British Standards instimtion
c) by the owner based on its usage
12. The requirem ent 10 control inspection, measuring and test

equipment in an approved a ircraft maintenance organisation is
contained in:
a) _\ British Standard
b) S\SA Part 145
c) the Aircraft Maintenance ~Ianual
Revisi,!-nb
t.>"\.... ...
",.~
\V~{
",.;;" " Workshop Practices

",
I.. ~ ....
Answers
1. B 6. B 11. C
"
.~
-
.~
2. C 7. A 12. B o·
3. A 8. B
§
o· ""
~'"
4. C 9. C
0\'
5. A 10. A
92
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CHAPTER THREE
T OO L. S
Tools
Introduction
\'(Telcome to chapter three. The syllabus for this chapter coyers five topics that
a rc almost chapters in their own right. The common factor is tha t in each topic
we arc dealing with equipment that we use to can )' OUl maintenance and repair
tasks. Important as it is to hayc a thorough knowledge of the aircraft structure
and s~' stems we work on, it is eq ually as imp ortant to have a thorough
knowledge of the tools we usc and their limirati0r '
Common Hand Tools

\'{Ie can divide the ha nd tools that we use into four groups that rougWy define
tbeir usc. \,\le may a rgue that some of these [Qol~ senec uses in more than one
group but we are only uSIng these headings to make their presentation to you
easier. \Ve will deal with each group in turn and, where possible, present the
tools related to each group. b~' description, material, classification, use and any
precautions rhat may apply. Tools used for crimping appear in section 7-7
(chapter 7) of the syllabus and tools llsed for riveting and dimpling appear in
section 7-8 (chapter 8) of the syllabus so, to aVl id duplication, we will not be
including thcm in this chapter.
,QU
1006 - ~
«1>\'::'<;c '" The groups we will be dealing with are:
, '
\\~(~
. ,,,,\ ~
• G ripping tools
~"\.\.'~
c·- o'\! . • Cutting and shaping tools
• D ismantling and asscmbly lools
• r,'larking out and mcasuring tools

....;.
Gripping Tools
Bench Vice
D escription
'u
~
The bench vice consis ts of a fn.ed and a fliding part, each c~.rrying a
detachable, hardened, serrated steel jaw for clamping work. The axed part is
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
secured to the workbench and it contains a retractable half nut that is spring-
loaded into engagement with a buttress-threaded operating screw located in the
sliding part. When the tommy bar handle on the screw is turned , the sliding
part is driven ei th er towards or away from the fix ed part. For quick adjustment
of the working ~p between the parallel jaws of the \Tice, a release lever can be
moved that retr:lcts the half nut, allowing the slidi.ng part to be pulled or
pushed into :lny position . The half nut will automatically re-engage with the
screw when the lever is rde:lsed.
The ideal working height for a bench vice is where the top of the laws are
aligned with thc height of the operator's elbow when standing.
Opernting Scrcw
(~~I,~;~::"'
E Thread)
H:J.lf Nm
Fig ure 3.1 - Bench Vice
Materia ls
The twO main bg¢y parts of the bench vice are made from malleable cast iron
or cast srtC1~t""rrhe detachable steel jaws are hardened and tempered and have
SetI,llW;r"work faces. "111C operating screw is made of mild steel and normally
\\).<{l~as a buttress dut--ad, although some nces may ha\'e a square thread.
\.~
.\'
\.\'oc
."
(: -'\
C lassificati on
Bench \"ices are classified by their wcight and the length of their jaws. A r
'0
common example is -,Sibs weight and 4.5in ja\','s.
--s-
".
~
Use
The bench vice is used to exert a finn grip on material while it is being worked.
Prec autio n s
Vice 'cl:lms' made: from aluminium, copper, lead or composite materia! should
be fitt ed over the jaws to protect the sur£'lCe finish of the work from being
d:lmaged by lhc serrated steel jaws.
T he pans of the bench vice should never be used as an 'anvil' for hammering.
94
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C H A PTER THRE E
T O O L S
The operating handle should ne\-er be hammered or rurned with an extension

lube in an attempt to increase the grip on work.
The \-ice should bc cleancd after used to removc mctal filings and the slide and
the operating screw should be kept lubricated.
Hand Vice
Descript ion
The most common form of hand vice consists of twO spring-loaded, hinged
a[l)15. each equipped with an integral jaw.. \ winged nUl and screw arc u~cd to
close the jaws and grip the work.
' l 'o{) lnukcr~

<:I.lmp
Hand \""ice
Figure 3.2 - H o ld ing T ools
The arms are made of Heel and thc jaws are hardened and tempered. T he
winged nut and operating screw are mild steel. A leaf spring is fitted to drive
the arms ap:m when the winged nut is released. ,. . .
C lassification "-
-j
There is a variety of shapes and sizes and these arc identified bt- trade OF-
manufacturer's names. ' l11e classification is by o\"cralliength.
Use .~
o·
The hand vtee is mainly uscd for gripping small pans, or for holding F:l.rlS
.
'"
..,Q
together, while they arc being drilled or ri\-ctcd.

~ '"
95
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C H A PT ER THR EE
T OO L S
P recauti o ns
Due to the lever action o f the hinged arms, the jaws are only truly paralic! in
one position so care is needed nOt to calise d:muge to work by applying roo
much poim pressure.
T oolmaker's Clamp
D escript io n
The lOolmaker's damp consists of two parallel jaws that arc opcned or closcd
by two scrcws. Final tightening is achieved by adjusting the captive screw and
thcn the sccond scrcw. TIle grip of this type of clamp is parallel throughout its
range of mo\·ement.
~'r a t e ri als
The jaws arc made of case hardened mild steel.
Classification
Toolmaker's damps arc classified by the length of the jaws.
Use
They are used for holding small items of work together for drilling. riveting etc.
Pliers
'!"..'"
D cscriRrlb'H b
.u.....
\\...;;-
~ \);I.{]:'liers are supplied in a variety of sizes and configurations. The most common
.\... ~\,\ type of pliers is the combination type. These ha\'e both serrated nat jaws and
( ..--it serrated cunfed jaws for gripping work. They aTC also equipped with side
cuners and joint cutters, making them useful for Cutting locking \\~re and
trimming split pins for example. They are oftcn equipped with thick electrical
insulation on rhe handles.
Other common conrigumtions include: long flat-nosed, round-nosed and

snipe-nosed pliers. The illustration shows diagonal cutting pliers or 'snips' and
end cutting 'nippers'. There arc a few other configurations of pliers and lhese
are describcdundcr their specific names.
Slip·J oi nt Plie rs
Slip-joint pliers gcr thelf name because of the twO connected piVOl holes that
are provided 10 permit the jaw's to have two opening ranges. This allows a
wider range of material th.ickness ro be g ripped.
96
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CHAPTER THREE
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1-1.11 (inp
End CUllers
Side
o
." "''''Culler
o JOIll{
(~ulln
o
Flal '\.fl~r.;d Side CUUC!TS Round '\Josed Snlpc 'lo5cd

Cultin:.;
Figure 3.3 - Pliers
Vice-Grip Pliers (Mole grips)
Vice grip pliers have an adjustable range of jaw openings that may be sel by
turning a knurled adjusting screw. They ha,-e an over-locking action tha t locks
the jaws in position when lhe handles arc squeezed together. T here is a release
lever provided to break the lock and release the grip when required. T hese
pliers are oflen referred LO as 'grips' and they ha,·c [hc capaciry to apply ,-cry
high forces onto the serrntcd jaws. Because of the high ic,-crnge that can be
applied, these pliers should not be misused.
:1_'!I.r
.:\\\\0-
- \\.:.\!-I,;.
l.~~' .
\\Y <'
~(
\X·irc Locking Pliers
~ Vice Gnp Pliers
Slip Jlllnl InlcrloeklngJoinl Plicrs

Plier"
Fig ure 3.4 - Other Plie r Co nfig uratio ns
97
1l.~7".p"'166. (V1I
C H APTER T H REE
TOO L 5
Interlocking J oi nt Pli e rs
Interlocking joinr pliers h;we a number of differenr pi\'ot posirions that offer a
range o f jaw opening wid ths. They normally have long handles to l)I"ociuc:e ve ry
high grip fo rces. Thc)" C:l n have flat or cun'cd, ~e rrat ed jaws. Again, care should
be exercised in the usc of these pliers to avoid damaging work through the
high grip fo rce.
Wire· locking Pli ers
·rhesc diagonal cutting pliers hal"c flat, sermred jaws and are equipped with
locking handles and a twisring screw mechanism designed to spin thc pliers
:lnd so dcli\·cr a twist to locking wire. ;..rany organisacions now prohibit the use
of these pliers because the)" tend to overstrain the locking wire.
Cirelip PLi ers
These arc equipped \\;th peg fittings on the nose of each ann that arc designed
[0 fit the holes in a spring ciedip. They can be used for inserting and remo\-ing
inrernal aod external circlips.
Fig ure 3.5 • Circlip Pliers
Plicrs arc nonnalh· made of high-carbon steel \v;th hardened and tempered
Jflws.
Class ificatio n
Pliers are classified by type and ol"erall length.
Use
Uscs for pliers arc dependent on [he type.
Precautions
!\ hazard with mOst pliers is trapping dle skin on rhe hand between the n:lt
surf:lces beneath the pivor point when the pliers arc le\'ered shut. Cnre should
98
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TOO L S
be taken lO a\'oid dOing this as it can cause painful inj urles, particularly if tbe
pliers slip off the work and close up suddenly.
PUers should neyer be used on pipe unions, nuts or bolt heads as a substitute
for a spa nner. Ther will rollnd off the hexagon heads and can slip, crea ting a
high probability of skinned knuckles .
Great care should be taken not to misuse slip-jpint type pliers and vice-grip
pliers. The high grip forces can easily overload and damage items .
Cutting & Shaping Tools

Steel Hammers
Descr.iption
The most common rypes of steel hammer are Fhe ball pein, cross pein and
straight peul. The 'pem ' is the end of the head opposite the striking face. The
head is normally fitted onto a handle tha t is expanded in the head with a
wedge. The weights of the beads \-ary from a few o unces up to 31b.
There is a specially designed bodywork hammer for removing dents and

smoothing sheet metal. TIle head is light and has large, smooth, flat striking
faces. This type of hammer is sometimes referred to as a 'planishing hammer' .
Claw-head hammers arc not noonall), used fOr aircra ft work. ·rhey have a
slightly convex striking face and a claw attachment, designed to extract nails, in
place of the opposite face. The striking face is harder than mher hammers and
is designed for driving nails. It is prone to chipping if used for other tasks
involving harder materials.
")\)\f
")(1(\6 ~ ~
" .~~~c ~
. cp" . . C'
2 \"\:.~~~
v
. ,\"\."\. ~ .
~""'r
- (..'~.
C
Cros~ Pein Straight Pein

Ball Fein
Figure 3.6 - Steel H a mmers

,~
o·
"'"
Materials
c'
"-
The heads of steel ha.mmers arc forged from hig9 ca.rbon steel and the \\~lcing
faces are hardened and tempered. The wooden handles are nonnali.S made
from straight-graincd ash tl1at is frce from kn9ts. Others ma[erial~sucb as
steel or fibreglas s, may be used to constrllct the bandIes.
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Classificalion
Steel hammers are classified by [he type and weight of the head.
Thc cur.'ed surface of the ball pein head is used primarily for ci\'cling, whilst
the flat surface is used for general work. 'TI,e cross and straight pein ends of
the head are used for work where access is limited. Ilammers should always be
held close to [he free end of the shaft so dmr proper control can be exercised,
and a harder blow can bc achieved for minimum cffon.
Precautions
It is imporram to check that the head is finnlr anached to tbe shaft, and that
the shaft is not split. Do not use a hammer If Ihe wedge is missing or loose.
TIlf~ correct weight head should always be chosen for a task. For examplc. 1;,
and Y11b heads would be suitable for stri.king centre punches. lib head s would
be suited to driving pins, 21b beads would be suited to striking metal clltting
chisels, and 31b heads would be rese n-ed for heavier work.
Do not lise the side or 'cheek' of a hammer as a striking face. Do no! strikc
two heads 10gcrher. Do not use claw hammers for driving punches or chisels.
Do not use a hammer that has chipped faces.
Soft-faced Hamme rs
Description
There arc sqKel\l.l,orypes of soft-faced hammer. T hc)' ha\'e heads with identical
na~ ~\~kirtg"taces that are attached to wooden shafts in a similar fashion to steel
ll,dnffiiers. Nylon and hide-faced hammers ha\'e pads affixed to lhe striking
\'\\.\ .
... . faces of metal heads, whereas other types haye heads constructed wholl)' from
\...~\.' a chosen material .
. ...... \'
c
Materials
Hide-f:-tced hammers have renewable, rawlude pads afli"ed 10 the striking ends
of a metal head. Nylon-f.-teed hammers have renewable, nylon pads :lffixed to
rhe striking ends of a metal head. Other soft hammers have heads conslructed
wholly from a choice of: lead, copper or hard rubber.
Classification
Soft-faced hammers arc classified by the material and weight of the he:ld. For
example, a 4lb lead hammer.
100
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOLS
- -
Hide Faced [,cad o r Copper
Figure 3.7 - Soft Faced H a mmers
Soft-faced harruners are used to strike finished surfaces without lefl\-ing impact
marks . .Again, hammers should be held close to the free end of the sh aft to
exercise control, and achieve a harder blow for minimum effort.
Precautions
Again, it is important to check that the head is firmly attached to the shaft, and
that the shaft is not split. Do nOt use a hammer if the wedge is loose or
tTllSSlIlg.
Soft metal heads carry a risk of metal chips and flakes falling off the slriking
l
ends alld entering the work. There is also a risk qf metal transference onto the
O,"«or"U.lthat could pose a dissimilar metal corrosion risk. Care should be taken to
. (.O\\.::<;C 11.) only use these types of hammer where it is appropriate to do so .
c
.. \.... ;\~{'
. ~ ....\.-
,:..<.\"t-
c.P'\! Chisels
Description b·-0
,<
There are four common shapes of metal cutting chisel pOlnt: flat, cross-cll~
diamond point, and half-round. There is another special configura tion call ed a-
single bevel chisel. :f:
Materials ,~
"-"
0-
Metal cutting chisels are forged from high carbon or nickel alloy steel bar;-;!fhe
cutting edges of high carbon steel chisels are hardened and tempered \V~ the
rest is left soft and tough. N ickel alloy chisels are specially heat treated ,tog-ive a
durable. long lasting edge. The cutting edge is gr9und to an angle tba§ijepends
o n [he material to be cut for example, 60° for l d steel, 75° fo r hard~ s[cd and
40° for brass or ocher soft metals.
101
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOL S
Convcx Edge;,'.---_..,
1'1"(;, h !
I
llalf Round
~
Di:J.mond Point
~E~;;~?~~~I
Figllre 3.8 - Chisels
C lassi fi ca tion
!'I·letal cutting chisels :lrc chssified by the shape o f the cULting edge and their
ovcralllcngth.
Uses
Chise.ls must be used in conjuncnon with steel head hammers. They arc used
for curting and chipping metals that arc softer tban the material of the chisel.
Particular uses associated with eacb configuration of curting edge are:
'10\f
Flat '")1..'1.\6-
(,l'\\":''?'': -
~.;\tthe [be chisel has a slightly COnl 'CX clIlring edgc. It is used for general
\~,,- <... work, such as dividing sheet metal, or cutong flat surfaces in readiness for
. ,.,:-...:..' . filing.
c
Cross-Cut
The cross-Cut chisel IS used for cutting narrow, flat borromed grooves, like
keyways.
D iam ond Point
Diamond point chisels are probably best known for their usc in correcting
incorrect sta n s when drilling metal. Ther are used mainly for w rong oil
grooves and arc particularly useful for cutting close in LO corners.
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Half-Round
Half-round chisels are also known for their use in correcting d rill starts. They
arc primarily used for clitting groan's .
Single Bevel
Single bevel chisels are used for clltting me heads off rivets after they have
been drilled through. The narrow cutting edge is well suited to this msk 111 that
It does not i.nterfere with the surrounding metal.
Precautions
It IS dangerous to use a chisel that has developed a 'mushroomed' impact head

because it can split and chips can fly o ff it. The head should be reground.
Nickel alloy chisels undergo a special hear treatment process during

O1anufacru re and they must be sharpened on an oilstone. Filing or grinding
methods are not appropriate for sharpening nickel alloy chisels.
A chisel should be held finnl! \,,;th one hand and struck sCJuarcIy on the head
\,,;t11 a steel hammer.
Hacksaws
Description
A hacksaw O1a\- consist of a fixed frame, or a frame that can be adjusted to

fKcept different lengths of replaceable , flexible saw blade . .A hole at each end
of the blade fits over a sliding pin mounting on the adjacent end of the
~
a ck!i3\v frame . The b lade is always mounted in the frame with its cutting teeth
:'II.") - - •
~Q..C ~\. :Icing forwards, away from the frame handle. One of the pin mountings
{' (.0\\... • in corporates a screwed adjustment fitting that is used to tension tbe bl::lde.
;: \,:-5 ]\>[any makes of hacksaw have pin mountings that can be repositioned so that
~0~\. the blade can be mounted at right angles to t.he frame if so desired. Depending
(p'Y . on their make, hacksaw frames may have either a wooden handle or a shaped
metal hand grip.
r
Flexible blades are supplied in a range of cuts that vary from a coarse cut, at ~.
teeth per lIlch, to a fine Cut, at 32 teeth per inch. IT he number teeth per inch i%-
often referred to as bei.ng the 'pied} ' of the blade. The teeth of hacksaw blade~,
are alternately offset either side of the plane of dlC blade to provide a clearancp:-
for the non-cutting part of the blade. This is called the' set ' and it produces]
CLlt that is wider than the blade plain portion to reduce sa'Wing effort aQtl
prevent jamming. Typical blade lengths are 8in, lOin and 12in but there is ~ o
a range of blades available for miniature backsawJ. t ~~
",'
""
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C HA PTER TH REE
T O O L 5
•
•
Coarse Teeth Fine Teeth
L2:J '"'1""X-,(
n Thick ~btcnal
1<--,
n'Teeth Clug
x I v-,
T hin :'.faleriaJ
Figur~ 3.9· H acksaw
Materia ls
Thc hacksaw framc is normally made from mild steel that incorporales either a
wooden or mCl'al handle. Hacksaw blades arc made from high carbon or high·
speed alloy steel. Typical alloy steels used arc tungsten and molybdenum alloys.
These have a longer life but are much more expensi\·e. There arc two Iypes of
bladc construction:
• ricxiblc: The teeth are hardened and the back of the blade is annealed.
This type of construction is less brittle and the blades arc no! so prone
to snap l~ under beavy loads. Suit less skilled opcrativcs.
"I.-'~-'{) ..
, ( _~\';'-;";VI H.1rd: Ilardencd througbout. These blades remin thei r sharpness
\\~~'" longer bUI are brittle and will snap if subjected [Q heavy loads. Suit
marc expcricnced operari\·es.
Classification
Ilacksaw bladcs are classified by the length between their auachmeTlt hole
outcr edges, the number of teeth per unit lengtb and wbether (hey are ' flexible'
or 'all hard'.
Use
The hacksaw should always be operated b}t applying cutting pressure on thc
forward stroke ani), and lifting the blade dear on the backstroke. The cutting
strokcs should be limited to be[\veen 40 to 50 strokes per minute and as much
of lhe blade length as possible should be tlsed to avoid O\·erheating, dulling of
the teeth, uneven wear and fracnlre. You should not :mcmpt ro use more than
50 cutting strokes per minure for the same reasons. \\",' hen CUlling thick mct:'ll,
104
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CHAPTeR THRee
TOOLS
the lower ratc would be considered to be more appropriate. The saw should be
p resented at approximately 30° to the cut.
Flexible blades with fine teeth, for example 22 - 32 teeth per inch, are better
suited for cutting thin walled rubing and thin sheet metal because coarser teeth
tcnd to straddle the material and break or jam. \"Xfhen using fine teeth o n thin
matenal there will be several teeth 1Il contact with the material and the cutting
will be much more cffcctiye. As a guide, there should be at least three teeth in
contact wah the material surface at anyone time. In the case of thin-walled
tubing, that is interpreted as three teeth in contaer with each wall of the tube.
You sometimes see this as interpreted as at least two teeth in contact at any
time depending on wlu ch publication you pick up . Three seems to be the more
generally accepted value in exam questions.
All-hard blades with COarse teeth, for example 1-1- 1 18 teeth per inch, arc better
suited for cutting thick materials because finer teeth tcnd to clog up wuh
m aterial and then not cut effectively. Soft metals, such as brass and aluminium.
should be cut with coarse toothed blades [0 avoid dle teeth clogging wltb the
cut material. Hard metals, such as iron and steel, should be cut with fine -
toothed blades, for example 32 teeth per inch. The choice of blade is a matter
of experience. The guideline is to select fine-toothed blades fo r thin or hard
materials and select coarse-toothed blades fo r lhiak or soft materials.
Precautions
• Choose the right blade for the task.
• Ensure the blade IS correctly fitted, with the teeth facing forward, and
correcdy tensioned to ayoid buckling in use.
• Always cut on the forward stroke and do hot oycrload the blade.
11,.\0'"
. :.-\"\1.)6 - -; .Always maintain long steady cutting strokes (+0 to 50 per minute).
_ \ \ c.\!'1..
L0\1 •
,
. ,
\,\;\~ ... '
. '\'1.
.,.\''''' '"
(~"'\;' " Files
Description n·0
-0
~
.t\ fIle consists of a blade that carries cutting tee til and a 'tang' that is designe~
to fit inro a wooden bandle. Files are supplied in a \rariery of lengths, c ross~
sections, cuts and grades. These are described in the paragraph on classificatiotL
given below. ~
.3
~
Malenals I i?
!:''"
Files are made from lugh carbon steel. The blade of the file IS hardened ~Ulst
the 'tang' is left soft to give it a degree of flexibility in the handle to prd;em 1l
snapping. File handles are nOD1laUy made of w?od and are equipp~ with a
steel ferrule at the forward end to resist any tCQ-dency for the woo8"' to split.
The handle is firmlv fitted oyer the 'tang' of the flie.
• I
105
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CHAPT E R THR EE
TO O L S
Class ification &Usc
Files are classified by their main feaUices. These are: lengrh, cross-secLion,
longi tudinal shape, cut and gr:tde. Files are: designed to cut on the lonvtlrd
stroke only. Downwa rd pressure is used on the forward stroke and relieved on
the rearward stroke.
Leng th
The length of a file is the distance from the shoulder to the forward tip of the
blade. Files are avaibbie in a range of sizes from 3in to l~in.
\'\"ood Handle
I
Flar Hand Safe-Edge • Square
•
,
P,~"'t;,,~;_t.::~:=5!:=--
r lalf Round RIIUlld
Knife
Three-Sqllare
Figurt: 3.10 - Files
Sectio n & SIHlBlil).

'l\~,6 -
T~e&*ca-range of available Iile sections and shapes, these include:
\,,~{{'
1. Fhu: .\ \'cry common section that is used for general filing work. The
cross-section is normally rectangular throughout !.he blade length bUI
[here arc "ar-iations in shape, such as straight. tapered or 'bellied'
blades. Some flat files arc produced \\~th one smooth edge to pre\'ent
damage to a finished surface when filing in a corner for example. These
files arc referred to as 'hand safe edge (115£) files. The safe edge of the
file is placed against the finished surface.
2. H uff- Round: This cross-section is suited for filing la rge radii and
irregular shaped surfaces. The blade \\~dth is normally curved or
,-
.~
'bellied' towards the tip bur parallel width \'ersions are also available.
3. Three-Squ:Jrc: The triangular cros;-secDon is useful for fili ng interna.l

corners, pa rticularly at angles less than a right angle. The blade width is
normally Clln'ed or ' bellied' towards the tip.
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-1-. Square: A sq uare cross-secoon that can be supplied in parallel, straIght

taper or 'bellied' shape. "This type of file is suited for internal work.
=>. Round: A circular cross -secnon that is sVited fo r filing small radii and
holes. It is sometimes called a 'rat-tail' flie. It IS supplied in parallel,
straight taper and, more commonly, 'bellied' shape.
6. Knife: Knife ftles hayc a blade thickness that is tapered to gIve one
sharp edge. They may also have a tapered width . They are primarily
used for filing very small angles .
C ut
The teeth on a fue are arranged in particular patterns to suit work on different
materials. The most common examples are:
Fig ure 3. 11 • Types of Cut
1. Single-Cui: This arrangement consists of teeth that are cut in a series

of parallel grooyes that slant across the face of the blade. The pitch of
the teeth is relatively broad so that the teeth do not clog easily when
"1\.llfflling soft materials. Round files, and the curyed surface of half-round
J'l,ab ~ files, normally have single cut teeth.
~"
. Co\\C -
~ \."'1"·1:(': 2. Double-Cut: This arrangement consists of two sets of sjngle cut teeth
v
. ,\.....'-- th at cross each other at about 70° fomling diamond proftle teeth. This
.,\.'-
C0~"" type of cut is well suited to filing ferrous materials such as mild steel.
The flat surfaces of most files have double-cut teeth.
I ('.
3. Dreadnought: This arrangement consists of deep, curved, parar@
teeth cut across the width of the bL'lde anU it is nonnally only found o!
larger sized files . "Tl1is cut is parcicularlt suited to fili ng soft, btoacf
surfaces. j 2·
4. Rasp: This aWl.l1gement consists of a pa tern of individual teeth and [
suited for filing very soft materials, for example, wood or lead. [-
:r-""
Ii'"
'v
"
107
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C H APTER T H REE
T OO L 5
Grade
The grade of a file relates to depth and spacing of irs reerh. Single and double-
cut fIlcs arc produced with different degrees or 'grades' of coarseness. These
grades are gi\Ten descriptive titles as follows:
1. Btlsl:Ird: This is the coarsest grade and is designed specifically to

removc material quickly. It is often used to rough Ollt a shape before
moving on co use fine r grade files.lt lea'-cs a rough finish .
., St.·cond-Cut: '111is grade is finer and CutS at a relati,-ely slower nne. It

produces a smooth finish and rna)' be the fmal choice of grade wherc
this is acceptable.
3. Smooth: As the name implies, the teeth ha,-c a shallow depth and arc
closely set. TlIis grade of file is used to produce "CIY smooth finishes.
II is cuts "cry slowly so It IS nonnally resen-cd for final surf..\Ce
finishing work only.
Notc: Chalk is often rubbed OllIO file teeth to reduce the grade. 111is stops the
ftle picking up metal chips that could scratch the surface.
Us ing a Fi le
T he ball of one hand is placed on top of the free end of rhe file and is used 10
apply pressure and direct the file. The handlc of the fue is gripped between the
thumb and fo refinger of the other hand. Keeping the handle in line with Ihc
wris l, thc remaining th ree fingers arc used to press the handlc into rhe palm of
the hand. Downward pressure is always applied on the fo rll":ud sfI"okt.' of [he
file and is relieved when the file is drawn b:tck. All movement should originate
from the arms and nOt rrom movements o f the body rorso.
Cro:,.<;-Iilinl!ds l lMclhod where the file is pushed at an angle across the work.
i\ftc~.fwng Ln one direction, the direction is then changed to st rokes that arc ar
"{f ig1N angles to the previous direction.
\.... ;..
"
('I.~' Draw filing is a method often employed \vith a smoorh me to produce a finer
I,. ~...""\'
finish. The file is drawn across the surface of the metal at right angles to the
work, ,vith equal downwa.rd p.ressure being applied by both hands. Chalk is
sometimes applied to the teeth of a smooth file to produce a finer finish.
Care of Files
• New filcs should initially be used on soft materials, and then be used
on progressively harder materials. A new file should not be used on a
material of il1detenninate hardness, particularlr cast steels. Old mcs
should be employed for this.
• File teet h become clogged with metal chips that will scratch surfaces. 1\
wire brush, or alternatively a wire scratch card, called a ' file card',
should be used to clean the tecth . The wire bristles arc drawn
diagonally across the filc in the lay of the grooves.
108
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
• File blades are very brittle and must neyer be stored in contact with
each other and must not be exposed to impaCl from other tools .
Precautions
• \Vhen fitting a \vooden handle to a file tang, you sh ould tap the
rounded end of the handle lightly on the bench to dri,e the tang in, not
the tip of the blade. Care should be taken not to split the wooden
ha ndle of the file whilst doing tills .
• Never use a tile that does not ha,·e a handle.
• Ahvavs usc the correct size handle and ensure that it is a tu m fir o n the
tang.
• Neyer use a handle that is split or has its ferrule missing.
• A hvays select the correct file fo r the task.
• Ensure that the item being filed is finnl}" secured and usc "ice 'clam s' if
1n a nce.
Drills
Description
Drills arc cutung tools desIgned [Q cut holes. The most common type is the
spiral fluted t\ViSl drill. Other contigurations of drill are specially designed to
cut non-metallic materials such as wood and composites . -Illese arc the spade
or ~t~-ilrbo.ring and dagger drills. \Ve will take a 9r.ief look at each type:
/,::f:/v - ~
. U,\\c-'i-c ; T,vist Drill
~"'\. ~
.
;: .'\~'10.'5'
The parts of a twist drill are: the shank, body, flutes , land, web and tip.
~.:,\~
(~.,,,,! .
I Bou\ I Shenk I
Tip Land FllHe
'-
,
,
L
Cle~ rancc
Figure 3.12 - T wi st Drill
109
Co/?)·righl © Bm?J· Colltg~ 2006 - 200- All n"ghtI mm'f'd ll'IPIl'.part66. COIN
C H APTER THR EE
T OO L 5
I. Shank: The shank is the plain portion of a drill that is secu red in the
chuck of a drilling machine. Small drills (less than 12.5mm) have a
parallel shank [har is gripped in a self-cenrring chuck. Larger drills
intended for use in fixed, power drilling machines h:we fI '~ Iorsc' taper
(I in 20) shank and a flat driving tang designed to givc a positive drivc
when fined into a l:Ipered sockeL A flXed, power drilling machine has a
chuck that is mounted in a tapered socker. \"",' hen the chuck is rcmo\'ed,
large drills may be fitted directly into the tapered socket of the
machine. or they may need a '~lorse' taper adaptor lhat filS over the
shank prior to inserting it into the machine.
o
ExtnlCti(1O
Dnft (\,'edge)
ftIiI~?-F 1~~
Shank Taper 1 in 20 :\d~lPI'>r
Figure 3.13 • Morse T aper AdaplO r
2. Body: Tl1e body of a drill is the flmed portion and includes the drill
point.
3. FIllies: These are the 1.'\\'0 spiral grooves that run fllong rile body,
fomling cutting edges at the tip that arc angled 10 cffectivdy cut
mfllcrilll and clea r lhe swarf from the hole during the drilling process.
They aI5~,~lJ ow lubricant to pass along the body of the drill to cool [he
tipl."-'() ...
:-'\1.:'"-':' .'
\v\(' t '4. L 'md: This is the surface of a drill body between the flutes. The land
.\,,, "'- is ground back a little way [0 the rcar of the leading edge of the flutes
,.:-,.,,\\Ii; to leave a raised portioo that pro\-ides a clearance between the rest of
"- the body and the side of the hole. The raised pan of the land contacts
the wall of the hole and guides the drill. The l'lfld produces a clearnnce
thar reduces friction and prevents the drill jamming in rhe hole.
5. lreb: The part of a drill tip that is not in\'olved in cUfting.
6. Tip: The tip of a drill incorporates the cutting edges and Ihe chisel
shaped point of the drill. If the cutting edges are not of eClual length, or '-
[he point is not central, the drill will not centre and will cut an
overs izcd hole.
The tip of a rwist drill is ground to form the angles that will produce an
lIceuralel)" drilled hole. The angles include: the cutting angle, !lte clearance
angle and the web angle.
110
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO I.. S
1. ClIfting Angk': The angie formed ben'leen a cutting edge and the axis
of a driB body. There are two cutting eages of cCJual length and lhe
cLltting angles arc eguaL The cutting angle most commonly adop ted is
59° gi"ing a total included poin t angle of 118° though smallcr point
angles than this may be recommended for drilling some soft materials.
To giye you a rough guide: the included angle for t·\Vist d.cil1s when
drilling soft metals would be 90°, the included angle for drilling
stainless steel at low speed ''lould be 1-1-0° and thc included angle for
drilling titanium would be 105° to 120°.
2. Clearance Angle: The angle fo rmcd between the tip end of a flu te and
the horizontal. The clearance angle is tiormally n °. If this angle is
insufficient, the d.cil1 will cut slowly if at all.
3. Web Angle: The angle formed between a, cutting edge and the point of
a drill. There wiU be T\VO web angles, each bemg 130°.
Mate rials
Twist driUs are manufactured from either high carbon stcel (CS) or alloy steeL
Alloy steel d.cil1s are often referred to as 'high speed steel' (HSS) drills because
of their ability to \vithstand the higher temperatures gcnerated by operanng
rhem a[ higher drilling speeds. These alloys nonnhll y contain either tungsten or
molybdenum. Some 'high speed' drills arc upped ~vith mngsten carbide La
maintain hardness at high tcmperamre and to extend the life of the cutting
edges . Cobalt d.cil1s are also ,'eI')' bard bur are b rittle and drilHng speeds and
pressures have to be Limited when using them.
C las s ification
Twist drills are classified by their diameter and the material they are made
~~t5oafll'The size is normaUy marked o n the shank of the drill tOgether with
. 'l-.V:.'f.<:' 1\.' letters indicating the material type, i.e. CS for carbon steel, HS or HSS for 'high
_(" L.'-'
\-.,'1>, .
speed steel', Verv.. small d.cil1 shanks do not haye the room for size markings so
, 0.''\. ~- a drill gauge has to be used.
~~\":'
(~~ .
There are tour systems uscd in Sizing driUs: fractional, numbered, lettered and
metric. \'\!ith the onset of the metric system, many countries use metric sizes.
America docs nOt usc the: metric system. D.cil1 sizb tables may be found in m~t
engineers' handbooks though ~ny of tbem differ on ~he ranges of t~
T.
fractional SLZes so we will just exarrune typical examples. ~
Fractional Siz es 1 J
T hese stan at t / Min dia. and increase in steps f 1/64in up to l in. From '!fh
dia, they increase in steps of1 / 32io up to 3.5in dia . j?::::
r-!
Numbered Sizes $
T hese start at the minim um size No.80, equating to 0.0135in di a, to ~ximum
·N
, "
size I o.l ,eCJuaong
·O??S·di
to .__ m a. '
111
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CHAPTER THR EE
TOO L S
Lette red
These start at minimum size A, e'luating (0 0.0234in dia, to a maximum size 7.,
equating to OAI3in dia.
M e tri c
These stan at the minimum size 0.35mm and increase in steps of O.05mm 10
Smm and then by steps of 0.1 mm.
A drill size may sometimes be described as a decimal value, for example

0.3 125in. This is actually 5/ 16in (di'ide 5 by 16).
Uses
The use of [wist drills is well known but there are a few occasions where
special requirements can arise. \",\'c will look at a few examples,
Drilling T itaniu m
Titanium and irs alloys ha"c extreme work hardening properties and arc
rcactive when in COntact with oruer metals. They are poor conductors of heat
and the tips of drills can become "cry hot whcn in contact with them. "rhis can
crcatc galling or smearing when this material is being machined. Iligh-specd
steel, stub (sha ft) drills should be used thal have a poilll angle of 105 0 to 120 0
and a thickened web. For larger holes, over 1/ 4in (6mm), a 900 point angle is
recommcndcd. It is essemial that the drill is sharp and that plenry of cutting
fluid is supplied to cool the tip, Due (0 (hc problem of work ha rdening, a
centre punch mllst nc ,'cr be used [0 pfovide a drill Start on titanium and its
alloys. Centre drilling should always be uscd instead of ccntre punchi ng.
Note that titanium swarf is \'ery sharp and is flammable. Titanium meral fires
arc extinguished wilh a dry powder cxcinguisher (coloured blue)
'll'l\,
D. (\"",
"Iii\N~ \;:;;ompos
" "" - lte " M a le ria
"Is
'- ~)~tomposi{e materials will blunt conl""cntional drills quickly and this can cause
the composite material to delaminate as the drill then pushes rather than cutS,
Spade, dagger and brad point drills are used to drill composites and these arc
described later in (his secnon, Carbide drills are tbc best suited for drilling
most types of composites. Diamond dust coated drills are effective on most
composites except for rough fibre reinforced plastics like [he arnmid Kevlar
where the dust grabs at the fibres and pulls them rather than cutong rhem. This
creatcs 'fuzzing' in the drilled hole so di:lmond dust coated drills should be
avoided. Especially g round, brad point carbide drills are supplied for drilling
Kc" lar that will cut the fibres rather tha n break them, Kevlar should be drilled
at high speed with tight pressure.
Carbon fibre and fibrcglass materials can be drilled with conventional tools but
these will blunt quickly. Carbidc or diamond dust coated spade o r d:tgger drills
arc more effective. Carbide dagger drills give the best results when drilling
carbon/grnphirc fibre composites.
112
CoJ!Y'ighl 0 &'!). u/ft&t:!006 ::00 - All righlJ fUrrwd 1I'Il.'Il'.part66.(f)11I
CHA P T E R T HREE
TOO L S
Hig h T en sile & Stain less Steels
High tensile and stainless steels requIre ve~ hard, short, rigid drills. Tungsten
cobalt drills are well suited to this. lfhigh carbon steel drills are used, the speed
must be kepr low or the drill \"ill simply overbeat, 'blue' and blunt.
Cutting Sp eeds
Drills cur more efficiently when they are used au the correct speed . There are
recommended speeds for various sized drills and materials. As a general guide
the cutting speed for a 1/4 in diameter carbon sted drill being used to drill mild
steel is -I-OORPI\I with a feed of 2i.n per minute. \'(!hen using different sized
d rills, the peripheral speed of the drill should be kept around the same so a
1/8in diameter drill would be operated at 800RPM and a % in drill \vould be
operated at 200RPI\I. Howe,~cr, these speeds would be doubled for brass .
Lub ricants
\'(!e should nor oyedook the need for lubrication when drilling materials.
Lubncants cool the drill, improve the fimsh and extend the life of the drill .
'rypicallubricacion rCCJuircmcnts arc:
• i\'Wd steel cutting oil or soda solution, or soap and warer.

or oil and water
• High carbon sted turpentine or paraffin (kerosene)
• Alloy steel mrpentine or paraffIn (kerosene)
• Cast iron self-lubricating
self-lubricating
paraffin (kerosene)
• Aluminium alloy paraffin (kerosene)
• Titanium heavily chlorinated cutong oil

£.,
~
~
B-
Before we move on, it would be useful to lo ok atia few other configurations at
drill. :0
."
o·
8 m D~ p
c'
,~....,
'"
The flat, or spade, drill has a ,ery simple shape and has cutting angles ~t are
related to the material it is used to cut. The cutting angle varie~ from a~ut 50°
for ,ery hard materials, up to 200 0 for soft matbrials like brass. Th~flat drill
113
Cop)"rigbt <.0 Btll7)' College 2006 ·200 - A ll ng}tI IlStTlltd lJl1lw.pat166.co!ll
C H APTER THR EE
TOO L S
will not cut holes as accurately as a twist drill will bUl it is recommended for
drilling composite materials.
c. ===<:::>
Flat (Spade)
c=. ===<J
Bottommg
Dagger
Figure 3.14 - Hand Drill Brace & Drill Bits
Bottoming Drill
The bottoming drill is simply a flat drill with horizontal cutting edges and it is
used to level out the bottom of blind holes .
Arboring Drill _
, ~,(:, 'Ill'
...
Arb\~g --drills are used to create a machined surface finish on the region
_ :1).{Stl~iounding a previously drilled hole. They incorporate a peg that locates in
,\,. . (\ {he hole. They are not used for drilling holes .
..,,;,",-,r-
1.:>''\
r
>
Dagger Drill ..",
-
The long-tapered, o r dagger, drill is a flat, or spade, drill that has a very long
taper at (he tip. They are recommended for drilling composite malerials,
S-
-,
pa rticularly carbon/graphite composite materials.
·;:f
Brad Point Drill

These are vcry similar to the spiral fluted wood drills except tha t they are
g round with distinct C shaped cutting edges that are very sharp and arc ideal
for cutting composite materials, particularly aramid fibres such as [<cvl:lr.
114
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOLS
Wood Drill Bits

There are two common types of wood bits, the Auger bit and the flat bit. The
Auger bit is a spiral fluted twist drill that has a Y~f)' sharp point that acts like a
feed screw to pull the cutting edges into the wood. The flat wood-bonng bit is
similar in shape to the bottommg drill described above. I t is a flat, paddle
shaped dcill with a sharp point that acts as a pilot drill. Wood bits arc normaUy
driyen by a bow type brace.
Precautions
• Use eye protection when drilling materials .
• Do not brush away metal s\varf with r ou hands.
• Use the correct drill speed. Generallr, the harder the material: the
slower the speed. The larger the diameter of the drill: the slower the
speed. L.:se the correct lubricants.
Countersinking Tools
Description and Us e
Countersinking tools arc used In conjullction with a tool holder to recess

drilled holes [Q accept fl ush fitting countersink rivets, screws or bolts.
T he uniyersal countersinking set is made up of 90°, 100 0 and 120 0 cutung

hea98l5hat may be seiecti,-ely screwed into an adjustable-depth tool holder. The
" 1.oQloor may be driven by a hand-operated, or a machine operated drill. Eacb
,0)\\. . ..,...1: cutting head is bored axially to accept a pilar tip that will align the cutter i.n a
• \"\'':s{': drilled hole to ensure dUll the head will cut a concentric countersink. There are
,
. ,\'
,~
t\vo cutting heads provided for each countersink angle, one bored to accept
1-,\\-";'"
U ''\ 2.4mm and 3.3mm pilot tips, and the other to accept -1.0mm and -l-.Smm pilot
tips. The depth of cut can be adjusted to an accuracy of 0.001 in.
r~
A R ose Bir is sometimes used in lieu of a count~rsinking

set to recess holes ~
soft materials. Another alternative to the countersi.nking set is to use a drill thai
is twice the diameter of the drilled hole and is ground to the rcquirc¢
countersink angle.
~
-
"
Countersinking tools may also be used to clear the burrs fro m the edges fif
drilled holes. 0"
p
~ '"
Materials &
~
The cutting heads arc manufa.ctured from tungsten steel.
115
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOL S
Coumminki,ng Tool
Vernier, \djustmcm
Rose Bit Counter-Bore

Pilot Tip
CC)UI1H:rSlnk
Fig ure 3. 15 _ Counter-sinking and Counter-boring T ools
Counter-boring T ools
Description & Use
Coumcr-boring tools arc used \\;m either hand-operatcd, or machine operated

drills, to cut recesses in d rilled holes to accept cheese-head or set screws where
thesc ha\'e 10 lie flush with a surface. The tool enlarges a drilled hole 10 a given
depd1 whilst leaving a flat shoulder for the base of the screw to sea l on. The
choice of curte r ro use will depend on the diameter of the recess reCJuired :lnd
the diameter of Ihe drilled hole will determine the size of the pilol tip.
Reamers arc precision cutting tools that are used to enlarge prcviously drilled
holes to achie\'c an accurate dimension and a smooth finish. ll1ey ha\'e flUies
that incorporate cutting edges, Hand reamers are rumed with a wrench (hal is
attachcd to the squared end thc parallel shank. The nonnal cutting d irection is
clockwise. There arc machine operated parallel reamers that have lapercd
shanks. Reamers cannot be re-sharpened because tills would reducc their
d iamclcr. The types of reamcr commonly lIsed ace: the parallcl m'nighl reamer,
.-
thc parallel spim! reamer, the hand taper reamer, rhe hand expanding reamer
and thc shell reamer.
116
C.lJp)'n'ghl 0 &rry' GJlkgt :006 ·201T All nghlJ Trimtd
CH A PTER THREE
TOOLS
Shell
Hand
Str:ugh t Spi ral Taper A d i ll~tab le
Figure 3. 16 - Reamers
Parallel Reamers
Parallel hand or machine-operated reamers enlarge boles to one size only. The
flutes may be straight or spiral. Spiral fluted reamers bave a left hand spiral to
reduce their tendency to screw into bored holes. Spiral reamers are primarily
used to ream out boles that comain keyways or grooves because they do not
jam on the edges. Spiral reamers are. also required for usc on tItanium, titanium
alloys and high tensile alloy steels. Both types of parallel reamer haye tapered
ends to assist Harting.
I-land taper reamers have a standard taper of 1 in 48 or a metric taper of 1 in

50 . They are ayailable in sets where each reamer has a numbered size from 0 to
10. Tbey are prirnarilr used fo r preparing holcs for tapcr pins.
Hand Ex"anding Reamers r'.
T hese pa rallel reamers have separate blades that l re a slide fit in tapered slo~
T he blades are held in place by twO nuts . Adjustment of the cutting size of tl~
reamer is effected by loosening one nut and tigl~tcning the other. The blade~
remain parallel with rbe reamer axis throughout the adjustment r;mge. The fin ¥,
l
diameter of the reamer can be set by using a ring gauge or an extern~
micrometer. r
"-
0'
Shell Reamers ~
&
These are fixed size, hollow centred reamers that are designed to fit .Smo a
'u
"
mandrel or boring bar. ~
<
117
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L. S
M.u c ria ls
Reamers arc made from high carbon steel or alloy steel. Iligh Speed Sled spiral
reamers arc used for utanium, titanium alloys and high tensile alloy sreels.
Class ifi cation
Reamers are available in standard sizes. Parallel suaighr and spiral reamers arc
supplied in fixed sizes that arc stamped on the plain shank. Taper reamers ha\"e
either an English standard raper of 1 in 48 or a metric taper of 1 in 50. The tWO
Iypes arc not interchangeable. The size of a hand taper reamer is clched or
stamped on its plain shank. English taper reamers are normallr supplied in
sizes 0 to 10. Note that I.he [racDonal size related to an English taper reamer
refers to its large end diameter whilst the size of a metric taper reamer refers to
the small end diamerer. The size range of hand expanding reamers is stamped
on the plain shank.
Usc
\'Ce h:we already discussed the primary use of reamers in enlarging holes to
accurate dimensions and producing smooth finishes. Remember also, the use
of spiral-fluted reamers in holes with key-ways where ther arc chosen because
the curring edges cut diagonally across the keyway and do nor jam. Spiral fluted
I ISS reamers arc also required for use on titanium, titanium alloys alld high
I.ensile steel allo),s.
The alllount of material to be removed by a reamer mus t be kepi lO a

minimum. \"X!hen using ha nd reamers, the amount of material to be removed is
normally wirhin thc range of O.OO3in to a maximum of 0.007in (approx
O.2mm); more [han this will place toO much load on I.he reamer.
When reaming a hole, the reamer should be rotated in tbe c lI{(ing directio n
o nly. noqR-l\Uy 1B\\ is clochvise) even whilst the}' arc being withdmwn from
I.he. l~W.lL~ "lind should be turned steadily to avoid chauering. Lubrication must
~).{ bcLuscd during cutting. The trpes of lubricam used are rhe S:UlIC : IS those
( \:. used fo r drilling Care should ·be taken to ensure [hat the axis of the reamer is
aligned with the a..xis of the hole before cornmencing to cut.
P recautions
• Rcnmers should not be beld by their cutting edges.
• The reamer is very brittle and should be stored in its container and
should ne\"er be allowed direct contact with O(her sharp, britue rools.
118
C'P.Jdghl 0 &ny Colb§:!006 ~(xr r UI rights rmmd ~'R'W.ptl1166. ,l}'"
CH A PTE R THREE
TOOLS
Taps
Description
Taps are simply stralght fluted screws that have cutting edges . They have a
plain shank portion with a squared end to receive a tap wrench. Taps arc
supplied in sets of three except for BA sizes where the second tap is omItted .
The three taps are: the taper tap, the second tap (not BA) and tbe plug tap .
Taper Second Plug

(N0l B,-\)
FigtJte 3.17 - T aps
Taper Tap
Tlm\.t i"p is used for starting a screw thread in a hole and is tapered from the
_\:..<:' ~(\\l(l;th thread down from the plain shan k to rhe rip . The diameter of the tip of
, C"-~\V.. . tlus tap is equal to the root diameter of the thread being cut. When llsed to tap
\.- \)"'t~ . a hole in sh eet material that has a thickness less than SL" threads, this tap will
,:.~\~,<". - cut a full depth thread .
(p'\
Second Tap
I
This tap, somecimcs referred to as the intermedi:ue tap, is tapered from tbe ~
"'0
up to the SLxth thread from the tip. It is used to deepen a thread that has beer;.
cut by the raper tap. \'Vhen the taper tap has been used in a blind hole, o r in ik
hole in thick material, the thread will require the use of the second tap. Th§:
second tap is not supplied in BA tap sets. .3
.~
Plug Tap .£."

jJ-
Tlus tap, somerirnes referred to as a bottoming tap, docs nOt have a tapeb nd
it is used to complete a thread in a bli nd hole or in thick material. ,CR
"
'0
~
,
119
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
M ateri a ls
Taps are made from hardened and tempered steel. The shank is lefl annealed
LO increase toughness and reduce brinlcncss.
C lassifi ca tio n
Taps arc pro\'ided in sets and their size is stampcd on the plain shank.
Usc
Taps arc used for cuning an internal screw thread in a hole. The bole must be
d ri!led to the corc diameter of the thread being cut. The driH used for this
purpose is called the tapping size drill and you can discO\'cr the size by
reference to screw thread tables. Taps cannot be adjusted.
\\'hen turning the lap with a [;1P wrench you should back the tap off at least
every third of a rurn to break off tbe swarf.
Precau tions
• Take care to clear swarf out of holes after cutting threads.
• Store taps in thcir rack when not in Lise to proreci the cmting cdges.
• Keep laps clean when not in use.
Dies
D escri ptio n . _
.,\.~, .
'1\,,-,6 ...
J)ic~~ "'s pecial nuts that have their bores CUt back TO fom) four clear:lnce
:',:I.~srb~\·es with cutting edges. There are [WO types of die: the circular die and the
\. two-piece adjustable die. They are fined into hand turning devices known as
'STOcks'. "n)cre arc also die nuts bur these are only used to clean or restore
damaged threads.
~. Circuhr Ole
~W-
.3
~~:l=-::::::>
~:J
.~
;;,;
~
Twn-pjecc r\djustablc Die

""
~~
Fig ure 3.18 - Dies
120
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CHAPTER TH R EE
TOO L S
C ircular D ie
Circular dies are used for cutting small diameter external threads and have a
tapered thread on one end to assist starting. One die is capable of cutting a full
thread. The die is split and is fitted into a stock with the tapered thread side
facing away from the stock shoulder. There are grub screws on the stock that
secure and Oex the split die EO giye a limited adjustment to the dep th of cut.
Two-Piece Adju stab le Die
Two-piece adjustable dies are llsed for cutting larger diameter external threads.
The die consists of two hah-es and these arc fitted imo the stock so that the
numbers on each half are on the same side <lnd cOincide with the numbers on
the Stock. One side of the die is tapered to assist in starting the thread . The die
is progressively closed up after each full cut. It takes two (0 three cuts to
achlCn: a full depth thread.
D ie N u t
These arc only used to clean or restore threads and are turned using a span ner.
They must NOT be used to cut new th reads.
Materials
Dies are made from hardened and tempered steel.
Dies are used to cut external threads on bolts or studs. T he cylindrical portion
of the bolt or stud to be cut must match the crest diameter of the thread to be
cur.
Tl~e;.{llpered
side of the die must be p re~ented to the bolt or srud. The firs t cut
. \:..C }.i.'q? always
carried out with the die ill the fully open position. The stock should
" Cl1\\.... - be backed off frequently during lhe thread cutting operation to break off any
(':'I.\{ .
~ \"1'
f
~ \va.r .
. ,\........
:'-,<''i-'
(~~'Q . If you are also tapping an lnternal hole to receive a stud or bolt that you arc
cutting the thread on, make sure you tap tile hole first. Taps cannot be adjusted
bur you can adjust dies to produce an external thread that \,1l.l have tbe corr% t
& ~
%
P recaution s
• Ensure that you clear swarf from threads after cutting.

,
,~
• Store dies in their protective cases to prevent damage to cutting ed!},.~
• Keep dies clean ,vhen not in use. #'v"

,
§''v
,
121
Copyighf © Ban)" Colleg~ 2006 - 2007 All rights mmd l/'1JIllI.pm166. rom
CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
Stud Fitting & Removal Tools

\'(Ie dealt with these tools in detail in i\lodule 6, Chapfer .5 under 'srud insertion
and removal' but I will insert 3 brief descriprion of them here in case some
'quizmaster' decides [0 also connect them witb lbe common hand tools in this
module.
Fitting
Studs arc fittcd with the aid of a swd b ox or a stud inserrion and ex/raelion
{Dol, or by using lock nuts. The stud box is a deep hexagonal nut that has a
bolt screwed into one end. It can only be used to fit studs, it cannOl remO\'c
them. The box is screwed onto the smd unril it contacts tbe cnd of the bolt.
'rhe smd box is then turned \. . itb a spanner to dri\'c the stud into its tapped
hole.
Thc stud Insertion tool is designed to hold a stud in a friction grip. The tool
hu a two-way acrion and it may be used for bmh srud insernon and femO\'a!.
\'\'hen the tool is rotated with its tommy bar, cams in the 1001 operate 10 grip
the stud and dri"e it into its tapped hole or unscrew it as required.
Rem ova l
The choice of tool used LO remm'e a srud will depend on whether lhe stud is
intact or whether it is broken off abol'c or below the surface. Intact studs can
be removed using lock nUls or a slud illse rlion :wd e,wr:u:tiofl tool You
cannol usc :t stud box to remo\'e smds.
I f the sllId threads are damaged, the srud insertion and extraction 1001 can still
be used becausc it relics solely on a friction grip and not the threads. The
ahernariye is to file flats on the end of the stud and usc a span ner or tap
wrench to remove it.
'll,n-
If ~ ~tud '1t\;'!I.'f;rokcn
off below tbe surface, it can be remo\'cd with a suitably
{flZc3 srud extractor known as an tEzy_olll~ This rool is tapered and has a
.. .::. \\:> smooth left hand spiral flute. A half stud diameter hall!: is first drilled through
~
.;;.\4'::' the centre of the stud. The 'Err-out'
- is then scre'\-'ed into the hole in a left
..: "-"'- hand direction unci! it bites and it is then turned with a spanner or tap wrench
LO remo,'c the stud. You cannot use an <Ezy-our' to refit a smd, it is purely an
extraction tool.
Scrapers
.:J
Description
Scrapers arc used to remove high spotS on flat or curved surfaces to produce
an accurate finish. Scrapers have ro be \'cry sharp and the cutting edge is
obtained by firS! grinding it and then honing it on an oils lOne. There arc three
common types of scraper.
122
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CHAPTER THREE
T OOLS
FhlL
I lalf Round
Figure 3. 19 - Scrape rs
F lat
Used for flat surfaces .
Half Ro und
Used fo r large. circular bearing surfaces.
Three Square
Used for small bushes and bearings.
Snips
Description
i\ letaJ cutting snips. or shears, are used for cutting sheet metal when the usc of
a guillotine, or po\ver-opcrated shears, is considered impractical. There are
different configurations of blade shape to suit different contour and acces s
rcqtlu-~fl1ents. Tin snips are primarily used fo r cutting straight lines but they
'\'\~iln 1j~ used to CLit curves. A,'iiltioo snips have a high lcvcmge action and
. (.\,W.'!'-\: - sermled blades and are suited to cutting heat-treated aluminium alloys and
• \\-;\\(' stainless steel. They arc supplied in straight. left-hand and right hand fonns.
,
,"\,'t -
.:.:,\y-
(.0'\
,~
Skin Knife
00 T in Snips Aviation Snips
Fig ure 3.20 - Sheet MClal Cutting Tools
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CHAPTER TH REE
TOOLS
Dismantling & Assembly Tools

Screwdrive rs
Desc ript io n
r\ scrcwdri,"cr consists of a blade section that incorporales a plain shank with :I

shaped blade at one end. The orner end of the blade is fi.."i:cd flITTlly in either a
wooden or a high impact plastic bandle. The handle may incorporate a mtchet
and, in some cases, a spiral dri\TC mechanism. In addition, a combination
screwdriver is :wailablc IhM has a socket designed to accept a "ariery of dri\'ing
bits.
There is a "aricty of blade configurations and lengths. Ilowc\'cr, there arc two
main distinctions. There is rhe common flat scre\vdri~c r blade and the
cruciform, or cross.poim, screwdril"cr blade.
Offset
Splnll (Pump)
Scrcwdri" cr
Ratchet
Figure 3.21 - Screwdrivers
, ~,
,,', Commo n FI ~H Blad e
r
".
TI,e common flat scrcwdri\"cr bladc is ground to fit a rcctanguln r scctioncd
dingonal slot in n srnndnrd screw head. II is essential mat thc bladc will fit
snugly b), fiUing at least 75% o f the slot to prevent it slipping and scoring the
;,
-
,
~
surrounding surfacc. Flnt blades must ne,'er be ground to a sharp edge because
they will not achieve this required fit.
Crucifoml Blades
Crucifoml blades arc designed to fil snugly in the recess in meir rein ted rnnge
of screw heads and nre nor prone to slipping out and damaging the
surrounding material. The most common cruciform r:ype is thc Phillips
screwdri\'cr that has a blade with four rnpered flutes that engage Wilh
corresponding slots in a recess in a screw hend.
124
C6pJTit,hI C &'!)' C,lkt,t ::006 . ~oo - AD nt/dI rmr.vd 1I'1I'1l •. ptrrt66.trJm
CHAPTER THREE
TOO L 5
~~(~i:=J1======,=~Sd
I
~~
0@3)®@~
Pbm Phillips C ross Tri-\'\'ing
Figure 3.22 - Blade Configurations
There are several other cnIcifom1 types including: the Reed and Prince cross
point, the Posidriw and the Tri-wing types. The cross-point configuration of
the Reed and Prince blade may look like a Phillips blade but it has a sharp
pmnt and a diffe rent \,,;dth rhat will damage a Phillip s screw head. T he
Posidriyc and Tn-wing blades are high torgue screwdrivers and they have a
clear difference in shape in that the tri-wing only has truee flutes \vhereas the
Posidrive has four. The message here IS that yOll must be sure to pick the right
screwdriver for the scre\\'.
Offset Screwdriver
'f he offset screwdriver has a blade set at right ~ ngles at each end of a metal
sha ~ ~\)These tools are used where space is limited. They are supplied in both
,,' ~ -
e >J.\..\ d otted and crucifonn configurations .
. (,,-~\\t:.~
-, '~5{": Combination Screwdriver
, .,\~""....
.
"" "
The combination scrcwdnyer is a very useful tool in that o ne handle can
c. 0'\
accommoda te a range of different drive bits. Each drive bit has a hexagonal
shank that locks into a socket o n the screwdri\'er. ;-
-0
~
Materials
Scre\\-driver blades are made of high carbon or alloy steel and they
mounted in wooden, or high impact plastic handles .
,~
C lassificati on ,,~
p
Common screwdrivers arl.: classified by their blade length . Phillips screwd..G~ers
'"
are classified by size and blade length and are supplied in four sizes fr~ the
smallest at No.1 to the largest at No.4, each suiting a range of corre§lionding
screw sizes . is
125
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOLS
Figure 3.23 • Co mbination Screwdriver
Used for installing and removing screw fasteners, the screwdriver is probably
the most abused lool in a tool kit. "{lhen the blades become damaged, they
exact a penalty by damaging the screw hC:lCls and often lea'-e us, or the next
person ro come along, with no ahern:uive (0 drilling the screws our. Using (he
wrong size and configuration screwdrinr can bring about the same problem. If
this were not bad enough, screwdri,-ers. or morc precisely rhe people who use
them. are responsible for more score damage on the surfaces surrounding
screws than an~' other tool.
Precautions
• To avoid damage and personal injury, you should always ensure that
tQ.,<t'\ewc\l}~hvcr is the correct size and shape and that it is a snug fil in
, C. )\\.;~the screw recess.
\..,':\.~{,:
\.L. • Screw head recesses often fill wirh paint and will then nor pro"ide a
( .,'{'-is'
(\,
snug fir unless they are cleared .
• Do not use screwdrivers for tasks they were not designed to do. TIler
should nor be used as crowbars, chisels, punches or dri,ring wedges.
Punches
Description & Uses
A punch IS a tool designed to transmit a hammer blow to a localised area. It

has a ground end that is slightly rounded to allow control and to concentrate
hammer blows, and a working end that is shaped to fulfil a particular rnsk.
There are number of different configurations.
126
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CHAPTER THRE E
TOOLS
o
Centre TJper
Pin
Parallel
Pin
Hollo\\"
-
Sn ap
Figure 3.24 . Punches
Centre Pun c h
This punch has a sharp point tbat i~ ground [0 produce an :lpex angle [Q suit a
pa rticular role. For general \vork, this angle is ideally 90° but is rcdllced [0 60°
when intended for light work. The centre punch is oftcn used to apply an
indcnration, or ' pop' m(lrk to the surface of malerial to locate the poin t of a
drill. It is also used ro lightly 'pop' mark cut lines on material. The centre
punch is made fro m high carbon sted and is har<,lcncd (lnd tempered at the tip
on ly.
Taper Pun ch
[\lsQ.l1~ferred to as a starting or drive punch, thi~ Oat-ended punch IS used for

I I _I!.t:. ;.\\l~riving out pins. tight bolts, rivets etc. It is not suited to operation in deep
• ,,1'-
. <
, t ,l -
~
holes where the taper In..1\'. make contact with tbe wall and enlarge the hole .
The" arc clas sified by the diameter of the face at rhe small end .
.\,'. -
L \,!.
.
(~'\
"v"" P a rallel P in P u n ch
Thi s punch is uscd for the same tasks undermken b)' a tape r punch. The
difference is that lhe parallel pin punch can be used in deeper holes. Ir 1;.
common practice to loosen a tight bolt with a taper punch and then drive fi-
through the hole with a parallel pin punch. TIley are classified by the diamcte;:'
of the end face. "-
~
:3
H ollow Punc h .....
o·
[\Iso referred to as a gasket punch, it is used to punch out boles in soft ll1a(~ rial
such as ga~kct material, !cather, sheet rubber etc. The hollow end of the l¥-Ynch '"'"
fo rms a sharp circular cutting edge . \Vhen using the punch, the malerial ,Should
be backed onto a hard wood block to a\'oid damage to the cutting cd!t~v
•
127
U7171,./!lIrl66. rolN
C H AP T ER T H REE
T OO L S
Pri c k Punc h
This punch is similar to a centre punch bLlt has a finer point that is lI~cd for
transferring dimcnsions from a paper pattern onto the surfacc of a material. A
va rinaon of this punch, called a transfer punch, has a shorr pnralld section at
its end that permits irs lise in transferring the locations of holes in a templnlc
directly through onto n material surface. For example, it may be used 10
trnnsfer riwc hole locations from old skin OntO a new skin.
Rivet Snap
Tlus punch has a profiled recess in the end face mal corresponds wirh n giycn
ri\'et head shape. It is used to fonn oyet beads in the riveting process.
M a te rials
Punches arc made from lugh carbon sleel that has been hardened and
tempered at the operating end.
Class ification
Taper and parnlld pin punches are classified by type and the diameter of the
end face. Sizes range [rom 1/16in to 3/8in. Hollow punches are classified by
the size of hole (he), cut. Odler punches are classified by the shape of their
operating end.
Precauti ons
• The end of the punch that receives the hammer blow graclu:1 11 y nauens
and spreads. \,<' hen tbis has occurred, tbe punch should nOI be used
until the end has been re-ground.
• C~~{f ;%W~hes should never be used in an anempt to drive our pins or

_ ~\.;. .,ri~ets because they will merely spread the item in thc holc and jam if.
.l.o
. \.... ;..{~
L-, .
,\"\\.
.............
~
\.. ~.~
.,\.'>--
Drifts
D escri ption and Use
Drifts arc solid, flat-ended punches made from steel, copper, brnss or
aluminium that are used to dove right-fitting components.
P recautions
Steel drifts only should be used for driving ball and roller bearing races. Drifts
made of softer materials can shed fragments that can enter the races.
Care should also be taken to maintain the shape of the head of the drift. Drifts
with heads th:1l have spread or 'mushroomed' should not be used until the
head has been correctly fe-fomled.
128
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOLS
Spanners
Description
The term spanner covers a multi rude of different devices that are used to
tighten or loosen screws, bolts and nuts . TIle mdsr common arc those that fit
onto hexagon headed screws and bolts and hexagonal nuts. These devices are
referred to as being 'standard' spanners and may take the form of: open-Jawor
set spanners, ring spanners, socket spanners, box spanners and tube spanners.
It is useful to note tha t the Americans usuall\" refer to spanners as 'wrenches'.
o G;:y~
... ~~~~
Ed Open Endcd (Set)
(Q)~(~co~mbin,~u on )~
~2=======O=f=~S='='R=in=g~~
oRing
~~"~~~"'~
Flare Nut
Figure 3.25 - Sp anners
Open-Jaw (Set) Spanner
Qb h eSle\.1 re designed to bear against two of the SL"" faces of a hexagon nut or bolt
_ .' e\!..c- "}.\"' head. They are normally supplied in a double-ended form that gives twO
l ,\~ ~
7I.t~~ ,I available sizes. Each end of the spanner is n0011aUy offs et in the same plane so
. ,,,,.....
L \,. that selectively turning the spanner over gives the operator two approach
,..."'\'!-' options when engaging the jaws with the flats of a hexagonal fastener. The
(.0'\ torgue that is exerted is the product of the straight-line distance from the
centre o f the bolt head or nut to the point where the spanner is gripped aoo
the tangential load applied by the operator. Thelopen-jaw design does hav~
dra\\·back in that the jaws ha\"e a tendency co £1 x and open under load. T~
feature can create a risk that rhe spanner will either slip or distort the edges of
a hexagon unless it is a snug fit at the outset. ~
"
Ring Spanner '-
(C
These spanners have a distinct advantage m-er the open-jaw typ e in that s$ty
fully enclose a hexagon bolt head or nut. Am9rtcans refer [0 them as tj}ox
wrenches' because of this. The inside periphery of the aperrure ring at ca~ end
of the spanner forms a 12 point bi-hexagonal contour. Each corpsr of a
hexagon bolt head or nut will be firmly engaged \vith a correspondinf"k ngle in
the ring. The bi-hexagonal configuration of rhe spanner gives the operator a
1 29
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
choice of engagement options, allowing operation in confined places where

rhere is little more than 15° arc of swing available. 'nlC spanner is nonnally
supplied with a ring aperture at each end to give twO available sizes. The ends
rna)' be offset above and below the plane of [he spanner or may be straight.
The small drawback to th is spanner is that once a fastener is loosened it can be
a tedious business to screw it off unless there is room to complctely re\-oh-c
thc spanner.
Combin ation Spa nne r
This type of spanner has an open jaw at one end and a similar sized ring at the
other. TIlls can be a useful [enrure where access is limited because you can
loosen a right fastener \\~[h the ring end and then \\~nd iT off \\~th the open-jaw
end.
Fl a re·nut Spa nn er
A type of ring spanner that has a gap set in thc periphery of its ring. ·Illis
feamre pemlits the spanner to pass o,er a pipe and engage with the hcxagonal
Oats of the pipc connecror. This is a very useful facility when attempting to
loosen a tight pipe connector because it provides you with an ahernati\·c to the
open-Jaw spanner.
Bi- Il e'\agoll:ll
Sockets
Crowfoot Step-Down;'
\d~ Ad,p'm~ <:)-
~~ V
0
Vb)
")i)lr J OlOt
.U .\c~c ~
~:=::::::::~::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~""~
0
~ ~,,«0.
, \-. \ ~
(0\'''''Y; CC)
Long Extension Bar
-~
C=====::{n YTBar
Short Extension Bar
m ------------~D~n-v-c~Bar ~
Figure 3.26 - Sockel Spanne rs
Soc ke t Spann er
The socket span ner has twO main parts, fI bi-hexagonal socket that fits over fI
hexagon bolt hcad or nu t, and a handle that engages in a square apenure in the
end of the sockel. A number o f different configurations o f handles , extensions,
step-up aclfl ptors and universal joint auachmems make the socket spflnncr one
130
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CHAPTER THREE
T OO l. S
of me most versatile spanners in relation to the locaoons It can be used in.

Socket spanners are normally supplied in complete sets \v-jth a range of socket
sizes and attachments to connect them to a turning handle. The most favoured
turrung device is the ratchet handle that pemlits the socket to be turned
without the need to connnually re-engage it.
Materia ls
r."fost span ners these days arc manufactured from chrome ,-anadium steel that
gives extreme toughness, elasticity and corrosion resistance.
Classification of Standard Spanners
The size of a spanner is marked on the jaw face, or the shank, or the side of a
socket. There has to be a catch, and this it, the sizing of standard spanners. The
British and Americans do it differently and t.he Metric System does not apply in
America but generally follows their principle - probably because I t makes more
sense! I still recalllhe British furlongs, chains and flagons here!
t\ British Standard spanner size relates the major diameter of the screw
to
th read of the bolt whose head the spanner fits. £\ 1/ . ;10 BSF bolt would need a
1/4in spa nner. The actual \\~dth across the flats on the head of a 1/4in BSF
bolt is 0.4375in but there would be littk pOint in you measuring this and trying
to fit a 7/ 16in British Standard :opa rIner because i.t would be too big. You need
to know the bolt size and sadly, mat is where some people end up clutching an
armful of spanners, hoping for luck!
American spanner sizes relate to the distance across the flats of the hexagon of
the bah head or nut mat it will fit. A 1/ 4lll ANF polt also has a distance across
the hhxagon flats of 7/16in and the appropriate spanner would be marked
'")0~j-1(P~\F. The hexagon dimensions for Unified ~crew threads arc the same as
".Ll'0.C~e. "" the American hexagon . The S_AE size relating to dus is 44 and that could be
. \'l"~~~' l r
shown instead. / 16 is 0.4375 and this is 0.-+-+ when taken to two places of
. ':--.\ '=- decimals in the S_lli system).
,~
,;5·
0..''\ Unified sizes are a measure of the distance across the flats but arc expressed as
a simple fraction followed by the letters AF, which indicates that the size ..is
Across F/:I(S, i.e. 7/16AF. The following mtile shows how the no~
diameters of bolts ties up ,'lith Ulufied spanncr markino-«
b~
. :i
S.
"
Looking at Table 3.1, we can sec for example, that a 5/ 16 diameter unified bolf
\vould reguirc: a 1/2in t\F spanner. Remember th~t the abbreviauon AF meani
'Across Flats'. ~Ietri.c sizes are also expressed as a number indicating tI*
distance across the hexagon flats in millimetres, i.e. 12 would be 12mm acr~
~fum. ~
o
'"
p
Of
"
131
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOLS
Nominal Bolt Dimension Across

r:J;1tS (A F)
SAE Size
Diameter (in) Unified
1/ 4 7/16 44
5/ 16 1/ 2 SO
3/ 8 9/ 16 56
7/ 16 5/ 8 62
1/ 2 3/ 4 75
9/ 16 13/16 81
5/ 8 15/ 16 94
3/ 4 1 1/ 8 112
7/ 8 1 5/ 16 131
1 1 1/ 2 150
T able 3.1- Spanner Si1:eS
1 hope that was noc toO painful! We can now move on and look at adjustable
and special span ners.
Adjustable Spanners
These tend to be (he convenient excuse no! to trudge to the stores, or to co,'cr
up the fact that tl~c spa nner size is not known. Adjustable spanners han a
nasty [endeR@~ tS\spring open and slip and they should never be llsed if there
is a s.taQ.d1P~ spanner available.
cow-.
"' \\).~{':
\ .... o o
",\"(',\'
\. ">'\ o
Adjustable Peg -c Box

Sp:lOner Spanner Spanner Spanner
Figure 3.27 .. Spanner Configurations
132
Copyri!,hl 10 Barry Colk6 ~ . 200 " All rightl rrmwd UJIPll'.pnrt66.fTJHI
CHA PTE R T HREE
TOO L. S
Peg Spanners
These spanners have two hardened steel pegs that arc designed to engage with
corresponding ho les in a non-hexagon screw platt or nut.
C Spanners
T h ese spanners are designed to engage with external splines on scre,,- fitti ngs.
Strap
\'{'rench
o C resce nt
T ube Spa nner l
Adjustable
Figure 3.28 · Spa nne r Config urations
Tube Spanners
These spanners are mbes with internal splines that ate designed to engage with
external splines on screw fittings . They pronde a more positive dnye than C
:m3f1i1~~s bur are limired to components that align with the axis o f the mbe .
.... ~\O~
. "l-.V:.'f.e.-
"L,0 Box Spanners
• \-,,;\-~"I:
\~
- ;0...""1. Unlike the American term for a ring spanner, box spanners are tubes that have
5\'""
:"1...:.
U"'\ a hexagonal contour at one end and holes to receive a tOffilny-bar at the o ther.
T hey provide a snug, enclosed fit on a hexagon bolt head or nut. Sm~
versions of box spanners are o ften used to access recessed adjustment screwso'
Strap Wrench
'",
.~
Tlu s wrench incorporates a plaited cotton or nylon strap that can be guickIg
wrapped around a circular or irregular shaped scrc..ved com ponent. The strap~
then locked under an intcgrallc,'cr that is used ~o exert a frictional LOrque ~
the component to turn it. ·nle oil filter housing on a car is a classic exampl ~f
M
ItS use. r::"
~"
Allen Keys ,2i
A n Alien key is manufacnued from a steel, hexagonal section b~ that is 'U

, I
cranked at 90 0 [Q foan an L shape. T he hexagonal face of the cranked end is
1 33
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
designed to engage with a corresponding recess in a bolt or screw head. Allen

keys are classified by the distance across the Aats of the hexagon.
Figure 3.29 • Allen Key
Precauti ons
• Usc the correct size spanner.
• Do not use an o pen jaw spanner th~1t has distorted jaws.
• Always use [wo spanners when tightening or loosening pipe unions and
lock nuts.
• Do nOt apply excessive le,-eragc, or use extensions or hammer blows

on spanners.
"IN(
'"1\"\\)6 - ...
_ "c,z,e'"
G"'"""\\\ "
~ \",,;o.~{forque Limiting Wrenches
", "
. .'-~\~. D escrlpno
" n
(. ~'\:
A torque-limiting wrench incorporates a mechanism tbat preyents the wrench

transmitting a torque higher than a preset value. There are II number of torque
wrench designs on the market together with the rigs that are necessary for
setting and checking them.
.~
Turque (T) = Force (F) x D!sunce (0)
Figure 3.30 - To rq ue
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
E ffe c t s o f T orqu e L oading
Before we look at a few examples of torque limiting wrenches, we should have

some idea of why they are necessary. \\'hen a bolr or a nut is tightened, it
produces two effects. First, the bolt is put under tension and stretches
elastically in proportion to the increasing load applied by th e spanner. Second,
[he pressure on the faces of the threads, and between tbe faces o f the bolt head
o r nut and tb e material it is in contact with, increases with load. This pressure
produces sufficient clamping force and limiting static friction to prevent the
fastener being loosened by librarion. The correct torque load will achieve
this \vithout oyerstressing the fastener.
if the torque loading on the bolt is excessive, the bolr may strctch plastically
rather tban elastically, which rather defeats the 6bjecr. Failing this, the strain
imposed on the faces of the screw threads, and the contacting faces o f the
fas tener and material, can cause distortion leading' to fracture. The high stresses
incurred can also set up an electrolytic corrosion cell al the contacting faces. It
is nOl a good idea to over-tighten fasteners. On the other hand, it is not a good
idea to leave them slack. rf a bolt, screw or nut has been inadvenemly over-
tightened, you must reject ie The nut and the bolr would both be suspect.
There is no point in slackening off an oyer-r'orqued bolt or nut and re-
tightening it because the hidden damage has already been done .
Combinatio n
Adaptor
/'
Cam R"II]"'11
Levers
Screwed
Adjustcr
A dju ster r\diu stmcnr
Ke \- r
\...............
, b
-0
A crarork Britool Sunnen Torque Screwdriver --s.
J:S-
Figure 3.31 - Torque Limiting Wrenches
.'")
As we have alreadv discussed, torque is the product of thc straight-line dism.Q1:e
from the centre o'f a bolt head or nut to the point of application of forc'€on
the spanner or turning handle and the value of t ha t force that is being a~ed
in a tangcI1u'al direction lO the nut or bolt. It is difficult to judge forc~ltimes
l
distance merely by feel and sight - the 'grunt' scale is defini tely subjec# e! T hat
i~ wlw we need the assistance o f a more accurAte means of establis hing the
correct value of torque. \\le can do this by using a torque-limiting wrenc h that
135
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CH A PTER THREE
TOO L S
will no! permit rou to exceed a yerifiable preset \'alue, or we can do it by using
a torque-indicating wrench that just tells you what the torque value is nHber
rhan stopping rOll from exceeding it. Tn t h IS section, we arc just dealing with
torque limiting wrenches.
Torqu e Un its
Torque loading values may be expressed as pound force foot (lb./ fl.), pound
fo rce inch Qb.1 in.), gram force centimetre (gf ./cm.), kilogram force merre
(Kgf'; m.) or Newton metre (Nm).
Aeratork Wrenc h
The !\cr.uork wrench incorporates a spring-loaded roller that sits in a profLled

dnve recess on the rim of a circular cam that connects with the square dri\'e of
the wrench. As the wrench is turned, me increasing torque is fed back through
the cam OntO [he spring-loaded roller. At a preset load, the force on the roller
overcomes dle spring pressure and it is forced out of engagement with the
drive recess to ride on the smooth rim of the circular cam. 111is effecri\'ely
breaks the drive from the handle of the wrench through the roller to the square
drive. Any further turning of the handle merely causes the roller to ride freely
over the circula r cam.
The torque setOllg on the wrellch can be adjusted by resetting rhe spring
pressure. This is achieved by inserting an adjusrrnent key into the end of the
handle and turni ng thc screwed adjuster. T his o peration requires the additional
usc of an i\cratork test rig.
An importanr point TO note with this type of wrench is that, if you keep
rotating it for a full circle after it has broken the driye, the roller will again
reach alignment \\~th its recess and will snap back into it with a bit of a jolt.
Once broken , yO~hould return the handle gently back under control unwthe
0\ '
roller re-em~nges-: le wrench is then reset and can be remO\~ed .
. 1\\';''f,C. ...
;:., ,,(~\~~tber important point to note is mat the Acratork wrcnch docs drive in
. ,\,\ ~ '.;. reverse but breaks at a higher tOrque \·alue when doing so. This would not be a
_ ...,\,:"\'~ problem if you were merely loosening a fastener but it would be a problem if
I,. , YOll were attempting to torque load a left hand threaded fastener w1th a right
handed wrench. The wrench would break but at a higher \'alue than its preset
value. This design featu re allows you to loosen a torque-loaded faslener; it is
not intended to let rou torque left hand fasteners. You need a wrench that is
specially adapted for that task.
\Vhen you pick up an Acratork wrench, it is importam to check that i\ has been
reset after its last usc. It is quite dangerous to use an unset wrench because the
handle may unexpectedly kick back and may cause injury to the oper:ltor or
damage to a rest rig or faste ner. -n1ere is a dot on the end of the cam spindle
ll nd an arrow on the body of [he wrench. When the dot and the arrow flrc
aligned, the wrench is set and ready for use .
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOLS
Use
1. Check that the dot and arrow are aligned .
2. Fit the socket spanner to the square drive.in the wrench .
3. Place on bolt head or nut and turn rhe hancUe cloch,vise until there is a
sudden drop l!l resistance.
4. Hold the handle fU111.l y and turn it gendy back through approximately
35° until you feel the roller re-engage and the dot and arrow align .
J. RemO\'e wrench.
Britool W rench
'I11e Britool torque limiting wrench is supplied LO suit a number of torque lo ad

ranges and is similar to the Akratork model in that it will brea k at a p re-set
torque value. The wrench incorporates a spring loaded rocking mechanism that
b reaks with an audible 'click', accompanied by a momentary loss of resistance,
when the preset torque value is reached. Unlike the Akmtork, this \vrcnch will
not ride freely after it breaks so no attempt should be made to C01l0nue turning
the handle after it breaks. The wrench resets automatically \\·hen the operator
relaxes the force on the handk.
The wrench has English and l\letric scales engrayed o n its handle and the
torque yalue can be set by using a tommy-bar to l turn a screwed sleeye on the
hancUe. T he bCTelled edge of the slecve cutS across the graduation marks on
the scale that relate to the setting of the wrench.
The operation of some Britool wrencbes can be changed from right hand
thread to left hand thread use by pushing the squared dri\'e on the wrench
rhQggB to the opposite side of the head. An ar~ow on each side of the head
1Q.\iEi ·
, e,C - tIl dlcates tIle di recnon
. a f rotaDon.
. I
_O~\c"
""';o..\"t': Sunnen \Vrench
,\'\. l,-
" ..\'r>
(f'';;: Again, this wrench will brcak at a prc~ct tOrgue value. The drive is transmitted
through a knuckle joint that breaks when the preset torque value is reached.
This configuration is often referred to as being a 'break-back' \vrench. T hk-
wrench can be set using an adjusting nut located d>n the end of the handle. ~.
7;3--
T orq u e Scrc\vdriver
This device has a handle and a driving shank tba t are axially aligned . The shan* '"
incorporates a square drive that is designed to accept standard socket spanne.~ .
The body of the wrench contains a spring-loaded clutch mechanism rhat s)jPs
when the preset torq uc valuc is reached . There is a scale and a pointer ort\:he
side of the body that indicates the torgue setting. The available torque r~t$ge is
low, about 5-251b fL ,C"i
'0
.§'
,
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CHAPTER THR EE
TOO L S
Checking T orque Wre nch es
t\ torque wrench th:l.l does not incorporate a setting scale, and is llsed
illfrcgucntly, must be checked on a test rig before each use in order to vcrify its
prcset torque value. Jf a wrench is in continuous use, then it may be subjectcd
to pcriodic chccking. If the torCJue value is to be adjusted, thcn rhis must be
donc in conjunction with a checking rig. Torque wrenches that do hrwe their
own selling scales should be subjccted to periodic calibrntion to cnsure thc
accuracy of thosc scales.
Acra lo rk Un ivc rsal Tes t Rig
This rig consists of a dial that is usually scaled in English and p.lctric units and
a square dri\-c sockct and adaptors to permit thc engagement of a wrench. lllC
rig is capable of indicating torque ,-alues from O-..J.OOlb fe and is equipped with
adaptors for the tcsting of several types of torque wrench. The dial has a zero
adjuster and thc poimer should be set to zero prior to engaging a wrench. -nlC
rig also has a freezc mechanism that lea,-es the pointer at an indicatcd torgue
valuc unril you press a release bunon to return it to zero.
\'x/hen checking a torque wrench, the wrench should be first engaged with the
rig, operatcd, rcset and removed. The scale pointer should thcn be adjusted to
zero. The wrcnch should then be re-engaged with the rig so that the handle is
vertical and thcn rotated until it breaks . The reading can thcn be recorded from
[he dial. The wrench must be reset before removing it from the rig. Care
should be taken when re-sctting Acratork wrenches because an uncontrolled
kick back at a high torque setting is capable of causing damage to the rig and
injuring the operator.
To rq ue I n d i~&~ ng Wrenches
.,~~)b ...
De~~,ijhlon
:, ....~~'
:\'\. b\:' Unlike torque l.imiring wrenches, torgue-indicating wrenches JUSt indicate the
,...:.(\~
(\...,....
rorgue value bcing applied on a dial: the.
... do not impose
,
any limit.
:
Fig ure 3.32 - T orque Indicating Wre nc hes
J have illustrated twO types of 'dial type' torgue indicating wrench . The first
incorpora tes a tor'lue bar that flexes under load and moves a poi mer ovcr a
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CHAPTER THR E E
TOOLS
cl.librated dial. _\ $wiyel joint at me end of tbe bar allows the operator to s\\;ng
the wrench around so that the dial can be read from different positions_ The
dial has a scale 0- t 50 lb./ fr.
The second type incorporates a torsion rod that fl exes under load to move a
poimcr o\-cr a calib rated scale that has a zero setting be7.el on it.
Torque Wrench Adaptors

I ha\'c includcd this topic here because torque loading docs not appear to be
:Ul~'where else in the syllabus and it would come as a bit of a surprise if an
examiner picked on ie If a torque wrench is fitted with an adaptor or ex tension
that crfeCliydy increases its length then the torque value :;c l on Ihe wrench will
nOl be lhe same as the torque that will be applied to the bolt head or nut.
\X 'hen it becomes necessary to fit an adaptor [hal does this . the torque set on
the wrench must be set to a "ruue that compensates for it. '111e simplest
method of doing this is to fit me extension and set the torque wrench on a test
rig. If this cannot be done men a 'metered' torque value will ha,'e to be
calculated that will dcli,-er the correct 'actual' tor(lue :u the boh head o r nul.
There is a fomlUb.
Acmal Targue
FiguH' 3.33 • Using EXIC:ns ioos
[f dlC tor<lue wrench and the extension foon a straight line then:
Or \> I _ \crual Torgue Value x l.ength of Torgue \'\rcnchn-,

\1 Clerc< , I "fljUC a uc -
Length of Torquc \'Crench ( L) + LcnR:th of EXICnsion{E)
".
~
The metcred torc! ue yalue can then be set on the wrench and this willlJl~1 gi\-e
v
th e actua l or specified \ralue of torque at the bolt head or nut. [f you ai.€ usillg a
ro rque-indicating w[ench, the reading on rhe d ial indicates the mcterc'd to rque.
not the actual torgue o n the fas tene.r.
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C H APTER TH REE
TOO L 5
Examp le
A 12in torque wrench is fined with a suaighl extension that increases the
length br -lin. I wish to apply a torque loading of lOOlb in [0 a nul. \,\'hat
metered torque figure should I set the wrench to?
'[ clercd Tlorgue

1\
\ ' [
:llle = 100 Ib/in y 12in --~5
. [b/ ,'n
12in + 4in
Taking Ihis a bit further, what force would 1 have to apply on the wrench
handle to produce rhe correct acttL1.1 torque on the nm?
- 100 lb /in
F·orce - = 6.251b
16in
If I.hc torquc wrench and the c""tension fonn an angle of more than 15° \,,;th
each other, the lower tem1 of lhe equation must be replaced by the straight line
distance D from the point of application of force on the wrench to the cemre
of the bah head or nut. Angles less than 15° arc not going to make a great deal
of difference from a straight extension.
Usi ng Torque Wrenches
When a torque wrench is required, you should verify that the LlIlirs used for the
specified torclLle are the same as those used on the wrench or the wrench
selling rig scale.
The torque v:llues thar iie within the first quarter of a wrench scale can be
difficult to reaqnl.$ome tool manufacturers specify that the torque wrench
selected f~'dl pai:[icul:ir task shouJd have a range sllch that the speci fied torque
fo.( {l1etask lies 11 7·thin the LIpper range of the wrench scale.
\-..,:,1:t~
,\,\ '- \'(,'hen applying torque, the wrench handle should be gripped lighd)' and the
~...,'\."". force should be applied smoothly at ninety degrees to the axis of the wrench.
c
\X/hen using an extension spanner, the extension spanner and wrench should
-
be as neady as possible in line. If the alignment is out br more dmn 15° from a
straight line, (he metered torque shouJd be established using the fomlUla we -~
."
,
discussed abO\·e. All torque wrenches sr.ouJd be periodically checked for

~
accuracy.
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOL S
M arking-Out & Me asuring Tools

Steel Rules
D esc rip ti o n & Class ificatio n
Steel rules arc manufactured from high carbon steel thaI has been ha rdened
and tempered. They arc classified by their length and arc graduated in English
and Metric units.
Spring D ivid ers

D escrip tio n, Usc & Classification
Spring dividers are llsed to mark OlJt dimensions and to scribe circles and arcs.
The leaf spring is manufactured from spring steel. The two legs arc made of
high carbon stee! that has been hardened and tempered . The legs must be of
equallengrh and the points must be kept sharp by stoning the olJ{side edges.
Grinding is not recommended unless done \-ery carefully, it tends to draw the
temper from the steel and soften the points. The adjustment screw and knurled
mil are made of mild steel. \\-hen the dh-idcrs arc nOt being used, the points
should be protected by, for example, pieces of cork.
Spring d ividers are classified by the length of their legs.
Scriber
~rnng Dl\·idcrs Scnbmg mock
Figure 3.34 - J\hrking Out Tools
Scribe r
,~
D escriplion , Use & Classifi cation :
Scribers arc used to score guidance lines on the surface of maLerials. Th~~are
,0
'"
[l1f1!lufactured from high carbon steel that has been hardened and tell1wered.
The poin ls mllst be kept sharp b. stoning and ptorectcd when no! in tgiS.
. ..§
,
Scribers arc classified by their length .
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOLS
Scribing Block
D escription, Use & Classification
.A scribing block is used to mark off a line that is parallel to a true surface such
as a surface platc or table. The base block is manuf.'lcrured from cast iron or
mild steel that has been case-hardened. T he: base block has a Vee cur on the
lower surface that is designed to U':Ip any dirt on the surface table that would
otherwise affect conract. TIle pillar and the attachmems are made of mild Heel
and the scribcr is made o f high carbon steel that has been hardened and
tempered. The height and angle of the scriber are adjustable and the pillar
angle has a fine adjusnnem. The base block incorporates a pair of ret.ractable
dowels that can be used to act as a guide to the block on dle edge of a surface
plfl te or table.
Scribing blocks are classi fied br the height of their pilla rs.
;')!Ock
Fcelcr (jau,!!,cs
Firter's s tjUJrc
•
Fig ure 3.35 - Measuring Too ls
Sometimes referred to as a 'box square'. A ker-sear rule is used in conjunction

with a pencil or a scriber to mark off lines that are parallel to the axis on the
surface of a round bar or rube. Ther Ilonnally ha\'e a graduated scale.
Key scat rules are classified by their length.
Fitter's Square
D escription, Use and Classification
A Fitter's or Engineer'S Square consists of a stock and a blade set ar 90 0 to

each other tha t each have sides that are truly parallel. The stock may be
notched at the in tersection with the inside of the blade to give a cleara nce with
142
COp)'r1!,ht 0 Bany Colltl! ::006 . 2{)(r All righl! ,F!tl'lltd W/lIW.part66 .trYN
CHAP T ER THREE
TOOL S
the corners of items being checked. The square is used for checking the truth
of work and, in conjunction \\;th a pencil or scriber. for marking out lines that
:\ tc:\( righ r angles to:l surface or an edge. It is milI1ufacrurcd from high c:\ rbon
steel that has been hardened and tempered. E ach squa re is p rovided with its
own pratecti\·e box and it should be retained in this when not in li se.
j\ finer's Sll uare is classified by the length of its blade.
Checking fo r Accuracy
A Fitter's square should be checked periodically for accuracy. T his can be done
by checking it against a 'master' square or a \' block . . \n alternauye method is
to place the stock against a known true edge on a flat surface and then draw a
line on the surface usi.ng the outside edge of the blade. The square is then
turned o\'er and the alignment of the blade is checked against the marked line.
The (est can then be repeated using the inside edge of the blade.
Feeler Gauges
Description , Use & C lassification
Feeler g;lugcs arc a set o f flexible steel blades that each have a given thickness
measured in thousandths of an inch or in fractio ns of a millimetre. The blades
are fa nned in a graduated stack that i ~ pi\"Q(ed at one end allowing the blades
to be selectively fo lded in or out of a metal sheath. Feeler ~ uges arc used to
meaSllre small clearances and gaps.
Feeler gauges arc das~ i fied by the length of the blades.
"i11ere arc three common configurations of calipers: olltside, inside and odd-
leg. The~' are classified b~' length.
Outside
lnsidl.:
Odclkgs
Figure 3.36 - caliPcrr
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L. S
Outs ide Calipers
Outside calipers are primarily used, in con junction with a steel rule, to measure
outside diameters and distances. They have legs that curve inwards.
In side Cali pers
Inside calipers are primarily used, in conjunction with a steel rule, [Q measure
loside diameters and distances. Tbey have legs that curve ourwards.
Odd-Leg Calipers
Odd leg calipers have o ne leg that IS sharp pointed and one rhat curves
inwards. They may be used for scribing lines parallel [0 smtight edges, scribing
arcs from the edge of surfaces or, finding the true cemre of a round bar.
Use
The use of calipers requires a sense of 'feel'. The calipers are moved by hand to
rhe approximate setting and are then adjusted by gendy tapping one leg, not
the point, against a solid surface.
Trammel
D escri pti on
r\ trammel is simply a beam that has a scriber attached at each end. h is used
for dra\\~ng large diameter circles or for stepping off large diS(ances . One
sc riber attachment is normally adjustable to give the tranune1 a range of
disrances.
']..\Ilf
ll",6 -
• "I.;.'o!..(,;
eLl)' .
( \\~~Combination Set
,\...,- --
...{'-'-
(. ...'\. D escription
The combination set consists of three separate instruments: A Centre Head, a

Square Head and a Prouactor Head. Each is adapted to fir a specially designed
high carbon steel rule that has been hardened and tempered. The bodies of rhe
heads are manufactured from close-grained caSt iron.
Ru le
The sted rule has a central groove that aligns with a clamping screw in each
head allowing it to be fi.-.;:ed at any posicion on the rule. The rule is graduated in
English and Metric units.
,
,,","
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
Scriber
F igu re 3.37 - Combination Se t
Centre Head
The Centre I-lead is used in conjunction with tbe rule to locate the centre of
round bars or the centre lines of tubes.
Squ are Head
The SCJuare I-lead has t\vo faces at 90° to each other and a third face at 45° to
the rule. This arrangement enables the SCJuare Head to be used either as a
square or as a mitre. This head also incorporate~ a spirit level and has a shorr
scriber housed in the bod\,.
Protractor Head
Th e1~otractor Head can be used in conjunction \'iith the rule to measure or
.
l'':
~W:r
1.\\i.l~ ~ ;ny angle up to 180°. This head may also incdrporate a spirit b-d .
. l ,l
\..,~s{'
,,
;\~,\
-
,.;.\
(P~ Surface Tables
Description q
."
~.
A surface, or marking-off, table is used to supp~:Jrt items whilst they are belli~
marked out and provides a true surface from which measurements can be:
taken. Tt should never be used for anything else; it is nOt a workbench! .f
surface table is manufactured from c1ose-grnined cast iron and has a true Q&
working surface and true sCJuare edges. The underside of the table has he",,'Y
ribs dlat give the table rigidity. Cast iron is brit~e so the table should neve~.ic
used to support items that are going to be hammered. The table is provWcd
with a wooden protccth-e coyer that should alwl1.ys be fitted \vhen the t~'1e is
not in use. After use, the working surface should be lightly oiled, ,'Before
replacing the protective coyer. §u
,
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
Surface Table Vee I3 lock
Figure 3.38 - Surface Table
Surface Pl ates
D escription
Surface Plates arc similar to marking-off tables in that [her provide a true flat
working surf.1ce and true square edges . T he}' are ffi.1nufactured from close-
grained cast iron . The surface plate is much smaller and has peg hand le at each
end to make it portable so that it can be positioned on a workbench. It is
primarily used fo r checking flat surfaces o f items for tm th bur it cfln rtlso be
Llsed as a marking-off table fo r small items. As with a marking-off rabie, lhe
surface plate should be lightly oiled after use and protected by ilS wooden
cover.
Use
W'hen checking"(wf surfaces for tmth, the working surface of the plare is first
given a .r:b'i'h\\)co~ting of Engineer's Blue. The surface to be checked is then
~ou.try,,;,fubbed across the surface of the plate and a transfer of the blue coating
1.. 'O~~tvill indicate any high spots .
. ,\,,:,
(\~~....
<"
v - Blocks
D escri pti on
r
v - Blocks are primarily Llsedto support round items on a surface o r marking-
off table. Thcy are manufactured from cast iron or mild stcel that has been
case hardened. V- Blocks are supplied in matched pairs [bat arc recognised by
having a similar identification number. All lhe faces on a V-I3lock are
accurately machined and the angle of the 'V' is 90°.
Classi fi cation
V- I3locks arc classified by the maximum diameter of the round work thal can
be held.
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CH A PTE R TH R EE
TO O L S
Common Power Tools

In Chap ter 7, we will be dealing \'lith the tools used fo r riveting and dimpling.
Because of this, 1 \,-,-ill not include the power-operated tools associated wnh
those processes in this section. T hese include: pncumaric riveting hammers,
tubular rivet guns, mandrel croppers and riyet millers. Twill, howe\-er, include:
air-operated drills, the rotary saw, shearing and nibbling tools beca use these are
used for many sheet metal work tasks . I will not be including other power-
operated machines such as: lathes , milling machines :lnd pedestal drills becallse
they cannot be described as being in common usage by aircraft maintenance
engineers.
Drilling Machines
Electrical and pneumatic portable drilling machines are both used in airframe
repairs. Th e pneumatic, ponable drilling machines arc the tools most
commonly encountered on aircraft work becau~e they are safer to use where
there is a possibility of flammable vapours. Electrical machines should not be
used where rlus hazard exists.
General Purpose Air-Operated Drills
Description
The two commonest types of air·operated drill are the straight grip and the
pistol grip. The straight grip type will accept drills up to Smm (1/ 4in) diameter
whilst the pistol grip type will accept drills up t9 8mm (3/8in) diameter. Both
types ~v c an adjustable, self~centring chuck td accommodate differe nt sized
7\'1utrill~~hey are air mrbine (impeller) driven, lightweight, have very positiw
(.o\\c,?..c - speed control and do not oycrhcat il: continuous h eavy use. They incorporate a
~ 'I)'t(' gearbox to produce th e correct rotanonal speed at the chuck.
c
A."\'- -
.\~
"..:.."\
(~..;\:
.
Chuck
Collct
•
Angled
Pi swl Grip
Srraighr
Figure 3.39 - Air-O pera ted D rilling Machines
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CHAP T ER THR EE
TOO L S
Off-Set & Angled Head Drills
Description
These variations lO the straight grip type drill are designed fo r tas ks that would
not o rdinarily be accessible w general-purpose drills. Both types can accept
d rills up w --I-.8I11m diameter but each size drill needs a separate chuck coller.
'fh e chuck collets require the usc of two special spanners when ins talling or
rem oving the d rills from the machl!le. The angled head drill is available in nyo
standard angles of -1-5° and 90°.
Drill Attachments
A right-angled drill attachment can be fitted inw a straIght gnp, gen cral~
p urpose drill . The attachment accepts threaded drills mat are screwed into a
coUet.
Right Angle
I T IUCOdCd
~ Drill
Figure 3.40 - Anachmeots
1\ flexible 'snake' drive can be attached to a general-purpose drill to enable

access w res tricted areas where the angled or o ffset drills cannot reach . r
~
,
.~
%-
(~
Rotary Saw
Description
.:;'"'"
The rotary saw is a hand-held, air-turbine powered machine mal is used fo r
cutting sheet aluminium alloys up to 2mm thick and sheet steel up to O.8mm
thick. There is a choice o f blades, each suited for cutting particular grades of
materials.
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CH AP TER THREE
TOOLS
There is an electrically powered sa\v called a 'Kens Saw' that has a bead that
can be adjusted to different angles making It useful for working in locations
where :l.ccess is difficult. This saw is particularly useful in thal it can cut thicker
sheet meta ls up to 4.5m m thick and can start cutting at any poin t on a sheet of
melal.
C.utting u";'~' 1
Shears
Oil Lnd
Check •
\Yindow
'\:ibblcr
~"-Pllnch
Rutan· Saw
Fig ure 3.4 1 - Ai r D ri ven C urling T ools
Shears
Description
_\ir dri\-en shears cut sheet steel up to 2rnrn thick and light :lUoy sheet up to
2.6rnnl~ rhick. The shears ha\·e a [eciproc:lring shea r blade th:lt pushes :lgainsr
,i.-" ILIl i~~·i l. Stellite ripped blades arc a\·ail:lble for cutting titanium and swjnless
. (.~l\\e..:..t: - steel shee t materia!'
\\).~~ ...
-
Nibbler
..,"0
~
Description
The air driven nibbler employs a reciprocating pWlch to cut aluminium allojr
o -"
sheet LIp to 18S\\'G, and sheet steel up to 20S\'(JG. This machi ne Cuts without'
defonning the material or crearing bu rrs but cannot Cut thicker gauges c?
material than specified without suffering damage to the punch opcraurjg
.~
mechanism.
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
Grinding Machine
D escription
Sometimes referred to as the 'off-hand grinder', [his electric mOlar drh-en

machine is used for the shaping aod sharpening of hand curting tools. The
double-ended grinder is equipped with two guarded abrasive wheels, one
coarse and one fine grade. The fine grade wheel would be used for sharpening
items such as HSS drills for example. Both wheels spin when the machine is In
operation. Each abrasive wheel rotates to spin down past an adjustable L -
shaped tool rest that lies close to the wheellO prevent it dragging a hand-held
tool down and trapping it between lhe tool re~[ and the wheel. The grinding
machine is equipped with transparent prorective screens to deflect chips that
may fly off the wheel. T he machine may be pedestal mounted on rhe floor, or
it mar be mounted on a workbench. The pedestal-mounted machine nonnaUy
has a quenching tank mounted on the pedeSTal. Electrical power is supplied
through a wall mounted isolation switch to an on/off control switch on the
front of the machine.
Screens
\\"'heel
Rests
Figure 3.42 · Grinding Machine
The cool rests should be adjusled so that they lie close to but not in contact
with rhe wheels, the gap should not exceed 1/ 16in.\'{llen grinding, the tool
should be continuaUy moved from side to side across the face of [he wheel to
prC\Tcnr uneven wear creating ridges on it. Excessive pressure must ne\'er be
applied to the wheel. The side of the wheel must n en'£ be used for grinding.
Soft materials, such as aluminium, copper, brass or magnesium, will clog the
wbeels making lhem ineffective. Prolonged grinding or excessive pressure
creates sufficient heat in a rool [0 draw irs temper and ruin it. E
.3
Maint ena nce
Tasks involving the dressing or replacement of abrasive wbeels can only be

undertaken by competent persons who arc properly authorised to carry out
these tasks. A special 'Dressing Tool' is llsed to restore the face of a wheel.
The operator must cbeck the adjustment of the tool rests before using the
machine. A loose or badly adjusted rest can result in a tool becoming trapped
and tills can burst the wheel or cause the work to be ejected at speed .
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Precautions
Before starting the machine:
• Inspect both wheels for damage, dogging and uneyen wear and check
that all the guards are firmly posinoned.
• Check that the gap benveen each wheel and its tool res t is within
1/16in and that the rest is not touchi ng the wheel.
• Always wear protecti\'e goggles when opera ting a grinding machine .
• Check that you know where the power isolation s'\vitches are.
Starting the machine:
• Stand to o ne side of the machine when starting it.
Operating the machine:
• Do not grind soft materials tha t will clog the wheels.
• Do not exert excessi\'e pressure on the w heel o r use the sides.
After o perati ng the machine:
• E nsure that the wall-mounted isolation switch is turned off after

shutting down the machine to preyent inadvertent operation,
, (.,,\\0';,"
,""
"f0,0 - -
Operation & Use of Precision Measuring Tools
-. \~').~'{'
rv[easunng can be carried out either by using non-indicating measurement tools
\,' ~
,,~\~ or by using indicating tools. Non-adjustable, non-indicating tools, such as
.C''\;' gauges and test pieces erc. measure by comparison. The measurement of an
L·
item is either equal to, o r nor equal to, the size of a fi..-.;e d gauge or a test pie<;:e.
These devices can be designed to offer a Go or Not G o result. .r\djustabJ;,
non-indicating tools like calipers, for example, be adjusted to give a choi~
dn
o f lengths bur are then used as a compariso6 to check if an item is thTt
dimension or not. Comrersely, they can be used to transfer a measuremen t
from an item back to a steel rule. Indicating feasuring tools, on the othtF"
hand, such as steel rules, can be used to direct read acrual dimensions :;'
There IS a big range o f properties that can be mLsured. These include: le~,
fl atness, paraJlelism, angles, profIles, roundnJss, concentricity, shape,:--lnd
surface roughness. Obtaining an absolute "\"""alue for any of thes e measurements
IS a physical impossibili ty, as is the chance o~ accu~atel)' matching t8~m in
production processes; that is whv we han~ limirs and tolerances. A~roblem
,rim when we h,ve m ,chi,,'e high ,ecumer i'1
pmduccion hecM, t he limit>
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arc going to be fine. Tills means lhat we have to achieve a high accuracy in
measurement, taking into accoum the uncerrainf)' of mechanical measuring
instruments that have, themseh-es. been manufacrured to limits. \'(re need
instruments that will measure ro within fine limits of accuracy and be capable
of repeating this. That makes the case for having prccision measuring rools.
Di al Gauge
D escriptio n
The dial gauge is sometimes referred to as a dial test indicator (DTT) or a Clock
Gauge. 1t is a precision instrument used to detect and measure small
differences in sizes; it cannot measure actual sizes, only small variations from
rhem. Tn this sense, it is a comparison too\.
In the English measurement \·ersion, the dial is gradlL'ltcd in thousand ths of an

inch (O.OOlin) with e'-ery ten graduations (O.Olin) being marked with a figure
ie.I O, 20, 30, 40 and SO. Each full rotation sweep of the pointer registers O.lin
on a smaller dial. The larger dial reads up to O.OSOio cioch"ise llnd O.OSOin anti-
clod,-wise. Other, more precise. ,·erstons of Lhe dial glluge h~l\"e smaller ranges
graduared to read 0.0001 in.
The Metric scale version has a dial thaI is graduated in O.Olmm ,\~(h every ten
grnduacions (0.1 mm) marked. Each full rot:lcion sweep of the poi mer records
l mm on II smaller dial. There is a more precise version that is graduated in
0.00 Imm. A further \'cl:)' precise ,·ersion has a graduation value of O.OOOSmm.
Thc more precise the graduations arc, the smaller will be the range of the
instrument. For example, the range of o ur last example is only O.02Smm
whereas the flfst eXllmple has a range of 10mm.
'1nO~
Scrcw
• II---Zero
. \djusum.·fl(
Bezel
Plunger
Burton
Figure 3.43 - D ial Gauge
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The gauge pointer is moved by the deflection of a spring-loaded plunger

operating through a geared mechanism . Tbe dial gauge has a bezel ring that is
used to bring the zero mark on the scale into li ne \\~th the pointer. The ring
can thcn be locked.
A dial gauge is nonmilly supplied as a boxed kit thar contains the instrument
together with: a base, a ,"ertical pillar, a universal elamp and a selcction of
followers . Dial gauges can also be secured La scribing block pillars. "I/here a
gauge is llsed to check the run-our o f components, such as an installed engine
propeller shaft for example, dIeIe is usually a special to type attachment
pro"lided.
A dial gauge is a "lersaruc lflStfUment and may be used for measuring: highs and
lows on flat surfaces, the cooceotricity of round shafts, the plane of rotation of
discs, the bowing of shafts, movement between components etc. ,Vhen
suitably adapted, a dial gauge can also be used to check the bores of
components for concentricity . Note that it cannot meas ure acmal dimensio ns,
o nly yariations from them.
\Xihen setting up the instIument, the instrument 1S ad justed on its support

stand so that the plunger on the dial gauge is put in contact with th e surface of
the item to be rested and is then pre-loaded by pressing it down against the
surface uncil the pointer deflects by several graduations . The gauge is then
zeroed by unlocking and turning the bezel ring to bring the pointer in line \\~th
the zero mark. TIus sel up procedure is imporianr if the instrument is to be
capable of reading lows as well as highs. 1 will give rOll descnpcions of a few
typical uses of me dial gauge.
Checking Run~o ut of a R ound Shaft
,?i..,QblI&ill; trument is clamped in position so that the plunger comes into vertical
U~\\C~e - contact \Vim a smooth portion of the shaft. 'lbe wuge posicion is then adjusted
~ \l';1."\.f~ so that the plunger depresses and deflects the pointer. The gauge is then
. .\.....\. ~ secured in its position and zeroed using the bqel. "Olen the shaft is rotated,
_o<.;;.,;5\·r the pointer will s\v;ng to indicate any de\' iation in either direction. The out of
\... , true measurement of the shaft is taken to be a half o f the maximum range of
de flectio n of the pointer. ~,
c...,
Checking Truth of a Flat Surface
'"
A surface table would be required for this check. The gauge is set up in its~
stand on a surface table so that the plunger is pressed onto the surface to bf
checked and the gauge is zeroed. Assuming the surface to be checked -is
horizontal, the dial gauge may be moved so thla t tbe p lunger slides over ~
surface. The pointer will then deflect elocbvise or anti-clockwise in respl}JiSe
to an,· high or lmv spotS dlat it detects in relation to the true surface oC the
table.· It is essential to ensure that the item being lchecked is supponed cqfectly
to present its surface as parallel to the table or the dial gauge will mere!t record
the error in parallelism with the table. /f
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Checking the Plane of Rotation of a Disc
Tlle gauge would be secured in a stand on a (rue surface so that (he plunger
was depressed at right angles against the face of the disk with (he gauge zeroed.
Rotation of the disc will then cause the gauge poimer to deflect left or right in
response to any denarions in the track o( the disc. Again, the out of true
measurement would be raken as being a half of the maximum deviation range
of the pointer.
Cylinder Ga uge
The cylinder gauge is a special type of dial gauge that is used for checking the
amount of wear and ovality in cylinder bores. It has twO contact plungers, one
of which is sp ring-loaded and fined into a T shaped head that cemralises the
gauge in the bore. The second contact is one of a choice of detachable
extension rods. The gauge is set to read zero at the nominal bore diameter.
Any "ariation will then be registered on the dial. \,\'hen readings arc taken at
right angles to each other in the bore, the difference between them is a
measure of oyality. The cylinder gauge is supplied in both English and j\"[euic
fo rms.
Precau tions
• Ensure that the instrument you choose has the range [a suit the task.
• Ensure that the surface to be checked and the stylus of the plunger are
clean.
• Ensure that the plunger contacts the surface by the force of its spring
only.
• Always %!gw for sufficiem deflection of the pointer left o ( right when
~e!.urlfup !.he instrument.
(,o\\C~
,.. ~.).f{': • r\lways lift rhe plunger when a sharp recess or slot has (0 be traversed.
\~"\\. -
,.;~ .
,. l"'\" • Do not clamp the instrument too tightly as dus can seize the plunger in
irs housing.
• Always treat the instrumem with care and Slore it in its box when out
of use.
The Vernier System

Before we go any further, we should get a grasp of rhe Vernier system. Tt crops
up in most of the precision measuring instruments we arc going to deal with so
tlus is a good time to look at it.
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The 24/25 Vernier Scale (English)

We will stan by uSlOg an example based on the English measurement scale.
Imagine that Y~lI have twO lines of equal length. N ow l1nagine that we have
divided each line up into equal di-dsions except that one line has o ne more
division than the odler. Tn the illustration, Figure 3.+-1-, T have shown a main
scale line that is 0.6in long divided into 24 diyisions, each 1/ 40,h of an inch, or
0.025in (24 X 0 .025 ::: 0.6). I haye also shown a Vernier scale line, tha t is also
0.6in long, di\Tided up into 25 divisions, each O.024in (25 x 0 .024 ::: 0 .6). "I/e
now ha\-e two equal length lines diridcd so that one line has one more division
than the other.
:-"{ai'6Scak foinch
I ll l 111111lL j il l jiIL I ,
!l S In l~ 11) 15 V~ r ll1er Scnle

2..J. "" b in Scale- Sub -O i\"isiom ::: 25 Ve r ~ i er Scale Di\·isions
2..J. x 0.025 0.6 lOch = 25 x O.02..J. 0.6 inch =
Difference III Length B eN·t:t: ~ 0 1\;S10n ;; is:
0.025 (jI bin Scale) - 0.1)2.:1 (Vernier Sql!e) = O.OO! inch
Figure 3.44 - Englis h 24/25 Vernie r Scale
Now consider what the difference in length is between one main scale division
and one Vernier scale division. It is : 0.025m - 0 .024in:::::; O.OOl in. lfwe were to
ffim-e the Vernier scale line to the right, so that the firSt Vernier scale
graduation line is lined up with the first main scale graduation line, we \vill have
mm-ed exacdy O.OOlin. If we continue to mO\-c the Vernier line to the right
until the sec~nd Vernier graduation line lines p with the second main seal:
J
I3bpd~~t.ion line, we will ha\-e moycd a total of 0;002in. This sys tem is allmving
(,,\\C.'f-,\!."}.'" ~s to achieve measurements accurate to 0 .00"1 10 by just using two graduated
" '0.~.s0 . lines. I
i\~'\. ~
,,"\\.~ . For our next step, we will look at how we might take a reading from an
(..o~ .
instrument that carried tbe scale we have discussed. The next illustration shows
a Vernier scale line that bas been moved to dle right along a graduated m:p.n
~~ . ~
'",.
.~
9fI2.l.j.5(' ~ 1l9 1 ~
I, I I I I i II , I I I i i i ! i i i rill: ,1 1i i i , i! I ! i j! , iJ
j
~
1""1' 'lfI " I""I"" 1
" ; 1""l 'i 2U 25
~ _oinCldcnt Lines
2 in + U.3in - (2 x 11.025)10 ... O.(IOSin

::::: 2 + 1I.3 + Ii.U5 + 0.00:5
== 2.358 In
Figmc 3.45· Rcading t be E nglish 24/25 Ve mie r Scale
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C H AP TER THREE
TOO L S
Note, that the zero on the Vernier scale is sitting somewhete between 2.3in
and 2.-1-in. \Ve would like our measurement [0 be a bit more accurate than thaI.
Therefore, we have 2in p lus 0.3io plus (wo divisions at O.02Sin giving us a toral
of 2.3Sin. This is not accurate enough for us. Therefore, \ve look along thc
Vernier scale until wc find a Vernier graduation that aligns with a main scale
graduation, rhe eighth Vernier graduation does. That reflects a shi ft of 0.008in
so lct's add it on to our total. Now we have a grand [mal of 2.358io . That is a
measurement accurate to one thousandth of an inch.
T he 49 / 50 Vernier Scale (Engli sh)
The 49/ 50 Vcr!llcr scale is a commonly used version mainly because it is easier
to read the graduations. rn this scale, -J.9 malll scale divisions arc c'luai to 2.-1-5in
while the Vernier scale has 50 divisio ns. Each main scale division is 1/20 th of
an inch or 0.05 in (49 X 0.05 ::: 2.-1-5) and each Vernier scale division is 0.049
(50 x 0.049 ::: 2.45). The difference between a main scale division and a
Vernier scale division is: O.OSin - 0.049in::: O.OOlin. This sounds familiar!
i\ lain Scale?lO inch

o
I ' , 4 5 ~ 1 t I9
1
! ' . ~ 'i 6 7 8 ') I
2 / -
1 ' ~ ~ 5 6 - i! 'I
3
I
I8'
111/11UiiO'lillllllllll,IJil,I,I,llll\111\
fll) 1 II Ii \\Ifll, ll~! I! 11111
r) 10 "!(I "'I -1\1 'ill Vernier
Scale
49 '\ Iain Scale: Sub-Di\'isions ::: 50 Vernier Scale D iyisions
49 x O.OSin ::: 2.45 in 50 x O.049in ::: 2.-1-5 in
Difference in Length Between Divisions is:

0.05 CMai n Scal e) - 0.049 (Vernier Scale) ::: 0.001 10
,()Il
6'>
~,.~~c 1.1.)lJ Figure 3.46 _ English 49/ 50 Ve rnie r Scale
. (.0" ......
..... "'.("t')
QV
. ,~...
:-.~\'t-
U . .~ Tn the next illustration, J have set up a reading 00 an English 49/50 Vernier
scale. Note [hat [he zero on tbe Vernier scale is sitting between 2.1in and 2.2in.
Therefore, we have 2in plus 0.1 in and [he 43rd Vernier graduation is aligned
with a main scale graduation. Our graod total then is 2.lin plus 0.043in and ~,.
that equals 2.1 43in. Again, our measurement is accurate to one thousandth of ~
an inch. iry
Co
""
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CH AP T E R THR E E
T O O I.. S
L':~"),-': Read (rom 7r·c~,~o_ _ _ _"

C(lincidellt
Lints
2in + (2 x 0.05) + 0.043ill
;::2Hl + O.lm -+- 0.043
= 2.143ill
Figme 3.47 - Reading the English 49/ 50 Venl ie r Scale
The Metric 19/ 20 Vernier Scale

You guessed it must happen; there are metric scales. There is no difference in
principle. 'n this scale, 19 main scale divisions equal 1.9c111, each didsion being
exactly Imm. The Yernier scale has 20 diyisiolls, each division being equal to
0 .95mm. The difference hem'een a main scale division and a Vernier division is
0.0501111 and that wiU be the accuracy of tills scale .. \ J\[clric Vernier scale is
marked in a different \Va,-. Note [hac tbere are 20 divisions but [he scale is
marked from I to 10. This is because each number represents 0. 1mm (2 x 0.05
= 0.1) and it is easier for you to read.
.\ b!9 Scale (mm)
o 1 2/ 3
II I ' I' I ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I IIII1
I
I I 1 1 1 I I I II I I I I I I
" J
I I I I II
(J 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Vernier Scale
19 i\lain Scale Sub-Di,·isions ;:: 20 "crlllcr Scale Dh'isions

19 x 1mm;:: 1.9cm 20 x U.95mm = 1.9cm
Difference in Length Befween Dinsions is:

Imm (:'.lain Scale) - 0.95mm (\'ernier Scale) ;:: 0.0501m
~
·0
FiguCt' 3.48 - Metric 19/20 Vernier Scale
"",,
%
Let's try a measurement using this scale. 10 the next illustration, we again rea§"
lhe zero mark on the Vernier. \'(le ha"\""c 37mm plus the ninth Venll~
graduation in alignment. The ninth Ve[lller graduation is 0.45mm on the s~le
(0.05 x 9 = 0.45). ;f-
'v
So, our grand total is 37nun plus 0.45mm and that equa ls 37.45mm. Jf
, *'
~v
-'j
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CHAPTER THREE
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,\fain Scale (mill)
J I 111~rrlllllll
4 I ~ 11111111 t (,
,pJlj 'II~I'I
I 2 3 -4 5 6 - ~ 9 10
f
37mm + (9 x O.OS)mm
Vernier Scale
::: 37111111 + OASmm

::: 37.45mm
Fig ure 3.49 - Reading the Melrie 19/20 Ve rnier Scale
Merric 49 / 50 Vernier Scale

T ins scale has 49 main scale diy-isions, each Imm long, which equal 4.9cm. The
Vernier scale has 50 di,,;sions, each O.98mm long, winch also equal4.9cm. The
difference between a main scale dj,;sion and a Vemier division is therefore
O.02mm. This is morc accurate than the 19/20 scale. The Vernier scale is
numbered at each fh'e dh;sioos (O.lmm) from 1 [0 10.
111 11111111'111111l1TIIIIII
I" "lrlHr ",f,mp"
ttU II1111111111 'I II"I I
rrrrli lit III~ t""",~"""" J
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Vernier Scale
49l.\ i.RRIScale Sub-D ivisions::: 50 Vernier Scale Di"isinns

1.l",649'"x 1mill ::: 4.9cm 50 x 0.98111111 ::: 4.9cm
. (.o\\,,;.'j!.c
.:. \\""{{~ Difference in Lenglh Belween Dinsions is:
,. .¢,\ . I mill (l\ lain SC:llc) - 0.98mm (Vernier SC:lIc) ::: O.02mm
",
I... ('\
Figure 3.50 - Metric 49/ 50 Ve rnier Scale
r
~<
T he neXI illus (l:arion shows an example reading, Again, we read to the zero ~
mark on the Vernier scale. \'ile have Scm plus an alignmem of lhe 38'" Vernier
graduation or, 0.7mm plus O.06mm (3 x 0.02). 'nlis produces a grand total of
50.76mm. 3
-
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
~rain Scale (mm)
I n"~'II'~tll'
'1 '.1 . ....5 .. '1I"ill~j~
1
1.""",,71'.11111 ' 1'
. . _. 1 . ' 1,1' , '11'1I""
, III" [vHL! n 'I))) i [ll 1111111 :1
1112;.l~6- L;
"IW'
Vernier Scale
Coincident Lines
30mm + O.7mm + (3 ")( 0.02)01111
::: 50mm + 0.7111111 + ll.0601m
::: 50.76!l11ll
Figure 3.51 - Reading th e Metric 49/50 Vernier Scale
Exercise in Reading the Metric Vernier
Before we iea\'e the Vernier system. it miglu be a good idea to try your hand at
a reading. 1 will gi"\""e you a i\Iemc 2~/2S scalc rcading in the next illustracion.
juSt to make life a bit more exciting. You will have to work out the accuracy of
tlus. I will gh-e you the solucion to the exercise directly after Figure 3.32, so If
you do not wish [Q read it you should co'"et it up. , will sa,'e another exercise
in an English scale for later on when we introduce another factor.
:\Iain Scale mm
24/25 Metric Vernier /
[,~,
,j, I,f, I, f'l'IIIII_III_I_LL q, t'115H fir uu
Lill Lli
1,
o , ,0 20
Vernier Scale
(23 Di,"isions ::: 1;4 r l:llf mm)
Figure 3.52 - Exe rcise in Reading a Metric 24/ 25 Vemie r Scale
Did you get 30.82mm? Here is how we can arri'"c at that. 24 main sc~
di"isions, each O.Smm, equal 12mm. 2S Vernier di\;sions, each O.48mm, ~
equal 12mm. The difference betw'een the scale chisions is 0.02 (O.S - 0.48 ~
0.02). The zero mark on the Vernier indicates a reading made up from: 5cm~
plus 0.5mm plus 0.32mm (16 x 0.02) gi\"ing a grand total of SO.82mm. ,..
~
The 49/50 Vernier system is now the most widel\' used because the 24/25
system has a smaller' Vernier scale that is quitc difficult to read. There a,;e,
howeycr, a fair number of 24/ 23 sys tem instruments still in circulation. It;.,r'1ln
be difficult at times to recognise if a Vernier graduation is actually align~~ or
not. Bear in mind that In the Yernier system, there can only be one alig,4fuent
at a time. Lines to dle immediate left and right of the most nearly coiPcident
une will give the appearance of being equaUy stepped. That is a good gfiide.
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOLS
The Universal Vernier Caliper Gauge
Description
The Uni\"ersal Vernier Caliper Gauge incorporates both English and Merric
scales. It is an adjustable p recision meas uring instrument capable of taking
external and internal measurements co an accuracy o[ O.OO lin and O.02m m. It
consists of a main beam, incorporating the main scales and a 6..xed jaw, and a
sliding jaw tha t incorpora tes the Vernier scales. TI1e range o f measurement of
the instrument would be the difference belween the length of the main scales
and the length of their related Vermer scales . The measuring faces of the ja\vs
are accurately machined to be straight and parallel.
Target Po ints L.ocki ng Screws

Fixed i\[ain Scale - :'Irenic
Jaw
Main Scale - E nglish
Fine Adjusmlem
I. .1
I nside Sizes
(add nib wid th)
Figure 3.53 - Universal Ve rnier Caliper Ga ug e
T here is a fine ~\·\:.lStment screw o n the sliding Jaw and a to ck screw [0 lock the
,. '
jaw on lD:.lm't: -main beam . The sliding jaw is connecled to a clamping dence
(~~~'lrc fine adjustment clipper). The damp can be locked onto the beam \...i rh
' . -p,:-';'!!:, la ck screw and turning the knurled adjus tmen t screw will then produce a fine
. ~\"\\'bi adjusrment to the jaw. Each jaw may have a target point, or small recess, that
_ ~'\!'(\~ may be used for accura tely setting spring dividers. i\ ' nib' at the end of each
L, jaw has an accurately m achined dimensio n. The o utside edge of each ' nib' is
slightly rounded to permit the accurate measurement o f rounded bores. \\1hen
ir is necessary to take an internal measurement, [he combined \,ridth o f the twO
'nibs' must be added to the reading. The value of the cornbined widcll of me
tWO ' nibs' is nonnally marked o n the side af [he fixed jaw.
\\fhen you arc preparing to take measurements \\rith any precision ins trument
you shauld ensure that d1e instrument and the work-piece arc both at dIe same
unifom1 temperature, ideally 20°C (68°F). T Ins may require you to leave them
fa r a while co stabilise at the workshop tempcramre. It is also essential th at the
instrument and the parts to be measured are clean.
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TOO I.. S
Before us ing a Vernier caliper gauge, you should check it by closing the jaws
and holding it up to the light to ensure tbat there is fu ll conraCl between the
meaSurement surfaces. 1I1cluding [he 'nibs'. Then check Lhat the lero line on
the main scale is exactly aligned with the zero line on the Vernier scale. The
p:lrt of th e instmmcll t bearing rhe Ve rnier scale is sometimes referred to a
being the Clm;o r .
Using the Vernier caliper requires some degree of skill to ob tain the correct
' feci' when taking measurements . Owr-tightening the caliper will produce
inaccurate readings and will damage the instrument. The jaws should be closed
gend~· onto the surfaces of the item to be measured :l!1d no attempt should be
made to tn· 10 alLer the measurement b\- force.
I f ~·ou wish to pre-set the caliper to a measurement, it should first be set to the
approximate yalue and the clamp should be locked before making the final
adjustment \\;th the fint: adjusunent screw. The jaw locking screw can then be
tightened to presen·e the pre-set measurcmcm.
\X'hen the instrument is nor in usc. it should be kept in its case and stored in a
\\"a1111 place. Excessi,e heat will cause expansion and accuracy will be affected.
The instrument should neyer be stored wtth the jaws fully closed or locked in
:my position.
The instrument should be kept clean and lightly lubricated with acid-free
machine o il.
Exercise in Taking an Interna1 Measurement
For this exercise, 1 will use an English 49/50 scale anti ask you to find the
intcrn~ dimension shown in the next illustration. Again, I will proyide you
,\,\wit!f'~lC solution immediately afterwards so you may wish to cover this up .
. ,'\.::.0..<:' ...
- \..\)\ .
\"1)\0
\.)" '=
"",'" .
(.0'\ I I I
r mernal
i\ 1casurcmCl1t
Figure 3.34 - Exe rcise in Reading a Ve rnier Scale 49 /50 E nglis h <
§,
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D id you get 1.435in? If you did not, did you remember to add me width of the
nibs? 11le reading is made up of lin, plus 0.1 in, plus 0.035in, plus the width of
the nibs (O.3in).
T here are versions of rhis instnunent that have a pair of ' knife edges' that are
positioned opposite the jaws and are designed purely for taking internal
measurements. 'nus feature rcmm-es the need to consider nib widths.
lnsidc
Sizes
7\! ai n Scale - Enghsh
•
1'. b in Scale - :-[ctric
Fixed
jaw Lo cking Screw
- Aiusrablc J aw
I :--:-:~, I
<-;:'
Outside
Sizes
Fig u re 3 .55 - Vernie r C a lipe r w ith Separate J aw s for Jn te rn all\'feas ure mem
Digital Electronic Vernier Caliper
This instrument removes all the fuss of reading scales and judging the
alignment of graduations. There are no scales to read. The iostmment bas an
electronic digital direct readout that can be selected to give English o r Ivletric
readings. It is def "W;f1ed for taking external and internal measurements.
')\')\)o - -
\. oC-
_co\w,.,
~ ~.:-'{'{'"
.&-\.
-(\~ ""
"
(, ~,'\
Fig ure 3 .56 - D igital E lectronic Verni er Cali per
ElectrOCllc instruments are now very accurate and reliable. There is one small
consideration, howeyer, that is m ore to do with the operntors rather than the
instruments. For example, shop assistants now have digital tills that accurately
tot up figures and calculate change; students now tend to llse pocket
calculators as a substitute for what were oace considered simple arithmetical
skills. TillS is great until something goes wrong. Do people still have the
capacity to cope with mental arithmetic? Do tbey even feel they need to? 'nlCre
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CHAP TER THREE
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is, ho\\-e\'er, a more insidious problem. I f a wrong button is pressed, o r a

couple of zeroes arc inad\-crremly added. would the operator be able 10
recognise a ludicrous result? That is a Glutionary notc fo r you to approxim:Hc
that digital instrumenLs arc giying you results that you would expect. Add to
this the em barrassment of tIring to fi nd someone who can read a Ve rnier
scale, because there is no digital Ycrsion available, and the case for learning
how to do it is made. Electronic technology then becomes a \-alued aid, not a
masterl
Vernier Height Gauge
Description
The Vern ier I !eight G :l uge is a derivation of the ca liper gauge and di ffers from
it in that rhe measurement is taken as the disl:tncc between the top surface of a
mo\"abJe jaw and the surface on which the gauge stand~ . There is no Ii.'\ed jaw.
Fine
Internal
External ,.
Jaw
Fig ure 3.57 - Vernie r H eig ht Ga uge
~.
~
The gauge incorporates a heavy base with an accurately machined lowq
surface that is parallel with the measuring face on tOP of the mo>able jaw. .¥
detachable scriber can be fined [0 the movable jaw allowing its usc fof
marking-our. TI1C main scale of the gauge does not start at zero because th?
surface on which Lhe gauge sits is actually the zero po sition in thi;;
configuration. For this reason, me main scalc starts at a value that reflects d~ ~
minimum height of the measuring face over dlC surface, i.e. 1in . f-"::'
Measurem ents arc taken from the top surface of the movable ):tw ssf'it is '"
necessary to fit the scriber ontO thc top s·urface when taking ,<sx rernal
measurements (see inset) and to remove it when taking imernal m eas.~emcnts.
Tn some cases. it ma\'. be necessan'. to fit the scriber onro the lower face of the
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TOO L. S
movable jaw [0 enable access to an internal ctimension. In this case, the scriber
is mmed upside down (sec inset). \\' hen dus is done, the thickncss of the
measuring jaw must be subtracted from dlC reading.
Vernier D epth Gauge

Description
Thc Vernier Depth Gauge is another derivation of the Vernier caliper gauge.
indus case, it consists o f a beam, incorporating the main scale, which carries a
sliding measuring jaw that incorporates the Vcnuer scale. The jaw is positio ned
over the hole or depth to be measured and the beam is lowered until it reaches
the poinr where [he meas uremenr has to be taken. The gauge is then read in
the same manner as rhe caliper gauge. There flrc several differenr
configurations of depth gauge of which the Vernier gauge is bue one. The
more common types are illustrated for you.
Vernier
i'\fiCl'ometcr
Figure 3.58 - De pth Gauges
Ve rni er Bevel Protractor
D escriptio n
The Vernier Bevd Protractor has a solid stock or base that has an underside
that is machined flat to sit on a truc flat surface. The protractor head is
designed to accept an adjustable srraight edge that can be adjusted to any angle
to the stock. The srock c.'l.n be rotated around the protractor head and can be
locked in any position. The angles fomled between the straight edge and the
stock can then be read from the position of the zero index mark on the
Vernier scale relative to the main scale.
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Figure 3.59 • Unive rsa l Bevel P rOIr:lClOr
i\!on:mctll o f the straight edge rotates a disc on the head that inco rporates a
main scale chat is graduated in degrees. A Vernier scale on thc head permits a
reading in minutes of a degree.
The Vernier Protractor Scale
\Vc nced 1'0 examine how the Vernier scale works on the be\·el protractor. The
scale is dc~igned so that 23° on the main scale arc equivalent to 12 eq ual
di\'isions on rhe ycrnier scale. Note, that the Vernicr sen lc is showing (wo scts
of 12 divisions, one each side of dIe zero mark , where each third division IS
numbered consecutively 15, 30, -1-5 and 60. Therefore, one division is 5
mInutes.
Vernier Scale
23 Scale D i" isions = 12 Vernier Scale Di\'isions

~ l ain
23 x 1°:::: :n°
Difference in Length nc(',.n:e [~ D i\'isiun~ IS:

,,.
2° (t>. lain Scale) . 10 55' (Vernier Scale) :::: 0° 5'
Fig ure 3.60 . Ve rnier Pro traclOr Sc a le '0

,i;!
'"'"
0'
Eneh Vernier scale didsion is 23° divided by 12 which equals 1 0 55 ~1in u t es.
The diffcl"I..:nce between two m.,un scale dinsions and a Vernier scale a"i\'ision is
'"
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CHAPTER THREE
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2° minus 1° and 55 minutes \vhich gi\"CS 5 minutes. This gi\-CS the instrument
an accuracy of 5 minutes (one twelfth of a degree).
The main scale I have shown you displays a cemral 0 mark w1th the
gmduarions in degrees running away on each side to rcach nine£}' degrees at
each end. That com-cniently shows you how the twin Vernier scales match
with 23° on each side. Alternatively, the main scale may display a central 90°
mark with the graduations running away on each side ro reach zero at each
end. This latter sel up is more common and T will use it in rhe neXl illustration
ro describe how the scale is read.
Accuracy of 51>.linutcs
Angul:i r·1\ [easurcment
20'-=:::~
55° 20'
Fig ure 3.61 - Reading the Ve rn ier PrOltaClOr
To rcad an angular measurement, YOll must first read the number of whole
degrees on the main scale that have been passed by the Vernier zero mark. You
[hen continue to read in the same direcaofl and locate the graduation on the
Vernier scal~ rh)fiCh1igns with a main scale line and then add that number of
mj~l~.:tl! rt'~ay have occurred to yOll by now that you can read the protractor
(i ~l lem;er direction, obtaining an acute angle reading or an obtuse angle reading
~): . 1y.
.(\~
.
\ ....\.
~ respecove
",
..:. ,,~ Taking the example shown in the illusrration and reading clod,-wise, the zero
mark on the Vernier has passed through 90° and has rtavel.led anorher 3-1-°
clock-wise, making a tOlal of 124°. We now look clocl..,,\;se along rhe Vernier
scale from the zero and find that the eighth graduation lines up. This
represents 40 minutes on the Vernier scale (8 x 5). The reading is thus 12-1-° -1-0
nunutes.
Now read anti-clockwise. The zero mark on the Vernier has swept past 55°.
Look anti-clockwise along the Vernier scale [rom the zero and we see that the
fourth graduation is aligned representing 20 minutes (4 x 5). The reading is
thus 55° and 20 minutes.
Before you use a Vernier Bevel Protractor )'OU should check it by setting the
srraight edge at an angle o f 90° to the stock using a master square. The zero
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CH A PT E R THREE
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mark on the Vernier should be regtstering 90 0 on the protractor scale. 'I'ou can
correct any error by adjusting the position of the Vernier scale.
Micrometer Calipers
T he operatlon of the micrometer caliper is based on the pilch of a screw
th read and it \Vas sometirnes referred to as the 'screw caliper' for that reason.
Thcre arc two types, the external or 'outside' micromcter and the internal or
'inside' micrometer.
External Micrometers
D esc ription
The external micrometer consists of a frame, anviL barrel, slcc"c and a spindle.
You ,,·ill come across a differcnt renninology in some books. mostly ;\merican,
where the slceyc is referred to as being the 'thimble' and the barrel is refe rred
1"0 as being the 'sleeH". To sa,e con fusion, we arc going to Slick to the fust
interpretation throughout this section. The measuring faccs arc on tbe ends of
the anvil and tbe spindle. The barrel is engrayed with a graduated sca le that
rep resents the measuring range of the instnlment, which is normally 1in or
25mm.Thc barrel has an accur.ue right hand internal thread tha t has a pitch of
0.025in (40 TPJ) on the English n~rs io n and 0.5mm on the I\[ctric version. The
spindle has a matching thread and the barrel is screwed 0010 it. The sp indle
incorpoffllcs a slce\-c that surrounds the barrel when th e two arc assemb led.
The sleeve has a bevelled portion at the barrel end that is graduated into equal
divisions and a knurled portion at the orner end to pcrmi l cas)" manual
rowtlo!].
WII'
1,1' -'"
_ :-.\.:.~":' ;.~\ 111C spindle incorporales a spring-loaded ratchet mechanism at the OUler end
~ ~(" l P ' that slips under a prcset load thus producing a standard pressure or 'feci' on
... \..,:-. Ihe measuring faces when they are in contact wiIh an item to be measured .
.;-.."\' -
,........,\'r-
(::'''
;\(a.in Cfhimble) Stop

Scale
= Barrel Adjusting Nut
(Spindle Thread
Fr:J.mc \'\'car)
Figu re 3.62 - E"lcrnal Mic iorn c,cr
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111C faces at [he rips of the am·il and spindle are ha rdened, or tipped with
tungsten carbide, to resist wcar. The spindle can be lockcd in any position by a
knurled locknut One complete revolution of dle slee"e \ \-ill alter rhe gap
berwccn the faces of rhe anvil and the spindle by a distance equal to the pitch
of the thread.
The English External Micrometer
The main scale on the barrel of the micrometer is graduated along its axis with
a scale marked in tenths of an inch, each tenth being further di\'ided into
fortieths of an inch. One complete rotation o f the sleeve will move its bevelled
edge oyer one division (1/ -Win) on the barrel scale. The beveUed end o f dle
sleeve is divided up into 25 equal dh'isions, each fifth di\'ision being marked i.e.
5, 10, 15, 20 and 25. \Vhen the sleeve is rotated through one sleeve division, it
will h:I\'e curned 1/ 25 of a nlrn. This in effect is 1/ 25 of 1/40in (0.025io),
which is one thousandth of an inch (O.OOlin). The accuracy of the instrument
is thus O.OO lin.
Barrel Scale Divided into Thimble Di\'idcd into

1 in (0.1") and 1 in 25 (0.001'J
10 40
\0
OS' + (2 x 0.025") + 0.Ou9"
::: OS' + 0.05" + 0.009"
::: 0.559" on a 0" to 1" i\Ecrometer
or \.559" on a 1" to 2" r.licrometcc crc
Figure 3.63 - Reading the English Micrometer
T he illuslrarioo shows that the beycllcd edge of the sleeve is positioned on the
main scale of the barrel so that we can re:!d 5/ 10;0 (0.5) plus 2/-iOio (0.05).
111;S adds up to 0.55in. If we now look at the scale 00 the sleeve, we see that
the ointh graduation mark is aligned with the barrel scale datum line, which ..::
i.ndicares 0.009in. This gives us a grand total of 0.559io as a reading foc this
example. If there is no precise alignment of a sleeve graduation mark with the
barrel scale line then me procedure is to read to the mark mat is nearest 1O iL
English micrometers nonnally hayc a one-inch measurement range so the

example we have looked at must be for a dimension that is less dum one inch.
Jn facl, it was, and dle micrometer we used is known as a 0 - lin micrometer.
LoC I us imagine that the item we had measured was bigger than o ne inch but
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C H AP T ER T H REE
TOO L S
less than two inches. In this case we could not tit It illlo a 0 - lin micrometer.
we would need a I - 2in micrometer. The measuremen t range is still one inch
so we would need to add on an inch . Therefote, the reading in our example
applicable 10 a 1 - 2in micrometer would be 1.559in. T he range of a
micrometer is displayed on rhe frame i.e. 2 - 3in.
The English Vernier Micrometer
This is a marc accurate \-ersion, and more e'Xpensivc! This type has the
addition of a Vernier scale conslsnng of ten divisions engraved
circumferentialh' on the barrel adjacent to the bcn~lled edge o r the slcc\·e.
These len di';sions in total equate to nine di,-isions on the slee"e. So, the
difference between a slee",e dinsion and a Vernier diyision is 0.00 lin - 0.0009in
= O.OOO lin, which is one ten thousandth of an inch.
==ot,"
+ (2 X 0,023') + 0.U17/1 + 0.0006"
DA " + 0.03" + O.()!-" + 0,0006"

= 0.4676"
Figure 3.64 - Reading the English Vernier Micro meler
The reading shown in lhe illusrranon IS read as foll ows: The bevelled edge of
the sleevc has re,'ealed O.-l-in, plus 2/-tOths of an inch (0.03in). The sleeve scale
shows that the se"cnteenth mark (0.017in) is nearly aligned. This gives us a
tOlal so far of OA67in. \,\'c now look at the \' ernier scale and notc that the sixth
graduation aligns with a line on dIe slec'·e (0.OOO6in). Our grand (ami is
thereforc OA676in. :;
"".'.,
S-
The Metric External Micrometer
The barrel scale on the metric Yasion is graduated in one-millimetre divisio.~

that are subdiyided into half millimctrcs . 'lllc bcvelled edge of the slecv~-s
d ivided into 50 graduations, each division being I /SO· h of 0.5mm, whiGH is
O.O lmm. The accuracy of this instrument is thus O.Olmm. 6v
"'"
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C HAPT E R THR EE
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Barrel scale divided mto ThImble dividcd IntO

mm and h:ilf mm. Each 50 (O.OI111I11)
5111m is numbered
l~mm + O.5mm + (34 x U.Olmm)

= 18mm ..... O.5mm + O.34mm
= 18J~4111m
Figure 3.65 - Reading the Metric Micrometer
The be\-eitcd edge of rhe slee\-e has uncovered a reading that com isIS of:
18mm plus O.5mm giving us 18.5mll1 so far. An examinacion of the sctlle on
the s\cc\-e reveals that the 34th dinsion is aligned \\;th the datum line o f the
barrel scale giving 0.3<1mm (34 x 0.0 I mm)_ This g1\-es us a grand lotal of
18.8-1mm fo r this reading.
Obliqu e Graduati ons
\'\11en reading a micrometer, rou may have trouble reading the numbers on the
barrel scale when they arc partially obscured by rhe edge of the sleevc_There
mtly also be difflQufty is in deciding whether the bettci edge is really jusI past a
line ~~l~S't-~Bilow it, a probl_em often exacerbated by the ~mall shadow cast by
[!.li! l,)j:C\-cl edge. Some mlcromctcrs arc produced \\,th thc barrel scale
W,1:grnduarions slanted_ These may be shown in addition to the normal strnight
lines, which may be used to indicate half ru\;sions.
Figure 3_66 - Obliq ue Graduations
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CHAP TER THREE
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Figure 3.66 shows a metric micrometer with oblique graduations. You could
t ry your band at reading ir. I will give you the solution in the follO\ving
paragraph so that rou can cover it up if you so wish .
D id you geL 12.65mm? You have 12mm, plus 0.5mm, plus 0.15m01 (15 x
O.Olmm). You also had a chance to see if it was easier to read oblique
graduations .
Large External Micrometers
\'(Ie haye already discussed the range of micrometers. T he English micromeLer

has a measuremcnt scale one inch long whilst the Merric yersion has a scale
25mm long. \,\l1cn we need to measure larger sizes, we haye to have
micrometers to aCCoOU1lOdate them. The example T have illustrated is a 25 -
50mm micrometer. You ha\"c to add 25nm1 to the reacting when you use it.
T he range is displayed on the frame.
English standard micromcters arc supplied in eight different sizes from 0 - lin
to 7 - Sin br one inch steps. i\fctric micrometers are supplied in S1., differenr
sizes from 0 - 25mm LO 125 - 150mm by 25mm steps. Wfhen the micrometer is
set to its uro reading, the distance between the measuring faces is equallo the
low reading li.m.it for the instrument.
The faces of the anvil and the spindle cannot contact each other on the larger
range micrometer so you need to use a test gauge to check the accuracy of the
instrument. Note that in the example shown, a 25mm test gauge has been
clamped between the face s. This should coincide with a zero reading o n the
barrel scale and the alignment o f the zero mark on the slee,e scale with the
barrel scale.
i\ ficrometer has 25ml11 range

Test range
~_c::~~
Figure 3.67 - Example of Large External Ivlicromeler
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CHAP TER THRE E
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Special Us e Mi crome te rs
It is sometimes ncccssary to depart from the standard micromcter design to

acruc\'c certai n tasks. Some micrometers havc ,"ery deep frames to
accommodate sheet materials. Some micrometers have specially adap ted anvils
and spindles to enable the instrument to measure screw thread diameters or
mbe thickness.
\nvil and Spindle Adapted

for Sere,," Thread ~Ieasuremcnt
~<{]
~9=J
Am"il r\ciap[(::d for
Deep Frame Tube ThIcknes s :\lc;lsuremenr
for Sheet and
Plate Material
Fig ure 3.68 - Mic ro melers Adapted fo r Special Uses
Other special types are anilablc. :\ I'.uiablc r:mge micrometer has a large
frame with a sec of detachable am'ils designed to produce different ranges of
measurcmem. The shortest anvil is uscd for the l:trgest measurement and the
lo ngest anvil for; rh'C smalles t measurement.
. ;.('j\.)6 - -
.\ lr.kt~s micromete.r has an extra long, thin anvil to make it possible 10
.<'
... \):-.'"atcess recessed dimensions. A ball end micrometer is used to mcasure curred
.\.j).\'I.. surfaces.
"
l -'\';
T here is a micrometer deptlJ g :wge and this was illustrated this for you
earlier on, alongside the Vernier deptb gauge. 111e measurement scales on rhe
barrel and slee,e on a micrometer dcpth gauge run in the opposite direcu"on
to the normal micrometer head because they are recording the protrusion of
the rod from the base.
A caliper micrometer is very similar to the Vernier caliper except that the ,.
jaws are paf[ of a micrometer head. l\l.icrometcrs arc vcry versatile and you will
find adaptations in all sorts of specialised cigs and jigs.
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M.icrometer Heads
Des cription
1\ micrometer head consists of a barrel, sleeve and spindle. Heads arc used in
conjunction with extension rods or pieces co give a choice of measurement
r:lnges for tasks such as tool setting, gauging and fo r t:lking internal
measurements. Some heads may be equipped with \-ernier SC:l1es to give an
accuracy of measurement of O.OOOlin. Some heads are equipped with large
diameter sJee,es that have 250 dinsians that pernur a more call\·cnient direct
reading accuracy of O.OOOlin. The addi tion of n Vermer scale to this type of
hcad wauld then give an accuracy of 0.00001 in.
The Internal Micrometer
Descriprion
In tern:!.1 nucra metcrs arc specifically desIgned far taki ng internal

mcasurements. There nrc tWO rypes, the l"\\·o-point and the thn::e-point. Both
types have exacdy the same graduations as the external types except that the
measurement scale length is o n.ly 0.5in.
Two-Poi nt Intenlal Micro m eter
T his type is o ften referred ("0 as the end measuring or 's tick' type micromete r.
It is supplied as a kit that consists o f a micrometer head and n set of di fferent
length extension rods supplied in onc-inch seeps from 2in up to 12io that fit
into the barrel of the head to gi.e different mensurement ranges. The I' fcrnc
\-crsion has a combination of hC:ld aod extension rods that giye measurement
rnn~tJ/ro m sOmrn up 200mm and the English yersion has a range from 2in to
1\.v:t Oi rr: A h:lndle can be screwed into the side of rhe head 10 allow the
(.l1\\C~e - micrometer to be inserted ioro deep bores. The two measuremcnt :!.nvil faces
\V~f' are con vex and are located at the end of the slccn' and nt the cnd o f the
;:-,...... '- extension rod. These arc sometimes adjustable to compensate fo r wear.
",;,\'-
U'" ExtenSIon Rod
Fig ure 3.69 _ T wo-Po int Inte rnal Mic romeler
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOLS
Reading a Metric Two-Po int Internal Micrometer
I have chosen the j\[etric type JUSt as an example. The same principles will hold
fo r the Englis h type. The measurement consists of reading the micrometer
head and then adding the length of the extension rod and the distance collar to
that reading.
14mm + 0.5111111 + (30 x O.U I111 m)

= J 4.80111m + length of e Xle n~inn rod and c o llar
Figure 3.70· Reading a Two-Point lutcmal Micromcu: r (Metric)
Tn the example I ha\"e given you, the reading on the head is: l.J.mm plus O.Smm
pillS O.3mm (30 x 0.01mm) giring a total of H .Smm. \,'e now have to add the
length o f the extension rod and the distance collar to tbat reading.
Using the Two-Point Inte rn al Micrometer
\"xThcn assembling the internal micrometer, it is essential that the eonracting

faces between the parts are clean. The pan s are assembled by pressing them
together with a scre\\~ng action that pushes any oil or dirt particles into radial
grooyes on the faces. Alignmem marks on the head and the collar should line
up. The extension rod is secured in the head with a setscrew . .After assembly,
the instrument should be sel to zero and then checked for accurney with an
ex ternal microqmwT. A handle can be screwed into the side of the barrel to
facilimte tha)fucasurement of deep holes.
_ \\ .S,!,<:- ~
.L0" .... ·
\.,;..1'0
,b
......-l:::'
""
C'
""",,
3- .
Figure 3.71- Using the Internal Micrometer
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CHAPTeR THREE
TOOLS
The instrument must be held so that its longitudinal axis is set at a right angle
to the faces to be measured. Care must be taken not to jam the instrument In
bores because the rncrtsurement faces and the waUs of the bore can be easily
damaged.
Th ree-Point Inte rnal Mi c ro m ete r
This instrument has three measuremem am-ils mounted co-axially in the

micrometer head at 120 0 to each O!her. The inner ends of the am-i!s are angled
and threaded to engage under spring loading \\~th a conical measuring thread at
tbe end of the spind le. Tlus arrangement gives a greater :lCcuracy when
measuring internal dimensions . .r\ larger diameter micrometer head is normaUy
used tha r is equipped with 250 didsiolls on the sleeyc to giye a direct reading
accuracy of 0.0001io . There are \'ariacions such as 50 diVision sleeves together
with a \ renue[ and 100 di\'ision slee\-es that gi\-C an accuracy ofO.00025in.
o~WJ- ~ Setting Rl1lg
Figurc 3.72 - Three-Point Internal Microm eters
E lectronic Digi tal Microme te rs
Electronic Digital micrometers hale a digital direct reading display. -111C display
automacicalh' sets to zero when the instrument is closed and switched on. At
the push of a switch, the instrument also has the ability to reset tbe z~
against a reference standard if so desired . ! n addi tion to its normal measuring
fu nction, tlus added facilit), makes the instrument self-calibmting and allo\V~
you to take comparative readings, where di fferences from a re ference-
dimension are displayed as pius or minus y:tr1ations. -.
~
Fig ure 3.73 - Electronic Digital Micromelcr
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CHAPTER THREE
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Using the Micrometer

Temperature Conditions
\'\then micrometers arc being used for \-ery accurate work, the instrument and
the item bcing measured should be at the Standard Reference Temperamre of
20°C (68°F'). Fine measurements should not be made in direct sunlight or in
conditions where the temperature is fluctuating or near heat sources such as
radiators etc.
Handling
The spring-loaded rntchet at the end of the sleeve should always be used when
raking measurements to ensure a constant pre-set force on thc measurement
faces. The sleeve should be rotated at a constant speed when screwing the
instrument into contact. Irregular speeds can create false readings.
The instrumem should never be forced O\'er an item or screwed down hard.
This will produce false readings and "vill impose strain on the screw. Ir is
surprising how ofren you see trainees doing this in an attempt to prove to
someone that a job is in limits, pointless! "nlC insrrumenr should ne,et be
pulled across faces; it produces scoring and wears the measurement faces.
\"X'hen the instrument is not is use it should be placed in its case and srored in a
wann place. Excessive heat will cause expansion that affects accuracy.
Expansion can also create stress so instruments should ne\'er be stored fully
dosed or locked in any position.
Adjustments
The zero setting of 0- 1in and 0-2Smm micrometers is checked by dosing the
spindle face 0010 w-e anvil using the ratcher mechanism. The zero mark on the
sleeve shgw,4 th1M align with the axial datum line on (he barrel with no pan of
the p.attCr scale sbowing. When checking the larger range of micrometers.
c·,
~ \,)<ga~ges or test picces are reqUlr~~ to dose ~be gap [hat e~sts between the
.\,\ S' spmdle and am'll ar the zero posmon. Errors 1Il the zero serong are caused by
~_.:,,\\"i wear on the anvil and spindle faces and wear on the screw threads.
\". ,l.
Zero Setting Adjustment
The barre.! is anached to the frame as a tight fining sleeve. The barrel can be
rotated by means of a special C spanner [0 bring the barrel scale into alignment
with the zero mark on the slecve.
Two-poim internal micrometers normally bave an adjustable am·ij in the slec\'e

head and at the ourcr end of each extension rod for adjusting the zero setting.
These micrometers arc checked against an external micrometer.
Three-point internal micrometers arc checked using a setting ring. The barrel is
locked with a screw and when rhis is released, the barrel scale can be rotated
into alignment with the sleeve datum.
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CHAP T ER THR EE
T O O L 5
Depth micrometers are checked and set against a surface plate. The base is
held firmly In contact with the plate and the sleeve is rotated until the end of
[he rod contacts the plate . The gauge should then be reading zero. The zero
setting mar be adjusted by rotating the barreL
T apered Thread
Spindle Thread \'<'car Adjusmlenr
Zero Setting .·\d justmem
Figure 3.74· Adjusnnent of OlliSide Micrometers
M icrometer Scre\"\' Ad justment
\'(fear on the screw thread produces end float that affects the accurnc\" o f th e
instmmcnt. There is an adjusting nut in the outer end of the barrel tha t is
screwed on to an external split tapered tmead. As the adj usting nut is tigh tened
clochvise on to the tapered thread, the difl.meter of the barrel scre\\' is reduced,
'lC)I..~losm~ it onto the worn spindle screw. The adjustment should be continued
. ,)\\c't-e:. - until the end float is rcmO\·ed. One proviso is that the 'feel' of the micrometer
\. . ~(<' l, must be maintained throughout the traverse of rhe screw.
,
,\.\.:t:i'- \' -
(p,\! o
Dead Weight Tester
This might seem a strange instrument to include here rather than in the sccti0R
~
on calibration but it is a precision instrument. Though it can measure pressure-
by allowing an unknown pressure to act on a known area, it is normally onl[
used to calibrate pressure gauges and pres sure sensors . The tester has a verg-
simple arrangement. It has a fluid reservoir that contains a priming pump . T ttf.
fluid passes from the reservoir through a prim1ng Isolation valve to a cylin# r
that contains a piStOn that has a platfoon for plaCing selected weights (ma :$~s)
on . The cylinder is connected through to a pressure gauge connectiorv.}har
attaches to the gauge or sensor under test. The system also incorporates a:;-~aU
auxiliary screw adjustable piston dlat is used for making fine adjustme~1J to the
fluid pressure when setting up the instrument. ~
177
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOLS
\\eight
Gauge Cnder
Cllihr:ltion I
Pnm1ll~ Pump
lsolation \'"h-e
Screw t\djuster
Figure 3.75· Dead Weigh l TeSler
Thc tCSt proccdure is to first open the priming isolation \,ah·c and then
pressurise the system with the priming pump. \Thcn this has been done, the
priming isolation \,ah'e is then closed. The screw adjustable pi:non is thcn
sc rewed in lInlil lhe pressure in rhe system is raised jUst sufficiently to lift the
main piston off its stops. \\'ihen a selected weight is placed on the piston
plntfonn, thc combined force of the test weight and pis ron assembly creates a
given pressure in the fluid in rhe system. The fluid pressure creared is the force
cxe rl ed on the nuid by the piston didded by the area of the piston.
Forcl.:
Porce = Pressure X Area Therefore: Prcssure =
Area
, -
I\~'~)
"(hC'-'\)'il3ication on the gauge under rest can then be compared with the
« .
.: \V calculated pressure created !n the sys tem. The accuracy of the rester depends
,\~'\ . on the dimensional accuracy of the piston 2nd the cylinder and the low friction
..: ~...'\.... existing betwccn thcm. This is a precision instrument so the calibration
accuracy is high.
Non-Adjustable Gauges
\'{' hen items ha\'c fL'(ed dimensions and ha\'e to be checked, either in large .;J
numbers or on a regular basis, It is somewha[ laborious [0 do this with
adjustablc measuring instmmems. There is also a high probabilirr that different
opcrators will obtain slightly different readings. Fixed size ~llges rcmovc the
ch:lI)Ce of individual crror and give repeatable accuracy.
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C HAPTER THREE
TOO L S
Lim it Gauges
These gauges arc more commonlr referred to as being GO, NOT GO gauges.
and are designed to vcrify that componems arc \\;thin toleran ce. They are
usually double ended where one end is set at the dimension upper limit and the
other at the dimension lower limit. TIle GO end should fit over or into the
p~lr[ being checked whilst the NOT GO end should not. Limit gauges take
their description from their usc. There arc plate. gap. plug. caliper and ring
gauges.
DGO NotGOD
Plug Gauge
Go
z
~ N~ o ~
O!) lON
Gap Gauge " " o
Plate Gauge
Fig ure 3.16· Lirn it Ga uges
Sc rew T hread Pitc h Ga uges

-.o,j,F
. ;.\\\'These gauges are used (0 ascertain the number of threads per inch of a
l",\\L-;'-'; particular screw thread. The gauge is nonnaUy supplied as a set of folding
\\~~('" profiled blades cut to match specific thread profiles. The gauge will relate to a
thread s,·stcm such as J3SF. C;-';F. and !\lctric and each blade will be marked
with the threads per inch.
Fig ure 3.11- Screw T hread Pilc h Ga uges
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CHAPTER THRe E
TOOLS
Radius Ga uges
These gauges are llsed to check the profiles of small radii in terms of size,
accuracy and form. The gauge is supplied as twO sets of folding blades, each
manufacrured to a specific radius. One sel of blades has conca\7e profiles to
check outside radii whilst the other set has convex profiles to check inside
radii.
Slip Gauges
These are o ftcn referred to as being 'Johansson Blocks'. They arc often used
for checking the accuracy of other gauges and as gap gauges. They arc blocks
of hardened and highly polished steel that have been ground to an :lccuracy of
just a few millionths of an inch in their length, breadth, thickness, tlatn css and
parallelism. T he blocks are supplied as a boxed set of 81 pieces that can be
assembled in combinations to produce any gauge dimension from 0.05in to
l Oin in steps o r O.DOOlin.
~
t:=
r-
l-
F
.. ,
-.1
I •. - ".'1/
TI
- "'" '"
Figure 3.78 - Slip Gauges
The flatness and surface finish of dle blocks is to such a high smndard that
atmospheric pressure will hold them together so tighdy ther cannot be pulled
apart by hand. \'{' hen they arc assembled in this condition, the), are described as
being 'wrung' together and they act like a solid block of steel. Before joining
the blocks together, [hey should be wiped with dry ch am ois le:uher because
."5.
even the finest layer of dust will stop them being 'wrung'. \'{/hen assembling a
gauge lenglh with the blocks they should be joined by sliding o ne surfa ce over
the other to exclude air being trapped between them. \\nen separating the
blocks, you should always slide them apa n and never try to pull them apan.
The sliding action used to join and separate the blocks can cause wear over
time and they will require periodic checking against calibration blocks.
Because the blocks are used in such high precision \vark, it is important that
they and the work being checked are at the Standard Reference T emperarure
of 20°C (68°F) to ensure dimensional accuracy.
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L 5
\Ve ha~;e r~ached the end of the section on precisIOn measuring equipment.
There 1S gune a lot to remcmber and rou need to look for bits of information
that y.ou feel would make a good multi-choice answer qucstion. The principle
here !s that if you think it makes a good question, some 'quizmaster' will
prabablr have thought the same. After all, ther continually 113\"C to find
guesuons to present to you.
Lubrication Equipment & Methods

Introduction
I t is an inescapable fac t that if surfaces are permmed to man: in direct dry

contact with each other the, will frct and wear as the surface layers ar~
grnduaily ground away. \V'ear 'rates will accelerate as accumulations of ground
off particles stan to act as an abrasive medium. The ratc at \vhich this occurs
will depend largely on the hardness of the surface materials and Lhe mechanical
pressures they experience when in contact. I f the surfaces are kept apart by a
film of liquid, then the layers of molecules 10 the liquid will shear as the
surfaces move and no wear can occur. Ideally, each surface would have a fllin
of lubricant that is tenaciously attracted to it, opposing liqlud films could then
slide over each other. This is called 'film' lubrication and it is the most
desirable condition.
A problem occurs when surfaces are srationan' and remain in contact under
load; the lub rication films may t.hen be squeezed out. \\'hen these surfaces start
to moye, there will be a brief per.od \\.there they have random areas of dry
contact before they can pick up sufficient lubricant to form a complete fUm.
This is called 'boundary' lubrication and it is nor a desirable condition .
I30undary lubrication may also occur for other reasons. High temperatures can
rcduc ~_ the viscosity of most fluids and the films may start to break up.
""a\Sis2t)li1t)" is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. Very low temperatures
. CO\\c.'t-i; - tend to increase \"lSCOSlt)' and may hinder the pIck up of lubricant so that a fIlm
~ \'I~5~': cannot fully fonn or may e\-en freeze. Excessive mechanical pressures may
. ,,\""\.\.(,, break through the filins and create dry surface contact. \Vhatever fluid we
. L"'Y.....,~\.,- choose to usc as a lubricam, someone needs to have considered how it will
c-
react to extremes of temperature and mechanical pressure,
Another consideration is the effect that the chosen fluid will have on
c·
w
surfaces it is supposed to prmect. Some types of bearing surface, for examp~ ·
Teflon coated bearings, must not be lubricated because the lubricant woulif
deteriorate the coating and reduce rhe bearing life. Some fluids gradually turn~
acidic or mar oxidise \\o;th prolonged exposure to high temperatures and at
and they ma): arrack the surfaces they contact. Tf we now add the problems tHi t
could ensue from introducing outside contaminants to dlese lubricants, ,£fe
start to appreciate that correct lubrication is a critical maintenance action,c-FOr
c
example, grit will penetrate most fluid fthns:- water will create emulsions:......a nd ~
break the ftlms up; foreign lubricants may dilute essential properties, \X7lti t we
have been discussing here highlights the impOrtance of always ~ng the
authorised lubricants and treating them with care. ~
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
Lubricating Oil
There arc three main sources for oil: \-cgctable, mincrnl and synthetic.
Vegetable oils are no longer used in aircraft maintenance. ~fincral oils are fossil
based and arc refined from crude oil. Synthetic oils are put together from
products from \-arious sources such as fany acids. minerals and cellulose
substances.
O ils oftcn have additi\'cs to give them parucuhlr properties. These additives
include detergents, extreme pressure additives, ami-oxidants, pour-point
depressams and anti-corrosi\'e additiycs. Viscosity is an important property in
oils and this should be appropriate for the particular task. Volatility is another
considcrncion and the flas h point must not prese!ll a hazard in the intended use
of rhc oil.
Grease
G rease is a petroleum-based oil that has been thickened with gelling agents.
The gelling agents are metallic soaps and ther have an affect on the properties
and usc of the grease. Sodium or Lithium will raise the melting point of the
grease. These agenrs wou ld be used for temperamre resistant greases such as
those used in wheel bearings. The addition of graphite to sodium based grease
produces a temperature resistant, anti-seize grease. Typical uses for this would
be on plain bC:lrings subjccted to hcavy intermittent loads and 0 11 sp:lrk plug
screw threads . Aluminium gelling agent produccs gre:lse that h:lS excellent
:ldhesivc qU:llities. Calcium produces water-resisram properties. Other additi\·cs
are used to modi~- the grease. i\folybdenum disulphide is used to produce low
friction synthetic grease used on heavily loaded sliding surfaces. Silicone is
added to produce a metal to rubber 111btic ~nt. Other additives produce greases
for low rcmpera.!,Ure applications.
-"I\Wu
"' -c,;ti:la~~"is often used instead of oil in certain situations. It is more effective in
h: ~:,;q6cacions where leakage is diffi cult to preveo t. It may also be used where lhere
,{\~''''' :lre lengthr periods between scheduled maintenance actions. Grease does not
\,. ~~\...... . require complicated conrainment systems and lasts longer than oil; :l pre-
packed bearing will often contain enough lubricant to last the service life.
'fypical locations where grease would be used include: wheel bearings, flying
-
r
"".-f-
<
control hinges, engine and flying control runs, universal joints, trunnions, ~
splines, landing gear hinge pointS and on the screw rhrC:lds of reciprocating
engine spark plugs.
Lubrication Requirements
Lubricants arc designed to lubricate, reduce friccion, reduce wear and protect
bearing surfaces from corrosion and, when required, cool thcm_ The
lubrication re(luiremcnrs for an aircraft are decided upon at its design srage.
Each component requiring lubrication is identified and a suitable lubricant is
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
chosen together with a method fo r applying It. Tltis infonnation is rhen

published in the approyed ancraft maintenance manual in the [om1 of
lubrication charts and the specification nwnbers of tb e approved lubricants
and their alternam"Cs . lVlimic symbols are frcguently used on lubrication charts
[0 indicate the required application method, the lnbricant and the eguipment to
be used, The Charts normally incorporate legends to show wh>lt each symbol
means. T he airc r aft nJainlen ancc rnarw al is the overriding authority for all
the materials and procedures llsed on installed aircraft equipment.
Application
bU , Method
Lubric:J.nl
IB
;'I SpC';limo(n_~4A~ _~._I_--"""oc-- F
-
Oil Can IA~Tsh;1
G~t ~•
tf 0
Lubricate un
Assembly On ly
Lubrication
~~
Unnecessan'
B~rS t 23
[f] Pre- Packed
13\' Hand FiJI to ( Sparingly
Spccified
Not to be
Le\'cl
* Lubricated
Smother to
+ Pren'm Corrosion
Figure 3.79 - Lubrication Symbols
\'I/e ha,e already discllssed some of the factors thai affect the manufacturer's
choice of lubricant. Aircraft engines, fo r example, have recirculatory oil
systems where oil is deli\'ered to moving parts under pressure and is then
drawn back to a storage tank to begin its journey again. Engines get hot and
the friction between the moving parts adds beat. Oils that are used in engiris
need to have a high viscosity index, The higher the index, the less the vlscos ~
changes witlun a given temperature range. Rather like the multi-grade oils u se-~
in cars. Reciprocating engines require high viscosity oil because of the exrrem ~
mechanical pressures experienced in their plain bearings , Turbine engines, olj;
the other hand, require low dscosity oils because ther have lighdy loaded, fa~
rotating, low friction ball and roller bealings. ,.::
<.
0-
Engine oil replenishmem requires particular care. The application of~he
Incorrect oil specification is a ,"cry expensive maintenance b urde~~\.-Fo r
example, reciprocating engine oils and turbine enhne oils are N OT comp;itible
in any way. Type 1 and Type 2 turbine oils arc NOT compatible in;-.,£ny \vay.
T he oils approved for use in giwn engine types are limited and g reat care
needs to be taken to use tbe right oil. Replenish±nent points are marked with
183
Cop)'righl ~ Bm"Q' Collegt 2006 - 200i All rigbt; i"eHrvtd U1U!U 1,PIll166. (01II
CHAP T ER THR E E
TOO L 5
the appro"ed oil type and the tank capacity. ' nle air craff m ;/imemm ce
m :mu."J is the o"erriding authority for oils to be used in installed engines and
the replenishmem procedures.
Aircraft flying conlrois and landing gears are exposed ro the extreme low
temperatures found at alt:itude. Greases used in Ihese areas need to have anti-
freeze properties. Oils would be unsuited in areas where airflow and moisture
would conspire to wash it away. Control joints ma), ha"e to be pre-packed \\;th
grease and sealed where there is a risk of wind-blown din and moisture
entering the lubricant. Landing gear wheel bearings. on rhe orher hand, would
re(luire high temperature reSIstant greases. Other high temperature
components may require the application of graphite grease that is temperature
resistant. Landing gear retraction systems and legs ha\'e close tolerance bushes
thaI require grease co be applied under very high pressure to achieve adequate
penell:auon.
Some components may be packed with grease during manufacture and ne,er
require further lubrication. Oilier componellls may need periodic lubrication
that may be based on either calendar time or cycles of operation. Maintenance
actions such as aircraft washing and de-icing can dilute and purge exposed
components, such liS fla p tracks and screw jacks, of oil and grease. In these
cases, the procedure will normally call for a pOS( procedurnllubrication.
Methods of Lubrication
Oil
Oil lLsed for general lubrication purposes is nonnally applied to specific

lubrication points by the use of an oil can. Some poinrs may have oil ways or
small reservoirs')Wf,vicks [hat direct oil to bearing surfaces. Other points may
require ~1~\\lli.re Et application of oil to the moving surfaces. Oil may also be
a r~'pl i'OtJ"tnder pressure from a uni\'ersallubricacing gun .
• ,,::.«{'
~,\ '-. Engine oil replenishment is nomlaUr conducted using a replenishment rig. This
_"~'-~'\ draws oil from a sealed container and delivers it to the tank through a
\.. replenishment coupling. Engine oil tanks have contents indicators and
dipsticks. There arc rules specific to engine type about the replenishment
procedures that arc designed 10 pre"cnt m"er sen"icing. The aircraff
m :u'ntenance m :w uaJprocedure must be rollowed for all installed engines.
Many oils are hygroscopic in thar they are capable of absorbing moisture [rom
the surrounding air. Once saturated, ther can then produce free water. Some
oils may oxidise in the presence of air. Oil cOOiainers must remain scaled when
not in use and you should ne,"er use oil from a container that has been left
open.
Grease
Grease acts as a barrier to dirt and moisture as well as proteccing against

corrosion. However, grease cannot carry heat away from a bearing. Greasing
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
may be applied manually or, where specified. be applied by a grease gun

through specially adapted grease nipples fined to machined grease ways that
pass the grease under high pressure dircctJy to bearing surfaces. The
t-. laimcmll1ce Manual specifics the amount of grease [Q be applied, usually this
stat cs that It is suffi cient when new grease extrudes from the bearing. Some
components, such as wheel bearings, are packed with grease prio r \0 assembly.
Pre· packing
t-. lany conLtol bearings and electrical motor beari ngs are pre-packed and scaled
during ma nufacture. The principle is tJ,at there will be suffi cielll lubricant
available to last the working life of the componen l. Care has to be taken nor to
expose these componenrs to dc-greasing sol\-ents that could penetrate them
and wash out the lub ricant.
Oi li lc Bushes
Oilile bushes are manufacrured fro:n sintered bronze that is impregnated with
oil. 'rhey can be re-charged with oil by either immersion in oil or by capillary
action from an oil-soaked felt pad. Grease should never be applied to these
bushes.
Equipment
O il Can
T here are many types of oil can but most of them operate on a similar
principle. The can forms a resen-oir for the oil that is drawn up into :l Stogie
acting pump from where it is deli'-ered through a tlex.ible application spout.
1.UI( Flexible
Pump ---,4:~
Ilanelle
Oil C",,,aio,,--I_
Figure 3.80 - Oil Call
U ni ve rs al Lubri cation G un f:'/

~
OJ
The Uniye rsal Lub rication Gun can be used for lhe application of o~",o r soft
grease. It consists of a barrel closed at one end by a screwed cap apd at the
opposite end by a screwed on pump head. The pump head incorporates a
185
Cop'piglJl ~ B(//'~)' Collr§ 2006 - 200- All righl! rmn'fd 1111)'W.parl66.co!?l
C H APTER TH REE
TOOL S
IC\'er-operated piston. a spring-lmded non-rerum vah-e, and a pressure release

\'ake. The guo is supplied \\;th a selection of different replaceable lubricating
connectors and extensions designed to fir related nipple adaptors. Some of
these are designed to hook ontO a grease rupple that is screwed into a bearing
housing. Others arc of a push on type. A needle grease poim is a nipple that is
fined flush with the surface in the housing of a small pi\'oted joint. TIlis lype
requires a speciaJ poimed lubrication connec tor.
,>,,,,·-",-rurn \'aln: I lousing
Cap
~~
;-";:ozzlc .-\sscmbly
P""",,,c R clca~c
Screw
Pump! lead
Pump Pi~!On llnuSlOg
~
~:=====t!J][J!.1
Fig ure 3.8 1 - Universal Lu brica lioll Gun
The procedure for filling the gun with oil differs from that used for grease. To
ful the gun with oil, the screwed end cap is remo\'cd and the piston follower is
pulled back O Ul of the barre.!. TIle gun is then held verUcal \\~th the pump head
lowennost and oil is poured in[Q the barrel to within 1.5in frOIll the tOp. The
piston followe r ~~)fr en refitted and the cap 15 screwed back on.
,.,~~\6 ..
T~·, fin4l1e gun \\~Ih grease, the pump head is rernO\'ed. Thc screw cap is
. ~).'\.rc.mo"ed, the piston follower is pulled back to the rear of (he b:mc1 and the
.\"\\ ., cap is refitted. The gun is then held verrical with the cap end lowcnnost and
,,~,t"'" lhe barrel is then filled with grease. Care has to be taken ro compact the grease
\... into the barrel \\~thout trapping air. \,(!hen I..be barrel is full, the pump head is
refined.
Before the gun can be used, it h.'lS (o be cleared of air-locks and the nozzle
needs to be primed ..\ir-locks can be released by loosening [he press ure release
valve and operating the lever until the oil or grease is seen passing ou[ of the
bleed hole in the screw. Air tends to spit out of t.he bleed so keep you eres
protected against splash. The pressure release screw must be kept closed while
YOli arc operating the gun bur it can be loosened if the gun becomes pressure
locked ontO a nipple, which does occasionally happen.
'rhe gun should be dedicated to one specification of oil or grease. The gun
should be dearly marked \\~th the specification. I f it becomes necessary to
change the specification, [he gun must firsr be stripped and thoroughly de-
greased.
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOLS
Grease Guns
There are several types o f pump action grease gun. All deliver a small volwne
of grease per stroke (O.Scc) aL very high pressure (up LO 8,800psi) often with
single-handed operation.
Pressure High Pre%ure

Ba\"o net
Spring Piston Piston HOLlsing
Fi rring
Filling r randle Screw

t
O pcnl ung Le\'er
Air Release
J
Figw:<! 3.82 - Gr<!ase Guns
The pistol grip ty pe shown in Figure 3.82 consists of a barrel Incorporating a

pump head at one cnd and a screwed cap at the other. The barrel contains a
spring-l oaded piston that has a chain connected to a filling handle at thc rcar.
.,;~hiims1 used to retract the piston prior to filling the barrel with gtease.
."C ;
- (P~... " ""To fill the gun, the air release screw is first released and the handle is unlocked
, \"\:-..~"\."
and pulled back against spring pressure. The chain is then locked in a slot in
,,' "
\~"
~
()''\! .
the cap before removing the pump head. TIle gun may then be filled with
greasc.
r,
\Vhen full, the pump head can be refitted, rhe filling handle chain can ~
released, and the handle locked back into itS bayonet fitting in the cap. ~
pump handle may then be operated until an air free flow of grease emits [writ
the air release screw bleed. The air release screw is dosed during operation of
the gun but may be loosened to relieve air locks Qr (Q release a nozzle that hal
become pressure loc ked on a nipple. -i
61
The straight type grease gun in the illustration is very similar in its operntio ~'::::
Precautions "
• Always use the lubricants and procedures authorised in th§i'vaircraft
maintenance manual.
,
187
Copyighl 0 Em!)' Colkge 20U6 · 20U7 All righl. Imro~d WIVIII./Mrt66.rom
CH A P TER TH REE
T OO L S
• Ncver use equipment dedicated for onc type of lubricant for a difCcrclH
typc wlthollt. first cleaning it thoroughly.
• Do not usc lubriCflnts from unseflled containers.
• Keep all replenishment equipment and lubrication poims clean.
• Do not applr more lubricant than is required, it is a debris trap.
• ,h'oid prolonged skin contact with lubricants because most arc toxic.
Operation, Function & Use of Electtical General Test

Equipment
Introduction
The maintenance of aircraft electrical equipment and the associated

rcctificatio n of electrical faulLs will frequcntly involve thc measurement of one
or more \'ariablc electrical 'luantities. The four main variable cluantitics arc:
voltage (volts V), current (amperes A), rCSlstance (ohms 0 ) and power (watts
\'\0 . In /\C sys tems, the combined effect of rcsistance. inductive reactance and
capaciti,'c rcactance makcs up the opposition to currem flow. This opposition
is called 'impccbncc' and it is measured in ohms. In order to obtain a value tor
each of these electrical quantities, we need a mechanical instrument that is
capable of detecting a reliable foml of electrically induced signal so thar it can
process it into an accurate reading for the desired "alue.
The units ofli'ob:tic are: millivolts (O.OO1\~, vohs and kilovoirs (1 ,OOO\~. The
un~t~\<2i..c(~r~nr fire: milli-amps (O.OOlA) and amps. TIle units of resistance arc:
pHrh's, kilohms (1,000 o hms) and megohms (1,000.000 ohms). Thc units of
\v{ power are: W:UlS and kilowans (1.000\\). There are megawans (1,000,000\'\)
and gigawatts (1,000.000,000\'\) but these are quite a bit be~'o nd the scope o f
the equipmem discussed herc!
Voltmeters are lIsed to measure a potencial difference as "ohage, :unmeters are

used to mefisurc current flow. ohmmeters are used to measure resistance and
wattmeters arc used to measure powcr. The signal that is most commonly uscd
in thesc measuring dC\'ices is the electro-magnetic effcct induced by elcctrical
current flow.
o
\\'hen an electrical current flO\\"S in a coil, it produces an electro-magncLic field .~
o
thar is proportional to the amOunt of current flo\\;ng. By detecting t.he strength
of the electro-magnetic field, a suitably calibrated instrument can rdate this to a ""
;;
\'alue for current. Voltage (V) and resistance (R) are both related to current (I)
'v"
as expressed by V ;; I R. "
~
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C H AP T ER T H REE
T O O I. 5
.\ddicionaU~·. apparent electrical power is the product of "ohage and currem so.
if an instnlmenr can measure electrical current, it can be adapted to produce
readings for \-oltage or resistance or power.
\"'hen a current carrying conducror is placed in a magnetic field, such as that

produced by a permanent magnet, a mechanical force is produced that acts to
mo\'e the conductor. The \-alue of the mechanical force is directly proportional
to the \'alue of the current flowing through the conduclOr. The direction of
movement of the conductor is dicured by the direction of the current flowing
through it. This is a function of Flemi1J:r.'i L t.'{f H :md Rule. This cffeCl is an
ideal meThod for converting an e.lectrical signal into mechanical mo,ement,
which is jUH what we need when designing :111 instrument th:l l will mC:lsure
eleclrical cu rrent.
~()w we h:l\'e learnt the principle upon which clectricalme:lsuring instmmenrs

opcratc. it remains for us to look at how each instrument uses it to produce lhe
desired reading. Before we do this, howe,·er. we will look :\1 some basic
tnSlnllnents to sec how they are designed to react to the tlow of an electrical
current.
Moving Coil Instruments

. \ Illo\'ing coil is a galvanometer or current·indicating instrument is used as a
measuring de\-ice in the ammeter. yoltmetcr and the ohmmeter. In its basic
fo rm it o perates on OC \·olrage but it can be adapted to .\C lise and we will
look :ll this later on in this section. !\!O\'ing coil instruments fire the most
commonh" used instruments and are sometimes referred to as O';\rson,al
meters in 'recognition of the scientist who first used the principle.
"}.n\i
" \\ ,b
. (.,,,\1.:..;":'" Basic (Horseshoe Magnet) Instrument
\\ ...~(...
Permanent \.----- t-t_ Pointer

;.. fagnct --t+""
Coil
.\luminium Control Spring
rorrncr --jl1~~~~~~ Soft Iron Core
(Concentr.l.tor)
Soft [ mn
Pole Shoc~
Figure 3.83· Armnge mcllI of a Simplc Moving Coi.l Ins tmmc nt
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Construc tion
The basic 'mo\·ing coil' instrument consists of a permanent horseshoe magnet

that incorporates a pair of conroured, soft-iron pole shoes. :\ cylindrical sof[-
iron core, known as a concentrator, is positioned between the pole shoes so
that there is a uniform air gap separating it from [hem. A light, recmnguiar
aluminium former is fined oyer the concentra tor and is supported by jewelled
bearings at each end. The former Cl.rries a coil of fine copper wire that is
wrapped in silk Insulation. The sides of the coil are free to move in the air
space betwecn the concentrator and the pole shoes as rhe concentrator rol:ttes.
Spri ng Force
. \djusrer
Top Pivot -~~~~~~~I~~~~~;~~:~ Bridge
Control
Perlllanent Sp,i","
j\ lagnet
(Hor~cshoe)
1--:::oJfl ,.
----l-~---- Former
~li~'f=tF==E;;;;~om Ctlntrol
Bottom Pi" .,."--,it~~5i;;;;;!;;;;;~""'_llo,,,S~p~~nng
Bridge
Fig ure 3.84 - Moving Co il Instrument
Thc coil is clectrically connected through [Wo phosphor bronze, spiral

hairsprings positioned one at each end of the former. The h:ursprings are
wound in optP0~nC directions so that the cffccts of thennal expansion \\~]j bc
cancRlli'g1)\W. A pointer is attached to a spindle at one eod of thc fanner and
~uee~~r- ac ross a graduatcd scale. Thc adjaccnt hairspring incorporates an
t,\1').\ djusrer that is used co zcro the poimer when no current is flowing in the coil.
,\"\'1.
,\'0
("~'- Operation
The permancnt magnet crcates a magnetic field chat passes between the pole
shoes. \\'hen an electrical current is passed through the coil, an elcctro-
magnetic field is created around the sides of the coil that inter-acts \\~th me
pennancm magnet field and a force is produced that causes the coil to deflect
in accordance with Fleming's Left Hand Rule. The coil has an cqual numbcr of
conductors on each side, so the force s created ace equaJ on both sides of the
coil. Howe\·cr, because thcy are 00 opposite sides. the direction of currcnt flow
is different on each side and this creates forces that are opposite in dilcccion .
The result is thar one side of the coil is forced downwards whilst the mher side
is forced upwards and thc coil assembly rotarcs, c:tusing the pointer to sweep
across the graduated scale .
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Detlecting Tortlue _ _ _
- - - C o n t r o l Torque
-Damping Torque
Aluminim Former
11:l1fspring (D:UllpHlg)
(Comrol) ---lirJ---,
s
Soft Iron
Concentrator
~-~~~~j~
Figure 3.85 - Basic MO\-lng Coil MeIer
\,\ 'hen :I current is flo\\1og and the coil is deflecting, therc arc three torCJue
forces:lt play. The coil is being rotatcd by a D d lectillg T o rq ue th:ll is directly
proportional to the amount of current flo\dng in the coi l. .\s th is occurs, one
h:lirspring is being compressed whilst the ocher is being extended. Both
h:lirsprinbl'S arc storing elastic energy rhat cxerts a Comro/ Torque in
o pposition to rhe deflecting torque. "nle yalue of the control torque is
proportional to the distance \Iayelled by the pointcr across the sC:11e. r\ point is
reached where the detlecting torque and the comrol torque bfllancc fln d the
paimer wiU stabilise :It that reading. Because tbe strength of the deflecting
torque is proportional to the yalue of current flow, and the strength of the
control force is proportional to the pointer tra,·el the indicated reading on the
r
scale will be proportional to the amount of current flowing in the coil. The
inst:wP'ient scale will haye equal length graduations oyer the whole I":lngc.
'11.'\ ,(, ~
, l . ~...':-.,c":"c'"
, While thc pointer is in motion, the sides of the aluminium coil fonncr will be
7 \" ).~(' cutting thc magnetic field and thi5 induces a current in the former. Lcn z's
, L
, :-.". Law states that the direction of an induced current in a dosed circuit will
, <'~ '
oppose the mO\·C111cnt of the conductor. Thcrefore, the induced currcnt in the
c- 0'\
fo rmer interacts with the magnetic field and creates a Dumping T orque that
opposes the mO,"C111cnt of the pointer. TIus is known as 'eddy cmreet
damping'. The damping torque acts as a brake on the movement of the poin~
and pre'·enrs it overshooting the point where it should come to rest, tlll-r;.
reducing any tendency for il to oscillate. The damping torque is proporcional to:.
the speed the pointer mo\·es at so it will always be of a su fficient val LIe t~
regulate the speed. Do remember, the damping torque can only be creatci1
when the pointer is actually in monon. ,..... -
o
i"
The sens itivity of this instrument is obtained by ha\·ing a large number of ti}rns
in the coil, Jow friccion bearings and a magnet that produces a high mafC-tletic
n~. ~
By \·irtuc of their design, mm"ing coil instruments based on a J%rscshoe

'v
magnet have a limited afC of mm"C111cnt of around 100°. Additionally, their
191
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TOO L S
perfonnance is nOt significantly improyed by the use of the latest magnetic

alloys, lbey arc useful instruments, bur other magnet configurations are
available that will O\'ercome one or more of these limitations, \'Ce will look at
twO examples.
Cylindrical Magnet Moving Coil Instrument
Construction
This \'ery compact instrumem consists of a solid cylindric:tl. 1n:lgnct [..hat is

supported inside a soft iron cylinder. Two diametrically opposed, soft iron pole
shoes arc attached to the face of the cylindrical magnet. The coil is wound on
to a fonner tha t is mounted on bearings so that it is free to rOlare in lhe air gap
ber-ween the pole shoes and the inside of the soft iron cylinder. The deflecting
rorque, control torque and the damping torque arc all produced in the same
wa)". \X'hen a current is passed through the coil. the magnetic field \\ill still
interact \\;I.b rhe permanent magnet field to rotate the fonner and thus the
pOlllter.
Soft Iron - - -
Ourcr Cylinde r Cylindrical
~bgnet
em! r-,,,,n,,,-
Fig ure 3.86 • Cylindrica l ~hgn c l T ype Moving Co il Meter
This arr:tngemenl ensures that [he high intensity magneric flux of the efficient
alloy magnet can operate in an air gap th:l.l is shielded from any external
electro-magnetic interference, The range of pointer travel is still somewhat
limited within this layour but the insmunent docs benefit from the use of more
efficient magner maleri:Us. ,-
~
.~
~
'0
0\'
"
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C,ppith! c amy Co/ltgt ~ J(xr All nghll rmrvtd ,'/JI/lI.parr66.•TiP1
CH AP TER TH R EE
TOO I.. S
Long-Scale Moving Coil Instrument
Permanent :\fa1-,'ll::C:':;::;::::~
Coil -lL~~u~::11rr::~~polc Yoke

A4'-----i:-i--core Ring
PCrll1 fl nent '\iagnt't
Fig ure 3.87 - Long Scale Moving CoillnSlrum em
Construction
This is another confIguration of the mO"ing coil instrument. Ie consists of two

permanent magnets mounted on a cylindrical soft iron cylinder. One magnet
incorporates a soft iron, yoke shaped pole extension that encloses a soft iron
core ring that is attached to the second magnet. '111e coil is mounted on an
extended portion of the pointer that it is posicioned within the influence of the
magnetic Geld between the pole yoke and the core ring. In addition ro being
able to employ highly effecti,fe magnetic illoys, the mech:ullcal arrangement of
this instrument pennits a pointer sweep range of up to 300°.
Voltmeters and ammeters are measuring inS[rumenls that ha,e been fined with
graduated scales to read potential difference in volts or current in amperes
respectively. :\ ,-oluneter is always connected in ptlraUe! with the circuit acrqs.s
which the potential difference is to be measured, Voltmeters need to ba\'e~
high resistance compared to the circuit in wbich the \-oltage is being
measured, so that they will only draw a rclati\-cly small amounl of current anl;t
will not significantly disrurb the circuit, Voltmeters incorporate a high valu~
resislor called a lWultiplier rhat is connected in series with the mm>1ng coil tif
increase the l'alue of the potential difference they can measure. :
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
Swnmp-
7
Resistor
Voluneter .\mmctcr
Figure 3.88 - Usc of Moving Coil Meter 3S a Voltmeter & Ammeter
.\n Ammeter is nl\\'a\'s connected in seri es with the circuit dlrough which the
current is to be meas·ured. Arruneters need to haye a 10 0" res t"!U.mcl.· compared
10 the circuit so that ther do nm introduce any unnecessary resistance.
' . . .
. \mmeters incorporate n low yaluc resistor called a S hunt that is connected in
p :lr;llId with the moying coil to by-pass most of lhe currenl around ir.
rvIoving Coil Voltmeters

The mo\'ing coil instrumenl is actually a millianuneter but it is also suited for
usc as a millivoltmeter when equipped wi th a suimbly calibr.lled scale. -111e coil
requires nu my turns o r line copper wire to produce sufiicient deflecting
torque (0 give a full-scale deflection. Copper has a high tempernture coefficient
nnd that crcales significant changes of resisrnnce when the temperature \'aries.
A \'olunetcr cannot remain accurate under these conditions. l\laterinls \\~th
lower temperalll(~~coefficiems do not have dle low resistance property of
copper eq,\~~bdler solution is necded. 111e soluuon is found by fitting n high
r.f6.is~'i~e or ' m ultip lier ' in series with the coil ..\ny changes in resistnnce
~ \,\;I.(f hroughour the instrument hal"e a negligible effecI on dle value of this resistor.
- A resistor that is used in this way to reduce the effecI of temperature variations
is called a Swam p R esistOr. The addition of this res.islor also means that the
instrument can measure a larger potential difference and in this role, Ihe
resistor is called a Al ultiplier. -.
Va ri ab le Range Voltm eter
The vohage range in which a mo\-ing coil instrument opera res will depend on
.
the resistance value of the high \'alue resistor or 'multiplier ' in series with the
coil. The resistnnce required to giye a desired value of poremial difference at
full-scale deflection can be calculated using Volts (V) = Current (I) x
Resis mnce (R). For cxnmplc, if the current were 0.01 i\mp nnd the resistance
were 6 ohms at full·scaJc deflection, the potentia! difference wOLlld only be
0.06 VaILS. I [we increase the resistance to 2000 ohms, the potential difference
at full- scale de fl ection would increase to 2OV. lncrcnse the resistance t.o 8000
ohms and we can achieve 80V.
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
To :;:1.\-C h:n-ing a cupboard full of instruments we can modif" the inSlrumem

to measurc a larger range of potential differences by connccti~g multiple \'aille
resistors through a rotary selector switch_ In tlus W:lr, we C:ln selec t an
appropriate measuring range on the same inSlnllllent.
F igur~ 3_89 - Va ria ble Ra nge Voltme le r
Moving Coil Amme te r
The denecting torque in a ffiO\-ing coil instrument is a function of the current.

To measure the current. an ammeter must be connected in series with the
circuil being tested_ The resistance of (he ins[nlmcnt \\-ill affect the \-aille of the
current in rhe test circuit and this can create a problem in obtaining InIC values_
The solution to this is found in creating a b~l'ass around the instnlment coil
where the majority of the current is passed Stmiglll through whilst a \'Cry small
fr:lction of the current Gow is passed to the coil. The majority of the current
bypasses the instrument coil through a shunt, which is a low rc s i~tance resistor
that is connected in paraliel with tbe instrument. ,\n instrument used in this
way has to be sensicive to the small current passing through the coil and in
f
effect acLing as a milli\'olrmerer by measuring the potential difference across
"l\\\ W1C s*unt. T illS creates a problem with temperature variation if the instrument
(.,,\\..:~c. - docs not also ha\-e a 'swamp' resistor.
,_ \"\:.~t"
,\-~
.",-
-
"
( ~....'\
--f
-_-~~>J - - - -,SWlIll P Rcsist'Jr
ShUll[
Figur~ 3.90 - Amm e te r Coils
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
T he solution to reducing the effects of tempcr:Hure variations on the

instrument is to use a coil n-i{b {luck g;ll1ge copper nindings to lower the
resistance, in conjunction with a suitable value swamp resistor. To increase the
cu rreO! ,'alue th:ll can be measured, we can inser! a lower ,alue shu nt resistor
to by-pass a greater pro portion of the current. T his means a higher current
would be required to achievc full-scale deflection.
Conve rting to AC Measure m e nt
Rectifie r Instrume nts
The modng coil instruments that we haye bccn discussing require current to
fl ow in one direction and arc thus suited to DC measurements. They cannot
measure alternating current unless the current is somehow made to fl ow in one
direction through the ins trument coil. Tbe problem can be O\'ercomc by fining
a recrifier in series with the instnnTIent coil. ;"Iam instruments are of rbe
'average responding' type in thar they display the RAfS (roOI m e;/IJ square)
villue of .r\C waveforms. The R.1\IS value is the effective or c{luivalem D C
valuc of.r\C volmgc. T he instnuTIents are /es."i accur:lle when operati ng on AC
c urrem. The instrument will still need tbe addition of a swamp res istor if it is
to be used as a voltmeter and a shunt ifit is to be used as an ammeter.
'.!.oI§c Output ::::::::~
AC
lnpllt Full \,\'.1\'(;
Figure 3.9 1 • Moving Coillns ullment Adapted fo r Usc 00 AC Circ uits
T ran sfo lTIler/ Rectifi er [nstnml c nts
\'\!hen modifying moving coil instruments to AC measurement, a voltage

transformer IS often used instead of a series resistor and a current transformer
is often lIsed in place of a shunt. This practice is more common in multi-range
AC in slrUments wherc the rectifier can affect accuracy in the different ranges.
Up to now, we have con fined our srudies to the measurement of voltage and
current using moving coil instruments. They can also be aci-tptcd to measure
196
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C H AP TER THREE
TOO L 5
resisrance and po\\-er. Before we mo\-e on to rhose types of instrumcIHs, \VC

should look at a couple of other measurement systems tbat may be
encountered inSltad of the moving coil system.
Moving Iron Instruments

MO\;ng iro n instruments do nOt rely on permanetH magnets for their
operation. The}' utilise the magnetic field that surrounds an energised solenoid
10 induce magnetism into an iron plate. (hat will Lhen be repulsed by . o r be
allraered to, the solenoid. The imeosiry of the magnetisation is related to the
\'oltage o r eurrent in the solenoid . The ad\'antagc of using this principle is that
the instrument will opemlt.: u 7'th either A C or DC c urrent because re\'ersals
in currelll direction arc matched by reversals in the solenoid ficld. The
mechanical arrangements o f these instruments will depend on whether they arc
operating on repulsive fo rces or atuaccion fo rces. \X'e will look at examples of
each.
Rep uls ion T ype I nstrument
Construc tion
The instrument consists of a coil mounted on a non-magnenc, c\-lindrical

former that has a semi~circular, iron plate attached to its inner su rface. [nside
of rhis arrangement, a mo\'ing iron plate is supported on a spindle so that it is
positioned in close proximity to the fL'{ ed iron plate. There is a phosphor
bronze hairspring anached to each end of the spindle. These pro\'ide the
l:ontrof t orque. The spindle is mounted in jewelled bearin,ht"S and tins ca rries a
pointer;,. at one end and an enclosed vane at the other. The enclosed \·at1 c IS
rl cs~~ d to provide the damping tOl'q lll.· when the poinler is ill m otion .
..,\\\it'I
':-.. .'!.C J
, (.,~\I". .
.«'
\'r
:\'-'~ ... Top PI\'otJewcl
"
U~'\'
\Ionng Iron
Coil - - R
Bottom Pi\'or--4
Jewel
1\11' D:1mpcr
Fig ure 3.92 _ MO\'jog Iron InSfrllmCnl ( Rc p ulsio n T ype)
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CHAPT E R THR E E
TOO L S
The mo\;ng iron plate is not concentric with the fixed iron plate; it is slightly
offset to provide fI larger air g1lP on one side.
Operation
\\;hcn an electrical current flows in the coil, an c1cctro-magnetic fidd is created

around it thai induces magnetism in the fL,>;ed and mo\-ing iron plates. The
effect is to create Nonh and South Poles in each plate [hat align and will thus
repel each other. 'J11e force. of repulsion decrea ses with the increasing ai.r gap
between the iron plates and this creates a resulta nt force that causes the
monng plate [0 deflect in a clockwise direction. The deflection torque is
proportional to the strength of the induced m:\gnetism in the plates that is, in
tum, proportional to the current flowing in the coil. The deflecting torque is
actually proportional to the square or the. current in the coil. For th:lI reason.
tbe sC:lle is gmdu3tcd according to the square law i.e. me gr:lduations
increase in length as rhe scale lengtll increases.
'\ir'~--+t- ~ Im·jng Tron

Fixed Iron --''''~
~:;:;;~S';L-Coit
Figu re 3 .;t~ f Opern li on of a Re pulsion T ype Mo\.Jng Iro n IIlSlmment

'1l~)b ...
e \'.;\!..':' ....
ll \\ .
~:\.~~'
\'. This moving iron instrument can be modified to produce a scale that has ncar
, linear rather than square law graduations . 111is im'oh'es rhe adjustment of tlle
positions of the fixed and mo"ring iron plates so that the air gap between them
increases the fun her the pointer is deflected. r .
Attraction Type Instrument
Construction
This instrument consists of a solenoid that is positioned in close proximity to

an elliptical disc of soft iron that is moumed on the pointer spindle.
Fixed position instruments haYe a counterweighted spindle \vhercl1S porrablc

instruments will have a hairspring [0 provide the control wrque. The damping
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CHAPTER THREE
TOOL S
torquc is supplied by an air piston that is linked to the spindle. [ have not
shown this in the illustration to a\-oid complication.
,
,
•
I
Square Law Sc3.lc:.
Elcctco-J\ lagnet
11==- I
Eccentricalh·;-" [ounted
1_._ _ Soft Iron Plate"
c;r----- Counterwcight
Figure 3.94 - Anraction Type Moving Iron Instrument
Operation
\\'hen electrical current flows in the solenoid coil it creates an electro-magnetic

field dUll magnetises the soft iron disc. The disc will be attracred towards the
solenoid until the counterweight force , or th~ spring force if tlus is fined.
b:lianC(~s the attraction torce. -The force o f attmctio n is proportional to the
strength of the electro-magnetic field that is, in turn proportional to the
amOUnL of current flowin g in the coil. T he deflecting torque is propor Lional to
the square of the current in the coil so th e scale of this instrument has sqll:l re
l U ll" gr;ldll;uioTJS i.c. they increase in length as the scale length increases .
Measu ri ng with Square Law Scales

'l\.~,-
.,\\\WhC"""nil.ture of the sguare law scale is that the graduations at the start of the
. (p\\.:.s:.c'- scale arc very closely spaced. This can create problems when anempdng to
_ ~:..(': measure low \-alues of yolrage or current. These instruments arc o ften
,\"..'. '" modified to gh-e a graduated scale that is closer co linea r. It is done to increase
_ ~,\"5\.'-,;- the length of the lo\\·cr scale graduations to make them easier to rcad.
e'
Measuring Voltage & Current ~
..,·c
The moving iron instruments suffer from similar problems (0 the mo\·ing coJ!
inSlnllnents. Instruments used for \rolrage measurement require coils witfi
many fine gauge copper windings and require a swamp rcsistor. Instrumems~
used· for measuring current reguire coils with a few duck gauge windings ani
require: a swamp resistor and a shunt. :::
.~
Ohmmeters
Electrical reststance (R) is related to the yoltage (V) and the current so that ffi'u
R = V/ 1 In many circuits, resistance. is something that needs to be kept as low
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as possiblc because is obstructs the curren! flow. In other circuits, thcre is a

need to introduce resistance to control the current flow and we do this br
placing rcsislOrs of specified .alues in the circuit. l1us means tbat it i~
important to be able to accurately measure resistance.
Instruments that arc designed to measure resistance actually measure current

tha t is supplied to a circuit [rom an external sourcc, such as a bauery or a hand
operated DC generator. For example, if a banery is connected into the circuit
to be tcsted, the instrument uses the cu[!cm supplied br this to create a
reading. 111e resistance of lhe circuit \vill affect the flow of this current and rhe
instrument reading will reflect this by reading the actual current flow.
Therefore, thesc current measuring instruments arc acting as ohmmeters and
their scales arc graduaTed to read in ohms (Q).
Series Ohmmeler
'nle se ries ohmmcTer is in theory a mming coil milliammeter (hat is connected
across an unknown resistance. The i.nstrument bas a self-contained dry cell
bauery to supply Ihe current flow in the circuit. The instrument will have its
own resistance, which includes the coil and the internal resistance of the dry
cell. 11us resistance can be compensated for using a suitable fl."{ed resislOr so
that the inS tnlmellt \vill give a full~scaJe deflection for the available battery
e.mJ when the Output terminals are directly linked together. Dry cell battcries
progressively weaken in usc so a further ,':triable resislor is needed to adjust for
this.
When preparing the instrument for usc, it is initially SCt up by directly

connecting terminal s A and B together and, using (he variable resistor, scning
the instnlll1enr pointer to register full-scale de fl ection, which corresponds \\~(h
zero re s i stance .,~l'li.c unknown resistance may chcn be connected between
termina~ '21-\'tJand B. The pointer will now registe r the lnlC value o f that
rcs1st.\1fce.
~')o.{('~
.\ Jonng Coil i\ leter
"0
-0
,
"<
Fi"{cd ~
RCSISlOr "
Dn' Cell
BauerT
T
Variable
Resisror
IL__.c.'\*"""" B
Test Rcsismncc
Fig ure 3.95 - Se ries Ohmmeter Cire uil
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CHAPTER THREE
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Se ries Ohmmete r Scale
\X'hen a cons(am c.111.f IS set l.lp in a cirCUit, the current flow will be
p roponional to the resistance of that circuit. If we haye a mo\·ing coil
instrument that will give a full-scale deflection for that cu rrent flow, the
reading will reduce if the circuit resismnce is increased for any reason. This
makes sense, because if the resistance increases, tbe currem flow will reduce
and tbe instrument is merely recording this. For example. if we placed a
resistor in series witb a circuit thai bad a resistance yalue equal to the original
resistance \·alue of that circuit, the ohmmeter reading will fall back to the mid-
scale pOSItion. Because the resistance of the circuit has been doubled, the
current is hal,ed. If we were to increase the circuit resistance to (he point that
the current flow stopped aiwgeilier, then the ohmmeter reading \vauld fall
b:lck to the stan of the scale. In theory, this indicates zero current flow but the
instrument \,ill actua!ly be registering infinite resistance. 'fhis is why the
pointer on a series ohmmeter ,\ill register infinite resistance before tenninals :\
and B arc connected :md. \vhen connected to a circuit, will register a redUCing
resistance yalue as the pointer progresses until, at full -scale deflection, it will be
indicating zero resista nce.
'\:0 Current Full Current

r:!ow Flow
Fig ure 3.96 - Example of a Series Ohmmeter Scale
Ra nge o f I\1cas urcm cn t
The basic senes ohmmeter IS not suited to measuring low resistance values.
The problem is that a simple mm;ng coil Instrument can register full-sql.e
deflection for a current a little as 1 milliamp. I f you asswne we bave a 1..~r
bauery d1en the resistance of a simple ohmmeter circuIt at full-scale deflectia~
would be 1.5V/0.00 11\ = 1,500.0 (R ::: V/l) when termina ls 1\ and B ait
joined together.
If rou recall from our earlier discussion, fitting a resistor with a \"alue tbat is
equal to tbe circuit resistance will halve the current and the instrument pointer
will drop to mid-scale, in the case in question this is ·1,500[1. Series ohmm#"rs
hayc an accuracy range of about one tenth to ten rimes the mid-scale re~ng
so the range of the ohmmeter we ha\"e been examining will be 1s.@h to
15,000.0. To cancel out the 1 milliamp current we would need tQ(~lace a
resistor of 15,0000: between tem1inals ;\ and B. The problem is \Vc cannot ""
obtain accurate meaSllrements below 1500.
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A parI solution can be proyidcd by connecting a low "alue, shunr resistor in

parallel across the coil in the insrrument so that a higher current would be
needed (O obtain fulkscale deflecrion. Say we could arrange tlus so that 10
milliamps were needed. The circuit resislance at mid·scale would then be
1500. This would giye a range from ISO [0 1,5000. \,\ 'e ha\-e improved the
low reading capacity but this is at the expense of the high end of the scale. \"'\·e
could push chis up by increasing me "olrage of the battery bur this would also
raise the low end of the range . .A different approach is needed.
Sh unt Ohmmeter
j\ shum ohmmeter is designed to measure very low resistance values. A

moving coil instrument is connected in series with a self·contained battery, a
fixed resistor, a variable resistor and a switch. The main difference in this
inscrumenr is that tbe unknown. or test, resistance is connected in parallel
across the ffiQ\ring coil. Unlike the series ohmmeter, when the ompur terminals
A and B are not connected, tbe instrument pointer will deflect to fuU· scale
when the switch is closed because it will be registering that all lhe available
current flow from me battery is passing through the instrument coil. This IS
telling you that there is maximum resistance between terminals.\ and B.
\ 'ariable r:ixed
Resistor ResiSTor
dvW-..MMA J
h
-Switch
i\Joying Coil :--'feter

.\ B
Test Resistance
Figure 3.97 · ShUll! Ohm mete r Circuil
1f we now connect a resistor across terminals A and B, some cu rrent will be

'shunted' through it to bypass the instrument coil and me pointer will fall back.
For example, if the resistor value is equal to the ohmmeter resistance value, the
pointer will drop to half~scale. ff terminals A and B arc directly linked together,
the pointer will drop to zero because all the available current \ViU bypass the
coil through terminals A and B. This is actually telling rou that the resistance
between A and B is also zero. The important point is that rhe instrument
poinler on a shunt ohmmeter operates in the reverse direction to thar of a
series ohmmeter and tbe scale is calibrated to reflect this.
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Thous:md ~rcgohms
Ohms
Full Currcnr 1'\'0 Current

rlow rlow
Figure 3.98 • Typical Scale Arrangement
The battery life of this instrument is rclatin,:ly short. This is because current
flows from the banef)· \\"hene\'e( the s\\;lch is dosed and it will continue to
flow through any low yalue shunt resistance. Series and shunt oiurunetcrs gi,·e
reasonable accuracy in low resistance measurement but instruments that arc
eyen morc accurate are ayailable.
Ratiometer Ohmmerer
The simple mo\;ng coil ohnuncter is ,'cry sensitive to changes in \'ariauons in

the e.m.f. from a battery. This can affect the accuracy of the instrument. The
deflecting tor'lue will ,'ary 'vith changes in ,"oltage input and this ,,;11 affect the
control tor'lue. which is dependent on pointer [nL\'e!. This means that a battery
powered inslrument will always require preliminary adjustment before it IS used
and accutacy will stray if there is any subsequent variation in input \"oltage. The
siruqoo-n would not be improved if a hand-cranked generator were used unless
1.a\l~could maintain a constant ,·oltage output.
• \\C'~.e.
_ l,\J\\ -
, \'
b
"'- ,,«"' If the control torque can be made to alter in conccrt ...\~th variations in input
:....~ ... voltage in addition to the angle of pointer ttanl, then both [he deflection and
" .
c·. (\'\
comrol torques will be similarly affected. This would mean that any change of
voltage affecting me defleccing torque will be matched by a change in control
torque and a stable indication can then be maintained. This ensures contin~
accuracy of indication. Most single purpose ohmmeters embody a 'volta~
sensitive' control torque. ~
Const·ru cti on
The ratiometer ohmmeter is a pennanem magnet, mm;ng coil inslmmem thit

has twO coils mounted on a specially designed, hollow, cylindrical, soft it:Q6
concentrator. One coil serves as a deflecting coil and the second as a c09..fr'ol
coil. This instrumcnr does not ha\"e hairsprings. The concentratOr is off~ so
that the air gap increases from the lower edges of the pole shoes to the..~pper
edges. This means that the flux density decreases in density from theA,Gwer to
the upper edges. The coils are wound with fine copper wire and )tan only
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
accept low current. The Instrument is equipped with suitable resistors to

reduce the internal battery currem to an acceptable value.
Pcrmancnt
Magnet -
N 5
Soft lron/ Deflecting

Concenuator Coil
Figure 3.99 - Rariomcler Ohmel(~r
Both sides of the deflecting coil man in the magnetic field between the pole
shoes. The control coil is positioned so that only one side is in tbe magnetic
field whilst the other side is shielded inside the soft iron concentrator. The tWO
coils arc wound so that they exert opposing torques when a currem flows in
dl(~m.
Operation
When a voltage>J &m a battery or a DC generator, is supplied to the deflecting

coil it wiij\\<rnreract with the magnetic field and rotate. Looking at the
ill\!:S-titn&'b~, as the deflecting coil rotates clockwise, the left side progressh-ely
,¢,s1!iuers a region of reducing flux density \vhils t the right hand side progressively
~....\. ~, enters a region of increasing flux density. The loss of deflecting torque on the
_~\!,",5'· left side is compensated for by the increase in torque on dle right side. The
I... control coil will also be moving and creating an opposing, control torque.
However, the conuol torque is only being created on the upper, unshielded
side of the control coil. In the illustration, this control torque will be very low
with the coil in the position it is shown. TillS is because it is virtually our of the
influence of the magnetic field. If the pointer starts to deflect, the exposed side
of the conuol coil moves to eorer the decreasing air gap to irs right. The
comrol torque induced will then progressively increase until it balances the
deflecting torque and, at that poinr, the poi.nter will come to resr.
If the input voltage from the instrument battery to the coils varies, the cbange
in rorgue will be felt by both dle coils so tbe balance of torgues will not alter
and the pointer position will not change. However, any change in resistance in
the circuit under test will directly affect the currem flowing in the deflecting
coil :lIld it will then move until it is once al:,>ain balanced by the control torque.
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CHAPTER THREE
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Insulation-Resistan ce Testers
The insulating material in c!ccrncal equipmeo[ experiences electrical stress that
can result in a breakdown in its resistance. Ohmmeters that are used fo r
measuring inslllntion resistance and o th er high resistance values must be able
to replicate this stress by using an output ,-oltage that matches the operati ng
\'oltage of the equipment and can increase this to achieye the break down
yohage if required . The majority of insulation testers are instruments of the
raliometer ohmmete r type [hat o perate o ff hand-cranked electrical generators.
Typical o utput \'oltages are 250V, 500\1 and 1000\1 . These instrumen ts arc
high rangt-o ohmmctcn .. caUed megohmmeters and they ha\'e a resistance
measuring range that extends to i<.Iegohms. Remember. a Megohm is 1,000,000
ohms (1 million). These instnunents are more commonh' referred to as
'Al eggers '.
Higher yoltage insulation resista.nce testing equipment is required for resting

the high-tension leads used in engine ignition circuits. TIle H igh T ension
igniu'on T ester has a hand -cranked magneto output of aro und 12,000 \'o lts.
Special low voltage 's:lfct}· ohmmeters', on the other hand. arc designed with
3 ~\' genem tors and these are typicaUr employed in me testing of fire
extinguisher explosive cartridge detonating circuits. \\'e will start by looking :It
the '!>.Iegger'.
Megger
o o
",
2511 Vql"
\I~
Figure 3.100 - Megger
r.
C
-0
'.
Basic Con struc tio n "
%
The typical insulation resislance tester, known as a 'Megger', consists of a higlJ.:.
resismnce, rariometer ohmmeter that incorporarcs a hand-cr:lnked gene ra t o~
The deflecting coil is connected to the circuit under test tluough a lo\\'
resistance, fix ed resistor. This series circuit is connected :IUOSS a hand-cmn ~ d
generator. The control coil and a second fL.... ed resistor are connected in pa @ el
to thi~ series circuit. f::,--
~
'"
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C H AP TER THREE
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Control Ca ll
Dcflccung Coil
]': anh
Test Resistlnce
Figure 3.101 - Basic Insulation Tesler Circuit
The current p:lssing through the conrrol coil will always be proportional [Q the
ourpU( \'olmge from the generator. The current passing through lile deflecting
coil is determined b)' the generator output voieage and the value of lil e test
resistance. This basic instrument does not have any \'oltage limiting facility so
the speed of lurning of the hnnd-crnnked generator is of impo n ance.
Generally, this should no r exceed 160 RPi\{ Constant \'ohage 1l1eggcI' testers
on the other hnnd ha\'c sli pping clurch mechanisms that ensure that a specified
consta nt ,'oltagc will be delivered wben tbe generator is cranked over the RPi\!
at which the cl urch slips. The ratio of the currents in the control and dcflccting
coils is determined by the value of the tcst resistance and me position of the
instrument pointer when they are baL'lOced . The acrual position of the pointer
depends entirely on,.. the value of the rest resistance.
')1)0
. ..",,-,ll ...
O
_ t.~~t~on
C \V~srhe object of insulation resistance testing is to establish the effective resistance
_0:i>. .1.. between tWO points. Capaciti\'e circuits and components can produce
(. , ..'\'..... unreliable readings. High resistance components berween rhe poims being
rested can also affect the result and these should be disconnected or bridged
and be tested separately where possible. " feggers should not be used on
electronic equipment.
The tcSt "oleage normally stipulated for general aircraft equipment is 2S0V.
T hc 'line' and 'earth' terminals of d1e teS[er are connected across the test
resistance. Jf you were connecting [0 an electrical motor for example, you .;;
would connect the 'earth' tem1inal to a suitable point on the motor cnsing flnd
then you would connect the 'line' terminal to the motor winding conductor.
O ne important point here is thar the tester CflO only disclose insulation faults if
the points you connect to are in electrical continuity with the opposite
tcrminals of the instrument. [ f there is a break in the circuit earth system for
example, you will nor reveal an insulation fault. You should check continuity
first. Jf aU were well, you would connect rhe leads and crank the generator
slowly to check Ihat there is no swing to 'zero' indicating a short circuit. You
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CHAPTER THREE
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would then incn:ase (he cranking to the rated speed and conunuc this for
about five seconds. The pointer indication should rcmalll steady at the
indicated rcsismnce nlue O"f"cr this period.
I bnd Crmkcd Gcncr:uor
1~'j~C:ro
RaUOIllClC
Dctlcctinl1
Control H c~iSf(l r
Resistor
I
Component L'ndcr Tc:~t
L-----,,----:-o>.
Earth Lmc
Figure 3.102 - T ypical l ns ulatioll T eSler l..:aYO UI
If the tester is operated on perfect insulation, dle poinre r will registcr a reading
of infinit),. If the insulation has no resistance, the palmer will register a reading
of zero. It will also register zero if you (ouch the 'li ne' and 'ea rth' te nninals
lOgether. Bctween these two cxucmes, the pointer wiU Settlc at the appropriare
vallIe for the resistance of the insulation under test. It is rare for the tcster to
give a reading of infinity on equipment that has been in usc or in storage fo r
any Icr~Bth of time. If a reading of infinity is obtained, you should recheck the
kcst~tHcrmina1 connections, the leads from the Icster and the l.ester itself. "111t
_ :-,..:":"c "!.\\\~~si stance indication should remain steady for a reliable reading. I f it falls off or
~,u''\' varies while the test is being carried out. it i:i most likely thaI the insulation is
... \-..,:'.{ breaking down due either to moisture penctration or a deterioration of the
. . \"~'~' insulating materiaL It is important to ensure that the leads connecting the tester
C-)'\ to the test circuit are in good condition and arc properly connect cd.
250V Mcggcr
l\lany aircraft electrical circuits operate within a range of low vohages. Becau~
insulation resistance test instruments use hand·cranked gcnerators. ther need-
to ha"c a voltage-limiting de,;ce: in [lL1ny cases. this is a clutch slip mechanisnp:
I\n additional problem can be experienced if (he vohage output is not constant
when the circuit being tested contains components that have capacitan(e.
These can create a feedback that affects the instrument readings. 'nle mem,~ r
~hould not be used to test electronic components. The basic layout or the
instrument we arc looking at is similar to the one we have already dis ~sed
except for the addition of a yoltage limiting circuit and a smoothin£ ~ircuit
connected in parallel with the generator. ,~
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CH AP T ER T HR EE
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I-bnd Cranked Generator

\,'ith Split Ring Commutator
". ~
Capacltur t::I
.. Sl1loorhinp; Circuir
Volta e Lillliunq Circuit

[ n f #' I I ~Zcro f
Non-Linear
Resistor
Earth Line
Figu re 3,103 - 250V Ins ulatio n TeSler
The \'oltage limiting circuit has a non-linear resistor that performs as an

insul:J.tor when the generator output is less than 250V, If rhe voltage omput
rises above this, the resistor progressi,ely begins to act as a conductor and acts
as a 's hunt' across the generator. Tl11S ensures that the gcncra[Qr output cannOI
exceed 250V if (he hand-cranked generator is turned faster than 160R.Pi'vl.
H ig h Tensio n Ignition Tester
When enr nb I~l~-tension ignition leads have to be tested for insulation

reti_~~e. a ,·oltage in excess of the normal operating voltage has to be
~,~'t'Sl.Lpplied. TIle /-ligh Tension Ignitioo Tester incorpOrales a hand-c11lnked
, -i\'\ ,l" magneto that has an output of It,200V to 12,500V, The tester is complctcJ)'
" ...,,",5\'<: sealed to prevent inadvertcnt contact ,,,ith thc working pans, This tester will
1.-. shock you in a similar way to a liyc spark plug lead so carc is needed! The
tester has a spring-loaded push bunon that is designed to protect the
instnlment from oyerioad if there is an earth fault o r a shon circuit in the lead
under test,
Push
Buunn
Figule 3.104 - H igh T e ns ion I gnition T ester
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CHAPTER THREE
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Operation
There are t\\'o leads supplied \\ith the (eSler. The line lead IS clipped to the
ignition cable core conductor whilst the eanh lead is clipped (0 the cable
screening. The hand-cranked magneto is then turned slowly \vhile the oper:llor
checks for any audible or \'isual sign of arcing, or any sign of 'hunting' of the
meter. If none of these is prescnt. the magneto is then cranked up to 300 RP1\j
and the push button is depressed. The instrument reading can then be noted .
The scale has a red and a green sector. The indicator should remain steady in
the green sector if the l!1sulauon check is satisfactory.
Safety Ohmmeter (Insulation Resistance Type)
.r\ safety ohmmeter is specially designed to test the insulation of circuits where
it would be hazardous to exceed a specified \'olrage and current. The insulation
testing of rhe explosive cartridge detonating circuits in fire extinguisher systems
is a good example o f this usc. A safety ohmmeter of this type would typically
be limited to under 30Y and IOmA output. There is another \'ersion of the
safety o hmmeter that is designed to test continuity res istance in circuits rather
rhan the insulation. We will deal \V1th this latter type la ter under the heading of
low range o hmmeters.
f Lmd Cr:mk(!c\ Genennor

\'Cith SpliL Hing Commmawr
~----~~~~ l*-----~ ~
C3p:1.C]10r ReSistor
t----i! Smoothing Circuit I
Inf~Zcro
Earth Line
Figure 3.1 05 • Safety Ohmmete r (Ins ulation Resistance)
o
:;;~
The generator has a single high resistance winding that is connected thro~;h a
split dog commutator that has a smoothing cireuit connect ed acroiii the
brushes. TIle generator will deli,er a maximum of 30V at 160 RP~l 41 nd will
automatically reduce the \'oltage if the current reaches l O rnA becaU"si; of low
insulation in a tcst circuit.
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Low R ange Ohnune(crs
\,\1e have already discussed the usc of a shun! on mming coil ins truments to
reduce the current flow from an internal battery..'\ fraction of the avalJable
curren t flows through the control coil, the remainder is passed through the
shun L \,\'c also discussed that these instruments had limited accuracy. The
accuracy can be improved by combining a shunt with a ratiometer o hmmeter.
Two instruments use this principle, the bonding tester and the connnuity
resistance safety ohmmeter.
Bonding T es te r
A bonding tester is used to test the coannillty resistance of the bonded

connections in an aircraft. It has a measurement range of zero to 0 .1 ohm.
The instrument incorporates a ratiomelcr ohmmeter and a 1.2V nickel alkaline
battery housed in a wooden carrying case. There are twO connecting t\\~n core
leads, one is 6ft lo ng and the other is 60ft long. The shoner lead rcrmimtes in
a double prong probe whllst the longer lead has a single prong probe, The
length of these leads is critical and their resistance has been accounted for in
rhe calibration of the [CHer so they must not be altered or modified in any way.
I f a lead is damaged, the bonding [ester must be rerurned to the manufacUlrer
fo r repair and re-calibratian.
l nf ~ Zero
Short Lead
L-.AMW--"";
" " ~
'0
--j
,
.~
%
Figure 3. 106 - Bonding/Circuit Tester ,
"
Ope rati on
\'{'hen both probes are placed in contaCl with the aircraft StnlCnlrc, the bauery
and control coil circuit is made through [he single spike probe, through the
strucUlre under test lO the do uble spike pro be, and then through a resi8to r. The
structure undcr rest is thercfore in series with the control coil. Because the
resis tance of the structure being tested is very low, the Cll[rcnt flm.vi ng in the
control coil will be constant. The deflecting coil is also connected in series
through a resistor and across the strUCnlre under test.
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The curre nt flowing through the deflecting coil re!:ncs to the \'olt:lge :leross the
structure under test. Since the current is constant. the voltage across Ihe
deflecting coil. and the current passing duough it, :m.' proportional (0 the
resistance across the structure under test. 111e instrument pointer will mO\'e to
:l position rh:lt reflects the current ratio of the tW O coils. BeC:lllse this ratio is
wholly dependent upon the resistance that exist be{'\\"een the IWO probes, the
poi mer will be indicating the actual resistance of the structure between them.
The double prong o n the short lead prevents the battery being discharged if
the prongs inadvenently touch when the instrum(:nt is not in usc. Both pro ngs
must connect through to the single prong to make a circuit.
Usc
Prior to use, you should place the single prong across both prongs on the othcr
probc and then check to see that the instrument is registering zcro resiS[ance.
The single prong on the long lead is then placed on a specified earth point on
the Slrucrurc to be tested. The single prong must aJw:l)"S be connected first to
avoid damaging the instrument. You then tOuch both prongs o f the short
probe o n to the nc.'l.rby structure to check that the inslrumenl still registers
zero. If this teSt is satisfactory. :ou then place both prongs of the shorr lead
OntO the selected test point on the stnlcture. The insffillnent pointer will
register the resistance value. ,\ high resistance reading will indicate a possible
fault in a bonding connection. 1\ description of a bonding tcst is gl\'cn in
Chapter 7 of this module under the heading of circuit tesnng.
The bonding tester is calibrated by using test resistors o f known value between
the probes.
Safety Ohmmeter (Continuity Resistance Type)

1\'\foo,J.l~nge ohmmeters can also be used for checking the continuity of circuits.
l>,~.:.'t-e --- Somc circuits may ha\"e a maximum \·oltage and current flow limit beyond
~ \\'JS<' which a haza rd may exist. The fire bottle cartridge detonating circuits are again
:In example of this.
....i\.....'-
(\
10.
(.0'\' -
This safety ohmmeter is a low range ohmmeter that is specifically designed for
testing the continuity resistance of such circuits . Unlike the insulati(Jrl
resistance type, which had a resistance measutement range of zero to%
Megohms, the continuity resistance \"ersion has a measurement range of onl!..
zero [Q S ohms. The instrument incorporates a hand-cranked DC generator:
that is limited to an output current flow of lOrnA. The deflection coil and iei.
resistor arc connected in parallel with the test circuit. 'fhe control coil and it$"
resistor are connected in parallel with a shunt resistor. The ratio of the curre~
in the two coils is determined hr. the resistance of the test circuir. ::
>';
o '"
,"
'"'"
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CHAPTER THREE
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Generator
Inf~ !!~Zero
Deflecting
Coil
F~;::===~
Resisror
j
Control Coil
ReSistor
I
Control Coil
Circuit Under Shum-
T'st~
Fig ure 3.107 - Safcty Ohmmeter (Continui ty Resistance T ypc)
Usc
The leads from the ohmmeter are connected to each end of the conductor in
the test circuit. The hand-cranked generator is mrned at 160 RPt-.! while the
rcsistance \·aluc of the test circuit is read. \Vhen resting a detonating ci rcuit on
an explosi\'e cartridge, long connecting leads are used to allow the operator to
be posiLioned a safe distance from the ca rtridge.
Bri dge Megger Testers
!hc ~rid&~'\~lc7£:~ tester is. a .pona~le urur ~har is d~signcd ro me~sll[c

lIls.!-iw..uon~ reslstance and conanmty resistance wuh \'ery high accuracy. \Vhen
'" "\.o;.1."ls~d to test insulation resistance it is operated in much the same wav as a
;.."\.\ (.' \'. i\legger rester. The bridge test feature is used to accurately check continuity
.,.,.5\·~ resistance in circuits of specified resistance and to establish the resistance nl.lue
(~...'\ of circuits where this is not known. Ir can also be adapted to locate earth faults
in concealed cables. This last fearure is known as a Varle), Loop Tesl There is
quite a lot invoked in the Bcidge-llegger [ester operation and it is highly
unlikely you would be asked to remember all the details. The general principle
and lhe uses are much more likely topics for the 'quizmastcrs. Howc"er, it IS
little use telling you what it does without giving you some idea how it docs iL
Basic ratiomctcr ohmmeters are widely used for measuring insulation resistance
and concinuiry resistance and they have good acctm1cy over a restricted range.
!-I o\vever, they are limited when very high accuracy is required over a wide
resistance range. J f we required a range of zero to tO,OOO ohms with accuracy
to within 1 o hm for example, the scale of a basic ratiometer o hmmerer
instrument would be too limited to display trus. Instruments that arc cmployed
to do this arc based on \Vheatstone's Bridge Principle.
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CH A PTER THREE
TOO L S
.\ ReS]~t;1nee
Under Test
X
Fig ure 3.lO8 - Simple Brid ge Res ista nce T esl Circuil
Wheatstone's Bridge
The illusLr:l.tion depicts a pair of 'rano anns' made up of resistors R 1 and IU, a
'resistance under test' X and a .Wable resislOr R3. The connections :\ and B
are joined by a galvanometer that is designed [0 give an indication if a currem
flo\\'s berween them. The potential difference between .A and B is zero when X
= RJ x RI/IU. In this condition, the bridge is balanced and there will be no
indication of Cllrrelll flow between .t\ and B. Resisto rs RI and R2 have set
\'alllCS. Tf we adjust R3 to a yalue thar brings the bridge into balance and record
thar \'alue, then the value of the unknown resistance X can be detennined.
No\\' assume that cither of the resistors R 1 and R2 can be replaced with
resistors ha\;ng different \'alues of 10 ohms or 100 ohms and that the variable
resjsto~R3 has a range from zcro to 10 ohms. The mtio RI /R2 can then ba\'c
\i..{{jllu~~'of 1/ 10, 1/1 or 10/ 1. 111e bridge can then be balanced if the resistance
II..:;\!.":;:\ under (est X is equal to 0.1 R3, R3 or IOR3.
t . ,,,I '
<' .
, \,\;I.(
R3 is variable from zero to 10 ohms in steps of I ohm. TIus nO\\I giycs
~" alternative ranges of measurement such as 0 - I o hm in steps of 0.1 ohm,O -
"
(.0'
,'~
.
\0 oluns in steps of I ohm and 0 - 100 ohms in steps of 10 ohms. If we werc
to pro\'ide additional values for resistors R I and R2, we would be able J,i)
increase the a\·ailable range of circuit resistances up to (he highest range i¥
zcro - 10,000 ohms in steps of 100 ohms. ~.
'E..
Ratio Switch
It would be a tiresome business if we had to continually replace the resistoif;

Rl and R2 with the \'arious nlues required to suit desired ranges. The problG.,fn
is alle\;ated by fitting a ratio switch that incorporates six resistors and:foe
selections that will give RI /R2 ratios of 11 100, 1/ 10, 111. 10/ 1 and ItJl/ 1.
The resistance value of X ma\' now be found by applying rhe rauo ~\'i'itch
setting to the obscn'cd value ~f R3 whcn the b ridge has been bala;.l2ed by
u
adjusting it. >§
,
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
xl
-;.- \lIO " I tIn
Fig ure 3. 109 - Ra tio Switch
D ecade Resistan ce Unit
To achie,'e a high degree of accuracy, for example zero to 10,000 ohms in

steps of I ohm, a single yariable resistor R3 would be inadecluate. T hc problem
is soh'cd by rrm'iding four "ariable resistor units used in tandem, each
containing nine idcntical resistors of either 1,000 ohms, 100 ohms. 10 ohms or
I ohm. Each unit is connected to a ten-posicion rolary selector switch. l1te
four switches each ha'-e ten posicions marked 0 - 9 and each have a window to
displ:'ty the numerical setting. This giyCS a range selection of 0 - 9,999 in steps
of 1 ohm. The "alue set on the instrumenr is eSfablished by simply reading
across the four windows. This is known as a 'decade resistance unit'. The unit
shown in the illustration is set to a value of 5,2-1 3 ohms,
Decade
Hesistancc Cnit
Test
Selector Switch ~"'':!==,--.:=:r.'''~'-H:l.[io Switch
Figure 3. 1l0 - Bridge-Megger
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C H AP T ER THR E E
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Bridge-Megge r Constructi o n
The test \'Ollage is produced by a hand-cranked generator Lhat deli\'ers a

:ons~aO[ \:ol~age. when .turned at 160 Rl?1 or more .. The generator produces
.)00\ for 111s~lanon r~Slstancc te~rs. but It can be S\\'1lChcd to a lower voltage
output for bridge lesang. 1lle UmtlncorpOrates a ratiometer ohmmeter that is
used either to gi,e a direct indication of insulation resistance or [0 act as a
gah-anometer during bridge tests. The unit test mode is selected using a reran'
switch on the side of the unit that is marked r.Ieggcr. Bridge and Varle\·. .
T~le ~ester incorporates a decade rcsisrancc unit for bridge leSts and an
ctfecu\"e mngc of resi~tance from zero 1.0 9.999 ohms can be set using the four
rotary s\\;cches on the face of the unit. TIle ranges of a\"ailablc resistance
measuremem on bridge tests are set using a ratio switch o n the side of the unit.
Therc are th ree terminals at one end of the unit marked 'Earth'. 'Line' :"lIld
'Varley Earth'. The instrument scale is marked from zero to infini,,". The
rariomelcr is used as a gah'anome[er to gi\"c the 'zero current' indicario~ when
the instrumcnt is being used for bridge tests .
Usc
\'('hen the Bridge-l'-Iegger tester is selected [0 't--fegger' and is used to lest

insul:-trion resistance it is operated in a similar way to a straightforward mcgger
reSler. The unit 'linc' and 'earrh' cables arc held ap:lt"t and th e unit is cranked to
check that the pointer registers infinity. The 'line' renninal is then connected to
the conductor in the circuit being tested and the 'earth' (crminal is connected
to the component casing or lhe cable screening as appropriate. The generator
is dlen cranked at 160 IU}.\I and the pointcr should hold steady at the indicated
insulatio n resistance \"alue.
When the Bridgc-(-. Iegger is selectcd to 'Bridge'. the unit is thcn co(wencd to a
\'('bc:mwne's Bridge. The deflecting coil in the rariometc.r will (ben oper,l.[e
,(\\nhc pointer rtS a galvano meter. The control coil actS to provide (he control
,~..\\..;I!..' .... torque. \'('hen the bridge is balanced and no currem is passing through (he
l, deflecting coil, the instrument pointer will indicate infinity. There are twO
types of bridge test. The first is to \'crify a specified circuit resistance. T he
second is to establish the \"alue of an unknown resistance.
,\uluscablc
Resistor Ratio Switch
~Xflfl"~~~
m
E - no ...
~!-
Test "/;
RcslstanccL
,
Fig ure 3. 111 - Bridge Continu ity Res is tance Tes l Circuil
,"
"
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CHAPTER THREE
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If we simply wish to yerify the continuity resisranc.c of a circuit o~ component

wilh a specified value, we sct the ratio switch to gJ\TC us the reqUIred accuracy
of measurement and then sct the specified rcsistance value in me windows o f
the decade resistance unit. For example, if the specified \·alue is 93 ohms, the
ratio swi tch is set to +100 and the decade resistance unit is set 10 read 9300.
W'e connect the 'Jjne' and 'earth' leads to thc ci rcui t. \\""'c rhen hand-crank the
gencraror and check if the galvanometer is indica ring a current flow . If it rcads
infinity, then the bridge is balanccd and the circuit resistance is \'er.ified. If th.e
galvanometcr is indicating current Oow, we adjus t the decade resistance Unit
umil the bridge balances. The reading in the windows, adiusted to the ratio
switch setting, will give liS the acrual resis tance of d1(~ circuit.
If we have tofind our what the unknown continuity resistance of a circuit is,
wc need [0 be careful that we do not damage the circuit by passing toO much
test current. The procedure is ro set the ratio s\\o;tch to x 100 and tben set the
decade resistor unit to read 9999. After connecting the 'line' and 'earth ' leads',
we hand-crank the genera tor steadily and adjust the left hand (thousands)
rotafY s\\~tch to bring [he galvanometer pointer as dose [0 'in finity' as pos sible
without going under it. Next, we adjust the second s\\~tch (hundreds) and so
on dO\vn to a final adjustment with the right hand (units) switch to b.lance rhe
bridge \\;th the pointer at 'infinity'. \'\"e then nare the dial reading, multiply it
by 100 and we h ~!se found the resistance of rhe circuil.
Vnrley Loop Test
The Bridge-i'vfcgger can also be adapted to loca te earth faults on conce:lled

cables. To do this, we need to have a length of good cable that has lhe same
resistance per unit length as the cable we :ue testing.
Line
Figure 3.112 - Va rley Loop Tes l
We ioin rhe good cable to lhe test cable and then connect the free ends to the
'eanh' and 'line' tenninals of the tesler. \'Ile set the selector switch to 'Bridge',
the ratio switch to + I 00 and adjust the dccade resistance unit to balance the
bridge, The resistance value is then recorded. \'(·c \vill call this value L. \'il e thcn
move the sdector switch ro 'Varley' and connect lhe 'Va dey' terminal ro a
good canh po int. L'sing the decade resistance unit, we re-balance the bridge
and record th e new reading, which we \"ill call R. The distaLlce of the 'eanh
fault' in lhe cable under test is a half L - R in ohms. As we know the resistance
per unit length, trus locates the position of the earth fault.
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C H A PTER THR E E
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Electrodynamometer (\'Vattmeter)
'!11e cleclrodynamomelcr is ,'ery sunilar in opcration [0 [he basic mo\'jog coil

instrument except that an elecuo--magnet is used in place of a permanent
magnet. I t will measure electrical power (wattS). lne electro-magnet consists of
hea\'y gauge windings that are connected in series with the load. The Strength
o f the electro-magnetic field produced is proportional (0 the amount of current
(amps) tlowing in the load. 'Ine deflecling coil is connected across the load and
the strength of its electro-magnetic field will be proportional 10 tbe \'oltage
d rop emits) through the load. lbe dencction of the poimer is therefore
proportional to the power used (,'ohs x amp~) . This instrument will o perate
with either AC or DC power.
l': lectro-\bgnct
Coil Coil
.\CInput
or DC _--=='-~==t':==~~[)- Lnad
Figure 3.1U · Eleclwd yna m omelcr (Wattmc te r)
\'('hen used on :\ C circuits, the wattmeter measures the true power. 'fhe
npparcnt power of an AC circuit is the product o f thc current and the voltage.
,\ppareor Power = Volts x !\mps
The powcr factor of a circuit may be cn\culated by di"iding the true power by
the appa rcnr power nod it is expressed as a decimal .
True Powt!r (\\'am,)

Power f"actor =
Apparl.'nt Power (Volts x \mps)
11lercfore:
True Power (\\) = \ pparem Power (\' X. \ x Power Factor
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CH A PT E R THRE E
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Tes (rneters & Multirneters

\'\'hen ),ou consider the number of different instruments that we baye
discussed and the ranges of ,<ohages, amperages and resistances that we mar
have to measure, you would be forgiven for belie\'ing that you would need a
wheelbarrow to carry them all! \'\'hat we really need is a single instrument that
can deal 'v;lh currents ranging from a few milliamperes up to high current
,'alues, and \'oltagcs ranging from a few milli\'oirs up to kilO\-oirs. \'\'e need an
instrument that can be easily adapted to different ranges of current. yoltage
and resistance measurements. "nlere arc a number o f instruments aV:lilable that
are designed to soh'e that problem. TIley arc known as testmeters or
mulrirnetcrs. T'here is no particular signi fican ce in the twO titles; one model
may be referred to as being a reslOleter whilst another may be called a
mulrirneter. ' nley combine a \'ohmeter, ammeter and ohmmeter in one unit.
Later instruments incorporflte addicion:tl fearures such as capacitance
measurement in lnicrofarads ~ F and current intensirr measurement in decibels
dB. .
The design o f multirncters has now progressed on to electronic, digital models.

However, wc need to look at non·electronic versions to gain an :lpprcciation of
their general constructio n and usc. Yo u :Ire not expected to know all the
complex circuitry, or (he figures relating to thcse. There are some illustrations
and descriptions of typical circuits but thesc are intended o nly to givc you an
idea of the capability of these instrumcnts.
\ - I' ,.
;'\'10,-
~\.'t\)b
. ~\'"'\:..~150rn\'~
1.5V - '
':,".S\'
- :;v 10111)0
• \"\;\.'t ~... L. \.-- IOO\lIlQ
c
:,.....\ - L5.\~-5m , \
...... ....
(\ ,., _ 15. \ "'SOm \
( ,~\ Ohm;~'""" l \ I -,S .\
Ie
r
o
""'.,
Figurc 3.114 - Example of a Tes lmc lCf %
"~
if'
~
.~
In its basic fonn, a tcstmcter, or mulrimeter, incorpor:ues a \'ery SenslO\'C
mO\-ing coil instrument that o pemtes a pointcr o,er a multiple scale. The Ii,
~J
indicator normally incorporates a safcty CUtout to protect the unit from Zo
damage (rom excessi,'c current. -nlC CUlout o perates when the pointer is forced ~
over its m.1ximum deflection point. The CUtOUt incorporates a reset burron.
There \ \ill be a small dry cell banery (0 provide the current for resistancc ,+''v
mcasurcmCIll. Tcsoncters, or multimeters, do not ha\'e a hand~cranked
218
CopJris,hl 0 &/'7)' Colltgt ::006 ::00 · rill rigblJ rrftl7W/ U'lJ11 Iparf66.rolll
CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
gencr:Hor and arc therefore nor suitable for insulation resista nce checks_ B\·
~sil1g a r:lnge of shunts, resistors, changem'er and r:lOO switches, th~
ln SlrUm~nr can operatc o\'er a number of diffcrent ranges of Clirrem, vohagc
:lnd reslst:lI1Ce '-alues_ All instruments incorporate a full wa\"e transformer
recrifier unit [0 make them comp:aible with J\ C :lnd DC srstems. T he\'
me:lsure the :\C W:l'T form as an /(ftIS I'alm.'. '
h~lfJ
,,," " /'i" " ~f"
"
Figur~ 3. 115 - E"ample or \l Muh i m ~ le r
Ammeter C ircuit
The illustrated circuit shows an example of the shune resistors and switch
selections. The actual instrument will ha'-e far more of tbese. -me circuit
incorpor:ltes a scnsin\'(: moving coil and a full-wa,'l' transformer rectifier unit
for .\C measurements. \, -hen the ClIcuit is selected for DC measurement, the
.\ C 5\\;tch has to be positioned to the DC setting_The test current [hen pnsses
rh.(~ the moving coil with a speci fied amount by-passing it dUOllgh the
,c "!.\)I.~f1~~t resistors. ~-\s the D C rotary selector s\\~tch is moved to a higher current
_(\~W:~ setting, the resis tance value of the series of shune resistors is reduced thus bv-
~ .
!>.,. \ ' : ' passing a proportionateh- g reater amount of current.
"
.... ....
<..\'~'" f----:::::::::~·--~--__::____-__:;
I... ~ \fonng Coil
Full-\\'a\'c
Transformer
Rectifier
( pens on AC Selection Second:tr), Coil

Primary Coil
Sh~nt
Rcsi!<mrs
2"'1\-
5fI\"
+
,
~
,"
Fig ure 3.116 - Example or Ihe Annneic r Arm ngcm e nl in a !\-Iulumc le r
219
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CHAPTER THREE
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\'('hen the DC switch is SCt to thc AC position. the inslrument is set up for AC
measurement. A pair of contacts opens 10 break the circuit through the shun!
resistors. The mming coil is lhen connected through the secondary \\~nding of
Ihe transfonner rectifier unit and will be controlled by the ratio of the primary'
and secondary windings and the current flowing through the primary. The
value of that current will depend on the range setting of the :\C switch. TIle
readings will be RMS \'a1ucs.
Vo ltm ete r Circ uit
When thc AC switch is sct to the DC position, the instmment is set up for DC
\'oitflge measurement. The moving coil is connectcd across the multimeter
terminals in series with a chain of resistors at a point selected by the DC switch
setting. The pair of contacts on the chain of shunt resistors will open as soon
liS rhe DC switch is selected onto a voltage r:l.Iher Ihan a current sening.
Full \,\'a\'c
Trlns fr.rmer
Recti tier
~"'===:::-:T-l-____)~~~~~eC(mdarr Coil
<; Cl eCl
1\ •• 5m
.\~;..". \
II"" \
,\C ~WitCh
D'
F4i~rs 3.1~'7'~ EXilmple of the Voltme ter Arra ngeme nt ill a M uh.im e te r
,,~,\\.;.)!..": -
, \').~~
"... '
...:;:'~\~...\ When the DC switch is selected to ..\C, dlC instnlmenr is set lip fo r AC voltage
\. measurement {R.!\fS~ . ~hc moving coil is then connected through rhe rectifier
10 the secondary wlndmgs of the transformer. The primary windings of the
tmnsfonner arc connected in series with the chain of resistors at a point
selected by the .\C switch setting.
Oh mm e ter Circ uit
'111c circuit illustrated has rwo ohnune[Cr ranges that arc selected br the DC
switch through a pair of contacts. In reality, a multimcter would hav~ far more
ranges bur tltis would complicate our example.
220
Cop)'r1!,hl Btl,!)' ulk§ ::006 , ~OO- All righti trfrn'td
C H AP TE R THR EE
TOO L S
lllkfl 1m.
DC Ie
+
Fig ure 3, 118 - Exa m ple of the Ohmme ter Arrangem c nt in a f\ iuitimc tcr
The AC switch is sel to the DC position to enable the ohmmeter OIcuilS.

\X'hen the DC switch is then SCt (0 eithcr a high or low resistance measurement
range, the dry cell battery is connected in series with the moying coillluough a
path of resistors to pro\'ide the required full-scale deflection cu rrent when the
main inSlnlmem lenninals are connected through zero resisr:mce. \X'hen a
resistance is then inserted between the tcnninals. thc pointcr will fe-position to
show its tnle \·allle,
C urrent intensity
[I is possible lO make a comparison between the imcnsity of current and the

intensity of sound, \'('hen currcnt intensity is being compared with an audible
frc~uenc}') the unit that is Llsed is the 'bel', One tenth of a 'bel' is a decibel dB
... \'/.Rnd -~f}~ mimmum intensity that can normally be distinguished when comparing
(,,\\C-;'c'" tWO intensities is onc decibd. Some mllltimcters h:l,\'e a decibel dB scale of
\",~\(' - 15dB to + ISdB so that comparari\'e intensity measurements ca n be made,
,
,\ final note on mulrimeters concerns the maintenance of the connecting leads.
probes and clips that are ~upplied with them. I f care is nor taken, thcse may be
damaged and seriously affect the accuracy of a reading, It can be acutclr
embarrassing to discO\'er that a maintenance decision has been taken based ~
a rcading that subsequently turns out to be down to a faulty k'ad or connectiof!
on the metcr. You could say it is a classic example of the ,\,('heel-tapper'~
I lammcr', One addition to the list of poims to watch is the least reliable part of
any ohmmeter - the dry ccll battery. If there is any suspicion that this may bF
discharged. o r there is difficulty in zeroing the meter, you should change tIi!:
batten', ~
:P~
c·
"
""""
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CH AP TER THRE E
TOO L S
DigitaJ MuJti m eters

The major difference between a digital electronic muirimeter and the non-
electronic types wc ba\-e been discussing is thc way in which the information is
displayed. The analogue displays normally associated with [he non-electronic
models are replaced by a liquid crystal display that shows a series of digits and
an annunciator to show at a glancc whac is being measured. Thc reading
accuracy of a digital mulrimcccr depends on lhe number of digits it can display,
and the percentage accuracy of the readings. Meters haY"e 3- \ / 2 or 4-1/2 digit
displays. :\ 3-1/2 digit meter for example will display three whole digits from
zero to nine and a half digit that might display a figure 1 or a blank. This can
produce a scale up to 1,999 countS; other versions may ha\'c different
resolution counrs such as up to ~.OOO counts for e.-;:ample. The reading
accuracy is bener than that of analogue meters because the display will show
the aernal decimal fractio ns between urne s mther than leaxing you to estimate a
poi nter position between rwo lines. Some meters \\i11 indicate to sc\-cral
decimal places, This must be viewed in the light of the pcrcentage accuracy of
the instrument of coursc.
CI I- II- I I-IVAC
\ ,-11-_11-11-1
_ _ VDC n
, II I II , I , , ,I
OfF . HOLD
. U;\\..:.'b~
, \ ....).15'
.\\\
, .,
,,~\,;-
Fig ure 3. 119 - Digila l M ultimc lc r r
Digital multimc(crs arc very compact and incorporate a 'freeze' function on the ~.
display that allows you to take a measurement and read the result la (cr. 'nley -?
normally have JUSt one rotary selector switch that covers both AC and DC
measuremel1(S and dus is often accompanied by an auto-ranging system that
";;..,.
automatically selects the required measurement range. This automatic range ;,
facility can be switched ( 0 manual if so required. When operating on AC :..:
selection, most of these meters display Lhe RMS (root mean squa re) nllue of .~
;?
the .\C \-ohage w3\·clonn. TIlese meters are dcscribcd as 'a\'cragc responding'.
the R..\lS >aiue being the equivalent DC value of me A.C \·oltage. The meters ,,+'"
may also be equipped with a rC\'erse polarity protection de ...ice so that rou
cannO{ damage the meter if you inadvertenrly connect the leads incorrecur. ,,>''"
222
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CHAPTER THREE
TOO L 5
Other Measurement Devices

Potenliometers
Potentiometers are used for the accurate measurement o f potential difference.

The~' arc primarily used for measuring ,-cry low voltages. They can be adapted
t~ measure resistance. -111C principle used is that an unknown potential
(hfference can be measured by comparing it with a known pOlcntiaJ difference.
In its simplest fonn it consists of a resistor that has truce terminals, one at each
cnd and one attached to a sliding contact that runs aJong the length of the
resistor. This set up can be used to change the amount of "ohagc in a circuit
simply by moving the sliding contact along the resistor.
Sccond:IIT Cdl
.'
•
--1.1 =-:-----j=--~ __--,
St:lndard Cell
Test Cell
F ig ure 3.l20 · Simple POlcmiom elcr
The simple potentiometer illustc:ued in Figure 3.120 has a secondary cell

connecled ac ross a resistance ''';re. One side of the wire is connected through a
standard cell of known e.m.f to a changeon'r switch that connects to a moviRg
coil voltmete r. The other side of the voltmeter is connected to a sliding spri ~
contact that can be adjusted to contact d1e resistance ,,;re at any point. T\\:g
[cslleads arc used to connect across the tenninals of a cell of unknown e.m. e. ;2"
The potentiometer is sct up by positioning the changeover switch to connC!(Of'

the standard cell through tbe instrument to the sliding spring contact. "nib
comact is pressed ontO the resistance wire and is mO\'ed until the instrum~.nt
reads zero. The changeover s\\;tch is then switched to connect the (cst cell :#uo
the circuil. The spring comact is again pressed and repositioned to again/zero
,-
the instrument. ~
The unknown resistance is c:t1culated by tran~ position of The -R,

, ~owing
eguatlon:
223
n'll'll!.part66.trJ!N
C H APTER T H REE
T O O L S
E\lF of Standard Cell Length 1.1

F.~fF of lnkno\\'n Cdl Length 12
'f1us represents the principle of how the e.m.f of an unknown cell can be
found using a very basic potentiometer. The instnllnents in use arc ob"iollsly
more sophistic:llcd than this example.
"1.5\'
.-
Fixed
ReSIstor
1
\llIluplier
1
Zero Set
Figure 3. 121 - POIcnrio mc ter T ype Ohm m e te r
'rhe pmentiomcter ohmmete r consists of a seositi\'e moving coil ins tnln1cm

thar is connected in series with a barrery, a nr:L'lble resistor and a pair of test
leads ..-\ low fixed nlue resistor is connected in parallel with this series circuit.
W'hen the tes t leads are joined together, all rhe baneI')' current runs through the
moving coil and the pointer deflects. The instrumeEll can then be zeroed using
the variable [c*\lpr. If the leads arc then separated, all the current runs
throug~..:.tI~'fi xea low value resistor and the instnlmenr will read infinity. \\'hen
thE Jb'ih:f!; are placed across an unknown resismnce, the curren! running through
\\~(Hle fixed value resistor is directly affected by the unknown resistance and the
,j-"\\ '"' instrument scale can be calibrated to register the '·alue of tlus. -nle range of the
(1.-,..;:'\ instrument can be increased by inr.roducing multiple \'alues of the f"xed resistor
in a rotary, zero adjust switch.
Hot \Vire Instruments
Hot wire: instruments arc based on the thermal expansion and contraction of
metals. \'('hen a current passes through a meral conductor. it creates heat. A
high melting point alloy is used that has a high coefficient of expansion. The
linear expansion of a wire or rod is linked to a mechanical arrangemcnr [hat
will move a pointer on a scale. 'nle expansion of the conductor is proportional
to the s(luarc of the electrical current flowing through it. Therefore, the
ins trument scale gmdualions are set our in accordance with the squa re law.
They can measure AC or DC.
224
Cop)nglJl C &T1) Colk§ :006 - :00- All ri,ghf1 ":mltd R'Il'll'.parr66. l7)m
CH AP TER THR E E
TOO L S
T hermo-Couple Instruments
\,'hen two wire cond uctors made of differem metals arc joined at their ends to
form a closed loop. a thermoelectric electromoti,"c forcc (e.m.f.) ,,111 be set up
in the loop if there is a difference in temperature bet\veen the joined ends . The
magnitude of the e.m.f depends on the difference in temperature bet\veen the
joined ends and the materials used. One end of the loop is designa ted the Cold
Junction and the other the Hot Junction. TIle Cold Junction is joined through
a milli\'oltmetcr that \vill measure the potential difference across that junction.
'rhe Hot Junction is connected to a current carrying conductor. \\11en an
elecmcal current is passed through the conductor, it \\111 create heat in rhe Hot
Junction and the instrument will measure the potential difference created at the
cold junction. The heating effec! is proportional to the square of the current
OO\ving in the attached conducto r so the scale is a squa re law type. They can
measure AC or DC.
E Jectro-S tatic Vo ltmeter
The electro-static \·oltmeler is the onl" instrument that reads \·oltagc direcdy
rather than through the medium of electrical current. 11lesc instrumen[s
depend on the force o f attraction that exists bet\veen plates that carry opposite
charges. They are only capable of measuring yoltage, they emnot measure
current. T hey are particularly suited to measuring high \·ohages . .A simple
arrangement consisTS of fWO fixed metal plates positioned a shon distance
apart that hav e a free mO\-ing plate positioned bet\veen them. The free moving
plate is mounted on a spindle that carries a pointer at one end ll11d a ha.irs pring
at the oth er to prO\~ide the control torque. The ins trument is connected so that
the fixed plates acquire an equal and opposite charge to the mO\-ing pla te. The
fo rce of attraction causes the modng plate to deflect, taking the poi mer across
a sc~tef"They can measure AC or DC.
1\\\)O
I,!,o.: -
. C.L~\C.
, \"\~<;~ ...
c
,:\~'0'1.. . Transfo rmer Rectifie r Meter
(.~..."\....
The transfonner rcclifier meter is med to measure the current in £\C circuits
where it is not practicable to disconnect cables to insen a normal ammeter Tn
series. The Jaws of the instrument are closed to encircle the cable under tC~
\'·hen this is done and current is flowing in the cable, the cable acts as tl~
primary winding in a transformer. The alterndting electro-magnetic ficl~
surrounding the cable induces an e.m.f in secondary windings contained witbig:
the instrumen l. The secondary windings connect \\~th a I11m-ing coil to gi ~
fuU~scale deflection at a specified \-alue of amperes (R..\IS). There is a range i f
instrumems, each having a specified Ampere (lu\ IS) value. ~
~
225
Cop)'nghl g Ba~)' Collen 2006 . 200- All rigbll rrumri WlI'JJ 'parl66.(01Il
CHAPTER THREE
TOOLS
Tong Test Ammeter

TIle tong-test ammeter is another type of 'dip-on' instrument that is used [0
measure the CUHent flowing in cables when it is not prnccicable to disconnect
them to insert a nonnal ammeter in seoes. The tester Incorporales a modng
iron instrument and this enables this instrument to measure AC and DC
"alues. The principle of operation is similar to the transformer rectifier meter.
The jaws arc composed of soft iron laminations that connect with the
magneric circuit in the moy-ing iron instrument. The instrument is provided
with a number of different replaceable indicator units to provide a range of
measurements.
Cable L·ndergoing
/
Test
Fig ure 3.122 • Tong-T est Alll meter
The tong-test ammeter gives the mos[ accurate readings when the pointer is
registering bSt\~l!:h 40% and 80% on the scale. The indicator unit that is
se!e~tQ_Je,',)\hse should be chosen on the basis that the expected reading would
f~H ~'lt(lin this range.
", ,
\"';\(
:-.{\~
..: \-\\
O sciJJoscopes
'nle electron beam in a cathode-ray tube is deflected b\' the electrical current
applied to the deflecting plates. TIle actual deflection of the beam is
proportional to the applied l"oltage. Because there is a direct link bet\veen the
posicion of the beam and voltage, rhe oscilloscope display ca n be easily
calibrated to deli\·er voltage readings. A mnge of ,·olmge measurements can be
obtained by pro,·iding suitable shunts to moffit)· thc ,·olcage rccei,·cd by the
plates against a related scale. The fast response of the electron beam makes it
fea sible to measure both .t\C and DC ,·ohages.
Oscilloscopes arc also used for phase analrsis and frequenc)" comparisons. TIle
problem fo r the maintenance technician is that the equipment is often complex
to operate and interpret.
226
CDpJri,ghl e BarD' CtJlIlgt :!006 :!()() - All ri,ghlJ rmnwf /JlU'IIlpart66.rom
CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
Time Domain Reflec(Qmercr
Time domain reflcc(ome(crs ha\'c bcen in usc for some lime. (0 idenrifv faults
and [Q locatc meir position in fibre opnc cables and the principle can be
applied to other mediums such as decrncal cabk·s and CO+fl:..:ial cables. The
principle is that they measurc the loss. or :menuation. of powcr in a cable
under test and instantly compare this with stored data on rhe expected loss in a
virtual. perfect cable of the same type. The results arc displayed graphically on
an oscilloscope th:ll displays the loss of power over distance and thus
accurately identifi es the position of the source of that loss. In a way. this is JUSt
what the <Varley Loop Test' did when uscd in con junction with the Bridge
rester but with much less complication.
Usc
(ircuit testing is a part of the chapter seven syllabus, we o nly need to have an
idea of what the equipment is used for :H tltis stage. Ilo\\' me tests are carried
out on the aircraft will be discussed in dctail in chapter se\"en.
Voltm c ters :
Voltmeters arc con nected in paralle! \\;Ih a live circuit. 'nle function of a
\'ollmetef is to measure the potennal difference (milli\·olts . \'olts or kilovolts)
belween two points. \'\nen a \'oluneter is connected in parallel across I"WO
points in a circuit it acts as a by-pass or shunt. I f the voltmeter bas a low
resistance, it \\ill draw high current from the circuit because it \\ill halT
pro\'ided a low resistancc path and this \\~ll lower the voltage reading. \Vllen
using \'oluneters in high resistance circuits. it is important to usc a high
resisL'lnce instrumclll to reduce the shunting e ffect. Tlus effect is not so
noticeable in low resistance circuits. Voltmeters incorporate a high value
resislor ca lled a multiplier that is connected in series \\;th the coil.
.\mmelers must be connected in series \\;th the live circuit through which
the current will flow. The function of an ammeter is to measure current fl ow
(milli-amps or amps) in a circui .. :\n ammeter mU$t not be connected directly
ac ross the voltage source. for example the bauery connections. The resistance
of ammeters is IO\\" and the high current flow can damage the meter. Ammet~
incorporate a low '{"alue resistor called a shunt that is connected in parallel arijI
bypasses most of the current past the coil. The selected ammeter sbould have i
large enough range to give less (han full -scale deflection in the circuit unde't,
test. If yotl usc a milliammeter to measu re amps, you \\ill wreck it! :\mmete r~
arc most accurate in the mid-scale range. It is very important to check that YoE
connect the ammetcr to the circuit in the correct polarity. If you get tlU:s
wrong, the pointer will be forced back againsr its sto p and it may be bent ~ a
result. ?f
Ohmm e te rs
!.~
Ohmmeters arc connec ted in p :/Ttllle! with a circuit with rhe powe~\Vitched
off. These instruments are designed to measure the continuity resistance
227
pltrl66. toll!
1V1l'1l',
CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
(ohms) between two points in a circuit or the circuit insulation resistance

(megohms). Never ancmpt to measure resistance in a circuit while i[ is still
connected 1O an clrcuical power source. 111e ohmmetcr is the only instrument
to ha\'c its own, self-contained banery and ~Icgger and Iligh Tension lestcrs
have Iheir own self-contained hand-crankcd generators. Always choose a
measurement range that will include me resistance \'alue of the circuit. II is
recommended that you choose an ohmmeter rangc in which readings woulcllie
around mid-scale. A tip is to use a range where the expected reading does not
exceed ten times, or is not less than onc tenth, the mid-scale reading. Always
zero the instrument before usc by shorting the test leads together :lnd setting
the zero adjustment. \X/hen measuring rhe resistance of components in a
p\'lmUcI ci.rcuit, always disconnect one end of the component to prevent
reading the resistance of parallel p:lths. Do not usc meggers on electronic
components. Also, do ensure that the voltage you arc going [0 apply with a
megger will not damage components in the circuit such as fuses and lamps.
II is import\'lnt to check that the ohmmeter bartery charge is adequate. I t is also

important to check that the connecting leads are in good condition and arc not
producing excessi,'c resistance that might be mistakenly attributed to the
circuit under tcst. I f the resistance of the IC\'Ids exceeds I ohm [her need
replacing.
Co nclusion
We ha,'c now reached the end of Chapter 3. To remind you, circuit testing in
(enns of continuity, insul\'ltion and bonding [echniqucs and testing is a Chapter
7 topic. The electOcai general tcst equipment that we ha,-e discussed here plays
an indispensable role in this. The syllabus for this chapter includes the
oper:ttion, function and usc of electrical ground rest e{luipmeoc \X 'e h\'lve
discussed the ~rntion \'Ind function of this equipment at some length.
l l owe\:!!!z.~b\'lvoid duplication, the usc of rhe equipment described here will
ghs;~'tSJ)' be amplified a gre\'lt deal further in the content of chapter seyen. In
\ ... \\·'~ dle meantime, I ha,Te provided you with a few multi-choice \'Inswer questions
~\¢' to try before moving on to the next chapter. Do remember, you C:ln builcl up a
(",(!"'" bank of questions of your own making. Tn the meantime, a coffee break is
dearl)' indicated!
'''';
228
CfI/!JTlgM C B(II!) u/k..(t ~ -:!(xr All fight! rmn>rd (J·Wll'.p(ll166.rom
CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
Revision
Tools
Ques tions
L Th e teeth o n a hack saw b lade s h o uld poin t:
:l,} :l,W:l,\· from the handle
b) towards the handle
c) in either dire-crion
2. A ream er sh o uld b e tu rn ed:
a) anti-clockwise when cutting and clockwis-c when being rcmO\-ed
b) clockwise when cutting and anti-clock\\;sC when being rcmo\Td
c) in the clIlting direction both when cutting and when being remO\'cd
,,-,i
_!l¥.ill - '1"I1 e torque loading appli ed by a wre nch is the ptoduc t of th e
(.~,\\.:~o.: ... p erpendic ular dis tance from the poin t of appH cation of th e tangential
\\)~~.. fo rce on the handle to th e ce ntre of the bolt head :
a) dividcd by the tangential force
b) mulriplicd by the tangential force
c) added to the tangcllIi'l.i force
4. T he co rrect cutting ang le of a twist drill used on mi ld ste el is:
90"
")
b) 130"
c) 59°
229
CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
S. Files a re norm ally cl assified by:
a) material, length and grade
b) length. grade. cur and cross-section
c) length, width, material and cross-section
6. Steel ha mm ers a re class ified by:
a) weight and type of the heau
b) weight and shaft length
c) shape of head and shaft length
7 . Th e cut o f a fil e re fe rs to the:
a) arrangement of the: Leeth
b) number of teeth per inch
c) grade
8. T o achi eve a good fit wh en e uuing threads o n a stu d and tapping a

m a tching inte rn a l th read you s h ould :
a) cY,bl~~c ~l\frnallhrcad first and then adjust the internal thread depth
• ,\\.:.'t-~ -
~~~f~ C~) cut the internal thread first and then :\djust the e:...ernal thread depth
,.,
,~"
c.
~,<, c) Cut and then adjust both rhe ex ternal and internal thread depths
\. \"'\
-
r.
9. T he s hanks o rJ arge sized d rills h ave a fMo rse' tap e r to:

'"'-%
<
a) provide a positive drh-c in the tapered socket o f a drilling machine ~
b) fit in a self-centring chuck
c) adapt them for usc in hand drillit1g braces
230
Cop)Ti.ghl e &11) CoI/t." ~006 :!OO - AU ri.ghlJ ".'mwi
CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
10. A coa rse hacksaw blade wou ld be lI sed for cU lling:
a) rerrous material only
b) thick section material
c) thin gauge sheet material
11. A combination s pann er consists of:
a) different sized open jaws ar each end
b) an open jaw at one cnd and a ring of a similar size at the OIher end
c) an open jaw at one end and a ring of a different si7.c :n the other end
U . Pliers are class ifi ed by:
a) type and o,~ernlilength
b) jaw width and m-ernillengm
c) type and \\;drh of jaws
13 _ The purpose of th e grub sc rews in the stock o f a die is to:
a) _secure the die in the stock only

11."-1
b) hold a split die closed
c) secure the die in the stock and adjust its sizc
14. A fulJ set of BSF taps consists of a :
a) taper tap and a plug tap
b) tapcr tap. second tap and a plug tap
c) taper tap and a second tap
231
CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
15. The Comb ination Set head used for locating the centre of a round
bar is the:
a) Cemre Head
b) Square Head
c) Protractor I-lead
16. The type of wrench t h at prevents over- tightening is calJ ed a torque :
a) indicating wrench
b) limiting wrench
c) setting \'Hench
17. The abrasi ve wheels on an off-hand grinding machine spi n :
a) up and away from the irem being ground
b) down towards the item being ground
c) in either direction depending on selection
18. The sides o f the abrasive whee ls on an off-hand grinding m achine

are:
b) used for sharpening drills
c) used for grinding soft materials only
19. Off-set and angled head air driven drills h ave:
a) a self-centring chuck thar firs a cringe of drills
b) separa te chuck collets for each size of drill
c) tapered drill attachment sockets
232
CopJnghl e I1my Colll§ :!006 . :!OO- All n"gbl; mel7'fd /lIII'iI'parl66. COIII
CHAPTER THREE
TOO L 5
20. A surface plate is u sed :
a) [Q pro{CCl dlC finished surfacc of work held in a ,'ice
b) to protect a surface table when using a cen ue punch
c) for checking tlat surfaces for lruth and fo r marki ng out work
21. T he pitch o fth e threads o n tbe s pindl e o f a M e tric Microm ete r is:
a) O.02.3mm
b) O.OSmm
c) O.Smm
22. The pitch o f th e uuead s o n t he spindle o f an English Microm e ter is:
a) 0.02.3in
b) O.OSin
c) O.lin
23. The nib size en g raved on t h e fix ed jaw o f a Ve rnier c alipe r indicates
the:
b) me thickness of one nib

c) the nib length
24. End n Oat in a m icrom ete r can b e reduced b y:
a) adjusting the barrel POSInOD with a C spanner
b) greasing the spindle threads
c) adjusting the nut in the Ollter end of the barrel
233
Gp)'righl r; Barry GiJllt§:!OO6 . 200- All nghts rrurwd 1I'l11l·./,m166.(,(}1!I
CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
25. Th e m e as urem ent range of a stand ard external M e lri c mi cro m e ter
sca le is :
a) \OOmm
b) 25mm
c) 50mm
26. Th e meas urem ent o n a Vernier ca liper is ta ke n at th e:
a) zero mark on the main scale
b) left hand edge of the Vernier scale cursor
c) 7etO mark on the Vernier scale
27. A Verni e r Beve l Pro tractor w iU meas ure to an accuracy of:
a) 5 minutes of a degree
b) 2 minure of a degree
c) 0.5 minute of a degree
28. A sta nda rd ex terna l M etric m ic ro meter m eas ures to :an accuracy of:
29. A D ial Tes t Ind icato r is zeroed by:
a) adjusting the plunger to align the pointer \\;[h the zero
b) adjusting the position of the gauge in relanon (0 the work ,:;J
c) rotating the dial bezel ring to align the zero widl rhe pointer position
234
CApJn,ghl 0 Ban;' ulk§ JOO6 :(xr /UI right! "mwd
C H A P TER THREE
TOO L 5
30. \'(then taking an internal me~l su reme n t with a stand a rd Ve rnier

caliper you :
a) subtract the \\;dlh of the nibs from the reading
b) add the \\;dth of the nibs to the reading
c) ignore the width of the nibs
31. The acute and ob tuse angles indkated on the Ve rni er Pro tractor
sca le illus trated b elow are:
I
9[) 80 I
:I) _tOO 35 minutes :lnd 127° 25 minutes
b) 49° 25 minutes and 130° 35 minutes
c) 49° 35 minutes and 130° 25 minutes
32. Th.c rc ad ing indi cated o n th e Metric M icrometer illus trated be low is :
11'11.'
..,\~\\:t -
. "c,,",o..: -
l."'\ .
a) 12.2mm
\\,,~~.
b) 12.7mm
c) 13.2mm m-rTCmTTml==---!ZO
1::3::0--...) 15 ~.
1 - - - - - -.... -
"""'-----_%
235
CHA.PTER THREE
TOO L 5
33. The dim en sion indicatcd o n the 1-2 in c h E n g lis h m icro m eter
illustrated belo w is:
,) 0.46 in
1I 2 3 4
b) l.-4S in
10
c) 1.-46 in
1 .. .2 111 :-'licromc(cr
34. The reading indi cated o n the 24 / 25 Eng lish Ve rni er scale iIIustrat cd
b elow is:
a) -I..-45S in 4 5
b) -1..-433 in I I I
I 1 23-1.
I I I II I I II I I II I I II I I
56 1 -
~ I r j' r
1
!11111
H
rr I
9
I [ [ I II I I
I I
111111
II ,
Jj 1[[11"11"ltl
III I., !I' 2,
c) -1..65 in
35. The reading indi c ated o n th e 49/ 50 M e tri c Ve rni e r sca le illus tra ted
below is:
a) 6-I.3S0101
b) 64.3-hl101
36_ \~'h en c h ecking an o utside dim en s ion wi th a di a l test indi cator:
a) deflections anti-clockwise indicate O\Tcrsizc and cloch.""\\;sc undcrsi7c
b) only cloc,,",vise deflections can occur
c) deflections clock..wise indicate ovcr5izc am\ anti-clock-wise undersize

,F
.~
37 _ A Universa l Lubricati on g un is d es ign ed ror use w ith:

.:- .
~
;;'"
"-
a) oils or so ft g reases
b) soft greases only
c) oils o nly
236
C(}pyright e &rry ulkgt :t}()6 - ~()() - AU "ghlJ fUtnltti
CHAPTER THREE
TOO L S
38. Oilit c bush es ~lrc impregna ted w ith:
a) grease only
b) o il or grease as required
c) oil only
39. ~nc n operating a grease gun, the air release screw s hould Do nnally
be:
a) opcn by twO [Urns
b) closed
c) fully open
40. T eflon coated bearings <tre :
a) not lubricated
b) lubricated with dry grease
c) lubricated with thin oil
41. Th e auth o d ty for th e use of a given lu b ricant o n an ins talled

compo n ent is the :
~I.-'l\
component ovcrhaul and mail1lcnance manual
b) aircraft maintcnance manual
c) rtircraft technical log
42. Ohmmeters m easu re th c resis tance in a circ uh by sen s ing :
a) mirage
b) powcr
c) current
237
CHAP TER TH RE E
TOO L S
43 . The ha irsp ri ngs fill ed in a m ovi ng coil m e ier provide th e:
a) comroltorque
b) deflecting torque
c) damping torque
44. To m casu rc the cu rrent flowing in a circ uit, a n a mme te r is co n nected

m:
a) parallel with the circuit
b) series with tbe circuit
c) directly across the term.inals of [he \·oltage source
45 . \Then measuring continu ity res is lan ce, :111 ohmm ete r uses cu rrent
supplie d b y:
a) the circuil power source
b) the aircraft bartery
c) a self-contained banen·
46 . A 's hu nt' res is to r is used in an ammete r 10:

'l11.1
,\~b ...
. ~.:.'1'aSs most of the current through the coil
" l,L
\"5~ .
~\. \,; '\ . b) damp the monmem of the indicator
\.\<p:
\,. " ~' c) by-pass most of the current paSI the coil
47. An a irc raft bo nd ing test m e te r is a :
a) low rangc ohmmcter
b) low resisranee vohmcter
c) low range amme(Cr
238
CAp)7ighl e BIll!) ulKgt ~006 ~- / U/njhls rrstr't!td u1/J'Il1.part66.mfll
CHAPTER THREE
TOOL S
48. If an o h mmeter is connected across a break in a series circuit, it will

register:
a) zero
b) infinilv
c) mid-scale
49. In order to measure AC voltage and current, a multimeter mu st

inco rpo rate ~I:
a) rectifier
b) shunt
c) swamp reslsror
50. The ohmm eter section of a muitimc le r is des igned to meas ure :
a} insulation and continuity resistance
b) insulation resistance onI\"
c) continuity resismnce only
51. Currellt n ow can b e measured without breaking into a ci rcuit lIsing

'I\l'
'1'II.,b a:
\\ .,;..<:-
(.11' '-.
\'~;;~' a) Bridge mcggcr tester
c
X\~
...~,.-
- ~,'\
c·
b) Continuity tester
c) Tong-test ammeter
52. A Megohm is:
a) 1,000 ohms
b) 1.000.000 obms
c) 10,000 ohms
239
R'1lTJ'.parl66.(,,,p
CHAPTER THREE
TOOL S
53. A milli-amp is:
a) one thousandth of an amp
b) one millionth of an amp
c) one Icnth of an amp
54. A milli-voltmeter can be modified to meas ure \'ohs by filting a:
a) shunt
b) multiplier
c) weaker hairsprings
55. If a bonding teste r lead is damaged at a connection point you:
a) IU.'ly CUI off lhe damaged portion and remake the connection
b) cur off the damaged portion and splice on a new length of cable
c) must rCIUIn the rester to the manufacrurcr for repair and re-calibration
56. A torque indicating w renc h is 12io long and has a 4in extension
spanne r fitt ed thm is aligned with the axis of the wren ch . If the
actual torque Joading va lue of a bolt is 200lb in, w hat val ue w ill be
" d IC%(l.
In " d on
'1\)\\the wrench'
.
l
. L\'\
"c\!....:
•
..
, \,).<;{' 'a) 1501b/in

,."
<"" b) SO Ib/ in
,.'~'
57. The co rrect m ethod of producin g a s tart for a drill o n a sheet of

titanium is to:
a) use a centre punch
b) cemrc drill
c) use a diamond point chisel
240
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CHAPTER THREe
TOO L 5
58. Ammeters bave:
a) high resistance
b) a self-contaIned batten·
c) low resistance
59. Graphit e grease is used :
a) as an anti-seize lubricant in high temperature applicacions
b) to lubricate hIgh-speed ball and roller bea rings
c) as a metal to rubber lubricant
60. The Hill- O ut of a s haft can be c h ecked using:
a) a dial test indicator
b) a Vernier I-Ieight G auge
c) external calipers
241
C H APT E R THR EE
T OO L S
Revision
Tools
Answers
I. A 2J. C 41. B
2. C 22. A 42. C
3. B 23. A 43. A
4. C 24. C 44. B
,. B ,-
-,. B 45. C
6. A 26. C 46. C
7, A 27. A 47, A
8, B 28. A 48. B
9. A 29. C 49. A
10, B 30, B 50. C
11. B 3 1. C 5 1. C
;.\~\''';
12. A')~'\l,b 32. B -,
,-, B
. ~\..:.'\!...;. ...
l·\' .
, \\).t{': 13. C 33, C 53. A
. ,\,\
"
""<'-~ 14, B 34. A 54. B
\. \' \
15. A 35. B 55. C r

'c
16, B 36, C 56. A
,
-?
,
%
17, B 37, A 57. B
18, A 38, C 58. C ~

,~
0
19, B 39, B 59. A ;;:::::
c
20. C 40, 60. "
'"""
A A
,, '-
"
242
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CHAPTER FOUR
A VIONIC GENERAL T ES T EQUIPMENT
Avionic General Test Equipment

Introduc tion
\,\ 'c\come to Chapter 4, the syllabus givcs no inuicacion of what test equipment
it wishes us to co,er except to say it is generaL I have interpreted dlls to mcan
the equipment that would usually be found in general usc on most aircraft
types rather than on a select few. In this chapter, we \vill examine avionic test
equipment used during ramp maintenancc and in some of the more common
on-aircraft tasks in base maintenance. The equipment includes:
• Portable _m Data Test Set
• Air Data Test Set
• Transponder, D).IE (Distance 1\leasuring Equipment)/'J'C:\S (frn ffic

A.len and Collision Avoidance System) Test Set
• VOR/ ILS (VI IF Omni-direetion Ranging/ Instrument Landing system)

VIIJ~ Communications Tes: SCt
• Fuel Capacitance/ Quantity Test Set
I w@.llta have included the Aircraft Bonding Te~t set in rills list but we dealt
..,:.0.:. "ll'\~~ill;
that piece of equipment in detail in Chapter 7 of tills module under
0..,\\... · Bonding Techniques and Testing .
. \\;\~('
,,< c.
,;.~ The usc of the [cst equipmelll I have listed rc(!uires some knowledge of the
U''-;:; associated a\·ioillc systems contained in Module 11.5 for B1.1 and Module 13A
for 132. !-:IO\\·c\'cr, I will include abbreviated descriptions of these systems for
you so tllal you can get an idca of what tCStS arc require.d. Tins is done mOte
for the benefit of the BI studems: 32 srudents will know these systems. \\"f: '"
will be dealing with general principles and descriptions of the various items ot
test equipment rather than concentrating 00 specific proprietary makes. All rim:.
means is that the illustrated [cst equipment may show controls and displays in ~
differcnt layout to those you mar observc on a particular make. 3
~
I will remind you at rimes through the chapter thal you must abide by ~ e
instructions in the User Manu.-u associated with each item of test equip~cm
that you usc. Additionally, you must complr with the. approvcd systel~tcst
inslrUctions contained in the appropriate Aircraft ~Iaimenancc Manual
(Ai\L\f). If you wish to look up a fcw of these, rclevant ATAIg8- j\i\ThJ
chnptcrs are: ~
243
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CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GENERA L TEST EQUIPMENT
Chapter 22 .\utollight
Chapler 23 Communicacions
Chapter 31 Instrumcnts
Chaptcr 34 N:n-igation
Portable Air Data Test Set

This is a vcry commonly used item of test c(luipmcnt so wc will nced [0
examinc it in delail. Wc will not be dealing with :my specific proprictary brand
of cquipmenr in this scction. I will describe the fCHures that would be rypically
incorporated into this typc of test set and how they might be uscd. Howc\"er,
you must abide by the User Manual for the particular item of C(luipment you
arc using and comply with rhe systcm test instrucrions in the appropriate
maintenance manual.
A simple. portable, Pitot/Static test set incorporates a hand-operated air pump

thai can be selected to genera te posiuye or negati\'e pressure for testing aircraft
systems and their components that use Pitot or Static pressures. -n1ese include:
• Altirudc indication
• Airspeed indication
• Alntude switch operation
• :\irspced switch operation
• Verr: I'Gnl 'Sp~ed Indication

.,,;
. (y\\....\"
-
'1\,.\\:
~;I.«.<. .
,
.'1.... i..\.p'\. The hand pump is regulated to limit d1C maximum pressure/vacuum output to
\.. ,'1\ a safe \'alue that will not cause damage to the aircraft instruments. System
vennng and [he rate of change of air pressure arc achie\'cd through a R ele:lse
V:111"e that is thronled to pennit a controlled vent rare. It is opened manually
to gradually vcnt the sys tem pressure. It is "ery important to control the rate of
change of air pressure in Pitot/Static systems to avoid creating e."-::cessive
pressure or temperarure changes, which rna)' cause damage to sensitive
instruments. Consequently, venting the system through the Release Valve may
take several minmes.
The output port incorporates a second manual Letdown Val\~e thar allows the
operator the choice to control the rate of venting back to ground \e\"e1
pressure. l11c same rule applies, the system must be rerurned to ground
nunosphecic pressure at a safe rate. For example. the l...ctdown Valve may be
used to vent a syStem that was already down to a safe altitude or airspced.
244
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CHAPTER FOUR
AV IONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT
Switch Connections
(Altjwde & Speed)
o
o ~"'" 11(150
~I"r
11).1oIl
Ch",,~,' -30
o I ,-~k Iluo·j(l
lin
Fr:\1
A~\l
DUilet to Cuntrolled rX / VAC
Picot Of Static Relcase \'al\"c
Fine :-\djll~1l11ent ---k;,.'C

.\c,,!·_ ....."-''''-to
llanclpump ---til. Positive or Negative

Pressu re Seleclnr
F igu re 4.1- Portab le Ai r O;ila Tcst SCI
The hand-operated pump is used to SCI rhe output pressure to an approximate

\-aluc. A fin e pressure adjustment control is then screwed in or OUt to raise or
lower the output pressure in small increments to achieyc the required yalue.
The outpul port lllcorporates a standard connector to which a single flexible

hose carrying the required Pilot or Static aircrafr connector may be fined. ·I1,e
test set is calibrated for use wilh a specified length and bore hose, for example,
Sm at 6mm bore.
Th e,~ftery operated display section of (he set incorporales a task menu fo r the
.c'1I.\Qfcrection of the requi.red test option. The possible selections for Altitude arc
. (."...\\..:."" either Leak Test or Switch Test. The possible selections for Airspeed arc either
.: \.... ')(~' Leak Test or Switch Test. English ,alues for Altitude can be displayed in feet,
.\~...'\. - ft/ sec, ft/min. i\fctr1c values for .Altitude can be set in metres, m /scc, Ill/nun.
C.;."" . English \·alues for Ai rspeed can be set in mph or knotS and metric yaiues in
kph. The test set incorporates electrical socket connections for ,-oltage and
current mea surements and for testing Altitude and Airspeed switch operatio~
There is a facility for entering rhe ambient pressure or the day, ie QN l l o!-
-
-0
QFE, as a correction to the display readings as an altimeter reads altitude iq.:

feet not units of barometric pressure. I f you do nor want to usc local pressur~
correction, the International Srandard Aunosphere (ISA) table gives sland~
mean ba rometric pressures for given altitudes. \'\fe know thar in reality, t.1~
actual pressufe at any given altitude will \-ary from day to dar or even houJiio
hour. This is why we may need to correct altitude-measuring systems~for
ambient pressure changes. One problem that occurs when we consider a!§t'ude
is what we use as a reference point for zero altitude. Zero altitude rb""ay be
expressed as the aLmospheric pressure at Sea Level or the pressllr~&t't some
point above Sea Level. \'\11(::n we express barometric pressure, wtc usually
annotate it with a Q code as follows:
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COPJrighl C Btll?)· Colu§ 2006 - 200- All right! rrmwd 1P1l'1V.ptlrf66. ro!!,
C H APTER FOUR
AVIONIC G ENERAL TEST EQU IP MENT
Q Codes
QNH
This refers to the local barometric pressure compensated back [Q Sea Leyel,
which is then used as zero altirude. \'Vhen QN II is used, the aircraft's altimeter
will display the aircraft's actual altitude above Sea Leye!.
QFE
TIlis refers to the local barometric pressure at airfield level; at this setting the
altimeter will read zero (0) feet on take-off and landing.
QNE
Aboye a point known as the transition alcirude, nonnally around 6.000feet in
the UK, all aircraft reset dleir altimeters 101013.25 millibars (mb), now called
Hectopascals (hPa), or 29.921 inches of lIlercury (in I-Ig). This is the IS.-\
standard barometric pressure sernng. This ensures that all aircraft operating
above the tmnsicion altitude arc using the same altimeter sening. QNE is more
ofren referred to as 'Fligh t Level' expressed as a multiple of feet above th e lSA
zero feer level. \,('hen yOli hear that an aircraft is flring at Flight Level 80 for
example, it means that the alrcraft is at an altitude of 8,000feet above the ISA
zerO feet level.
Pitot/ Static System Leak Tests

\\fhen conducting system leak tCStS, the {eSf set must be connected to the
correct aircmft sampling pain!. \,'hen carrying out an Altitude leak tcst, the
flexible hose is c9flnected from the Output POrt on thc test set ro the Static
pressure R\3{\b0;t'\lie aircraft. \'V'hcn carrying OUt an Airspeed leak test, the hose
cW\nl!t:£cd from the output port on the tcst set to the Pirot probe or tube on
is L,
\\;\"tthe aircraft.
Static Connectio n
for Altimde Leak Test
(Ncg:l.th·c Pressure) r,
.,,
'0
,~
PiLOt Connecuon
~
for Airspeed
Leak Test ---tL-----
(positive Pressure)
Figure 4.2 - Connect io n Poim s o n Airc m fl fo r SY'ile lfl Leak T cSls
246
uP.Jrijht e Barry Co/kgt :006 . :!OO - A ll njhlf frJtTWd
CH APTER FOUR
AV IONIC GEN ERAL TEST EQUIPMENT
Before carrying Ollt an)' test 00 the aircraft, YOli must ensure that the test SCI'
and aircraft system hayc been fully vented to atmosphere.
Wait T im e
\Vhen you alter the pressure of air in an enclosed space, it will alter its
temperature and this affects the pressure. The \'\"'-\!T TIi\!E is the time
required to allow the air temperamre and pressure to stabilise before
commencing any test that requires you to set an accurate altitude or airspeed
reading by altering the air pressure in the associated system. The time wiJl
nonnally be specified in the test instructions and can be as much as ii\'e
nunmes 10 some tests.
Altitude Leak Test

For this tcSt, the flexible hose (rom the set is conneclCd to the Sta tic porr on
the aircraft. The display menu is selected 10 Altitude Leak Test together with
the required units. '111e ambient pressure of the day o r QFE correction can
then be entered if so required. "Ille controls on the set should be set as follows.
The Fine Adjustment is set (0 me halF-va), position. The Release Valve and the
Manua! Letdown Valves are e10sed and the hand-pump output selector is set to
vacuum (I1CgaU\<C pressure).
The hand-pump is used to set the inst.rument pressure to the altitude specified
in the tes t in st ructions using the fine adjustment as required. The required leak
test time is then entered together with the specified \'(lr\IT TII\·IE. To remind
YOl!o the \X'AIT Tli'.l£ is the rime that must elapse from actinting the RUN
TEST key to the start of the acrual test period to aUow thc temperature find
pressure of the air to stabilise .
.,\.",,\'?h~';he RUN TEST key is pressed, the display will count dowo the \'('AIT
""W.';-c - TIME. \'Vben this expires, the START ALTITUDE will be displayed and the
, \-.,;\~{' l. TEST THvIE will begin to COUnt down. On completio n of the TEST TI I\ !E,
{I.,\\..b. the STO P ALTITUDE will appear in the display.
-(\-.;..
-0'\' .
L,
12530 ~
r\!titude IT
II ~
Ti me
S[:Ut
60 SEC
12550 IT
Static
II I -'
-,
r.
Stop
Change -20
!2530 IT
IT
Connection "
Leak Ratc -2U FT / 1\1I t\! \'J\c-@
Ncgacyc PX ItJJ
Fig ure 4.3 - Altilude Leak Tesl 'v
~
If you examine the illustration. this particular test gave a STlillTAL1;!.TUDE
of 1255 feet. Oyer rhe 60 sec duration of the test, the a.ltitude reduced:l:"'o
v
12530
'"
feeL This occurred because leakage of air into the system reduced dle \"HCllum
247
CO/!)'ri!,hl 0 Ban] Collfgt 2006 ·2007 All rights mmlf'd IIIJj·flJ.part66.rom
C H AP T E R F OU R
AV I O N IC GE N ERA L T EST EQUIPMENT
and thus reduced lhe alrimde reading. The altimde change in this case was -20
feer over 6Oscc, which gives a leak rate of -20 feet/min. Tlus leak r:ue must
then be compared with the perrnined leak nlle value in the Maintenance
Manual.
On completion of lhe test, the '"3CUWn should be reduced to a safe "alue,

certainly below 1500 feet, before slowly opening the Manual Letdown Valve to
bring the sysrem pressure gradually back LO ground le\'el.
Mrspeed Leak Test

For this lest, the flexible hose from the set lS connected to the Piror probe or
tube on the aircraft_ The displar menu is selected to AIRSPEED LEAK TEST
together wirh the required units_ The hand-pump ourput is selected to deli,-er
positi\"e pressure_ The Release Val,"e and Manual Letdown Valves are closed
and the Fine Adj usonent is set to the halfway position.
The displayed airspeed is set to zero and the hand-pump is then used to deli\-er
the instrument pressure required to set the Airspeed reading specified in the
test instructions using the fine adjusrment a5 required. The desired \'X'AIT and
TEST TI~rE figures arc emered and the RUN TEST key is pressed. As soon
as the test commences, the START SPEED \\~ll be displayed. On completion
of lhe TEST TIME, the STOP SPEED will appear in the display.
220
AIrspeed KTS
Ime 60 SEC
~rart 250 KTS
Pitol
StOp 220 KTS
Conncctio~
Change -30 KTS
, Leak Rate -30 KTS/r>. lll\l §-,
t!J
Pusith-c PX
Figure 4.4 - Airspeed Le:lk Test
If you ,-"amine the illustration, this particular lest ga,"e a START SPEED of
25Q1.:;tS_ This reduced to 220krs over the 60sec duration of the test_ Ths
occurred because leakage of air o ut of the system reduced the positi\'e pressure
resulting in a reduction in the displayed airspeed. This gave a change of -30kts
o,-er a 60sec duration, which gives a leak rate of -30 krs/min, which is
obviously a major exaggeration, but is used here (0 illustrate the [cst set
function. The duration of the lCSt rime can be set to any value you wish, it docs
nor ha,-e to be 60sec, longer duration tests will give you a mean leak rate per
n11nU[e.
On completion of the (est, the system pressure should reduced to a safe value.
certainly less than 80kts, before slowly o pening the Manual Letdown Valve to
return the system pressure gradually back [0 ground le"e!.
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CHAPTER FOUR
AV IONIC GENERAL. TEST EQUIPMENT
AJtitude & Airspeed S,,,itch Tests
Pressure-operated switches sen'e functions that include:
• Low altitude warning
• Height-lock
• Landing gear configuration warning
• Speed brakes
• Speed lock
It is important thal these switches close and open at the specdled altitude or
airspeed "alues. Additionally, a Pitol or Static pressure-operated switch will
often have a hysteresis between me closing and opening pressures and this
must be witrnn a specified limit. Most of these switch operations activate a
visual indicator or annunciator and an aural warning that is usually more
pre\'alent, Sometimes these warnings may not be canceHed unless the fli ght
crew reduce the airc ra ft's speed. If if is not possible to con nect the test set
directly to the switch, \VC can LIse the set manually by obsen'ing the indications
of switch operation,
1UU
e l..(\QAftftude Switch Tes t
(.o\\C~
\"\).~(' From the display menu, select ALTITUDE S\,\lITCH TEST and select the
desired units. If so desired, enter tl1C ambient pressure of the day or Q FE
correction, but these test are usually carried om at Q)JI-I, ie rSA. The flexible
hose should be Connccl"ed to the Static port sen;ng the switch. \'('here the
electrical connections to the switch are accessible, these should be connect~
to the switch test socket connections on the test set. T his \viU produce a vis~
display of the contact Stale of the switch . The Release Valve and the Manuili-
Letdown Valve should be closed and the hand-pwnp should bc selected to:.
dcli\'cr negative pressure. F
Thc RUN TEST key is pressed and thc hand-pump is operated to gradu.'lJly
raise the system altitude until the switch operates, The altitude at which, ~e
switch operates \\-ilJ be displayed, The Release Valve is then slowly openetf to
gradually reduce the vaCllum and lower the alti~ude until the switch o~.Y'ates
agnin, The altitude at which tills occurs will also be displayed. C\
'0
.§'
,
249
COI!J·right © Bill!)' Colk§ 2006 - 2007 All rigb/t ffStrI'ed /Vll'Ul.p<II166. com
CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GENERAL. TE S T EQUIP M E N T
Static Connection
.. .
•••
I
r-"•
II "
~
OpcneJ 9950
L.c
VAL""@
I:'J
CI()~ed looon
-
Switch Test
1,,,,1 ~,~.o0 ".

----
nosed 1000
SWllch Test
, 9?,,?, O'"
!tun RUIl
F ig ure 4.5 - AJriltide Switch Test
rf you examine the illustration, you \\~ll see that the switch closed at 10,000 feet
as altitude was increased and opened again at 9,950 feet as altitude was
decreased. This gave a hysteresis of 50 feel belween closing and opening.
These recorded values should be checked against the limits shown in the
i\ [aintenance i\ [anua!.
On completion of the test, the Yacuum pressure should be allowed to reduce

until a safe MriUldc is displayed, ie less than 1500 feel, before slowly opening
the i\fanual Letdown ,-alve to return [\)e system pressure gradually back [0
ground level.
In a situation where it is nOI possible 10 access lhe electrical connections to the

switch, the test set can be used in Manual. In this instance, the indicated
altitudes have to be read in conjunction with the appearance of the switch
operation indica')t&ps.
"I'lfJu - -
,\c\!,:~ -
,c.('I\\ •
\"\7-(('
~... &. Airspeed Switch Test
,~\'C
I..~-'~""
From the display menu select AIRSPEED S\VlTCH TEST and select the
desired unjrs. The flexible hose should be connected [0 the Pitot probe or tube
serving the s\,,~tch. \'('here the electrical connections [Q tbe switch arc
accessible, these should be connected to the swirch test socket connections on
the tesr set. This will produce a visual display of the COnL'lct state of the switch.
The Release Valve and the i\fanua.l Letdown Valve should be closed and the
hand-pump should be selected to deliver positive pressure.
The displayed airspeed is set [0 zero, the RUN TEST key is pressed and [he
hand-pump is then used to gradually raise the system pressure until the s\\~tch
operates. 111e airspeed at which this occurs will be displayed. T he Release
Valve is then opened slowly to allow the pressure to graduall}r decrease until
the switch operates again.
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COP.J"Tighl C Barry Colk§ ~()()6 . 200- AI! rights rtSmtd /J1/J'll·.part66.rom
CHAPTER FOUR
AVIO NIC GEN ERAL TEST EQUIPMENT
Pi[Qr Connec tion
.•••."" I
c""•
I
"
:-I',I~
1~~:1
Opene(]
L.c C1l>'cd 180
Swrl.:h·Tcsr
180
,\ir<pecdf.:TS
----
Closed
SwiTch
160
1811
Te~l
Air'pc:ed KTS
Run Hun
Fig ure 4.6 "Airs peed Switc h Tes l
1f you examine the illustration, you will see that our switch closed at 180kts as
speed was increasing and opened again at 160kts as speed was decreasing. Tills
gi\"es a hysteresis of 20kts. which again is exaggerated juSt to show the point.
These figures should be compared with the permitted limits in the
i\hintenance i\1:l11ual, which will usually be between ± 1 knot and ±S knots. As
before, if the switch connections are inaccessible, we Can operate the tes t set in
r-..lanual by recording the airspeeds in conjunction with the suitch indications.
On completion of the test. the pressure should be allowed to fall until a safe
speed is indicated, ie less than SOkts, before slowly opening the Letdown V ~tl\'e
to refilm the system pressure gradually back to ground level.
Veq!sa1 Speed Test

"lQl~b ..
(.ll\\C~e " With this porrable test, Veru"cal Speed (VS) operation may be observed by
. \1r:.~(' looking at the Vertical Sp eed Indicator ( VSI) while cbanging the alti tude
,\--.'1. " dmlng an altimeter or altitude switch test. As the pressure vacuum is created
""~'\".<'-~ using tbe hand pump, it is not possible TO get a calibrated reading of the VSI.
\".. bm iT will show if it is sensing correctly in the right direction.
Air Data Test Set

The Air Data Test Set can be used to carry out all the tests that we described i!F
rdation to the portable Pitot/Static system tester plus a few marc. Again, \i.e
will not be dealing with any specific proprietary brand of tCSt set in this secti@ .
\\le will confine our examinatio n to what features would be incorporated jJ~ a
typical [est seL For that reason, you do not need La memorise pa rticular k,0~ or
menu selections given here to illustrate general features of the lest se~~ou
must abide by the instrLlctio ns comruned in the User l\ [anual for the ~ticular
item of equipment you are using. ~
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Cop),righf e BIlI7J' Colltgt 2006 "2007 All righf! mcrwd II'IJ_'W.part66.rolJl
CHAPT E R FOUR
AV I ONI C GENERAL T EST EQUIP ME NT
The Air Data Test Set has full pressure and vacuum comrol and mcasunng
capacity for on-aircraft sense and leak testing and functional testing of air data
sys tems, components and instruments. The sel has to be connected w an
external electrical power supply. It incorporates two independent pneumatic
systems. one for Static and one for Pitot, each sen'cd by an integral, electrical
motor driven pump.
The Slacic and Pilot systems mar be used independcnt of each othcr to carry
out altiruclc or airspeed tests respectively or. they may be used wgcther 10
provide any combination of altitude and airspeed nlues. Typical teSls that can
be conducted using this e(lwpmcm include:
• Static system rests
• Pilot system tests
• Combincd Pitot and Static svstem tests
• Vertical Speed Indicator (\'SI) tests
• Airspeed and _\ltirude leak tests
• Airspeed and Altirude switch tests
• Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) tests
Earth r ______+=========:::;~-- Power

Swi tch
S,Uld --+- Unit Sekcr
;-;:====+111-- Kcys
Pirot
FunCtio"o'-----l-l-J-..
Kcys- ~iDooiEii Stacie
Keys I;,..._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _UJ--- Carrying

I-bodle ~
Figure 4.7 - Ai r Dall'! Tesl Sel

-,
~.
- ?<
,..§-
-
The set can be selectively opeaued in different modes thar include:
measurement, control, Icak measurement and rerum to ground. In
measurement mode, you can select the parameters to be displayed and the
units to be used. The control mode allows you to set rates of change to
selectcd valucs of altitude, airspced,t>. lacb Number or Engine Pressure R:ltio
(EPR). The display then shows the chosen parameter changing as the set
controls the rate of change. The Aircraft t>.laintenance Manual will state
maximum limits for pa.GI01cfers and rates of change and these need to be
entered to enable the set to excrcise control.
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CHAPTER FOUR
AVIO N I C GENERAL T ES T EQUIPMENT
\,\1hen you wish LO return the system to ground, the set will register the :lirfield
p ressure rind set lhe target or aim value of the parameter to zero before
n.:turning the system to ground at a safe rate. \'.;'hen the system h(ls renmlCd to
ground. rhe display will shmv that it is 'Safe at Ground',
T he cond uct of Pitot :lnd Static sys tem leak tests (lnd airspecd and altitude
switch tests is similar in principle to those we examined in the p revious section,
the difference being dlat rhe parameter aim and rate of change values arc pre-
selected and arc automatically controlled. \\'e will take a couple of examples
using the illustrated test set to gi\-e typical [cst sequences .
Static Tests
Leak Test
For this tcst, rhe flexible hose is connected from the Stacie pOrt on the sCt to
the Siaoc veOl on the aircraft. Select the required units, select Altitude and then
press the Leak "leasure/Control function key. The number keys arc then used
to cnter the required ahirude and the required rate of climb. The \'\':\I"r TI1\IE
and TEST TIi\IE nrc then entered. On selecting Enter. the Static system pump
will run 10 generate negatiye pressure. The displayed altitude will change
towards the selected value at a controlled rate, slowing as it approaches the
value to avoid overshoot. The test commences nfter lhe pre-set \VAIT T I1\IE
nnd at the end of the timed tesr, the lea k rate is displayed .
:\t the end of the test, the GROUND function key is p ressed and the set will
automatically return tbe system back to local atmospheric pressure at a safe
ralC.
Static ,System Test

",-,6 'Ill
~
l,W:,?-1: l' This test allows you to compare selected altitude \'(llues on the test set with
.:>-,')s(' C. values indicated o n Static instruments and can be used to check the operation
,'\'-\. ~ '\ of Static system components. The set is connected and set up as for the Leak
~..""r
• C'~
Measure/Comrol mode above. The set will cotHral the rate of climb to tbe
L· selected altitude. :'\lew alcitude values can be entered as required and rhe set will
control the change to each new \-alue. At the end of the test, pressing the
GROL':--'ID function key auromacically returns the system to local aonospb~
pressure at a safe rate, ~
Altitude Switch Test
The preparacion for this rest is similar except that there is a 'nudge' facility tl1M
'"
:;
allows you to approach the target alcitude in increments on ascent to obtain ifl
accuratc reading when the switch closes. T he target altitude is then r<,!i~d
l1bove lhe switch operation height and is dlcn 'nudged' b:lck down to obti}n a
reading for switch opening. ~
§''0
v
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CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT
Ve rti cal Speed Indicator (VSI) T est
In a basic VSI, Slatic pressure is fed directly to the imernal capsule fllld the
inside of the insrrument's case. I-Iowever, the static pressure inplll to the
inSlnlmenr case goes through a restricting channel, commonly called a
resrriclil'e choke. As altitude is increased or decreased, at a set rate chosen on
the [cst set comrol panel, Static pressure in (he capsule changes faster than the
Static pressure in the case because of the restriction. The difference in
pressures is calib rated to give an indication of the rate of climb or descent in
thousands of feet per minute. There is a 'I:!g' when altitude levels out after a
prolonged climb where the instrument continues to register a climb until the
pressures in the capsule and the case equalise. 111e modern inenial lead VSI
(lLVSI) reduces dus 'lag'.
Pitot System Tests

Leak Test
For this test, the flexible hose is connected between the Pitot port on the set
and the Pitor probe or rube on the aircraft. Select: the required units foUowed
by Speed Leak J\!easurc/Comrol and then enter lhe target speed. Enter the
specified \X':\IT TI~[E and TEST Tlt-.1E. On pressing Enter, the PilOt system
pump in the set will generate positi\'e pressure and increase lhe displayed
airspeed to the target \'alue at a fixed mte. After the pre-set wait time, the test
will run and the leak rate will be displayed. On selecting GROUND, the set
will automaticaU), rerum the system to airfield aunospheric pressure at a safe
rate.
Pi tot Sys tem T est
This pro~9Ure ilf'~imilar to that for the Static system c.'(cept that you select
Sltt,~'d'-U;k Measure/Control. \'('hen the target airspeed has been cmc.red, and
\!l,;\'\.{hc Enter key is pressed, the displayed airspeed changes at a comroUed rate to
,\''1.. ~. the target value . .r\ new target value can be entered if required and the system
(f,~-:.\\r will change to the new value at a controUed rare.
Airspeed Swi tch Tests ~

"
Again, the procedure is similar to that used for the altitude switch test except '", <
that you select the Speed function. \'('hen dle target speed is neared, the 'nudge'
facili ry may be used to raise the speed in incremental steps to obtain an
'""
accurate reading of switch closure, 'I11e target speed is then raised abo\'e the
switch setting and is then 'nudged' back down to check the airspeed when the
switch opens.
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CHAPTER FOUR
AVION I C GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT
Combined Pitot/Static System Tests

Some system tests require the simultaneous display of speed and altitude in
order to observe rates of speed and altitude changes . Before cfl rrying out this
type of test, the Pitot find Static ports on the test set must be connected
lhrough !1exiblc hoses to the Pitot and Static probes or vents o n the aircraft.
.\ir Data Computer -~,.L"--~ IIIj Pi Static

1\ DC T cst Set .'t'-----ill:!;;] .):'11<.'J
",.:::::::-"",.\ltltU t;;--'1t;;t.~----
F ig ure -1.8 • Air D a ta Test Set Counec lio n to Airc.:r:tft
The illustration shows a typical connection between the test set :lnd fin aircrflft.
Note th:lt lhe position of the set in relation to the equipment being tested can
result in a difference in Static pressures between the set :md the item being
tested, as \\~th some aircraft this can be several tens of feet. The illustration
shows tha t an altitude correction has to bc applied fo r lhe height difference
between the lCSt set and the Air Data Computer. \,\Iithout this correction, the
test set would be displaying an altitude "ruue lower than the e(luipmenr.
11.)~{
• ",:,..:..I! '1\~nclicated versus True Airspeed
\.J"~ .
, -0:-'\:1"
:..,'.. Pitot pressure is the sum of Dynamic air pressure (1/ 2pV7 and Static pressure.
....:.(\.~ TIle Pitot method used to measure airspeed is dependent on air density (p). As
(~\
we know, air density reduces with increasing altitude, which means char at
altitude. the air speed indicator is not sho\\mg the !.rue speed of the a.ll:Craft,..,il
is showing what is called the Indicated Airspeed (lAS). The indicat~
airspeed (l AS) at altirude will be less than the True Airspeed (IllS). ~.
"§.
Mach Test & Constant Mach Test

~
The l\lach speed of atl aircraft is the q uotient of its tnle airspeed and the sj)~~
of sound in air. If the true airspeed is the same as the speed of sound i,t air,
then the aircraft is said to be flying at Mach 1.0. .f
'0
'r he speed of sound in air varies ill proporoon ~o air tem perature. T!.fis means
the speed of sound in air reduces as altitude increases and air tempera'ture falls.
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C H A PT E R F OUR
AV I O N IC G EN ERA L TE S T EQU I PMENT
:\n aircraft flying at a gi'"CD perccntagc of me speed of sound in air at Sea Lcvel
will actually srarr to increasc that percentage as it climbs to altitudc at a
constant airspeed and may c\"Cn reach the speed of sound. In simplc tCnTIS,
r.. lach 1.0 would be rcached at a lower TAS at altitude than it would at Sea
Lc\Tcl. Commercial transport aircraft arc mainly transonic and they suffer
adverse compressibility affects when airflow over thcir surfaces reaches the
speed of sound. An aircraft that is designed to fly at a gi,"en l\ lach speed, say
0.75 Mach. will ha\"c a Flight Af:magemenf System (Fl\1S) acting together
with the autopilot to maintain this valuc if alurude changes. Therc will also be a
t-. lach warning system to alert the crew when the Mach speed reaches a critical
va lue (i'- ICRfT or t-. IMo)' T his system would be activa ted by a p,fach switch or
Ci\DC, the operation of which can be tested \\~[h the test set.
The r>. lach test im'olvcs setting a target Mach value and thcn altering the
altitude and checking that the airspeed adjustS [0 keep the t-. lach value
constant. \Vc do not need to look furt her into this, it is JUSt another test facility
provided by the Air Data Test SeL
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)

The Air Data Test Set may be used to check thc operation of the EPR
indicators and their sensors and to test the leak rate in the system. EPR is the
ratio of rurbine discharge total pressure to intake total pressure, This is shown
as Discharge Px/ lntake Px. A target EP R is entcrcd and when this has been
reached, the acrual enginc inlet and outlet pressures arc displayed to confinn
[hc EPR reading. For example, if the EPR reading was D,S and the intake and
discharge pressures were 500 millibars (rub) and 900 mb respectively, the EPR
illdication is confinncd. A leak nne test may then be conductcd o"er a
specified test time,
,,~-;
That conoldHes our cxamination of the Air Data Test Set. You can sec that it is
mQ(e\~':';ati.le than thc portable Pitot/StaaC testcr and is suitcd to the testing
\,,;,>"tS f complex systems thar use Pitot and Static pressures.
i\'\ L~
,.5\'t;
\,. ,,<;Z
Transponder/DME/TCAS Test Set -

r.
There is a range of proprietary test sets a\"ailable that are designed for single or "",
<
multiple srsrcm ramp o r bench testing. Some arc designed for Transponder/ ~
lmerrogator tes ting whilst others also includc Dt-.·IE and TeAS testing. \Ve will
,
be cxamining tills type o f equipment in general renns to illustrate the tests they
. ~.
would be used for under each system heading. The fine demil associated with
each test such as: test sequences, keypad selections, display fonnals etc are
peculiar to individual makes of equipment and it wowd se.t\'c no purpose to
inclmle them all in tlus section. You mus t consult thc User fvfallual for the
c(juipment yotl are opcrating and comply with [he test proccdllteS in the
appropriatc Aircraft or Component Maintenance Manual.
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AV IONIC G EN ER A L TE S T E Q UI P MENT
\\!hen testing SSR equipment using ramp test sets, B2 Engineers require a
greater understanding of the test sets and the indications that appear on their
front panels. In addition, also need to be aware of any speClal regulation, such
as AirltlQrthliu:ss J\locices (A If71\? that are app~cablc from time to orne. Over
the years there have several A \'i'Ns that were applicable to avionic systems, eg
A \·'(TN 84 & 91, but after a defined period these are usually replaced with more
permanent solutions. At the time of writing this Chapter, late 2007, only one
Airworthiness N otice is currently applicable to anonic systems; A\V'N 12
Appendix 69.
This Notice provides general guidance material to aircraft maintenance

organisations and maintenance personnel, ie YOLl, relating to .ATC Transponder
and Traffic Alert and Collisio n Avoidance Systems (TCAS). It includes
1I1formatio11 011 the ·rCAS system together with precautions to be considered
when ground tesung A TC Transponders in order to minim.ise the possibility of
causing nuisance advisory \varnings on TCAS eqlllpped aircraft.
I have tried throughout this chapter to avoid quoting or represennng

proprietal)' suppliers and I will continue in this vanc here and so similarities to
any existing test equipment is accidental.
Most modern ramp test sets will have combined testing facilities for .ATC
Transponder and DME. The larest ones will also include facilities fot te~ting
A utomatic Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast (ADS-B), Ground
I nitiated Commwu·caci ons - BrO.'1dcast (GCI B) and the currently US£\ only
based Traffic Information Senrice (TIS). These all work with the Mode 5
Transponder to provide information in one form or another using the ~Iode S
daralink.
All Transponder/ DlVlE/ TCAS test sets contain a preCision simulator that
allO\vs one person to functionality test aircraft Transponder (XPDR) modes
.A/ ~ 6§' Distance Measuring Equipment (Dr-. IE) systems and TCAS 1 and 11.
'i:J6 - -
~e. 1.\:
(.<,\\i:._
\;,,(t"
Q
",
" (\'?-
General Descrip tion of Test Set
U'~
The equipment used for testing these systems is typically a NICAD
rechargeable banery-operated, portable precision simulator that enables ~
operaror to functionally test installed aircraft systems . The set incorpora @';
Radio Frequency (RF) signa! genemtors and modulators that" operate in rl~ ·
frequency ranges of the associated aircraft svstems,
, together with a pUlsl ~
generator to create the interrogation and/ or reply pulses needed in most test;£.;
When testing installed umts, the radio frequency transmissions from d1e reit
sct are passed to [he aircraft antenna through a remote antenna connected iR
the test set. Some makes of equipment incorporate an integral, mono-p~c
antenna whereas other types require the use of a remote amenna. \Vhen teiing
uninstalled equipment in an approved component repair organisation, co ~xial
cables are connected to the umt tn place of an antenna. ,"i
6'
'"
One stgnal generator may not cover the entire frequency [an~ o f
the
equipment under test. A nwnber of RF signal ~enerators may be required to
257
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CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GE N ERAL TE ST E QUIPMENT
achieve this. For example, one generator may cO\-er 10 kHz to SO Mllz.
another 100 k1lz to t 10 MHz each increasing the frequency range in steps up
to the maximum required by the set. OI\.IE for examplc operatcs in the L-Band
frequency mnge from 962 r-..[Hz to 1213 r-..ll-lZ.
To gain any appreciation of the equipment or tests that arc carried out, you
necd to haye some idea of what the system under test acrually does. Thesc
systems are discussed in 1\.10dulcs t 1 and 13 but I will give you a bricf
description for the function of each system before listing the tests associated
\..nth it.
T ranspond er
_\ Transponder is an aircraft mounted receiver/tr.lllsmincr that cecei\'cs a
ground transmitted radar signal on 1030 1\.11 Iz and rcsponds [0 it by
trnnsmitting a second signal on a different frequency of 1090 MHz th:\! is in
rum received by the ground based radar receiver. The system is more
commonly referred to as being Secondary SUrlreilJ:mcc Radar (SSR). The
signal recei"ed by rhe ground radar station is a lor stronger than the weak echo
signal thar would be received from a primary radar transmission. The return
signal transmissions from the aircraft arc displayed as a clear 'blip' on the radar
screen. The Transponder transmits coded signa1s that positi,-ely idcnri~' the
sending aircraft on the screen. The aircraft altirude can also be displayed as a
number adjacen t to the image on thc radar screen
Each aircraft is allocated a four (-I)-digit code (Squawk) \Ierbally by Air Traffic
Control (ATC) and this is dialled into the Transponder by the pilot, which then
identifies the aircraft on the _"' TC radar screen. I f requested, the pilot presses
an identification button on the Transponder and this produces an enlarged
'blip' on the gr<>Nf.¥! radar display. There are also emergency codes that can be
entered ,} '$V-1P pitot when it is required to alert ground radar controllers to
si\i!:'lu-U bts such as an emergency, a hijack or complete radio failure. It is
... \>.,3.«therefore important that when testing Transponder systems you stay well away
\J::'\\ from these codes, because when a ground ATC recei\·cs these codes, it sets off
........,\:~. an alann The dialled in IDENT codc (Squawk) tS . shown on the aitera f t
Transponder and will be displayed on the interrogating ATC radar display or
r.
on a test scr when the aircraft unit replies to interrogation pulses from the >
.;,,
ground ATC o r test set. o
3-
The Transponder interfaces with a CADe or an encoding altimeter that "
displays an altitude code numerical readout based on height above lSA Sea
Level. This code is usually transmitted automaticlilly and it appears alongside
thc 'blip' on thc ATe radar screen. This rna)' be tcstcd by reading the code .~
[rom the Transponder and verifying its receipt on a test sct.

'"
The improved Mode S Transponder is capable of providing a data link
"
~
"
'v
o
between the aircraft, otber flying aircraft and the ground station. This permits
the transmission of printed informacion.
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Transponder Tests
Tn preparation for testing, the aircraft Transponder is s\v;tched on and allowed
to run in 'standby' fo r a few minutes before dialling in the pilot's code. If the
test equipment requires a remote antenna, this should be set up and connected
to the tes t set, ensuring that you set dIe correct spacing between the test set
and aircra ft antennas as stated in the Aircraft i\hintcnance Manual or Test Set
instructions. "111e following tests may now be carried o ut:
• Transmitter p eak power
• Transp onder frequency
• Receiver sensitivity
• Reply delay
• Correct rcply code
• Percentage reply Operation
• 'Ident' tone
• 'Ident' pulse output
• Correct pulse timing
• Correct pulse spacing
• Altitude code
• Inadvertent Side Lobe Supp ression (sis) SLS operation
• Receiver - decoder limits
• l\-Iode S testing
~
~,,-
r
For B2 enginecrs testing a Mode Ale Transponder, the most important factor:
is the initial set ~up of the test set with respect to the T ransponder antenna . TbB=
test set antenna should be set up on its tripod level at a distance from t~
aircraft antelUla as dictated by the test set operations manual. Tn most cas ~")
have com e across this is 21 inches (approximately 54 cm), bu t in any e~t,
should not be less than 15 inches (38 cm) as this could result in damage tp) he
== '0
~"
\\lith both test sel and aircraft Trans ponder powered, leave the. Trans:~nder in
standby for five (5) minutes or so for it to stabilise and work up to its normal
259
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CHAPTER FOUR
AVIONIC GE NERAL TEST EQUIPMENT
opcr:uing tempcrature. Oncc srabilised, set the Transponder four (4)-digit

codc, avoiding 77XX, 76XX and 7SXX for obvious reasons. The (CSt SCI will
now send intcrrogation pulses to the Transpondcr and il will respond
according. All test sets will have some method of allowing you to verify the
Tmnspondcr codc and figure 4.9 illuslr:lles one example.
Figure 4.9 - Typical Ramp T u t SCI From Panel
As you arc aware, Transponders output their ~Iode A replies in a fOll r (4)-digit
octal fomlar; the rcplies for the A pulses are shown in the following mble. the
13, C and D formats arc the same.
Decimal Octnl Code

N umber Al A2 A4
0 0 0 0
I 1 0 0
2 0 1 0
, 3 1 1 0
4 0 0 1
5 1 0 1
6 1 1 0
- 1 I 1
-,
Table 4.1 - Typical Ramp Test Set Front Panel '"~
. ~
Once all Mode j\ digits ha\'c been checked, set the Transponder codc to 0000 "
and press the Tmnspondcr's Ident button, which may be remotely mounted in
.~
rhe cockpit, and confirm that it is bcing sent by illumination of the D4 light on
the test set. T hc lest set should be set [0 Ale ALT, which changes its
interrogation mode from .A to C and you should then "erify its response,
which will be in thousands of feet referenced to 1St\, ie 1700 feet would read
1.7.
No te: TIle encoded altimeter readout should be unaffected by the altimeter

barometric setting and will always indicate altitude referenced to lSi\.
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CHAPTER FOUR
You should next check for the Transponder's power and fnxluency limits in
accordance with the J\ laintenaoce \[anuaL
Finally, you should check the Transponder's response to sidc~/obe~

suppressioll (sis), interrogation spacing and signal fram ing u~ in g the test set's
variable controls.
Once testing is complete, ensure that you leavc the aircraft Transponder in
standby or off mode ,\;th the four (4)-digit code set to an undefined code such
as 0000, -1-321 or 1600.
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

Di\IE is anomer example of a system that uses secondary rada r techniques. A
transmitter on the aircraft sends a stream of radio pulses that arc recei\"ed by a
ground located SSR station. It responds by transmitting a return stream of
radio pulses to the lmerrogating aircmfr on a diffe rence frc(luenc), of ± 63
Mll z, dependent all operating frequency. T he ground sta tion delays its
response by 50 ~t S and so this time, plus the time elapsed between pulse
transmissions and receiying a reply is automatically processed to produce and
display the range of the beacon in relation to the aircraft and its approach
,·dociry. Howcycr. the yelociry reading is only accurate if lhe aircraft is flying
directly to or from the station. D11£ measures the slant dis tance from the
aircraft to the beacon and this produces a small error when compared to
ground di stance. The crror increases as the ai rcraft approaches the beacon
reaching a maximum when the aircraft is directly owrhead when its vertical
altitude is displayed as a distance.
Dl\IE has a range of around 300 nautical miles (Ni\Is) . .A DME ground station
is l{:tJt:'Il.ly collocated with a VOH Navigatioll Beacon or an airport's
?.lv..Y tls'irument Landing System (lLS). An aircraft Dl\1E system therefore,
. (,o\\C'bi:. shares a VOR/ ILS controller to provide frequency and control selection.
( \,~~('" Although the operating frequency range of a D ME system is from 960 to 121 5
,.is''. l\n Iz, the Di\lE station docs not have to be selected specifically. All ground
-0~~. based Dl\rE stations arc paired \dth a selected VOR or ILS beacon under
c·
T(,\O rules. \\nen a VOR or ILS frequency is selected on the controller, me
frequency of the collocated DME is also selected automatically. 1;
.,
T he air to ground interrogation pulses arc sent Qn a different frequency [0 di.
""
ground to air reply pulses to pre\'ent a siulallon where an aircraft receives rerlE
pulses from its own transmissions 'reflecting' off the ground. Ilowcver, th~
system can operate quite happily with a 50% percentage of degraded rePl1
signal. Once synchronised to a ground station, the D ME calculates ~
range/ velocity, which then appears on the aircraft display. -nle OME testjer
has three selectable ehanncls: 108.00 MHz, 108.05 MHz and 108.10 i\ Il-li?for
lise with TLS. \'\'hcn the Instrument Landing System (ILS) cha nnel (10SJe) is
selected, it automatically tunes in the O-ME to produce a continuous indttation
of distance to touchdown. §v
,
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C H APTER FOUR
AV I ONI C GENER A L TE S T E QUIPMENT
DME Tests
Prior to conducting tests, the aircraft's OME equipmem showd be switched 00
and allowed to run for a few minures and set to the (cst frequency on the VOR
controller. The test set should be SCI to freque ncy 10S.00. If a remote rest
anlenna is required, this should be set lip and connected ro the test set,
ensuring that you sCt the correct spacing between thc test set and aircraft
anrennas as stated in the Aircraft ~[aintenance ro-Ianual or Test Set instructions.
T he follo\\;ng tests may then be ca rried Out:
• DME distance operation (Distance Display ro-Iode)
• D~lE velocity calculations
• DME T ime To GO (ITG) calculations
• D~lE transmitted Pulse Repetition Frequency (PIU=)
• Transmitter peak po\ver and frequency
• Percentage reply
• 'Idem' tone
• Channel IOS.05 operation (repeat abo\'c rests)
• Channel lOS. 10 operation (repeat above tests)
For 82 engineers re'luired to test Oro-IE o peration, the lest set should be set-up
in the same 1Vil}1J~r wi th (he T ransponder system, but obviously with the tcst
..,r+-.\I:l . r
set. ~\!I$:n n a localed ncar tbe Oro-IE an tenna 0 the system under test.
~&riember though that there must be at least IS inches between antennas to
~)(
... prevent damage to the test set.
,\ ...\
~.5\"'"
(~,,\ '
O nce sct up, tunc rhe VOR controUer to 108.00 i\U Iz and sel the test set mode
switch to OME, if rCCIuired. as in figure 4. 12 abm-c. If there is a
RANGE/ VELOC ln " switch as in the illustrated test sct, set the switch to
RANGE. For VOR frequency IOS.00 MHz, the co-located Dro- IE is an 'X.
channel and so if the test set has a swirchable channe.l spacing switch, this
should be sct to 17X. Channe1 1SX is on frequency 1OS. IO Mf 17. while channel
1TV is on 108.05 MI fz. T he unit under test mny now be checked at various
distances by using the test set controls. .....
To lCst the OME Groundspeed (GS) and Time-To-Go (ITG) functions, the
lCSt set should have a control to simulate increasing and decreasing OME
distance, which will allow the O ME unit under test to calculate GS :l!1 d l TG.
Jn addition, the rcst set should output a 1020 117. Idem tonc thar will be
decoded by the OME unit under lest aod scnd to the Audio Imegrating
System (AIS) for distribution, as rCCIuired.
262
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CHAP T ER FOUR
A VIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT
Meters on the test set should allow you to chcck the OME's po\ver output and
its Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) while searching and locked on . Tt should
also have a switch function to reduce replies from the test set by 50%, to
ensure the O:\[E under test remains locked on.
Traffic Alert & Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)

TCAS uscs aircra ft to aircraft interrogation betwcen l'.[odc S Transponders to
pro,ide position in foffi1ation about other T ransponder equipped . The
equipment scans a distance of about 15 nautical miles around the aircrafr and
can measure the range, closure ratc and height separation of aIrcraft wIthin this
range in relation to the interrogating aircrafl. A range of colo ured symbols is
di splayed to indicate positio n, range and direction of each identified target.
\,\1hen the closure tim e between an 'intruding' aircraft and the interrogating
aircraft poses a leyel of threat, a series of nsual and aural proximity warnings
ate gi\·en, each depending on the threat lc\"el . These may advise a\"oidancc
measures in the ,ertical plane. System s that arc scheduled for introduction in
the near future will include avo idance measures in the horizontal pl:ll1e. Typical
aural warnings are 'Traffic, Trafuc', 'Climb, Climb', D escend, Descend' or
conyCIscly, the instructions may tell the flight crew not to climb or descend.
TCAS Tests
The TCAS/ Transponder test set uses the aircraft Mode S Transponder to
provide up to eight di fferent sccnarios for TCAS tes ting. These are used to
simulate an intruder in proximity [Q the. ailcraft under test. Tcsts include:
• rntruder closing at~ aboye or below configured altitudes

• Intruder diving, climbing or turning
The TCAS display in the aircraft is checked to verify that the correct visual and
aural warnings arc being triggered in response to each test simulated by the t&.§t
set. "3.
~
TCAS tc~ting is in its infancy and there are not many test sets around that ar~
capable of fully testing TC\S functions . TIle first thing to know when testing a;
TCAS system is if it is a TCAS I or TCAS II as the tests arc different. On<§:
this is es tablished you \\oill need to set up the test set and associated directio~
antenna :550 feet (15.25 metres) from and in line of sight with the top ~ d
bottom aircraft antennas. \'\'hen testing the bottom antenna you should use"ithe
fuselage to block the line of sight to the top ant~nna. A shield is positioR~ to
block the line of sight to the b ottom antenna when testing the top anteru~ .
'0
In order to test ~-Iode
S Transponder and TCAS functions, the aircra,ff'n1Usr be
powered with the ailcraft co nfigured for wcigh( offwhecls. T he actual testing
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of i\lode S Transponder and TCJ\S is quire complcx and so you should always
follow the instructions of thc J\ircraft Mainrcn:mcc ~Ianual or test SCt
instruction book. Howcver, in any event, the test set should be capable of
simulating:u least four (4) intruding aircraft.
Note: If aircraft is on the ground, set the feSt set to MANUAL and enter
manual addresses for thc i\lode S Transponder all-calls tests as ther do
not work when the aircraft is on the ground.
VOR/ ILS, VHF Communications Test Set

/\gain, there are a number of proprietary makes of equipment that are designed
to test some or all of these systems. You must consult dlC t.;ser i\1:lIll1al for the
operation of the equipment you arc using and comply with the test proccdures
in the appropriate i\ircraft or Component Maintenancc j\ianual.
General Description of Test Set
i\lost ramp tCSf sets arc ponablc, rugged and powcred by rechargeable NIC.U)
batteries. A typical set would incorporate a radio waye Signal Generator with a
variable anenuaror and an integral amenna for transmission of signals to the
aircraft. TIle signal gencra tor can be opcrated under either Cn.ed frequency
comrol or in variable frc<.Juenc), mode. It may be modul:ued by LOnes from the
equipment under test or may prO\-ide modulation, as appropriate.
-111e set would incorporate a display that indicales the radio frequency of lh(:
signal generator, the frc<.Juency of a transmitter under test, any external signal
inputs or VOR be!rings. There would bc :tn integral radio freque ncy power
meter suiraRLe 53'1' measuring vr IF Communication transmitter average and
pe~~\P.9-"~~' An integral modulation meler would be used 10 measure the
"dlertenrage modulation of the Signal Generator on any frequency band. The set
,"t. would also incorporate a 900 bearing monitor for checking VOR bearing.
The test set simulaTes the signals and tones normally transmitted to the aircraft
from ground-based navigaLion equipment. The rcst sel aCls as rhe sending
source for tbese signals so that the aircraft equipment can be checked for
correct indications and responses. These include:
• Marker signals and lanes for Outer, Middle and Ain.vays i\{arkers
• VOR Ground Station signals
• Localiser signals
• Glidcslope signals
• Transmittcd ground station Idem codes
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W/e will need to know what each of the systems does before looking at the
tests associated with them. The foll mving descriptio ns have been kept
deliberately brief and arc only tntended to show you what the test set simulates,
m ore detailed descnptions of these systems may be found in Module 11
Chapter 5 and l\IoduLe 13 Chapter -t.
Marker Beacons
l'darker beacol.1S are used in conjunction with an Instrument Landing System
(lLS) and ther give an indication of distance to touch down. There are two
Marker Beacons positioned along the Instrument Landing System (lLS) path.
These are the Outer and Middle trarkers. The Outer Marker is approximately
seven nautical miles from the runway threshold; the ivliddle Marker at about
half a nautical mile.
All the Marker Beacons transmit on the same freque ncy (75MHz) bur each
transmits a different identification code and tone. The Outer Marker 1S heard
as a series of Low tone dashes accompanied by a b lue light on the instrument
panel that flashes in unison \vtth the code . The :l\liddle :l\Iarker is heard as a
series of medium-tone alrernating dashes and dots accom panied by an amber
light flashing in unison. The Airways Marker is heard as a seIles of high-tone
dots accompanied a clear white light flashing in unison.
T·he Outcr r-darkcr is often located with a low-power, "-\DF non-directional

beacon (l'-TDB). The aircraft is equipped with a radio magnetic indicator CRl\!J)
that incorporates Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) needles that point
tmvards the NDB. As the aircraft over-flies the N DB, the needles swing
around to point backwards, usually indicating the point where the aircraft
should rurn onto final approach.
Localiser
An Instrument Landing System (ILS) uses twO radio signals that provide
runway centreline guidance and descent path guidance to touchdown. The
runway centreline taclio signal is called the Localiser (LOC) and the glide p ~l
signal is called the G lideslope (GIS). The Localiser transmits on the vr-ft
frequency band (108.10 MHz to 111.95 .MHz on the odd decimal frequenci
channels) through a large antenna atray at the end of the approach. Eacll
Localiser VHF frequency is accompanied by a Glideslope operating on a::.:
paired U HF frequency. \'('hen an approaching aircraft drifts to one side of t1~
Localiser centreline, the change in received radio signal strength is used 'fQ
indicate the aircraft position on tbe flight instrument display as being left,glr
right o f the runway centreline. :l
f1
'"
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Glideslope (G I S)
We ha,·c already introduced this. The Glideslope antcnna is positioncd
adjaccfll to thc lOuch down poinr on the runway. \\'hcn an approaching aircraft
is above o r below the Glideslope, the change in received radio signal strength
is lIsed to display the aircraft's positio n on the flight instrumcflI display as
being high or low of the glidepath. A simple display uses rwo necdles. o ne
vcrticaland one horizomaL D eflections of the vertical needle indicate positions
lefl o r right of lhe nmway centreline and deflections of the horizontal necdle
indicale positions abo"e and below the glidepath.
VHF Omni-Directional Ranging (VOR)
VOR beacons arc strategically placed along airways and othcr mwigarional
reporting poinls likc holding panerns to allow the night crew to navig:He the
aircraft along a chosen flighrpath. _\ VOR beacon r.ransmits a signal in the
VI IF band frcquency modulated (F"I) at 30 \-Iz from an antenna that rO[a[es at
30 Rc"oluoons Per Second (RPS) so providing amplitude modulation (A~l) at
30 \I z. ,\ n aircraft rccci,'cs the 30 Hz F~f signal together with the 30 li z
amplitude modulated (A~I) signal created by the rotation of the transmitter.
The F~ r signal phase is the same in all directions but the A~ I signal phase
changes in relation to the aircraft's radial position from the beacon. The F~I
and AM signals arc arranged to be in phase at the North position so that phase
differences rclate to magnetic bearings around the beacon. These pos itio ns arc
referred to as ' radials'.
The VOR information can be displayed in the aircraft either as the position of
a needle on a radio magnetic indicator (R.\1I) . or by a deviation bar, oftcn
coloured orangc, on the compass display, which has a full-deflection scale of
± 10o. In the lat1Ji'c ase, when tbe aircraft is positioned on the centreline of an
air:v&r..."rt.lilP~~viation bar lies central in the compass gi"ing a clea r indication of
flte Imcntft's position in relation to a selected radial. An R.Ml necdle, o n the
~ ~).t other hand, always points directly to\va.rds the beacon.
::-..,\
~.~... ~\~
l.' _\ VOR beacon has range of about 200 m.utical miles. \'\11en the aircraft is
outside of this range, a flag appears, usually red or red and white striped, in the
aircraft display indicating dmt any VOR dara displayed is not valid.
Tests
The following tests would be carried out on the aircraft:
• ~Iarker operation
• VOR opemtion
• Locali se r operation
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• Glideslope opcration
• Combined LocaJiser and Glideslope opcration
• VI-IF CommU!1lcations receiver and transmitter tests
NAV /COMM Test Set

The navigational communications test set is used to tes t the operation o f ILS,
VOR receit'ers and vllr Transmitter/Receive rs. The tes t set provides accurate
measurement of fre quency, output power, Al\f/FM modulation and reCelyer
sensiti\·ity.
VHF Communications Testing

B2 Engineers will be expected to use N 1\ V/C01\.'I1V[ test equipment to a
greater depth [han B I Engineers . f',rost ramp test equipment for VH F
Communication transmitter/ recei\-ers ha\·c a fn:ed 2 to 3 fOOl whip antenna
and will allow you to look fit the peak and/ or a\-erage output power of the
uansminer. These meters usually ha\-e (wo settings; 0 to 10 \'Cans for light
aircraft and 0 [0 100 \X 'ans for air transport systems.
\Xlhen tcsting the ai.rcraft's receiver, mas! combined N av/Comm test Sets usc
the Marker Beacon audio frequencies of 400 l iz, 1300 I-I z and 3000 Hz to
modulate the test signal or the 1020 liz tone used to simulate ground station
idem. A ramp test set will always haye a 'CO~I Fixed' frequency, usually
118.000 i\U-lz, for a stable channel centre frequency. t.iost modern test sets \...·iIl
then allow ,ariable frequcng' outputS from 118.000 MJ-Jz up to 156.0001[J-fz
,\)\.i(121}-"icl~lz and 8.33 kHz steps.
, \\c\!..c"
. l ...."\\} -
«'•
'- , ....7<
,\'"\.
-'"1.'-';';
(.0'\' VORT estmg
'
For \-OR and ILS operation, except 1[arker Beacon, most ramp test sets hat""c
a fixed, extendable antenna that will allow you to carry out the majority of ~
checks with the test 5Cl standing vertically in tlte cockpit. rn this way, you ca.R
sct the tcst parameters and look at the results o n the approp riate instrume n~
without Jea\'ing the flight deck. ,. .
\'\11en testing VOR lhe ramp test \Vlll allow adjustment of the 30 Hz variable
phase signal., but nOl the 30 Hz reference phase as this is used as ~~
benchmark for all VOR tests. T he VOR ramp tester will have a <WR
0'
I3EtHU NG SELECT' switch mat will allow yOli to select any radial fro m;9-" ro
3600 , although some also have ~, fixed ompm for just testing at the <;~dinal
point N, E . Sand W. 1\ 'TO/ FROM' s\\itch is used to allow cheeki~ o f this
function. In addition, most test sets will have an output RF aucnuat& for use,
as required, to establish [ccei\-er sensith-ities.
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~[OSt ramp testers work on a fi...... ed frequency of 108.00 Mf iz, but there are
some wirh a 'HI/LO' switch chat allow resting at 112.80 ~[Hz and 108.00 l>. fHz
respectively.
\'(/hen testing aircraft VOR systems you should be checking for:
• Receiver sensiti,"ity
• Radial accuracy
• TO/FR01\·f Opera tion
ILS Testing
With mosr ramp test sets, the Localiser, Glideslope and i>.larker operations are
tested together. As 1 am sure you are aware, if not look at ~[odu1e 13 Chapter
..J , Localiser and Glideslope receiyers work off VHF and UHF carrier wa'"e
frequencies respecti,"e1y, modulated with a 90 Hz and 150 Hz conriouous
tones. These a.re not decoded for aural purposes, bur the receiycrs monitor
their Diffe ren ces in D epth of AloduJatioo (DDA1), which will be equal
when lhe aircra ft is on the runway centreline for the Localiser and on the
centre of the Glidepath for the Glideslope. ~ I osl test sets aUow stepped
control of the DD~[ to allow specitic and precise Localiser and Glidcslope
deviation indications 00 the flight deck displays. TIle 90 Hz signal is used for
indicacing left of the ruoway and above the glidepath, while the I SO Hz signal
indicates the opposite.
As with VO~ tq..!itill g, [he output RF attenuatar allows you to test for receiver
sensirixtP~~'as requircd.
,L"OW-'-
'
,, \ ....').•.5.
. ~\"\\
~f,\r
("~ Fuel Capacitance / Quantity Test Set
Before we examine what the test set docs, we need La learn a few simple facts r.
'0
about a modcrn fucl contents gauging system
""" ,.
f\·lodern aircraft fuel conteots gauging systems arc based on the measurement ~
of capacitance. The principlc is that the "alue of a capaciwr having fixed
dimensions will bc dependent upon dIe dielectric constant of the matler
bCI:wcen the plates. The space between the pla tes in a fuel contents capaciL'lncc=
unit will be filled with fuel, air or a combination of both. Air has a dielectric
constant (k) of I and fuel has a dielectric constant (k) of approximately 2. The
total capacitance of a tank contents unit will thercfore bc proportional to the
amount of fuel in the tank.
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CHAPTER FOUR
A V IONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT
,
I
d:::- D istance Bet\vcen Tubes
a :::- \,'all A rea of Tubes
- d - ' ,.\; ,. (k = I)
Fucl (k = 2)
k :::- D ie! ectri e Constant
Cap aei ta nee ::: k x a

d
-
Fig ure 4.10 - Simple F\le l Tank Capacita nce Unit
If you examine the illustration, you will see that fu el co ntent is pro portional to
capacitance. "'lIen a tank is being filled , the space between the capacitance unit
tubes will progressively fill \\~th fuel thus increasing the cap acitance value of
the unit.
A number of tank units connected in pa rallel are usually installed in a fuel tank,
T his compensates fo r changes in aircra ft attitude or surging of fuel in the tank,
F or example, if the aircraft banks and fuel runs tmvards one end of the ra nk,
some units will increase in capacitance whilst the capacitance of others will
reduce, the o\'erall capacitance remains unaltered .
1\1g~
uo- .
." capacitance " system Incorporates a re ference or compcnsanng
fuel gaugtng .
_O ...W:.~c'" capacitance unit. This unit is fully immersed in fuel and is used to compensate
~\,',I.<{f': fo r changes in pennittivity when diffe rent fue l specifica tions are used.
c
,~
\,k'
,,<{ .,..
Reference Capacitor
U'~
I
• ~
-
'"
~.
~
0'
r
Tank Capacito r
Fig m e 4.11- Simplified F uel Co nte nts Ga ug ing System
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AVIONIC GENERAL T ES T EQUIPMENT
The total capacitance value from the tank unitS is fed [0 a bridge [ect.ifie[
ci.rcuit where its amplitude is compared with mat of the reference or
compensating circuir. Where the bridge is unbalanced, the errOl" signal is
amplified and used to drive a moving coil instrument calibrated to read fuel
content in lbs or kg. At the same time, a wiper arm is moved across a
potentiometer in the reference or compensa t.ing circuit to rebalance the bridge
when the instrument pointer indicates the correct fuel quantity.
i\ lodern fuel quant.ity systems still operate on the capacitance principle but the
signals lire fed to a fuel quantity processor where mey arc: corrected for
density, converted to lb or kg and displayed on a digital fuel quantity indica (Or
for cach tank and on a total fuel quantity indicator.
A further advamage of a capacitance system is that the fuel content is

measured as mass, nOl volume. If the fucl temperature changes, the fuel will
alter in volume but trus changes its dielecuic constant. As fuel exp:wds, the
dielectric constant reduces. The resulr is, the mass measurement is not ahered
by changes in fuel temperature.
Because capacitance is used as a means for measurement, it is important that

the capacitance of rhe connecting cables in the system is kept at a constant
value. Coaxial cables having fixed, low capacitance are used in these systems.
Test Sec
The test set may be called a Fuel Capacitance Test Set or a Fuel Quantit), Test
Sec. The test set incorporates a bridge rectifier tcSt circuit and capacirors that
arc used to carry our several tests that include:
• }'lcasuri9tvhe capacitance yalues of single tank units

"'I~6 ...
. (.~\,,;~ i~asuring the roral capacitance value of several [ank units
... \):>"t'"
...
\. ,
:-;'
\~'
.
• Checking compensating units
c. co'\!.
• Measuring the total capacitance of units and wiring
• Simulating capacitance output from one or morc units to calibrate fuel

coments gauges
• Measuring the insulation resistance of tank units and wiring
• Conduct.ing fault diagnosis and isolating fuel gauging system problems.
1n :1ddition to ca rrying out the above tests on capacitive fuel gauging systems,
the set C:1n be lIsed to test any AC capacicive fl uid gauging system, including oil
and water sysrems. A tcs t set is available that can test both AC :1 nd DC
sys tems. The sets are portable and have a rugged design making them suitable
for use on the ramp as well as in a repair workshop.
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CHAPTER FOUR
A VIONIC GENERAL TE S T EQU I PMENT
Calibration
t\ final wo rd should be said regarding the calibra tion of test equipmen t. Each
manufacturer will stipulate the calibration period for thci r c(luipmenL j\ n
/\pp rm'ed j\ laintenance O rganisation is obliged 10 ha\'c a sys tem for
c01llrolling the test eCjuipmcm it uses. \'(Ie discuss calibra tion in other PflrtS of
this module. I lowc\"cr, the equipment should carry proof o f calibratio n and
info rmation on when the next calibration is d ue. You must not use the
equipment if this informacion is not :lyaiLtble. In a simila.r vein, if an item of
equipment proyes to be defective in usc. you must \\·i thdra\\.o" it fro m usc,
quarantine it, and clearly identify it as being de fecth-c.
Conclusion
\'\ "c hayc coYercd a number of itcms of test equipment that might be descri bed
:IS being 'in general use'" \\nat you would undcrHand to be 'in general use'
docs depend o n the type of aircra ft you work with. For example. J ha\'e not
included GPS, l\ [icrowa\"c Landing Systems. ARlNC 429 DAT!\BLS cte" A
geneml usc item of cquipment, such as the Pitot/ Static test set, lends to be
used on virtually all aircraft and that is the type of equipment wc ha\"c cO\'ered
in this chapte r. I3efore you take a well-earned break, there are a few multi-
choice answer questions fo r you to try .
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CHAPTER FOUR
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Questions
1. T he pressure in a Pitot / Static tes t set should be re turn ed to ground

a tmosphe ric press ure foU owing a test:
a) rapidly by opening the Vent Valve
b) gradually by slowly opening the Release Valve
c) br disconnecting the hose from the outlet pon
2. When carrying out an Altitude leak tesl with a Pi lot/ Static test se l,
the pum p output sho uld b e selected to de liver:
a) ncgaavc pressure
b) positive pressure
c) positive pressure up to 1500feer and negative thereafter

')\.)0'":
"Iauu ...
e'
GO\\"''?:
. ~,,'(.'S'. When preparing to conduct an Airspeed leak test with a Pitot/ Static
,\"\\. l-) test set, the output hose should b e connected to the:
·.,s~
(. ,,-v.. .
a) Static vent on the aircraft
b) airspeed indicator on the £lighl instrument panel
c) Pilot head on the aircraft
4. During a n Altitude leak tes t, a n air leak in the sys te m will be

revealed by a :
a) steady reduction in indicated altitude over the test period
b) steady increase in indicated altitude over lhe rest period
c) fluctuation in the configured altitude setting over the test period
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CHAPTER FOUR
AV IONIC GENER A L TEST EQUIPMENT
5. \"Vhen testing the operation of an Altitude s ..vitch, you should check

the altitude at which the switch:
a) closes during ascen t only
b) opens during descent only
c) closes durlng ascent and opens during descent
6. The operation of an installed Mach switch:
a) cannot be c hecked in sim
b) is checked using an.Air Data Test Set
c) can only be checked in iligbt
7. When verifying an SSR Transponder identification code with a test

set, the code must be firs t dialled into the:
a) aircraft Transponder
b) [cst set
c) ATC radar
8. When verifying the encoded altitude of an SSR Transponder, the

(\,(16 - 1l'fHiude code is first obtained ftom:
i: 1.\./
( o\\<.:'b
. ~~S1
, ' a) Air Traffic Control
. ,\,<'"
" (\'f
" b) the test set
- 0\!
l'
c) the Trans ponder
s---
9. When carrying out Marker tests, the codes, tones and ligbts are.:
cbecked on tbe :
a) tcst set
b) aircraft equipment
c) I nner, I\liddle and Ourer Markers
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C H APTER FOUR
AV I ONIC GENER A L TEST EQUI P M E NT
10. TCAS tests may be carri ed out on equipm ent incorporating a:
a) il.lodc 5 Tmnsponder
b) Audio Signal Generator
c) :\i\[jF?-.[ modulator
11. When the DME is selected to the ILS channel, it should indicate
distance to:
a) a selected \lOR beacon
b) touchdown
c) outer marker
12. When a Ttanspo nd et/DME test se t is used in a repair workshop, the

test signals arc con nec ted to the equ ipm ent under test through a:
a) remote antenna
b) imegral antenna
c) coaxial cable
13. A Fuel Quantity Test Set used to calibrate fuel gauges simulates
value~--R.fi
...,0\.'
~
,~,~i;. ,...
_ (,\.-'\ '-- .
. ~~<;0 a) capaClrance
,
",.(\~
... l~'o
"" b) reslStanCe
c) current r,
o
."
.<
o
~
14. A Fuel Quantity Test Set measures the output from tank units us ing ~
_.c"
a) ratiometer
b) bridge rectifier circuit
c) ohmmeter
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CHAPTER FOUR
15. Fue l tank quantity indicating sys tem s:
a) arc matched [0 the density of one type of fuel
b) hayc a fuel density selector
c) are unaffected by changes in fuel density
275
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CHAPTER FOUR
Revision
Answers
I. B
2. A
3. e
4. A
5. e
6. B
7. A
8. e
9. B
10. A
'),l)l\1
11. B '1i..'\\,)u
~f
Co\\c. ~ -
, ~).{(('2 . C
....:..\'\~"\\
. !3. A
,,-0\
14. B
15. C
276
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CHAPTER FI V E
ENGINE E RIN G DR A WIN G
Engineering Drawings, Diagrams

& Standards
I n trod uc don
.\n engineering drawing is a comprehensiye, documclHcd record of a
dcsigncr's requirements that is produced by draughtsmen in accordance \\';th
an approved standard that can be understood by a !..rained pcrson using the
d r:'I\\;ng, Dr~l\\;ngs may be used to conyey the requiremems for one or more
task proccsses that include, for example, production planning, purchasing.
manufacture, assembly, testing and inspection of an item, It is important that a
dra\\~ng contains sufficient information co enable the pcrson using it co ca rry
out the (e(luiced task. A dra'\i-ing must conL'lin all the required dimensions.
limits, fits, material specifications and processing information so that the
person us ing it docs not ha\'c to refer back to the design department, To avoid
any chance of misinterpretation, the person who produces the drawing and the
p ct~on \vho uses it must be familia r with the terms, symbols, abbre\'iations and
present:u:ion methods set out in the approved an d agreed standflrd.
\X1hen you consider the myriad of different manufactured products and

sys tems that exist, it would be virtually impossible to have one uniyersal set of
inflexible rules that could be rigidly applied to all cases. 'nlC stfllldard th:u is
useckilS" the general basis for engineering drawing practice is British St:md;Jrd
•. 7..\\\.'fBS) 308. W'ithin the aerospace indusrry, there are particular industry related
,(.'l\\":~'" drawing requirements that are published under the Society of B ritish
., \v((' Aerospace Companies' (SBAC) Technical Specific.'uion (TS) 88,
,\~. . \.. -' Appro\'ed Design Organisations then amcnd the B5 and SBi\C drawing
U"''\.':'\ " practices to suit their indi\;duaJ company relatcd requirements and produce
their own Drawing Office Standards,
"
I n current drawing practice, the International Organisau'on ias

S'imd<lrdisalion (ISO) system for dimensioning and tolerancing is bei~
uscd, However, many older drawings in circulation will still contain barry:
Imperial or Metric terms and tolerances.
p;=
:;
The aircra ft maintenance engineer \"ill encounter drawings and diagmtA'S
produced to sen'c man)' different purposes. Aircraft and aircra ft compon~t
manufacturers work to detailed working drawings of items to be manufact¥ed
and assembled. Aircraft Structural Repair 'Manuals and Aircraft StruG.t'llral
Repair Schemes also contain detailed workiA g drawings o f items ~ be
manufactured and assembled in support of autho rised structural repa i ~""
",
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C H APTER F I VE
E N GINEER IN G DRAW I NG
In:l completely different vcin, Aircraft Mainten:lnce Manuals contain hundreds

of illustrations of sys tem and structural components. Many of these :Ire
produced solely for :lssembly, instalianon, inspection and servici ng purposes
:lnd :Ire nor intended to be precise working drawings. Installation drn\\~ngs
show how p:'lrts arc to be assembled, secured, locked and adjusted in the
:lircraft. These may be in rhe form of pictorial views :lnd they may consist of
single parts or exploded views of assemblies of p:lrts. There arc Rlso schcmauc
system diagrams, wiring di:lgrams and servicing di:lgrams. We will be dealing
with diagrams later in this chapter. For now, we will be conecntraung on
engineering drawing praeuee.
Drawing Sheet Sizes

\Ve may as well start with the most basic item and that is the p:lper wc draw
on. There is no hard and fast rule on what size of paper you should usc except
th:lt the intended drawing. at the scale you choose, should preferably fit on it!
To gi\'e you an idea o f size, the British Standards Tnsurucion have produced an
1\ series of recommended paper sizes. The ,,~dth and length of each size arc in
the rauo of 1:I.41-t(root of 2). For example, 1\4 in [he series is the paper size
of this book.
AO il l
t\4 210mm x 297mm
Figure 5. 1 • Dra\ving Sheets
D rawing Formats
The next basic decision is how the drawing will be presented on the chosen
sheet. There arc two possibilities: the Portrait fonnat where the sheet is to be
viewed with the longest side "eruca! and the Landscape format where the sheet
is to be viewed with the longest side horizontal.
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Po rtr:l.it Landscapc
Figure 5.2 · Drawing FO Dll~l
Pictorial Views
PiClOrial \·jews are frequently added to engineering drawings to supplement

them by illustrating the appearance of items. The? are not suited for accurntely
pomaying complex proftles or shapes or for com'eying detailed technical
infonnation. They are used extensively in maintenance ma nuals. overhaul
manuals, and in pans catalogues . There arc three methods of producing a
pictorial view of an object: the Perspeco,'c Projection, the Obliclue Projection
and the Isometric Projection.
Perspective Projection
\\1hen we set about drawing a ,'iew o f any object in the Natural \'( 'orld, we arc
faced With perspective, things look smaller the further away they arc rrom YOll.
I f we were to draw an object as we see it, parallel lines would appear to
converge in relation to their increasing distance from us . I f we wcre to exrend
these receding lines, they would ultimately converge to intersect at a point \\le
call ths.'vanishing point'. There are sC\'eral ways of drawing perspective views.
~f6epeWding on from which angle you view the object. i\ popular method is to
• ~\c'?-(. l' draw one true face, as if it ·were across your line o f sight, so that all the
~~-..; ell remaining faces recede towards a single vanishing point.
., \.... ).
~
,;........
.. L
-
Vanishing Point
'0"\
c·
~.
'0
""
j
~
-'"
L
,"'"
FroOl .~
,~
0'
,~
Fig ure 5.3 · Perspective View '§
'v
£'
T hough perspectivc views look ,"cry natural, they are not bes t suit&! , for
displaying technical information. Parallel lines do not look parallel a@"' similar
dimensions [rom froOl to rear do not look simil1. The perspective \ricw would
be sui led to portraying the general appearance of an item in a sketch.
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CHAPTER F I VE
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Obliqu e P ro jecti o n
This type of \ricw also has ooe true face parallel (0 tbe plane of projection, or
across the line of sight. The difference is that the parallel receding lines remain
parallel and there is no va nishing point. The no rmal method of producing an
o blique projection is to draw the true fro nt face af full-scale and the receding
lines to half-scale at 45° to the ho rizontals on the front face. Less used
variations of the oblique projection include dra\\>;ng the receding lines either at
30° or at 60° ro the horizontal where this is thought [Q produce a clearer view
of particular features. Oblique projections are a useful way of illusmning the
general appearance of an item, possibly to show you the final shape of a mo re
complicated drawing, or simply [Q indicate where an item is positioned in
relation to The :tircrnft stmcnlre. There is only one true face in the oblique
projection.
Isometric Oblique
Fig ure 5.4 - Isomelrie & Oblique Projections
Isometri c Pro jecti o n
T his is the \t!oS\l..'\~dely used fonn of pictorial new. Tt is frequently used to

SUP~'P~rt~ views on working drawings and to produce illustrations in
({Dhilitenance manuals, overhaul manuals and parts catalogues. The receding
't ¢ ,,';1. lines remain pa.rallel and there is no \'anishing point. AU receding lines arc
. ,.;.\\J),' projected at 30° to the horizontal and all sides arc drawn to the same scale.
1.. 1.'- '\ This feature gives this type of projection its name in that 'iso' means the 'same'
and 'metric' means 'measure'.
Orthographic Projection
\'\!hen it is necessary lO show the exact size and shape of a complex item there
will be a need to present it as a number of different " iews. A cube has SL": sides
and each of these can be drawn as a separa te view. These would be rhe: front,
rcar, lefr side and right side elevations and the top and bottom views . \Y/e used
a cube as a simple example bur all objects can be considered as having a similar
number of views .
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENGINEERING DRAWING
,, " ,
,, , ,
I ,1
I ........
,
I ...... I I -I
'@1"" 1-
I
II
I
I
I
.. I I I
I r - - -I
I I I
?f\
,W , --G',~,0--
,'r' 2J
lr :
------I - ----~------,------
'0'
I
I
I
I
Left Side
- - -
I [5
I
I
I
00<
5;d
Re
'
I
I
I
"
l
, ,
I
I
I
I
I
I
.-----~-----~-----~----- -
'0 '
,
,
~
,'
,
Bottom I
------
'
,'
Figure 5.5· Orthographic Projection
It is not necessary to draw allSL'\: news to fully show an item. Normally, only
tbe 'dews that are required to clearly show the required feature s and
dimensions are drawn. The most commonly encountered drawings consis t of
one, two or three vicws. Occasionally, it may be necessary to produce an
additional view that may for example be projected from a sloped surface in
order to 5bO\v irs [me shape. In rhis case, an auxilialJ \-icw is drawn.
The "iews are arranged Oil a dra\"'v-i.ng in thcir celation to the fro nt elevation.
There are t\vo arrangemcnt systems, each of which depends 011 tbe type of
orthographic projection used. TIIere are two types of orthographic pro jection,
Fir~u&ngle Projection (European) and Third Angle Projection (American).
'!.Q\1S·Oth systems of projection are commonly used in general engineering bur
. c.o\\C~c drawtngs produced in the aircraft industry now conform to "Ibird Angle
• 'O"..~("'': Projection. However, there are early drawings still in circulation that may still
df'- !o.. conform to First Angle Projection . Both projection systems will show th e
-c'x'<""'- actual size and shape of an item when 'viewed in the horizont.al and vertical
l) planes. Occasionally, for convenience, the drawing rna}' be scaled up or down
C;'
The system of projection llsed will be indicated by a symbol in the form of t5.£
fr ustum of a cone that is included In the infonnation block on the drawing. ~
?
"
CJ @ @CJ
Fi rst .A ngle Projection Third Angle Projection
v
Figure 5.6 - Symbols Indica ting prl jection Me1hod
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENGINEERIN G DRAWIN G
First Angle Projection
T he principle used in fi rst angle projecrion is {Q place the drawing of (he sidc
you arc "icwing on the opposite side of lhe object. It is as though you arc
projecring the side th rough the object onto a screen on the oppositc side.
From Vicw Side Vicw

1
[3 '\
0
Plan \'jew
Figure 5.7 - FUsI Angle Projection (Principle)
For example, the lOp, or plan view, will be posirioned undernc:nh the fro m
eleva tion. The left side elevation will be positioned to d lC right of the front
elevauon and vice versa.
r im J\nglc
From View Side Vicw
Plan View
Fig ure 5.8 - Firs t Angle Projection (Arrangement)
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CHAPT E R FIVE
ENGINEER I NG DRAWING
Third Angle Projection

The principle used in third angle projection 1S [Q place the drawing of the side
you are viewing adjacent to that side.
j "plan View
Front View
~cVicw
Figure 5.9 - Third Angle Pro jection (Principle)
For example, the rap, or plan view, will be positioned over the front eievanon.
The left side clention will be positioned to the left of the front cle\"ation and
vice versa .
Third Angle Snnboi ® -E3-

0 Plan View
0
Side View
[]] Front View
Fig ure 5.10 - T hird Angle P ro jection (Arrangement)

,
~
,
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENG I NEERING DRAWING
Views
The general practice when producing views of aircraft parrs is to drilw them
looking at the left side of the aircraft. This means that when there is a handed
part, the left hnnd part would be drawn. \V'hen a different view is dr:nvn, it will
be clearly annotared to identify it. for example, "'iew looking forwa rd :n
station XV'. The number of differem ,riews of an item that will be shown on a
drawing will depend on its complexity. Simple items may be fully described in
twO views whcrcils a more complex item may require three or even four views
to show all the details.
Auxiliary Vi ews
When an item has a sloping face, neither the plan ,;e\v nor any other clenuon
will show the true shape of the inclined face. The true shape is drawn using an
auxiliary "iew Ihal is projected on a plane that is parallel to the inclined surface.
CD View in Direction
of Arrow
Figure 5.U - Auxiliary View

EJ
Secti onal Vi ews
It is somerimes necessary [0 show an item \vith all or part of a view cur away to
reveal hidden fealUres. A sectional view may consisl of a plan or elevation that
has been completely cut through along one of tbe centre-lines. Alternatively, a .t'-.
part or half secoonal view may be considered more suitable. Siaggercd
sectioning may be used [0 rake in particular features.
'~
I-Iarching lines arc normally drawn to indicate exposed cut-awny surfaces.

These lines arc drawn at 45° to the axis of the section. Adjacent sccooncd
surfaces arc hatched in different dirccOons. Bolts, screws, rivets, pins, shafrs
and ribs arc not normally secooncd along their longitudinill axis.
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I
SeeciDn A-A Part Half
Sectio n Section
Staggered Section
Figure 5.12 - Sectioned Views
Types of Drawing
BS 308 recommends four types of drawing:
Single Part Drawing
A single part drawing is used to show a single item or assembly and is a detail
dra\ving that contains all dIe data required to completely describe the item to
be manufactured. This includes the: fonn, dimensions, tolerances, material,
special processes and finish. The final drawing mal' consist of one or more
sheets.
y -y
I
Figure 5.13 - Sing le Pan Dc:""ing
<;:.
Collective Drawing ""--:;-
-
)Q
7
A collective drawing is used when a single part is produced to a series o f.

different specifications, each having different features but based on a simil~
shape. The differing features may simply be in the material or finish etc . .tp
other examples, the differences may be in length or thickness. Because t:§e
items are all similarly shaped, they are defined by a single drawing th3f'is
accompanied by an identification table and a code for each item . You may,Ji"ear
these type drawings referred to as tabular drawings fo r that reason. -\~ood
example would be that of a special bolt that is supplied in different q1aterials
and protecti\'e finis hes or in different diameters and length s. &
•
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CHAPTER F I VE
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l B'I
I I' A
-Hr~--E-B
GjFI1----F-l-
Cod Finish T hread ,\ B
~i:tteria ()
1\12. I-ITS CAD Unified?
A12 CRS ~AT Unified 2A
t\ I?~ HTS CAD Unified 3A
AI2 ALA Green Umfled 2A
Figure 5.14 - Collective Drawing
Constructional Drawing
A constnlcDonal drawing is an assembly drawing that contains sufficient

dimensions and informacion to describe how each component part of the
conSLnlc[ion is brought together. Each component is identified on the drawing
in relation to a pans lisf that is included as a part of the ride block.
\\'a sher Steel

4 2
Nut 1/] in .\ -
3 2
2 Pul er 2
rae -cr I
Item Descri Don 1"o.Ofl
Figure 5_15 - Simple Assembly Drawing

E
3
Combin ed Drawing
A combined drr\wing contains an assembly drawing and a parts list together

with separate drawings fo r all me individual component parts on rhe one
drawing.
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CHAPTeR Five
eNG INee R I NG DR AW ING
Parts
Assembly
~-$- ~I!~II
Figure 5.16 - Com bined Dra~",i ng
Aircraft Drawings
A complete set of dra\vmgs relating to a particular aircraft, together with the
specifications and documents assoClated 'with the drawings, provide the record
of the information that is required to manufacture and consrruct the aircraft.
These drawmgs also form an essential part of the inspection records. A sct of
drawings is configured so that cvery component, dimension , process or
operation is traceable. Tn this sense, the drawing types bear a relationship with
those wc hayc already discussed but you may encountcr slightly different
terminology.
General Arrangement (GA) Drawings
Thi10rrPe of drawing is used to illustrate the I 'general arrangement' of the

;..Gl1UrCiaft, main assemblies and systems within the aircraft. These drawings only
, C<."l\\c.'be. illustrate general profiles . For example, a whole assembly or system will be
• \\~..<': shown on the drawing and the location of the component parts will be
. \~,\. b identified along with references to their associated drawings. These drawings
(P'\...... - will also proyidc a guide to the identification of drawings used by the design
organtsanon. It is a bit like looking at a map of the whole London
underground rail network to identify the whereabouts of a particular line a€1
then a station. You are able to relate these to thq overall profile of the netw~
and recognise the sign~ used but must seek further illustrations to see whar--t
particular station looks like. ;
Main Assembly Drawings

'-
Tl1cse drawings may also just contain a general profile and only giyC su ffici# t '"'
infoml ation for the assembly of parts and ~ub-assemblies into the ~n
assembly. The detailed information relating to the individual component..{parts
or sub-assemblies is not repeated on a main assembly drawing?l" This
information will be shown on separate sub-assembly and single part d~",vings.
,'5
v
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CHAPTER FIVE
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You will also encounte r assembly drawings in Aircraft Pam ~ranuals where
they are often presented to you as exploded pictorial views. The assembly will
carry a reference number and each parr will carry a unique part number. The
single parr drawing number relating to each item is included in a mblc adjacem
to the drawing.
ltrm Descri lcon Dr.vg ~o. , '
4--
Figure 5.17 • Exploded View
"i11CSC drawings provide sufficient infoml<1tion to enable component single

parts to be brought together into a sub-assembly. \,('hen special processes such
as welding, shrinking, pressing etc. are involved; the drawing will give details of
any heat treatments or anti~corrosivc treatments required. Any information
related (0 special tools, jigs or fixtures would also be included .
.,01..1<
los lalla li<tn'l!Dr5wings
,-
CO\\I;'tl
~ ",~:tq:h ese
drawings are used to show how parts are assembled inca the aircraft in
~,,\ '- rcl:\uon [0 other components and assemblies. They illustrate the positioning,
. ,-~<;;'.'t\"'" clearances, settings, connections, adaptors and methods of locking used to
l. . successfully install the parts. You will also encounter this type of drawing in the
Aircraft r..laimcilance i\[anual when you remove and install equipment. In [his
laner casc, the drawings will often be presented to you as pictorial \Tiews.
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Figure 5.18 • Simple InSlallacioD D rawing
Individual Part Drawings
These are single part drawings. They contain all the detailed information
required to m."\Oufacrure a pan to the design requirements. T his information
will include material specificauons, dimensions, tolerances, machining
processes, surface finish and anr special processes required .
Repair Drawings
Wie should mention these here, as they arc a special case. Standard repairs that
may be applied to all aircraft of a particular type are contained in the rclated
Aircraft Stmcmral Repair ~[anual. These repair schemes apply to one pa rticular
aircraft type only and include information on the classification of damage, the
repair limits, methods for dressing out damage and crack detection, repair
practices and the details of repair materials and ff!.steners etc.
"\l!j.,rh~~tfd1ere is no suitable repair scheme in the Aircraft Structural Repair

_Cp\\C~c-'" Manual, the Design Authority may be requested ,to provide one. The scheme is
. '0~~~: normally issued in the form of a repair drawing. This drawing can only be used
",'0\ b- for the repair for which it was requested on a given registered aircraft. If a need
-0'\'-;~\::: arises to conduct a similar repair to another aircraft, this can only be done if
L,: the Design Authority authorises its reusc. \'?hen it is foreseen that there \vill be
a frequent need for the repair, thc Design Authority rna}' incorporate the rep:Y:'r
into the Aircraft Structural Repair Manual. , 3:
'.F-i'
We will be discussing the authonsation, control and amendment of airera l{
drawings later in this chapter. For now, we will look at more of the drawing;
practices that are used on aircraft drawings. !
,~
p
:!?""
Scale r~
A'
d;'
]\ drawing must be produced to a uni fom1 scale. In many cases, the6drawing
will be to full size but there ""rill be occasions when a drawing may h~vc to be
",J,d up 0' dowo. The ,c,Je o[ , d",,"og i, T ted " a "cio, the tetro' '[ull
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C H APTER F I VE
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size', 'half-size' etc. are NOT used. The correct method of identifying 'full size'
is 1: 1. On drawings smaller than full size, we usc reduction ratios. For example,
half size would be 1:2 and qwmer size would be 1:4.
\X1hen drawings arc enla rged to morc than fuj I size, we use enlargement rauos.
For example, twice the full size would be 2: 1 and five urnes the fu ll size would
be 5: I. T he original scale used on a drawing is stated in the title block. For
ex:nTIple: ORIG INAL SCAL E 1:2. \Vhen the abbreviation NTS is marked on a
drawing it indicates 'Not to Scale'.
No drawing should ever be measured to establish an unknown dimension. Jf a

dimension is required, and it is nor shown on rhe drawing, you must refer the
query to the Design .Amhoriry.
Lines
BS 308 includes recommendations on the types and thickness of the lines used
in drawings. All lines should be drawn uniformly black and there should not be
a mix of pencil and ink on the same drawing. T he acrua! line thickness in
copies of drawings may vary from rhe original drawing bec<luse most
reproduction methods of reo introduce inadvertent magnification or reduction
in copies. Thick lines arc normally drawn O.7mm wide and thin lines <Ire
normally drawn O.3mm wide. The following table illustrates (he v<I[ious types
of line and their application.
t;.
"".,-.
Figllre 5.19 - E xamples of Types of Lines
%-
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Line Description r\pplicacion

Continuous Visible: Outlines
Thick (O.7mm) Visible Edges
Continuous Dimension ! ,illes
Thin (03mm) Pru jccdon Lin es
Leader ! ,i nes
Il:ttching
Rcyoh'cd Scccion Outlines
Tmagina rr Intersections
STu)!"t Cemre Lines
Outlines of Adj~cem Pans
Fictitious Outlines and Edges
Shorr Dashed Hidden Ourlincs
------- T hick (O.- mm) I IiJden Edges
- - ----- TShort Dashed Note: Thin d~shed is more

hin (O.3mm) commonl" used in the UK
_._._. Chain Thin
(O.3mm)
Cenm: Lines
lines of Snlllnctn'
Tra jectories of ".\ IO\·ing" Pans
Loci '
Pitch Lines and Pitch Ci rcles
Continuous limits of parci~ l \'iews or
~ Irregular interrupted \·jews and
(O.3mm) seccions when the limit
is not on :m ~X I ~
Continuous Limits of partial \·iews or
~ T hin Zig Zag interrupted views and
sections when th e li mit
tS nor on an aXIs
(suited fur drawinj;s
produced by Ill:lCh lne)
------ Chain T hin Cutting Pl anes
r--- T hick at ends
I
and at
changes
I
I
of direction
~.7mm Thick
.3mm Thin)
..J
_._._. Chain Thick
(O.-mm)
Indic:Hes lines or surf:Ices
whe~e a special requirement
aKphes
( u\\"n adjaccnt to
surf:lce)
~.
Chain T hin Outlines and edges of
_ _ .. - \\ith ad jacent pahs ~,
..
Double Dash Extreme b:0sltions of -.
(O..lmm) mova Ie parts %
Bend tines and initial
oudines prior
formi ng '"
Table 5.1- Types of Lines
(:
~
.Ai'"'
Das h ed Lines
I
Dashed lin es should be drawn so that tile dashes arc of eq ual lc!2£th and
§ "
'-'--
spacing. The line should always start and end with a dash and shotJil always
meet with dashes at tangent points and corners.
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Chain Lines
AU chain lines should start and end u>1rh ;! long d;!sh ..<\ thick dash should be
used at the ends of cutting plane lines and al changes in direction. \Vhen cenrre
lines arc drawn to indicate centres, me lines should always inrersect at long
dashes. Centre lines should only be exrended a shorr distance beyond a view
but should not Start or terminate at another line on the drawing. I f a cenrre line
is requiIed for dimensioning, it should be extended as a profection line. Cenrre
lines should not be extended across adjacent views to form a common centre
line. \,\'hen a chain line cbanges direction, it should do so at a long dash and
when it meets another chain line, at a corncr for example, long das hes should
meet.
Leader Lines
Leader lines arc used to provide margins for dimensions or to indicate where
symbols or annotations apply. Arrowheads on leader lines always touch and
StOP on a line. Dots on leader lines are always placed within the outline of an
item. When an arrowed leader line is used (0 indicate a radius, it should be in
line with the centre of the curve or circle. Leader lines should not be too long
or intersect with oilier lines. This can be difficult [0 avoid but the lise of
alternative dimensions and symbols may overcome the problem.
Dimensioning
Funet'ional Dimensions
Funccional dimensions are those that direcdy affect the function o f a part and
these must be )~~n on the drawing. An example would be the lengdl of the
. .') I\II\)
pla.l~-£~1l0n of a stepped bolt.
<" l .
..: \'\~'(Non~functiona l dimensions
\.;s-.. .
\.>~'\
" . Non~functional dimensions do not have any effecr on the function of a part
and are provided to suit production or inspection. The depth of a bolt head
would be an example of this.
Auxiliary dimensions
Auxiliary dimensions are sometimes provided where they might be considered

to provide useful supplementary information. TIley are nor pro\·ided with
tolerances.
Dimensions
All dimensions on a drawing should be displayed in such a way th:lt yOll do nor
have to deduce a dimension from adler dimensions. Dimensions are always
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CHAPTER FI V E
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positioned so that they cao be read from the bonom or the right hand side of
the drawing. Dimensions are nonnally only giyen once and arc not repeated in
all views. There should be no more dimensions than arc required to define the
pan. The units llsed are stated in the infom1arion in the tide block and arc not
further identified in the drawing unless a unit fo r a particular dimension differs
from this. I n this case, the unit \"ill be annotated alongside the dimension.
The values atuibuted to dimensions should be given to the least number of

significan t figures for example, 22 and not 22.0 or 22.5 and not 22.50.
I-I O\\'c\'er, values less than onc should be preceded by a zero. i.e. 0.5. Drawing
practice in some countries replaces the decimal point with a comma i.e. 22,5.
Centre lines. extensions of centre lines and outlines should not be used directh'
as dimcnsion lines; they can howCl-er be used as projection lines for them. A
dimension line should be drawn between I."WO projection lines that start just
dear of the item and extend JUSt beyond the ends of the dimension line. \X'here
possible. the crossing of projection and dimension lines should be a\·oided.
\X'here tlus is not possible, me dimension line must not be broken at the
1!1tersecuon. Projection lines on the other hand may be broken where tlus aids
darin'.
Dimensioning from a Datum

This is the most common method of dimensioning used in drawing~ . AU
dimensions drawn along it horizontal or vertical plane arc measured frolll it
common datum edge or line, In the illustration, there is one vertical damm
edge and one horizontal damm edge. The choice of which edge or line to use
as a datum i~ often important to the set up of automatic. numericallv
controlled maduoes. Additionally, this fonn of dimensioning flvoids th~
pro9~!Tl where the cumulatiye effects of tolerancing separate dimensio n~ can
,i..\\N!su1t in out of limits work .
. '\cC.c -
. l,'" .
\\';1.'('(': 140
,
\~'\\
,;5 ~
..
95
-o~
L 40
~ffi=-- Elz
0
·c
~l "'
~
iJ!!
,,-
2 Holes 15 Dia
65
All DimenSions
1n i\fillime[!"(~s
Figure 5.20 - Dimcns ioning from a Datum (recom mc nded)
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENGINEERING D RA WIN G
Chain dimensioning, between individual faces or hole ceorres, is not normally

used. The problem with chain dimensioning is that you would have to add
each dimension up as you went along a face to establish an overall dimension .
.r\ more serious problem occurs because the cumulative effect of all the
individual tolerances in a chain of dimensions may exceed the overall
permissible limit. Trus will result in the production of unacceptable parts and
can create problems when assembling parts rogether.
40 55 45
-
~
~
-8- -0-
~
-
~
, 0>
N
20 ~S .I
Figure 5.21- Example of C hain Dime nsioning (not recommended)
An alternative mccilOd that is often employed 00 riveted joints is (0 locate the

end holes and add an annotation such as '22 rivets equally spaced'. Tlus
method is particularly useful when dealing with curved profiles.
Dimensioning Curves
Symmetrical curves are ideally dimensioned by using radii. \'(' hen a radius IS 50
large that its ct;.~"" cannot be shown on rhe drawing sheet, a zigzag radius line
can h~,-drl\t-~. The portion of the line that tOllches rhe arc would be drawn in
- ~\;..",
e-ligHmenr with the true centre of the curve.
= '?:/~{
y
'\\~
eo'
_\...~"l
c·
,
c-.
""-."
""
"
Using Radius
U smg Ordinates
Fig ure 5.22 - Dime nsioning Cu rved Profiles
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENGINEERING DRAWING
\\lhere a CU1TCd profile is not symmetrical, a method using ordinates can be

employed. \\7hen it is possible to use it, the radii method is more accurate in
that it is not affected by errors that may be inad\-enently introduced when
drawing ordinates.
Dimensioning Tapers
T here are a number of methods used to dimen9ion a tapered item. These are
self-explanatory from thc illustrations . Do note the use of the international
symbol for taper that appears in one of them.
501 ncl UdCd
§[EJm I. 40 .1
Efi
I.
. - 7.f
40 ~
Angle
-.lli
r--C
§[ t==t--
18
-- -- -- '0
N
&
I. 40 .1 ~ 40
Use of the Taper Symbol
Figure 5.23 - Dim ensioning Tapers
,~ol~I'ances
't~ c.,3\\e.'~" - As we discussed earlier, for current projects, thc I nternational Organisation for
t 'Q.~«, . Standardisation (ISO) system for the dimensioning and tolerancing of drawings
.,:...~,... is used. HOW(Ter, older drawings will still contain earlier system s for Imperial
(i-'\(...... and i\letric terms and tolerances.
Most linear and angular functional dimensions will be subject to a tolcrance.g\

general tolerance is often given in the title block and this is intended for usc ~
all dimensions. However, some dimensions may require individual tolcranc~
that differ from the general rolerance. In these cases, the tolerance will b;
2
annotated together with the relaxed dimension on the drawing.
,
A tolerance may be unilateral or bilateral. A unilareral rolerance is one wh~
the pennirtcd dimensional variation is in one direction only. Tlus may be ei~r
above or below the basic size. A bilateral toler.wee on the other handi1s a
permitted dimensional variation that is both above and below the basi§size.
The tolerance may be written by showing the upper and lower limits,'bf the
dimension. In this case, the upper limit is located above the lo~r limit.
Alternatively, the nominal dimension may be giv~n followed by the p'errnissible
295
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENGINEERING DRAWING
deviations above and belmv mat value prefixed by a plus and a minus Sign
respectively.
~300 20'
~9° 40'~oO ± 40'
A,
R3±.:); ll-+
Sphere
R?5 +2
grp
0 29 0 19
0
I--- 80,S ----->I 80 - 0,5 80 + 0,5
79,5 I- -I I- -I
Figure 5.24 - Dime nsinnal Tolerances
Angular tolerances arc cxp ressed in a similar way, either by showing the upper
and lowcr limits in degrees and minutes, or by shO\ving the permissible
deviations from the basic angular dimension,
Geometric Tolerances
Other dimensional feanues that relate to the shape of an item often require dIe
application of a tolerance. \lie have discussed how tolerances are applied to
linear and angular dimensions but these do not control features such as, for
example, parallelism, squareness or roundness. Early drawing practices
involyed annotating the feature \"ith the abbreviation POSN TOL and then
adding notes in t1~~ drawing to specify the tolerance. This method was both
space and,Jjmc ~6nsuruing and has OO\\' been replaced by an internationally
a.!?C..~'(i:.~~ };Stem of geometric tolerances dlat uses symbols that relate to
\'J'J.~ lhrtieular features.
lC
. 1\,.... -
, ~,,~
( 9~--' Single Features Related Features
Form: Attitude-
Su:ai hrness Parallelism II
Flatness o Squareness ...L
Roundness o Angularity .L.
Cyliodrimv Location·
ProfIle of a Surface 0 Posirion ~
Profile of a Line Coneemriciry @
Additional Informacion Symmetry - -
)'faximum Material Composite:
t::: IRunout
Condition
Dimension \'';/hich
o fines a T me POSitiOI'P--
I /" I
Figure 5.25 • Geometrical Tolerance Symbols
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CHAPTER FIVE
E NG I N EER I NG DRAWI N G
All me information relating to a particular geometric tOlerance is inserted intO a

rectangular frame and an arrowed leader line is then drawn fro m the frame to
indicate the location of the related feature .
S\·mbolised
when Tulerance
Symbol for Type Applies to ?\fl\fC
of Tolerance Tm:tl Tolerance of the Feature
j j j
A
t f
Datum
Symbo l used
when Tolerance
is Circular or
Cdmdrical
Figurc 5.26 - Geometric T o lerance Frame
Tf the tolerance IS related to a darum, then a leader line is drawn to connect the
frame to that darum. A small, solid equilateral triangle is drawn at me point
where the leader line meets the datum line. ~AJternativ cly, the darum line or
particular darum features mar be identified by a letter or letters inserted into
the frame.
a) Squareness b) Symmetry c) Position

Jl' 2 \ 'l.:;. A
~
" ""
<
~.
d) Parallelism e) Concentricity f) Angularity ~
o
~
Fig m c 5.27 - Exam ples of Geometric Tolerancing

,
A few examples o f geometric tolcrancing have been illustrated for you and ~
can examine a selection of these to help you to interpret their meanings, anqgo
see how they save writing lengthy notes on a drawing. The fIrst exampl~(a)
refers to th e squarcness of the part in relation to a darum face that is indJtated
by a leader line and a solid triangle. The frame shows the symg§1 for
squareness in the first box and indicates that a squareness tolerance ~~O.4mm
is required. )'
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CHAPTeR Five
eNGINEeRING DRAWI NG
The second example (b) is a little mo re complicated and refers to the symmetry
of the part. T he arrow from rhe frame points to the hole and the letters in the
frame indicate thar this is 10 relario n to rhe datum feanues A-B. These damm
features are identified both on the drawing and in the last box in the frame.
The frame shows the symbol for symmetry in the first box and indicates that a
symmetry tolerance of O.2mm is required with respect to the datum features :\
and B. This means that the axis of the hole must lie between tWO parallel
planes O.2mm apart that are symmetrically arranged about the common plane
of tbe sims in the ends of the part.
Now look at the fifth example (e). The symbol in the first box in the frame
indicates concentricity. The second box shows tbe symbol indica ring that the
tolerance of 0.2mm is circular in [elarion to the datum circle A. T his means
that the outer circle must be within a concentricity of 0.2mm with the datum
circle :\.
Finally, look at the last example (£). The symbol indicates angularity. The
tolerance is 0.5 minute in relarion ro datum A. The final symbol M indicates
tint the rolera nce applies only to the maximum material condirion of the
dimension or datum feature and may be greater at tile actual finished size.
Machining & Surface Texture Symbols

The basic machining symbol is an open tick th at has legs drawn at 60u to a line
representing the surface. When the rick bas a crossbar, il indicates that the
surface requires machining. If the rick contains a circle, it indicates thar
removal of material is not permitted. The symbols are applied normal to the
relevant surfaces or nonnal to projecrion lines drawn from tlle surfaces.
'"IUll- Surface Te."{ture Equivalents

-
~
'o rllina [jerome'f 0.02.5 (l O.5 0.1 0.2 0.-1 0.' 1.6 3.2 6.3 12.:;
Val ues Microinch I .,
2 4 S 16 J2 63 1' - 25 ; 00 I 2000
ROLlghn es~ t-:Llmher NI ;..;:: N3 N-I [\:.5 N6 1':7 NB ~ 9 1': 10 :;"';11 N I2
~ ~Jl O'" #-
2 P .1
Vt
T)Vical r.lachining Symbols No Material
4 to be Removed
ft'
'--='---_ :::r~
Figure 5.28· Mac hining a nd Surface T exture
\'(lhen an Item IS to be machined all over, the machining symbol will be

annotated 'ALL OVER'. If a parricular machining process is required, the
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENGINEERING DRAWING
symbol will be annotated to reflect this. There arc different systems for
expressing surface roughness. It may be expressed in micro-metres. in micro-
inches, or as a roughness index number. The appropriate surface lCX[U[C values
nc annotated alongside the machining symbol. \Vhere there are maximum and
minimum values, the maximum value is located above lhe minimum value.
\Vh cn only one. value is annotated, It represents the maximum permissible
,'atue o f roughness for that surface.
Conventional Representations
!
i
External Thread Intern:ll Thread Thread Insert . \sscmblcd Screw
l<Ourling Bearing Spring
Figure 5.29 - COllvenlional Re presentations
[\ n'l\Tlber of common features may appear in drawings. Examples of these are

;"1.'\.I~lternal and external threads, splines, springs, squared cnds, knurled pin heads
{' C\l\\C'b~ ~nd bearings. To avoid complexity, .and to sa'-e time, these items arc not drawn
'- \"")5 . tn full but ;'lre illustrated by con,eononal representation.
,\-,\ -
~:.5\':"
-C'o;;:
L- Mv-,
-~ -$--${l)
External Lmernal T hread S 1- _. Sh .
Thread Thread Insert P IOCu, atl
+++++++
+ +
+ +
<? ++++++++
I-Ioles in Linear Pitch Holes in Circular PilCh
Figure 5.30 - Conventional Reprcscnlarions
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CH A PTER FIVE
EN G INEERIN G DR A WIN G
Break Li nes
\,(!hen a drawing contains a long component of uniform section, ir is

sometimes nOI practicable to draw il in full. Break lines can be applied to the
section.
[3-l-+ +--, ,--t

Solid Shaf[ Iiollow Sha ft
DD G eneric Break Li nes Break Lines (\'("ood)
00
Figure 5.3 1 - I nlerrupted Views (Break Lines)
'0
.
S,
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CHAPTER FI VE
ENGINEERING DRAWING
Abbreviations & Symbols

T o awid cl uuering a d nl\\ing up \\~th Jcnglhy narrati\-es and an notations, (here
arc: u niver ~ all y accepled abbrc:dations and symbols. l'. lan)' of these are self-
explanator), but we need to see a selection o f them before we can make a
judgement on {hal.
T e rm Abb. T erm Abb .

\cro~s tl~IS .'F Puch CIrcle di!lmcu~~r I>(:D
\~~c!llbh- ,\5SY Pnellm~uc P:\EL
Ilnmh S'~ndlrd "S Pound weighl I.B
Cemres eHS H~diu~ n /\D or It
Cemrc line CL Reference RIF
Uumfcrcd CH.\\! Rcqlllred REQD
(:hc:e~c hc:ld CIIIID RC\,(lluuun~ per minute RP~I
(oulllcr borc CBORE RIght hand RII

(uumersunk CSK Rountl hc:~d ItO liD
Cylinder evlindrie:1I CYL Screw ultends:
"' •
0ct:rec of :tngle Bnrish \ssoci:lrinn U'
Dlameu::r in nou~ DI\ Bmish St\muard Fine BSF
nsp
D,:tmeter on dtnl<;nSlOn
hf,'Ure "
FIG
Hnush St."lndard Pipe
Bmi<h Std \'("hi[\Wlrth 135\,'
Full inthCaled mtwcmem FJ\! Lmfied CU:lr~e l',\(
Brmdl h.udness HU L.:mficd fine L',\f

Ruckwdl h:udncss I-IR L' nuiui <peG.J.! L::"S
\',ckel"i h;J.rdnc~s HY I k'(.2gon HEX
I-kugon HE" :"ccond nf angle
..
11c'(~gon head III-X liD Sheet SH
Ilydraulic I !YD Sketch Sf.:
I n~ull,ccl !i\SCL 5pccificaiion SPI-.(
[mern.ll ciJameter t D Sphene.1I diameter SPI!ERE 0
Left hand Lit Sphmc.u r;!d!us SPIIERE R
[.lJll!,( LG Spot hee S'F -\cE
\behlnc ~I 'C Scju:ne SQ
\l:tdllncd ~\ I C.H Squ:lre ineh SQ It-: o r in'
\\:tlcri:!) ~I ·\TL Standard 5TO
\l:t'(IIllU1l1 \1.\:\ Slandard wire gauge !)\'\ 'G
\I.lx material condition \I~[C or 6:D Taper ~
\[!lhmctre ~f) 1 Thread~ rer Inch TPI
'01 to 5cale "TS l'ndcreut L"CLT .
'umlxr '0 \'(IIUIll(' \'01.
Outsidc dJamCler OlD \\ei~ht \",.

P~lIern number P\TI~O
,
Table 5.2· Abbreviatio ns a nd Symbols
301
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENGINEERING DRAW I NG
Process & Identification Markings
lr is ofren necessary [Q apply ao identification m!uk, such as a specification
number, part number or drawing number, to an item. The drawing will specify
the mark to bc applicd, its location and the method to be used [0 apply the
marking. Additionally, componenrs may also need marking to show thar a
p:lCticular process has been carried out. These marks are in the form of
symbols and they arc shown on the drawing. \Ve should look at a few of the
mote commonly used symbols.
0 Annealed
0D Cleaned (pi pe~)
0 Normalised Steel Parts

Solutio n Treated and not
I~ Pressure Test
0 Requiring Precipiration IC 5 Sah'agcd
e Solutio n Treated and

Rcquiring Precipitation ® \'\ 'clding
0 Prccipitation F Dye Penetr:uH Chcck
~V
Solution Treated and
Prccipi [JI.ted F L"ltra-SoOlc Test
@ Hardened and Tempered @ ,\ nodic Flaw Detected
M ;\lcchanical Test XR X-Ray f law Detected
SR Stress Relie\-ed F ~ I agneric Flaw D etec[ed
® Proof Loaded
CD Etch Inspection of Steel
® Repaired and Reconditioned
1\"$Y-; Tab le 53· Pwcess & T reatm ent Symbols
, (p\\t:~
,- 11,)$b - ..
.S,)~(·':
.i,,\.f;"'" 0.." Drawing Authority

\:.,c"" All UK civil aircraft ate constructed from pans and components that arc
manurncrured to approved dra.\yi.ogs ..All llrcraf( design drawings and their ~
",
related documentation are produced by an organisation thar has been approved
by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) in accordance with Brirish Civil
Airworthiness Requirements (BCARs). This means that there will be an
'".-p.
~
appro\"Cd Design Authority for each aircraft type. ~
,E=
The rCCJuirements state tbat all calculations that affect the airworthiness of an ..::J
~
aircraft must be subjected to an independent check_ An example of dlis would '"
be the stress calculations carried out when producing drawings of strucrural
parts. This means that all drawings are subjected to a system of inspection and
~
,; '"
'"
""'"
certification that is similar to that applied to the parts that are manufacrured
from them.
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CH A P T ER FIVE
E NGI N EERING D R AW IN G
Drawings arc used by personnel engaged in: purchasing, planni ng, production,
m anufacmring, assembling and inspection. This means that a drawing m ust
contain all the infonn ation required by the departments engaged in these tasks .
The information would include: dimensions, limits, classes o f fi t, material
specifications ete. Su fficient infonnation must be contain ed in a drawing to
allow people [Q achieve their tasks without ha\Ting to continually refer back to
the Design Authority.
Authorised notes made on a drawing by the Drawing Office are made so that
they can be read in the same orientation as the drawing title block. No
unauthorised notes, calculations or sketches should ever be made on a drawing
by an: person for any reason.
I f a need arises to deviate from an approved drawing, or its related

documentarian, during manufacrure or repair, this can o nly be done with the
prior app roval of the CAA through the appro,;ed Design Authority. You
cannot deviate from a drawing "\vithout tllls approvaL Equally, when overhaul,
maintenance and repair tasks afe being carried out, the Certifying Engineer
mus t ensure [hal all repairs and replacement parts comply with app roved
dra\vings and documentation.
Botish Civil .Airworthiness Requirements (BCARs) Part A states that every

d rawing m ust comatn a descriptive title, a drawing number, an issue number
and the date of issue. It is a requirement that all alterations made to drawings
must be made in accordance ,,;th an authorised drawing amendment system
that \"ill also ens ute that the design records are amended . O ther than the
correction of minor clerical errors, when a change is made it will include th e
allocation of a new issue number and dare.
T here is a reqUlIemem for Design Authorities to periodically reVlCW and

amend the total drawing lists for a product such as an aircraft to reflect the
curren,! d rawing issue numbers and dates. Each aircraft variant and its
1ll..1J '
.,,,onodlllcation state must be clearly identifiable in relation to an appropriate list
o)\\<::;;.c. ... o f drawings . You need to be careful when obtaining aircraft drawings that YOll
.• . \':I).({": are using th e approp riate issue number. This can be ch ecked by reference to
.\~\. h- the updated drawlOg li sts that are periodically issued by the Design Authority .
(P~"':"\ ~ Some variants, such as prOtOtypes or pre-modification aircraft for example,
m ay confonn to earlier issue state drawings. It is essential that Approved
Maintenance Orgaillsations have a drawing issue control system mat ensur"?s
•
that only the correct drawings are issucd. -?.•
\,\lidl the foregoing information in mind, we can now exam.lOe how it 1S"
:rS-
~
presented in a drawing.
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CHAPTER F I VE
ENGINEERING ORA.W I NG
Identifying Title Block Information

£z 9vll£V Copyng
. h t K' ""'''''j!!U If!,I PrOlceUon
oncel n;~~~,~~~1 ' @ CJ
D rowmg Changes
~
m
,~
,"" ,
.\h""",,,,,
'" T , ., , . ,
~m) ,I ' ,I '
111112-lmm
,i , ,i,
I I I I
F
,.!l. SeeDon .\ -. \ ,
I'n.>ee, .... lknwk, I

-$- ~- I 4
3
2
C
Do Nor Scale I
C",dO (;r."n. , OF ,
hem l'ln;»n "m
, ,
0 ....",. Ijmnl U Title DmwingNo. B
SI!"C.' ! ~blcrul Company tl3R 46 23
Chro hrush Name
h sue nlle 15 11/07 \PPR \X,,,!,.n, Shc~' I .. r IShee,," \
, , , ,
"
Figure 5.32 - LayOUt oran ,\ircraft Drawing
Drawing N umb er
All drawings must each have a unique drawing number. No tWO drawings
should e\'er bear the same number. The Design Authority must maintain a
complete register of all the drawings thal it issues. There are three features
contained in a drawing number and we can use the number on the illustratcd
dmwing t~J\'f:,apYtlf these.
,e -
fAct.l'tt~t part of the number shown in the example is .A3R. The 1\3 is the
~) ~~~ projecl identity' code, which in this case indicates the type of aircraft. The
'«\'~\. letter R indicates tbar this is a repair drawing. The second pan of the number is
(y~"" -1-6 and that is the 'group breakdown', which in this case indicates a location on
the aircraft. The final pan is 23 and that is the regisrer number that has been
allocated in the related group of drawings. Apan from repair drawings, the
drawing number is normally used as me part number of the item.
Shee t N umbers
There are occasions when a complete drawing cannot be produced on a single .~

sheet. In these cases, continuation sheets arc used. TIle first sheet will be
identified as being 'SHEET 1 OF X SHEETS' and each continuation sheet
will be identified by its appropriate sheet number, i.e. 'SHEET 2 OF X
SHEETS'. \\fhere a schedule of parts is included that is applicable [Q all the
sheets, it will appear on Sheet 1 of the set.
304
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CH A PTER F I V E
ENG I NEER I NG DR AW I NG
O"~m.1 Sc:tk
1:1
D ra\\'n It:..- Limits +1),5 R:!dii ~(I,2 Problems Titl ~ D r.l\\; ng N o.

Sm~~s ) M.J;;Z Aircraft Re pair to
Cnmpa.,: Fr:un c SIn :\3 46 23
Check NJ;U;u Snho 511
Iss ue 1/1/0 " PPR N 200- G-A BCD 51" I "r I 5hL'
D:nc
F igure 5.33 - Title Block
Authorisation
Note tha t tbe signature block identifies the draughtsman, the p erson who
carried o ut the stress calculations, the person who checked the dra\l,.<ing and all
calculations and the person approving the drawing on behalf of rhe design
o rganisation named in the title block.
General Information
The title block contains a description of the d rw\ving, 10 this case a repair to a
specific registered aircraft. Also included are the general tolerances to be
applied, the dra\\;ng number and iss ue date, the original scale of the drawing,
the standards used, the units for dimensions and a symbol indicating that the
drawing is a third angle projection.
Drawing Changes
Any cha nge made to a design dra\ving, other than the correction o f minor
clerical errors, must be accompanied by a new issue number and date. Changes
may affect the part number referencing of parts on the drawing. All parts that
are added to the drawing because of the change, or parts that have been altered
by the change, assume the part number identity d f the new issue number. Parts
on ~~o dra\ving that have n ot been altered by tbe cha nge retain the original
,C\Ij~ue number as a part number. However, in all cases \vhere the
. G~)\\e't-c - interchangeability o f an item is affected, a new drawing number and part
"_ ~~J~' number must be allocated.
, .", '"
" '\~
D rawing Changes
(P~·
D a[e Issue Aheration
( I) D imenSion
1/ 4/ 07 2 25mm (DS)
was 24mm
(1) Radi i
4/ 7/08 3 Limit 0,2
\\"as 0,5
~
-
Figure 5 .34 - Drawing Cha nges
305
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENGINEERING DRAWING
Details of changes are written into rhe drnwing changes column on the
drawing. Alternatively. the changes may be recorded on an 'Alteration Sheet'
that is cross-referenced with the drawing. Each change is related to a change
number annotated in the 'issue' column on the d.rawing. The derails of [he
change are often accompanied by a drawing grid reference to help you [Q
locate the alterations.
You will sometimes see a letter used instead of an issue number. It is common
practice to use letters to register drawing changes on prototype aitcraft and
then to use numbers on production aircraft. This means thal all aircraft
drawings become 'issue l' as soon as production Sta.rts.
i\ change to a single part drawing may necessitate changes to drawings of

associated pa rts. For example, changes may be required where the alLered
single parr has to be assembled with other single parts. This can directly affect
manufacruring tasks in progress. The drawing change system would normally
carer for this by issuing an instruction that details the effects that a change has
on other drawings, on parts already in produccion and on partS held in srock.
The organisation also issues Drawing Master Reference Lists rhat derail all the
current issues of all drawings related to a particular component or assembly.
Drawing Queri es
It is common for queries to arise as the result of inadyenent drawing errors,

ambiguous instructions or difficulties encountered in purchasing,
manufacruring or assembling the partS as drawn. The design drawing office
should have procedures that enable a query to be raised by a client and for
supplying a satisfactory ans·wer.
A drawing query is initially raised on a Drawing Query Form that is sent to rhe
Design Authority Drawing Office. The answer may be framed in one of three
forms. An immnwate, provisional answer may be written on rhe Drawing
Q uery F't~nl th-ht is rhen rerurned to the originator. A temporary, fully
aREt~v<il, answer may be issued in the form of a Drawing Office Instruction
_ \"'l').{fhat has the same authority as the related d[jwing. A permanenr answer may be
\.t:'''' . . provided by the issue of a new or re-issued drawing.
,;,~ .
U,'X'
Drawing Office Query Fonm and Drawing Office Instructions must be
identified and cross-referenced to the amended drawing. The answer to a query
must include details of the effects on other drawings, parts in srock and parts
that arc in work. TIlere is an upper limit on the number of Drawing Query
Forms and Drawing Office Instructions permitted on a drawing. \'(Then this
limit is reached, the drawing must be either re-issued or replaced by a new
drawing.
Concess ions
A 'concession' is an authorisation to accept a limited quantity of materials,

parts, assemblies and equipment, which may nor be strictly in accordance with
the relevant drawings, specifications or other documents that define the design.
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Concessions are applied for by the user and must be authorised by the
Responsible Design Organisation. A copy of each concession note is retained
by rhe authorising Responsible Design Organisation. The Civil Ayiation
Authority does not approve concessions but they do act as an advisory service
when required and they do re\·iew the records of concessions periodically and
when issuing Certificates of Airworthiness. A concession may not require a
change to a dra\\-;ng issue number, the Responsible Design Organisation
decides which concessions should be recorded in the inspection records of
particular components , assemblies or parts. A document that is similar to a
concession may sometimes be encountered. T~ is known as a 'production
permit' and it may be applied for by the user and authorised by the Design
Office before production starts rather than during or after it. A typical example
would be permission to produce a part in an altematiyc material. It is really just
the same as a concession.
Part Referencing
Except for repair drawings, the part number o f an item is normally its related
drawing number. ~~ drawing of an assembly may cons ist of individual parts
where each has a separate single pan drawing. These parts will have part
numbers that relate to their related dra\ving numbers. Parts th,l(" appear on a
drawing that have no separate single part drawing \vill normally take on that
dra\ving number as the part number that IS then suffixed by an item number.
,nHe,d
P ~ Pan Hea d
Outside 3 I I ~ Omside
-
I l
2 4 I'D
- --
1
,
~
5 1\.) 4311 , ( hannel I

LiZ
lclS \\;·G
Channci I 1.72
4 .\346234 :\"D 18 S\v·G
Pan liD Rin:1
3
,
SPS4/452
SP86/ 543 SNP HDRh·et

"
2U
It) 46 .l; L72

I I Angle I 18 SWiG
hem Pan No. Item D~scripti o n
t\SDN PH \Iaterial
ISS uanrit\"
Figure 5.35 - Pan Refe[encing
,-,
0-
~
_0
Parts shown on a drawing are often identified by an item munber th>\f is
contained in a small cirde or 'balloon' with a leader line to show the loca ~ of
tbe related part. These item numbers arc listed in a schedule o f parts 8 n the
drawing where each item number is shown against its related descriR:#bn, pan
number, guanrity and, \vhere applicable, the material specification. B:ought in
standard parts are listed against their BS or SBAC specification numbers . There
307
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENGINEERING DRAWING
would be no drawing proY"ided for these parts. Consumabl~ items such as

shimming and gasket materials \v-ilJ be listed by their specification numbers in
the part number column and the quanriry will be shown as 'As Required ' or
'tl/R'.
Brief manufflcruring notes may be annOlated adjacenr (0 thc itcm numbcr

'balloons' on the drawing. \\nen [he abbreviation 'NO' appears by an item
number it indicales that there is no separate drawing provided for that item. In
these cases, the part number of the item will nomlally consiS[ of Ihe drawing
number followed by the item number, i.e.A3 46 23 4 NO. The information
rcquircd for the m:mufacl'urc of an N D item will be enrered in rhc description
and material columns on the parts lisL
I\n :dternati,"c mcthod of pafts referencing is to show the parr number of an

ilem in the 'balloon' and to list the all items in tbe pam list against thcir
marginal grid references on the OO\\;ng.
Hand ed Pa rts
J landed parts arc those where there are left band (port) and right hand
(starboard) parts, or upper and lower parts, or inner and outcr parts, or
forward and rear pans. Drawings containing handed pafts will show the left
hand, upper, inner or forward pan d.rawn. This pan will have an odd p."1r1
flumb er and the opposite hand will have the consecuci\"e t:1"t: n p:lrr number.
Parts that arc not handcd ha,·c an odd drawing number. -nlC parrs schedule on
a drawing contains two item quanrity columns, one for 'AS ORA \'\tN' and the
other for 'OPP llANO'.
Microfilm, Microfiche & Computerised Presentations

Microfil m b '!.I",r
"1\\\1
. ~\C.-;..c."
..~~J~&Hnical informacion is carried on d.ra\Ving~, maimenance, onrhaul and repair
\. .., \-..,. manuals and parts catalogues. The aircraft maintenance engineer is constantly
1\""~"1. reminded to consult this material and not try to commit information to
( . .' memory. That is, of course, excellent adnce because memory is a vcry
unreliable ,"ehicle. The problem is that the number and thickness of manuals
seems to increase O\'er time at an exponential rate and there would never be
sufficient copies to serve every individual in the workplace. The: answer to mat
problem came some years back in the form of microfilming.
The advantage of microftlming is that a few 35mm reels, representing

hundreds of pages, or entire sets of drawings, require vcry little storage space.
A further advantage is tllat, instead of carrying bulky manuals around, the
cngineer could pick up a light cassette from the Technical Library holding a
small reel of microftlm that might contain the entire contenrs of a maintenance
m:UlUal. The film quality was good and intricate details were nor lost in the
process o f reproducing the manuals or drawings. Another advantage is that
manuals and drawings become creased and soiled with use whereas the
microfilm reel is protected in its cassette.
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Special JSmm microfilm viewers were provided adjacent to each workstation

that enabled the operator to select and view any selected part of a manual or a
dra\\~ng as Ii stiU frame projected onto a ,ie\\~llg screen. In many cases, the
projected still image could be enlarged to reveal Intricate details. 70mm
microftlms can be used to store very large drawings and these can be read with
the naked eye if required. Some viewers were eguipped with printers that
enabled the operator to obtain working copies of selected informacion. If this
all sounds like the answer to a ll1..1..iden's prayer, there were drawbacks, the chief
one being the control of infonnarion change or in simpler terms, amendment
controls .
\\Then amendments are issued, a reel of microfilm is nor the easiest thing in the
world to alter. Firstly, the Technical Library mu~t be able to locate all the reels
in circulation. Frames could be cut out and ncw ones spliced in but this would
be time consuming and ci1e results would not be practical. Replacing the whole
reel would seem a better solution but this would invoke fliming all the material
again. One answer was to replace microfilm reels with a series of single
microfiche slides .
Microfiche
If you imagine the space that a whole set of aircraft dra\\·1ngs would take up,
you \vill appreciate the value of having them stored on microfiche. ~-\
microfiche is a single microfihn frame that might contain, for example. a single
drawing. Each microfiche is stored in a prmective, transparent envelope. ff you
need to obtain a copy of the drawing, you can print it o ut usmg the microfiche
copy as a negative. T housands of drawings can be stored in microfiche form
and the), are yery easy to file in sequence and tak.,e up yery little space. i\h nuals
can also be recorded onto microfiche where a single frame might contain one
or rmifc pages. Amendment control now becorhes simple. If a drawing or a
;..\\~ anual is amended, the single microfiche frame that is affected can be easily
, ~ .
. (,0\ e. replaced.
_ '9~{(.'l
. ~\....\.
.\\.~
'"
(,o\:"
Computerised Presentation
T he advances in information technology bave overtaken the microfilm Ja
microfiche systems of presenting information for many tasks . IVfanuals anii~
drawings can now be accurately stored In CD forma t and on mainframe har4-
drives. Computer temlinals can be used to access any desired part of the store ~
information wimout actually handling or transporting it in hard copy fo~
Change control can be exercised from the main ·terminal so that the users will
always receive the latest version. One consideration mat bas to be made is .~t
malmenance personnel need to have a sufficient knowledge of com~ter
operauon to be able to successfully access and locate the infonnatiOl~'they
reqlllre. '"
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However, the problem of hard copying still exists. "'hen printS are taken, they
are no longer under the amendment conrrol system. It is imponanr that prints
are nor rerained for convenience and passed on aher they have served [heir
initial purpose. h is a legal requirement that a Certifying Engineer ensures that
all work is done in accordance with approved manuals and drawings and, in
thai respect, ani}' the latesr issues will qualify as being approved.
Looking (Qwards the future, information processing is becoming ever more

miniarurised and it is now feasible thar an engineer can access any informacion
at any place at any time. Infonnation in narratiYe, photographic and
diagrammatic forms can be transmitted to computer screens anywhere in the
World. Video links can display acrual work in progress and specialis t advice can
be obtained with the specialist being able to remotely view the work in hand.
There is need for caution. The more forms that information appears in, the
more is the risk that it will become corrupted and be misinterpreted . The
Inlernet is a good example; the sheer volwne of information :wailable is often
the reason why people find it difficult to locale what they want or be certain of
its accuracy.
Specification 100 of the Air Transport Association

(ATA) of America
Introduction
ATA Spec 100 conrains the format and contents gujdelines for technical
manuals written by aviation manufacturers and suppliers and is used by airlines
and other parts of the aircraft maintenance industry. It is often referred to as
the ATA system of chapter numbers. The specification pro,Tides the industry
wide standard for aircraft system and chapter numbering. The advantage of
this system is ~~n.f infonnacion on systems and equipment wi.U always be
10cate~ ,~Ji:fl~' sa"i"ne place in the manuals regardless ohhe aircraft or equipment
)=:yp.ac~\\\~A Spec 100 also includes a method for coding electrical cables that are
l.~»'Lsed in aircraft circuits and shown in wiring diagrams. \'il e wi.1l deal with this
..\-.b-.. . . - aspect later in trus chapter when we examine \'('iring Diagrams.
C""I'\" .
You should note mar in the year 2000, ATA Specification 100 was
incorporated inro ATA Specification 2200 • Inform..1tio n Standards for ~
Aviation ;"[ainrenance. It may be some time before the syUabus catches up with "",,
rhis title change but at least you know aboU[ it. The basic format is unchanged
~
so we are safe to continue.
"
Manuals .~
The manuals that we encoumer most frequently arc:
• Aircraft l\[aintenancc Manuals
• Componenr Overhaul !>.Ianuals
• Illustrated Parts Catalogues
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• Wiring Diagram Manuals
• Structural Repair Manuals
These manuals an: prepared, issued and updated by the manuf<lctu rc[s. They
are published to the ATA Specification 100 (ATA Spec 2200) formal. Each
m<lnual is divided into groups of standard chapters . each chapter relating to a
p:'lrticular ~ys[em \virhin the group_ Each chapter is sub-dh'ided IIliO sections,
each section relating to a sub-system. Each section is divided up into subject
components or assemblies. This means that any subject in a manual can be
identified by a three element numbering system e.g. Chapter / Section /
Subject. Each number element has twO digits so a typical subject reference
\""ould look like 7 1- \ \- 02.
71 - 11 - 02
Chapter Subject
(Sys tem) (01 to 99)
Section
(Sub-System)
Figure 5.36 - AT A Specificatioo 100 (AT A Spec 22(0) 5ub jecI Reference
1.\')\\-:
The first number in the three-pan subject number given tn the example is the
chapter number and tlus sen'cs ro identify the related system. The middle part
of the number is tbe sectlon number and this identifies the related sub-system.
The final part of the number is the subject number and this identifies the
location of all the infonnation related to the subject, wluch can be a speci~c
component, minor assembly or a simple system or circuit. \,{'hen tJ%
information is related to the svstem as a whole, the refcrence numbcr for oUL
example would be 71-00-00. . ~
Groups
.~
t\ typical Aircraft J\[aintenance Manual is divided in to the following groups: R.:
>;""'
Chapters I to 4 Reservcd for individual operator's use. ~
~
Clulptcrs 5 to [2 Aircraft General group
Chapters 20 to 49 Airframe system group
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CHAPTER F I VE
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Chapters 51 to 57 Structure group
Chapters 60 to 62 PropcUcr/ rotors group
Chapters 70 to 83 Power plant group
Chapter 91 Charts
Chapters
The chapters contained in each group are:
Airc raft General Group
Chapter 5 Time limits/maintenance checks
Chapter 6 Dimensions and areas
Chapter 7 Lifting and shoring
Chapter 8 Levelling and \veighing
Chapter 9 Towing and taxiing
Chapter to Parking and mooring
Chapter 11 Required placards
Chapter 12 Servicing
Airframe Sys tem Group
Chapter 20 Standard practices

~ ?.l)l'
~I)O'
C1lanrol;""~ I
. con di"UOUlng
Air
. L..6"Y'
\:{I.~<'
I. • Chapter 22 Autoflight
,~"\\
<' .
. ",'X"'" Chapter 23 Communications
c'
~.
Chapter 2-l Electrical power 'c
'",
~
T<
Chapter 25 Equipment furnishings ~
"
-
"
Chapter 26
Chapter 27
Fire protection
Flighr conerols
-
I?
CO
p
Chapter 28
Chapter 29
Fuel
Hydraulic power
'""'"
'0
~
,;
'v
1ce and rain protection oS'
Chapter 30 •
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CHAPTER F I VE
Chapeer 31 Instruments
Cbapter 32 Landing gear
Cbapeer 33 LI.ghts
Chapter 34 .:-.ia\-iganon
Chapter 35 Oxygen
Chapter 36 Pneumatic
Chapter 38 \, 'ater and waste
Chapter 49 Airborne auxiliary power
Struc tures Group
Chapter 51 Structures
Chapter 52 Doors
Chapter 53 Fuselage
Chaplet 54 ~acelles / p ylons
Chaprer 55 Stabilisers
Chapter 56 \\-indows
Chapter 57 \'Ciogs
PropcUcrs/Rotors Group
.c.'} ~ hapter 60
1()Cl
II
., \\.\ )
Standard practices propellers/ rotors
. (},\\I.'_
~- ,,:-.~(\
Chapter 61 Propellers
\J)"""
~:.5 .
(P~ Chapter 62 RO[Qrs
Power Plant Group
Chapter 70 Srandard practices engines
Chapter 71 Power plam
Chapter 72 Engine
Chapter 73 Engine fuel and control
Cbapter 74 Ignition
Chapter 75
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENGINEERING DR A WING
Chapter 76 Engine controls
Chapter 77 Engine indicating
Chapter 78 Exhaust
Chapter 79 Oil
Chapter 80 Scarting
Chapter 81 Turbines
C hapter 82 \'(later [njection
Chapler 83 Accessory Gearboxes
Chapter 9} Chnrcs
Section s
Each chapter is divided into sections. \'(te would be filling pages with these if
all were to be shown here. An example will suffice as follows:
Chapter 27 Sub-system 00 Flight controls
10 Aileron and tab
20 Ruddcr and tab
30 Elevator and tab
-lO Horizontal stabiliser control
50 Flaps
60 Spoilcr and drag control
70 Gust lad and damper
80 Lft augmentation r .
Subjects -~,
~
E ach section is divided into subjects tha t are numbered from 01 to 99. Each :)
subject is laid out as a sequence of topics, each topic being contained within an
allocated block of page Dumbers. The Aircraft r..ra.inrenance !-.'lanual deals with
the maintenance of the related aircraft and all its installed equipment. In an
Aircraft Maintenance ~[anua1, me
subject topics are as follows:
Pages 001 to 99 Description and operation
Pages 101 [0 199 T roub!eshooting
Pages 201 to 299 Maintenance practices
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Pages 301 to 399 Sen;cing
Pages 401 to 499 Remonl/insrallation
Pages 501 to 599 Adjustment/test
Pages 601 to 699 Inspection/ check
Pages 701 to 799 Cleaning/ painting
Pages 801 to 899 Apprm-ed repairs
Component ~ranuals deal with the maintenance, oyerhaul and repair of n on ~

U1s talled equipment. In a component manual, tht; subject toptcs arc adapted to
the type o f component. \Ve will use ao example. An Engine 1hnual deals with
all engine related matters when the engllle is removed from the aircraft. T his
mallual does not contain information rela ting to the ma.intenance of the engine
when it is Installed in an aircraft. That infonnation would be found in Lhe
Aircraft J\1alntenance Manual. The Engine Manual is laid out with the power
plant group chapter numbers but the subject topics are slighdy different as
follows:
Pages 001 to 99 r.loduJe identi fi cation
Pages 101 to 199 Fault isolation
Pages 201 to 299 Special procedures
Pages 301 to 399 Remoyal
Pages -1-01 to 499 Installation
599 Disassembly
699 Clearung
Pages 801 to 899 Inspection/ check
Pages 901 to 999 Repair

('.
Pages 1001 to 1099 Assembly o
""9,
Pages 1101 to 1199 Servicing

i ~
r
IG
l
Pages 1201 to 1299 Storage !?
,
•.:J
Pages 1301 to 1399 Testing 2
0-
Wie can look at an e:-;ample of subJ·ect idenrifica 'on in this manual. 71 - ~1 -
.
02 would be c...... plained as follows: 71 is the chapter nwnber for the ~wer'"
plant. 11 is the section number for the Engine Cowlings. 02 1S the .~bjecr
'v
number for the Fan Cowl. All we nm",. need is the relevant page num!?,cr block
~~~ _ _ to_.c v
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E ffectivity
Aircraft and aircraft components rend to end up with a number of variants.

Sometimes, these variants are cleady identified by eype numbers such as 737 -
300 or -U)() etc. In other cases, the aircraft may ha,'c becn modified during a
production run so that for example, aircraft POSt production number ),."YZ
would be different in some way to earlier numbers. \X 'irmn fleers, there may be
some registration numbered aircraft thar differ from others. For example, G-
ABeD is different to G-D CBA. The poill[ we are making here is thar some
subject topics will refer to practices that are relevant only to specific aircraft
and we need a way of alerting people to this.
Flight Controls
Topic
EqUl pmene Applicability Flaps
Servicing
Effectivity: ASOO/ALL 27-50-02
)'
Page 336-
Jun. 04/98
Subject
Page Dare of Issue
Figure 5.37 - Example of Maoual Page Foot loformatioo
Each aircraft is maintained to an authorised Aircraft ~[aill[enance Manual. The

pages in the manual bear the ATA Spec 100 (ATA Spec 2200) subject
reference on the bottom right of the page, together with the page number and
its issue date. On the le ft hand foot of the page is an 'Effecth¥iry' sta tement. Tf
the topic on 6tbl1\~~ge applies to all aircraft of the type, the sraremenr will say
'A)~Ji.(.:.'toI:f~~b topic applies to a restricted number of aircraft, the sta tement will
~ ~h<mq; this. For example: Aircraft type :\500/ All. The statemenr may refer ro
;:. ~;» aircraft after a particular production number, for example 1234-999. This
.:.~\~\ indicates tha t the topic applies to all aircmft after production number 1234.
U'\' T he figures 999 indicate that the effectivity is open-ended for aircraft produced
after rhis.
Effectivi~' statements also appear on the pages in component overhaul

manuals. Engines, for example, have a number of variants in one type. In this
case, the 'effectivity' statement will indicate the relevant variant or variants. For
example, <Effectivi~': 24X/ ALL. This informs you chat the topic applies to all
the 24X \·ersions of the engine type.
Revis ions
Manufacturers periodically review their manuals and issue revIsions ro the

infonnation rhey contain. T hese revisions may affect the topic content or the
'effectivity' of the topic. \'(!hen a page has been revised, the lercer R will appear
in the margin adjacent (0 revised part. Sometimes, temporary reVISions are
issued as an interim measure. These are issued on yellow pages.
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ATA Spec 100 Zoning System

ATi\ Spec 100 contains a 'zomng' system for lo cating components on large
aircraft. The system d ivides the aircraft up into ma jor zones, m ajor sub-wnes
and zone~ .
Ma jor Zones
Ma jor zo nes are defined by a standard series of numbers as follows:
['"lajor Zone No - ~.-\ rea
100 - Lower half of fuselage below mal11 cabin floo r to the rear press ure bulkhead
200 - Upper half of fuselage to the rear pressure bulkhead
300 - Tail empennage and fuselage belund rear pressure bulkhead
-too - Powerplams, struts and pylons

sao - Port wtng
GOO - Starboard \\·ing
700 - Landing gear and landing gear doors
800 - Doors
Note: A Special 900 Series of numbers are used [0 identify unconmlOn

features specific to variants of an aircraft type.
F igure 5.38 - ZOlling
Major Sub-Zones
,
T he major zones are subdivided inLO major sub-zones. To avoid ftllini 'Another
book \virh these, an example of the sub-zones related to major zone 300 is
shown below:
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CHAPTER FIVE
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t\[ajor Sub-Zooe No - Area
310 - Fuselage behind rear pressure bulkhead.
320 - Vertical stabiliser and rudder.
330 - POrt horizomal stabiliser and port elevator.
340 - Starboard horizontal stabiliser and starboard elevator.
Z on es
Each major sub-zonc is sub-diyided intO individual zones. Again, to avoid

filling another book, a sample of zones related to major sub-zone 320, the
vertical stabiliser, is shown below.
Zone No. - Area
321 - Leading edge of vertical stabiliser
322 - Vertical stabilise! auxiliary spar to front spar
323 - Front spar to rear spar
324 - Rear spar to trailing edge
325 - Lower rudder
326 - Upper rudder
327 - Tip of vertic",l stabiliser

,"" - -
• 'l.\J'"
. (... )\\e.'t>....
')\~1'
s<'
t. ~ ~~ The zoning system cUvides the whole aircraft up into zones so that any area can
"f\"'~\.f:"'" be clearly identified. Zone numbers arc used in maintenance manual servicing
( ." schedules, inspection schedules and repair schemes to identify specific areas of
the aircraft.
Station Numbering
Poims along the fuselage and the wings can be located using a system of
station numbers. Although not an ATA Spec 100 system, it is worth noting it
here in case it comes up.
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fuselage Smtions (FS)
Lin,,·=-gl~
.~
\Y1... Station 0
ws o , 0
\'"ing Srations (WS)

(Butt Lines)
61
Figure 5.39 - Slation N umbe rin g
Fuselage Stations (FS)
These are ti..ed points along the longitudinal axis of the fuselage that are
measured from a 'Datum' posicion. The darum is nonnally a nononal point
located towards the front of the fuselage, in many cases this is at the nose of
the aircraft or, In some examples, at a position in space forward of the nose.
The stations are measured in inches from dle darum. For example, fuselage
station (FS) 100 would be located "100 inches to the rear of the darum.
i\ Icasurements in front of the datum arc always negauve (-) and those to [he
rear of the datum are always posiu\·e (+) so FS - [0 would indicate a station 10
inches in front of the datum. The actual station numbers shown in the
l'vIaimetlance Manuals are usually drawn to coincide with bulkhead, frame or
"I\\\.)fib positions" T he danun position (FS 0.00) is fi~ed in the design speci fication s
. (,ll\\c,?e" for the aircraft.
.• \J;\~{"
~\ ~ Wing Stations ('""tiS)
...
,~ \ -
(P~·
These arc measured left and right from dle fuselage centre-line (\'{fS 0.00) . This
line is also referred to as being thc 13utt Line (BL)'. Each ·wing has identiQ1
station numbers. For example. \","·5 130 Left is a position on the port wing ~
is 130 inches to the left of the Butt Line. ~
Water Line (\VL)
This line is used to aCl as a darum for measurements along the nonnal axis 'Of ~
the aircraft. The position of the water line danlm is ti'(ed in tbe design
specifications. In some cases, the water line may be ti'(ed at a position b~w
the landing gear full- extended position. Vertical rrteasurements above the iJater
line arc normally positive (+) and measurements below the water 1i& are
normally negati'""~ (-). For example, \'{fl.. 96 could relate to a positio~on the
vertical stabiliscr that is 96 inches above the wacer line datum. .,~
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Component Stations
Components such as ailerons, elevators and rudders may have thcir own
station numbeting system. J n these cases, the dahlm may be set at the inboard
end of the control surface. For example, Aileron Station AS 48 port would
indicate a position 48 inches from me inboatd edge of the port aileron.
You can deduce from this, that it is possible to specify the exact position of
any area on an aircraft by stating its station numbers. For example, a
component may be located as FS 120, WL 63, BL 23. It is worth noting that
the wing stations (\""\15) may be alternatively expressed as bun lines (BL)
Aeronautical & Other Applicable Standards

Introduction
A standard is defined as a 'Tecbnical specification appro,ed by a recognised
national, international or company standardising body for repeated
application'. A specification is defined as '1\ statement of the attributes of a
product, process or service'. The advantage of standardisation in design is that
it saves time in development, production and training. The standardisacion of
limits and fits for example enables lhe interchangeability of pans, an advantage
that we seem to take for granted these days. The standardisation of materials
and their procesSlng gives confidence tbat structures and parts will withstand
the normal design operating stresses and strains that lay within the known
properties of tbe materials they are made from . The srandardisation of
electrical cables and parts ensures that equipment can be rared correctly,
Imagine the situation where there was no interchangeability of screw threads,
parts or materials and you have the problems mat existed less than a cenUlry
ago,
'(, • '1'0F\,'
Wb~'#e"!.~amine the requirements for aviation safety, we will recognise mat
.,.,(\.'{tb.M~ is also a need for commonly agreed standards in civil aircraft operations.
;'\\. \d '{ . The problem with standardisation is that everybody wants his or her own
_.,<:;",i..\~"\ version to be adopted, the abundance of languages and belief systems in our
\,. ,' World being a perfect example. \",,\'e have the Continental Europea ns with their
metric syslcm, the Americans who do not want to use it, the former
Commonwealth countries reluctantly abandoning me old imperial system
whilst the Americans have developed their own, some say more logical, version
of it.
Wle ba\re had several different versions of metric, American and Bri tish screw
threads. W\'(/2 brought this to a head when designers started intcnni.xing
British and American engines and aircraft. Spanners that fitted aircraft bits
would not fit engine bits and that was before tIle Continentals gOt into the act.
Standardisation has not had an easy path but tIle major industrial countrics are
gradually being pressured to adopt a universal standard in a global marketplace.
One problem is that aircraft tend to have very long service lives so the
eCJuipment standards that were used in tllClr initial design will endure long past
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CHAPTER FI VE
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tbe introduction of ne\ver standards. It is for that reason we must still look at
the earlier standards. In dus section, we will initially look at tbe standards for
the design, operation and maintenan ce of civil aircraft before examirung the
various standards relating to actual parts.
Aviation Standards
In the United Kingdom, an Act of Parliament 10 the form of the Air
Navigacion Order (ANO) is the principal stannary instrument containing the
legislacion for the regulation of civil aircraft operations. An infringement of an
Act of Parliament is a criminal offence in the eyes o f the law. Although the
ANO establishes in la\v the basis for the regulation of Clvil aviation in rhe UK,
it does not prmide specific details of technical requirements . T lus information,
including the administrati\-e procedures, is contained in the British Civil
Ait\vorthiness Requirements (BeAR) that incorporates, and is gradually being
replaced by, the European Joint Ait\vorthiness Requirements U~A.R) . These 1.11
turn are being reissued as European .!h-ianon Safety Agency (EASA)
requirements.
Just to summarise, BCA.Rs are issued by the UK Civil ,-\viation Authority,

JARs arc published by the Joint Aviation Authorities and the EASA
requirements arc published by the European AVlation Safety Agency. The
£ASA requirements arc valid throughout the EU and in countnes still affiliated
with the Joint Anation Authorities OAA) of which the UK is one.
BCAR, JAR and now the E,-\SA requirements comprise minimum technical
requirements and adminisuatiye procedures that fo rm the basis for: the
construction of aircraft; the approval of equipment; the approval of design,
manufacturing and maintenance organisations; the approval of personnel;
cerqt\&ation and continued airworthiness procedures .
"006~ ...
. Cp\\C~c'" The members of the Joint Aviation Authorities Committee are representatives
~~{\': of the Civil Aviation Authorities of all the countries that ha\-e signed up to the
,,(\'- r; Joint Aviation Authorities Requirements OAR). "lbcse form a common
. 0':;;'~"''C airworthines s code accepted by the ' -arlOUS European Airworthiness
1..... Authorities and are designed to prevent a proliferation of differing
airworthiness codes o f practice within Europe. ;.
-oj
The requirements related to the de;;ign of large aircraft and aircraft systems a~
contained in EAS1\ Part 25. There are other requirements dealing with specifi{
equipment design such as engines OAR-E), propellers OAR-P) and auxiliar£'
power units OAR-APlJ) . JAR Ops deals with the requirements for aircraf
operations. Other publications include EASA Part 145 that contains tp:e
requirements to be met by Approved Maintenance Organisations. Er\SA ~.:!it
66 contains the qualification requirements for approving Certifyi.ng Engin ~~rs.
EASA Part 147 contains the requirements to be met by organis~ons
providing basic licence training and type trainin¥. Because these requirpibents
are agreed by all member nations, the\' form the basis for th~~viation
standards in Europe. .~
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C H APTER FIVE
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Also worth a men non are the Civil Aircra ft Airworthiness Informacion and
Procedures (CA.1\1P). 111ese are published by the UK Civil Aviation Authority
in me fonn of leaflets that comain info rma tion of a general nfl/lire on
overhaul, rep:ur, maintenance, operation and procedures. T11e information is
advisory only and is imended to enha nce the knowledge of readers on topics
not readily found in textbooks. These leaflets do not include infonnation on
specific types of aircraft, engines or components. The appro"cd Aircraft and
Component Maintenance manuals published by the manufacturers arc the sale
authority for this and must al\Y"ays be consulted for detailed informacion.
The American Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) administers rhe US

legislation in regard to civil aircraft operations. p,[any of the E..t\SA
requirements, for example EASA Part 145, are based on the framework and
appropriate content of tbe corresponding FAA requirements (PARs). The
American and European administrations are merging their requirements as far
as this is practical
Standards for Materials & Components
United Kingdom
1n me United Kingdom the specificacions for materials and parts for sole use
in aircraft manufacture and repair come under one of the following headings:
1. The British Standards (BS) _-\erospace 'A' Series of Aircraft ~'laterials

and Components.
2. The Society of British Aerospace Companies (SBAC) 'AS' (Aircraft

Standards) series specifications for items nor listed in British Standards.
3. ~~Old1.Bhectorate of Technical Development (DID) specifications

. C..,\\e.'?tTIay still be found in use.
\y;l.~{'\
;.,.. . . . .., 4. The old Aircraft General Smndards (AGS) may still be found in use .
..
... .""'>!.:
,~
(, ('\
The specification codes and identification methods for aircraft materials and
components were dealt with in Module 6. T he British Standards (BS) .r\ codes
are in general use for pans and materials used on British manufacrured aircraft,
supplemented by the SBAC .Aircraft Standard (AS) codes where there arc parts
not listed in the British Standards. The list of codes increased in size with the
introduction of metric and ISO threaded fasteners. As we move towards
international standardisation, many of the European EN standards have been
accepted by the British Standards Institute (EST) and you will find many BS
EN numbered specifications in usc.
America
There are a number of American Government, Federal, l\1ilitary and Chril ,

standards organisations. There are rhe commonly used Air Force/Navy (A.N) .§v ,
series of specifications. There are the National Aerospace Standards (NAS) and
the Military Standards (MIL and l\IS). In addition to these, there are Society of
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AutOmotive Engineers (S.r\E) spccificaoons and Aeronautical .Ma terials

D ivision o f SAE Speci fi cations (Ai'vfS).
You may also come across terms such as Nayal Aircraft Factory (NAtl ; Air
Force/ N avy Design (AND); Aeronautical Standard (AS); American Standards
Assooation (ASA); American Society for Testing and Materials (AST?\1) .
You can become confused by tbe term AN when dealing with American
threaded fasteners. AN stands for Air Force/ Navy standard so a bolt ~-\_N 5 - 22
refers to an Air Force/Nay)" 5/ 16 in diameter bolt. However, the series of
threads used on bolts include American National Fine (NF) and American
Nanonal Coarse (NC) . The term American National used In this context is not
the standard of the bolt it is the thread series . In the same series, we have
American Standard Unified Coarse (UN C) and American Standard Unified
Fine (UNF) . In a similar way, you \",ill find that British Standard faste ners are
to BS standards but the threads used can be B. . \, BSF, BSP or Uni fied .
Europe
T he European CommIttee for Standardisation (CEN) issue the European EN

Standards . The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) sta.ndards
are gradually being accepted as equivalents to the European EN standards. As
we move rowards international standardisation, you find that the EN standards
arc gradually being replaced by the ISO standards.
International
The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) Issues the

internationally agreed standards. The vatious national standardisation bodies
hayc gradually drawn their national standards Into line with the ISO standards .
In Europe, the national organisations first aligned with the European EN
stand :b~s that were in turn aligned wirh rhe ISO standards. The American
'1\.:ijUadd!trds bodies are also aligning w1th these international standards where this
. C.0~e.r;.:- -- is practicaL. The process is a grad~al o~e and you have to ~eme mber that \~' h c n
(-,:\'i.'i.'i a standard IS adopted for new projects It does not automancally back date ItSelf
,\"\'-~. ~ . to cover all e..xisting aircraft. You will still need to know the standards for parts
. o<?,,~"'1i:- used in the aircraft type yOll are maintaining.
L·
As an example of rhe dual standards in use, we can look at the British Standa~
fo r limits and fits. BS 4500 is the current metric standard comprising ~
EN2028G· l and BS EN20285-2. However, we still
have BS1916, which is th~
"
imperial version. There are still UK manufacrured aircra ft around that use rhi'
imperial system and most American manufacrured aircraft will continue to us ~
ie r
"
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CHAP T ER F I VE
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Wiring Diagrams & Schematic Diagrams

Introduction
In order that we may assemble and maintain an electrical system we need to be
able to ha,c an unders tanding of the system opera non, be able to locate
components in tbe aircra[[ and know the specificanons of components and
their interconnecting cables and conneCtors. To achieve these aims, an
electrical circuit is often presented in three diagrammatic fonns: as a circuit or
scbemau"c diagram, as a location diagram and as a tn ·ring ditlgl'llm . Each
diagcammaric form serves a different purpose.
Circuit Diagrams
A circuit diagram consis ts of a ,ery simple layout controlling symbols to
illustrate components and their imerconnections. Circuit diagrams arc used to
show operating principles and do nor include any infonnacion on the practical
construction of a circuit. Interconnecting conductors are represented by either
horizontal or vertical lines that do not cross ove.r each other. Components
such as s\\~ tches tbat are essential to the illustration of operating principles are
shown whilst those such as connectors that do not directly affect operation will
not be shown.
Schematic Diagrams
Schematic diagrams are well suited to training and faultfinding tasks. They are
lIsed to show the functioning of many o f the aircraft and engine mechanical
~nd electrical sYi ffiflls. A schematic diagra ~n is really a circui~ diagram in that it
IS pure~r. ~~'-gn ed. to demonstrate opera non and although It uses symbols to
id ~n N.ft'-:'\nd show the functional location of components in relation to each
\\';\(S ther, it does not show their acttL"lllocation in the aircraft system. Similar [Q a
circuit diagram, interconnecting cables are drawn horizontally and vertically
and are not representative of practical construction.
15\· -\C
LBt.:S
~
Figllte 5.40 - Example of a Schematic Diagram
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CHAPTER FIVE
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Location Diagrams
A derailed diagram of an electrical circuit can be confusing if you cannot lo cate
the actual components to the aircraft. ivlodern aircraft contain many electrical
and mechanical systems that are closely packed together and finding specific
components can become a challenge, particularly if you do not know in \vhat
region of the aircraft to start your search in. In this respect, a simple location
diagram is just as essential as a detaued wiring diagram.
Sensor
Panel AC
Figure 5.41- Example of a Location Diagram
A location diagram is provided either as a plan or cmaway pictorial vie\v of the

aircraft. The acmal location of each component is shown in relation to the
aircraft. l\hjor components may be shown using silhoue ttes or d rawings of tbe
actual com ponents wh ilsr smaller components may be identified by a legend
code such as numbers, letters or symbols. The sole purpose of the loca tion
diagram is to let you find a system component quickly. The use of zone
.I~ [eceHtes would be a useful means of indicating their locations.
"QUI:
\\ e.\!.c -
.,
- ,\,>;'I.~' .
GO'\ ,
. ,\',\ ~
,;5\~ Wiring Diagrams
(.o~ .
Electrical wiring diagrams use standard symbols to represent components a!)p
their interconnections but they contain a lot more infomla tion, such ~
component part numbers, cable sizes and identi fi cation codes for each o f tt%.
cables and conllecrors in a circuit. \'{!iring diagrams show all connections, t~
routing of conductors and the poims where they pass in the structure. Th ~
aircraft configuration used for wiring diagrams is that of the aircraft on tlWJ
ground with power off unless this is otherur"ise stated on the diagram. 3
,~
c'
l\hny wiring diagrams are drawn as 'routing diagrams' in that conduc)~")-s,
connections and components are arranged in their related rurcraft loca~ns,
these being shown as columnar regions on the draWIng. In fonnatijO is
supplied us ing symbols that are internationally recognised and trus red?,~s the
complexity of tbe diagram. .Additional infqnuation is provi~ using
abbrenations and codes. The symbology and the coded fonna t p rovide
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CHAPTER F I VE
ENGINEERING DRAWING
comprehensive infonnation in a 'shorthand' presentation that is designed for

easy interpretation by uained personnel.
DisU1bution Panel 4R Irliglu Deck P:lnd 6P I ]~WC~~;~~~ I Engine Bay Zone 1

28V DC I I I
\li 5\ 5.\ 5.\ :c\ I I I
Relay I I
"--!'
GAI BA 40XYI
0 I
I "--!' I I
<
'n
< ~, G~ I Be , eD
60 1. 1 6E = [ ]
6:\
j j ~"
Xl
I r-7A ~ 9B _A
1:\
n :GA
I
"--!'
I BA
I
7 D~
I" - F.
9C
=to
B
A
~ '
I I
J\ .\ I I I
I Be I
,I-0-:t ~
TB I GO
8B Lse I
PR I Be I PR I
58 ala 5e I' 5D
I
,\11 obi", """, L"runn'n XI I I I Ea~{l;
urn,-,,,_lothl:rv,,:.,, <",{<:d, I I I :H:lX -
Figure 5.42 - H ypoth e tical Example of a Wiring D iagram
ATA Specification 100 (ATA 100) Cable Code System
Each cable used in an aircraft electrical Clfcuit is usually markcd with a code
that identifies the type of cable, me cable size, the related circuit and the
segment of that circuit in which it belongs. Manufacturers may use their own
codes or they may adopt the ATA 100 system. The cable coding system and
the details for its \\Bterpreration are published in the Wiring Diagram l'vlanual
C
lOr eac h" f OG
~~ t-rype.
- ~\e~;;:''''
"' U" -
~:\'I>'{~ , 3 F K B F 22 e N v
'0 \
\~'\.
,.;~
·o'\; ·
c'
-
Un;t NumbcJ J I L Suffix D""
Circuit FwlCtion L.e tter L CW!cSize
Circuit Designation LeITer L ___ C'lble Segment
Cable Number - - - -
Figure 5.43 - Basic ATA 100 Cable Coding System
If you examine the illustracion, you will see that the code consists of a
combination of letters and numbers. There are SL'" groups of numbers and
leners. The Unit Number is used to identify II particular circuit where there are
a number of identical circuits. The Circuit Function and the Circuit
Designation letters identify the circuit function within a parocular circuit. The
Cable N umber is used to differentiate between cables that do not have a
common tenuinal within the same circuit. A different number is given to each
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENG INEERING DRAWING
cable, beginning from number one. The Cable Segment letter is used to
identify eaeh part of a same numbered cable run. Each part IS defIned as a part
that connects between two tenninals in tbe run. Segments are lettered in
sequence but the letters I and 0 arc nor used. The Cable Size is written as a
Standard \X/lre Gauge number. The final group of Suffn;: Data letters are lIsed
to identify the make o f cable and its connection, for example, Unin~"\'in, non-
earthed in a single-phase system.
Wiring Diagrams may just display the Cable Number and the phase letter of
the 5uffL""{ Data. The cable size and make are normally shown as a separate
statement 011 the diagram, for example, 'All cables are Univyvin 20 except
where otherwise stated'.
Wiring Diagram Manual

T he \\·iring Diagram Manual (\\Di'vI) contains the wiring diagrams and the
charts that form chapter 91 of tbe ATA specification together with detailed
1l1formation on the cable codes, abbreviations, tenninology , circuits, the
standard symbols used and their interpretation. The manual is laid Out using
the ATA. Specification 100 format.
The \\iiring Diagram lvranual includes an Equipment Lis t . ."1111:; lists every item
o f electrical equipment ragether with its parr number. Each item is shown
against an aircraft zone and station number to aid location and identi fy the
chapter, section, subject reference number of the related system / equipment in
the ATA IOO system. Also included is a \\·t[e List that gives infonnation on
wire 100m part numbers and wire bundle cable [lUmbers and the types of
tenntnation together with cross-references to the wlrtng diagrams.
Cha-RW 20 of the \\/DM is concerned with Standard Practices . This chapter

'2.\)Qncld~es in fonnation on all aspects of standard working practices including:
. (si\\tC~e crimping and soldering techniques, special repairs, cable protection, cleaning,
_ ,\>.~J{~ connection methods and rhe treatment of earth terminals .
'\. !"..
. A""I.
~",\':J All Wiring Diagrams in the \'i/iring Diagram Manual are referenced in
Cp"Q·
accordance with the ATA Spec 100 system. The ATA 100 reference number,
diagram reference number and issue number are displayed at the bottom of ttte
diagram. For example 24 - SO - 01 would indicare a particular subject relacing w
Chapter 24 - Electrical Power, Section SO - Electrical Load Distributio~
\'Vhere a diagram has more than one sheet, each bears a sheet number. Th~
manual contains an index of diagr:un numbers that is divided up into chapteE
and section groups. ~
.~
Symbols
It would be difficult to produce a clea r diagram with all compon~o.ts and

connections drawn in their actual fonn. J t is far easier to represent t~se Items
with internaci.onally recognised symbols. Symbols are chosen so that they can
327
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C H A P TER f i V E
E N GI N EER IN G D RAW I NG
be easily drawn and their meaning is dear and unambiguouso Symbols do nO[
represent the actllal mechanical construction of the items; they o nly indicate
the 'function'. The British Smndards Institution has published a range of
symbo ls for lise in wiring diagrams. These symbols arc similar to those adopted
by o ther recognised s tandards bodies. The \'{!iring Diagr.lm i\fanual contains a
lis t of the symbol s used in the \Xoiring Diagrams together with details of their
interpretation.
Conductors:
~ rcthods
sho\\1ng
of
conductors that
+,
-,-
0'
Plug
Socker
'\[o\'eable
•+ y
Circuit
Breakers
(Double Pole)
Conrac[
cross \\i thom 0'
connecting - '- (
\'ariabilj[y
Symbol / Rcla\"
Connecnons 1 ~ Insulated ...L...L

between condllcu~ Coupling Electric Cells T T
:\fcchanical
o
~i~
Links: 0
Coupling Jy-
Bohed Termim.ls Instrument -Q::::Q-
-
-a-o- Shunts : :
Fuses:
Clip in \' "indings Lfl-
Bolted D irectional \X"arning De"ices:
Re~istOrs:
IS\.<>
-..JWV\r-
Symbol
Series
Bell -B-
General
Negligible 1Jl.Jl.r
\'\"inding Buzzer .R
Inductance
Non- Iomcar ~
Busbars Horn Y
Circuit Bre:l.ker:
Liquid -G- L1.mps:
Rheostats:
Push Pull Filament --6-
Shding -Jwv- Push
to Reset Signal @
Contact ~
~,\
"(\~
C"bon Pdc
Inducroror_=_
II I
~- \':"~I-;:C;:C=:-:::--==-----1
\X.W.J
Toggle
Switched
QUIck
D isconncct
DI!.chargc
,\rc
8
__ x __
L "0,.... Choke
plug and
Capacitors:
Genel'al -II-
recept..'lcle
Ground
DCShunt
\Iotor
f®\
~
Elecrrolrcic ---ij ~
Non·Polari~cd
Electrolytic ..:!J1 L.
Rectifier ~ DCSCrlcs~
,\Iotor ~
f-:,,,.-'P~o~I~'n~s~c~d,-_II_'_---1 Switches:
D irect Current - Single Pole
Single Throw -0........... compouncl~
t\ltcrn:uing ~ Tumbler DC -
Current
Scparabk 0 Rotan.'
\ 0-
Gcnm''''~o
Contact I I
Non-Scp:u'ablc Double Polc 6J-~1 Phase AC
Contact • D ouble 111roW , , Motor
T li ble 5.4 - Exa mples of B5 Elecuical Symbo ls
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENGINEERING DR A WI N G
There are many symbols and we ha\'e to recognise that there arc European and
;\merican aircraft in se n'ice and European and American textbooks,
Examiners, particularly electricians, seem to be drawn to electrical symbols so
we will add a few more examples as a precaution,
Single pole si ngle

~A-
throw s\\'Hch
normally open
AC generator
$
~
0'
Double pole double
throw S\\'ltch
normal l\' closed
at one position
,
~A-
t\C generator
¢
Single pole double
thro\\" switch off
in centre posmon
---0----
0-
0-
DC generator
~
Rela\" - normalh-
open - closes ' ~£
Potentiometer --IN:-
when ene rgised
Diude ~
T
Rela\' - normally
closed - opens'
when energtsed Si licon rcc u ller ~1
Un shielded
conductor
7.cner diode ~
-------
ShIelded
Conductors
- - - - --
---
-,-
.,.,. TransIstor --y
\ Coil ur inductor
wirh fl ir corc
.JOOOOO'-
Tr:lnsis tor --y
Coi l or inductor
\\'nh Iron core ...J 0000 0 '- The rmocouple
(heated) ==>[
Vanable coil or !
...J O ~OO '-
inductor
T he rmal switch ---cD-
Transformer ] [ Bimetallic
thermal e1emem -"'- F,
-
Tab le 5.5 - Add itional Electrical Symbols Found in Usc
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CHAPTER FIVE
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Hydraulic System Schematic Dra\"ings
As the syllabus refers to schematic di:lgrams in rhe same brcath as \'':/iring

Diagrams, we nughr assume that they anI}' apply to elecuical schematic
diagrams. However, schematic diagrams are widely used for other systems and,
in particular, hydraulic systems. To cover rhe siruation of possible ambiguity,
we can e....anUne an example of a hydraulic sys£em schematic diagram. You will
see thaI standa rd symbols arc also used to represent components in the system,
The layout illustrates the functional location of components in relation [Q each
other and the fluid flow but ir does not represent practical assembly,
connection or locacion in the aircrnft.
1j
Fig ure 5.44 .. H ydraulic Sys tc m Sche matic Diagram

')W-"
.,\.)\)6 " ..
. ~~ci,c'"
CO'
\l,<;I.'(5l11C symbols used 10 represent hydraulic components in the diagram are taken
. ,\,\...
.(I.\:.'
from Imemariomll Standard 1501219, A=in, theee are man)' s\,mbols so J·USt II
/ : > " .
(. ,'X..... representative few of the more common ones are illustrnted here.
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Flow IJne
Drain IJne
:-":on - Rerum Valve
Flow Control
~ I otor ~y 'f7\t
\ 'aI"c
Row Control
Vake - prcs~urc
Aen",,,, ITI116=
and tcmpcrantrc
cornpcn~a[cd
Pressure Control
Direction:1l
Control VaI\,C
(two p()~icion
¢
V:tkc - nonn.1l1r m:1l1u:1l)
do~ ,
Dircc[]oll.ai
Pressure Control
\ 'ake - normal]",
opcn -B-
Comrnl \ "aiw
solc.:ntlid
opcF.ltcd $
TIuec PO~lUon
Directional
Control \ 'ake rnm
Filtcr
<> Reserw)IT
Table 5,6 - ISO H ydra ulic Compollent Symbols
Conclusion
r.
'0
\,\'c hay'c rcachcd the end of chapt~r five, \'Cc will ha\-c occasion to revisit some
o f the topics in further dctail as we progress th rough the remaining chapters ~
this module, in particular the .-\ircraft Maintenance lI. lanual, the Strucrurnt
Repair ).{anual, Repair Drawings and \'('iring Diagrams. In the meantime, ther:
arc a few multi-choice answer questions prO\;dcd for you [0 try. .~
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CHAPTER FIVE
Revision
Engineering Drawing
Questions
1. Whe n a ch ange is m a de to an a ircraft d rawing:
a) a new drawing number must be allocllled
b) the old issue number is retained btl[ a new issue date must be allocated
c) a new issue number and date must be allocated
2. The type of pictorial drawing th a t shows o ne fa ce in true elevatio n

with the receding lin es drawn to half size and kep t pa ra llel a nd
ang le d at 45 0 to the ho rizont al is kn own as :
a) isometric
b) oblique
c) perspective
l\)lf\
"l\J~ \6
C'
C....,\\c.'f'
In a third ang le p to jecti on, th e plan of th e to p s urface is
.,;-.........
,. ,,\,;,-'(S'. V ICW
- placed:
.,(''f'
,.j."~'" a) above the front elevation
b) below the front elevation
c) to the left hand side of [he front elc\racion
4. The edge of a s urface from w hi ch all dimen sions are m e asured is D

called th e: :P~
a) chain line "

b) datum line
c) reference point
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5. A drawing that is used to show how parts are assemb led into an
ai rc raft in relation to other com ponents and assem b lies is known as :
a) an installation drawing
b) a general arrangement drawing
c) collecti\'e drawing
6. A scale of 1:2 indicates th at a d raw i.ng is :
a) two times full size
b) hal f of full size
c) full size
7. The thickness of the h ead of a bolt o n a drawing is regarded as :
a) an auxiliarr dimension
b) a functional: dimension
c) a non-functional dimension
8. Dim en sions are placed on a drawing so that th ey can be read fr om

the:
11)\J
a) bottom of the drawing
b) left hand side and the bottom of the drawing
c) right hand side and bottom of the dr-l.\\ing

r
.,.,
-
"
9. A D rawing Master Re ference Lis t details the : .~
a) current issues of all drawings
b) specifications of all pans shown on a drawing
c) changes made to a drawing
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CHAPTeR Five
eNGINeeRING DRA W ING
10. Aircraft d e sig n drawings a re p roduced by o rgani sati on s a pproved by

th e:
a) British Standards Ins titute (ESI)
b) Society o f Bcinsh Aircraft Constructors (SBAC)
c) Civil Avianon Authority (CAA)
11. When a cutting plane passes throug h a bush and a bolt on a

sectio ned view, the :
a) bush and the bolt are each hatched in opposite directions
b) bush is hatched, the bolt is not
c) bush and bolt are nor hatched
12. T he line used to represent hi dden d eta il on a d ra\\'ing is a :
a) dotted line
b) alternate long and short dashes
c) light solid line
13. A schematic drawing shows the :

')\)~,
\)\lb - -
, \ e.'?j"l" ll~YS1C;u
. C<3Y' . -, Iocanon
. 0
f componems ill
. :t system
'"1.<;).~ (':
,~
~\......
"V b) functional arrangement of components in a system
. (\c
. ~0":
\... .'- '. c) shape and size of components in the system
14. Break lines are us ed o n a drawing:
a) to indicate where a component will fail
b) to indicate [hat a part is sectioned
c) where it is impractical to draw long constant section items
334
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CHAPTER FIVE
E N GINEERING DRAWING
15. A process and treatment symbol HT within a circle indicates:
a) high tension
b) hardened and tempered
c) heat treated
16. The letters ND annotated by an item on a drawing indicates:
a) no separate drawing eXists
b) not dimensioned
c) new drawing
17. The rule for dimensioning a d rawing of a manufacnlred part is that :
a) as many dimensions as possible should be shown
b) functional dimensions must be repeated in each v iew
c) the nnnllnum number of dimensions required for manufacture are

sh own
18. The letters peD on a drawing indicate:
'l0'00 • "\lI - b ruc

3J - pItc -ld e -lamCtcr
_ ,, <-o:..e."
(,0" -
~~, b) prototype component draw10g
'0:"» .
~- '
"\''1.
~p>:f c) process con tro li e d-Item
U§~ ·
19. Zone number 110 refers to a location in the:
a} empennage
b) lower part of the fuselage
c) port wing
335
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENGINEERING DRAWING
20. Pages 001 to 199 in a maintenance manual refer to :
a) mainrenance pracuces
b) sen"lclng
c) description and operation
21. In th e ATA Spec 100 cahle code 1 EG 8 C 22 NMS V, the 22

represents the:
a) cable size
b) cable number
c) unit number
22. The geometric tolerance symbol illustrated below is related to:
a) roundness
b) poslUon
c) profile
23. The symbol illustrated below is related to:
a)
nm,"
a''',\'iCl,,,FIFY
0
0
\1('
. ~\e~c'"
~5-: L-~) machining
..:) \"\';'
,,«'t'", c) a datum face

,~
" r,
""-
'0
24. The geometrical tolerance symbol illustrated be low is related to:
"
~
a) flatness
-" ~
b) parallelism
/ /
;::;
"
c) squareness
336
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENG I NEERING DRAWING
25 . T he tole rance fram e illustra ted b e low ind ica tes :
a) s(luareness rolerance of O.2lmn in relation to d:llllln featu res t\-B
b) a tolerance of 0 .2 micrometre in surface A-B finish .
c) a tolerance of O.2mm in the positlon of datum face .A-B
26. The d rawing sym bol illustrated b elow indicates:
, ) an internal thread
b) an e:ncrnal thread
0) concCntoClt\'
0
27. T he el ectrical symbol iUustrated be low re presents a :
a) potenuometer
b) WIns former
c) inductor
1i',\'-:
.,,\\28. 'Th e e lectrical symb ol i.llustrated below represents a:
\~ -e.G ...
. (.,)\ ....
• \"\~~~"; a) potentiometer
\ ~.
. ~
-C'' !.,,~"-
. b) tranSfo mler
L
c) induclOr ~
~
,
./.
3-
",
29. The electrical sym bol illustrate d b elow represents a:
a) push-pull circuit breaker
b) push [0 reset circuit breaker
c) toggle switch circuit breaker
337
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CHAPTER fiVE
ENGINEERING DRAWING
30. \Vhen a drawing consists of a number of sheets and il has a

schedu le o f parts that is appli cable to aU th e sheets, il will appea r
on:
a) the last shect
b) all sbeets
c) Sheet 1
31. All new aircraft drawings arc dimensioned and toleranced to th e:
a) BS system
b) ISO system
c) SBAC system
32. ATA Spec 100 con tains the form at and guide lines for:
a) drawing practices
b) technical manuals
c) maintenance o rganisations
33. The Aviatio~.R e qu jrcm e nts (BCAR a nd JAR) contain:

" )\)0 • 1.\.)I.:
. \ - ~Q . . ru reqUlIements
.
. (,~c'ttn ntmum techruc,
. \)';I.~ (~
.. ( b) stannory legislation
-0'
~(\.
"- ~,~ , c) advisory information
34. The abbreviation AN used m connectio n wi th th e American AN

standard m e ans :
a) American National.
b) All Nation
c) Air Force/Navy
338
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CHAPTeR FIve
eNGINeeRING DRAWING
35. Draw ing practice in th e U K gen e rally confo rm s to:
a) Aircraft General Standards (AGS)
b) British Stancb rd (BS) 308
c) EASA Part 145
339
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENGINEERING DRAWING
Revision
Engineering Drawing
Answers
1. e 16. A 31 . B
2. B 17. e 32. B
3. A 18. A 33. A
4. B 19. B 34. e
5. A 20. e 35. B
6. B 21. A
7. e 22. e
8. e 23. B
9. A 24. A
10. e -,.
?- A
II. B 26. B
,,~)~\'1
1?_. A• ;,\J(16-- 27. e
.c o\\":-;'-
"P;,.(1~ 13. B 28. A
....
~\ \.
'"
,. \''\,
,
.
<'~
14. e 29. A
'
15. B 30. e
340
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CHAPTER S I X
FIT S & CLEARANCE S
Fits & Clearances

Introduction
\,\'clcome to chapter six. \X'e touched "er:-~ briefly on rhis lopic in Chapter 2
when we examined allowances in re."pecr of shafts and their holes. You may
recall that the leon 'allowance' is defined as being the difference bet\veen the
high limit of size for a shaft and the Im,-cr limit of size for a hole. The
allowance can ha\-e a posiri\-e or negative value. A positive allowance produces
a clearance fit whilst a negariye allowance produces an interference fit.
\Ve now need to broaden our conceprion to include other parts that may be
subject to movement when assembled together. For example, when bolts arc
to be used to join a componem flange to a gea rbox. we must establish the
diameters o f the clearance holes in the flange and the tapping holes in the
gearbox to enable accurate machining to take place. \Vhen considering the
l:mer, we need to know what class of fit we wish to obtain when the screw
threads are engaged. Taking another example, wd may intend to usc a nut and
bolt to secu re two pieces of structure together, where no movement of the
structure in relation to the bolt can be pe.rm.itted. In this case, we need to
consider the diameter of hole required to create a suitable interference fit along
rhe grip length of the bolt. To extend our thinking e\-cn further, we may need
10 ensure that sufficient clearance exists bet\vcen a rotating shaft and it's
bcari.9g, to permit adequate lubrication without introducing unwanted
c ~\\I:\~br;cion through e....cessi\-e radial movement.
. O..,\\.:.<b
\:1)."\:<' Up to now, we have been ,;s.ualising only cylindrical parts. Holes arc really
... !".
. ,\"\
,,,\\;-: deftned as being internally bound regions of space in a body and may not
(.0'\ . necessarily be circular. In the same. yein, shafts may be seen as fonning the
external boundaries of objects. that must be configured to fit into matching
holes. The old adage that you cannot fit a square peg into a round hole sce~s
most appropriate to this. Keys and kepyars, axles and wheels, flanges a~
recesses and in fact anything where something is required to fit inro somethini-
else will qualify for consideration when establishing a desi red class and grade ot:.
fit.
,
p:
.~
We need to consider whether we require a cleaIil.!1Ce fit, a lranSlUon fit or .ao

interference fir. \,\ 'e also need to consider dle grade of the fit in terms of l~&v
precise an allowance is needed in rclarion tb the intended use of~he
components, the ability of a machinist to prfduce it and the deg~~ of
interchangeability of parts that is required. An. Ancient Roman Cad~right
installing chariot wbeels on a Friday afterno~n may not have gecn tOO
bothered about all this, depending on how ruthless the owner was df course!
\Ve would need to exercise a lot more care whch for example we arc dealing
341
C H A PTER S I X
FIT S & CLE A R A NC E S
with shafls supported in precision bearings in high-speed modern machinery

that is SUbjCC1Cd to extreme temperature and load variations.
Finally, there is the '1uesrion of wear. \'I/hen objects that arc in contacr move,
either as function of their operation or through vibration, they will inevitably
wear over time. W,Ie must consider the maximum amount of wear that can be
permitted before our initial clearance migrates beyond a "alue that maintains
the required fir. In other words, we need [Q establish permissible wear limits.
Looking back on what we have discussed so far, we can see that this subject is
o f critical importance to not just the designers and manufacturers but to those
whose task il is to inspect, maintain and overhaul aircraft equipment.
The syllabus for this chapter commences with the drill sizes for boltholes and
the classes of fit before leading us on inro the British Standards 854500 and
BS1916 syslems used for metric and imperial fits and clearances respectively.
Drill Sizes fo r Bolt Holes
Tables of drill sizes are provided for clearance holes and tapping holes for the
ranges of B5\'(/, BA, BSF, metric, Unified, AN, and ISO metric bolt sizes.
Before we examine any examples, we need to recall that drills arc provided in
lenered, numbered and fractional sizes with decimal inch and metric mm
equivalents. /\s you may guess, there will be small variations in diamerer
between metric and imperial drill sizes . For example, Ii number 10 drill is
0. 1935in but the nearest metric equivalent is 4.9mm, which is 0. 1929in,
0.0006il1 smaller. Similarly, the nearest numbered drill size to a 2.0 mm drill is
No. 47, which is O.lmm smaller. This underlines rhe importance of using a tap
drill size chan when drilling boltholes rather than relying on guesswork.
The syllabus in~es drill sizes so there is little alternative bur to give you
tables foc'5"'-1I"tn . ibis docs not mean you have to memorise dlcm, they arc very
e\!9.o'si'v-~ and arc provided here merely to pennit you to see the ranges and
. ~·;I.{ fi'o\V they compare. I will give you one table for lwered and fractional drills
. ~\"'\. 1,;. and another table for numbered and fractional drills .
."w.
(~,\'!'
Note that drill size E has a fractional (1/ 4m) equivalent as well as decimal and
mm equivalents. It is the only lettered drill to ban all these.
The lettered drill size range is i\ to Z ,."ith A being the smallest diameter
(0.2340) and Z be.ing rhe largest diameter (O...\130). The lettered sizes arc larger
than the numbered sizes. 'fllC fractional drill size range increases from 1/64,h in
diameter in steps of 1/64,h in. up to 1/Zin diameter. We will not show all of
these.
342
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C HAPTER S I X
F IT S & C L EAR A NC E S
Lefler Fr.lcunn Dcc Eq moo Letter FrncuOll Dec Ell

, .2'\40 0 .)1(..0
mm
151(.4 ,1;4-1 5.95 .JIR9

.2,162 6.0 .322R "'2
B .2..;&1 p .32.;0
.2401 6.1 .32-18 8.25
C .141.1 .3268 8.3
.14-11 6.1 11 '64 .3281 S..U
D .146\1 6.25 .3307 8.4
.2480 6.3 Q .3320
E 1/4 .2_~1k1 6.35 .3346 8.5
.252U 6.4 .3386 8.6
.25S9 6.5 R .3390
r .2;-0 .3425 8."
_2598 0.6 11 '32- .3·0- B.-3
G _2(,!U .3445 8.iS
.16:;8 6.- .3465 8.'
1-'(,.1 26S- 6.-S 5
."''''
" .1661.1
.26--
.3504 8.9
9.ll
1-16 .,
0.8
T
.3543
.3580
1 .2-20 .3583 9.1
.2-56 -.0 ZJ/64 .35'>4 '1.13
J .2770 .3622 9.2

_2-9S - .1 .3641 9.25
K .2811 .3661 9.3
'J/_ll .21S11 ".14 l· .361:10
.21B5 7.2 .3701 9.4
11JI.f
'"l\,\,b . 2~S4 - -,,. .3740 ').S
. ~\c'!..:.--
(' l-~-' - .2If:4 -:',3 3/8 .3750 9.S3
\\~\ .
L .1'X(I
,. .r-o
<'I,. -. . ~~~ .2913 '.4 ..r80 9.6
(~--."
,:!9SI1 .3811) 9.-
" .2953 -:'.5 .3838 9.-S r
.,
191M .2%8 -,5-1 .3858 9.' -'S
.-.,
, .m2 -.6
" .3860
~
-.~!~l .3898 9.9
.-'031
:\1151
--
- -;
25/64 .)906
.39r
9.92
IIU~I
-
,::-
~
~
.:\lJ-;'J - .8 X .39-0 o·
'"
5/ 1(,
'\ 1 ](\
.3\25
-.9
-.94
Y
13/32
.4U-KI
.4f!62 It1.31 '"
.$
0'
...'"'"
_HSti 8.0 7 .41.10
'j
Table 6.1· Lcncrc d and Fractional Drill Si'Zes & E q u iva lc llls
343
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C H APTER S I X
F I TS & CLEARANCES
,~
IMI
'"
,,-,
I'"
,- -
"1"
Table 6.2 - N umbered and Fr:actional Drill Sues & Equivalenl8
TIlC numbcrcd drill sizc range is from No.1 [0 No.80 where No.1 is rhe largest
diameter (0.2280) and No.80 is the smallest diameter (0.0135).
344
COJ!)ri&N C &17)' CAIIt§' :!006 - ~()() - AD njlm mmvd
CHAPTER S I X
F I TS & CLEARANCES
Tap Drill Size Tables

\X'hen preparing to drill a hole in preparation for cutting an imemal thread, you
need to consu1t the appropriate tap drill size re ference table. These reference
tables give the diameters of the tap drill and the clearance drill for each size of
threaded fastener. They arc often supplied in combination with a drill size
gauge. The drilled hole shou1d be close to, or slighdy larger than the minor
diameter of the internal thread. It 6 \'ery important mat you sclect the correct
diameter tap drill. I f it is tOO small. yOlI arc likely to break the tap. 1f it is too
large, you will not achieve the required depth of thread. There is no need to
give you every rap drill reference table for e,"ery class and size of bolt in this
module. [ will just show you a couple of ex tract's from an ISO metric tbread
tabl e :lI1d from an American National Fine thread table. Note that the tables
show the tap size, the diameter of rhe clearance hole and the diameter o f the
tap drill.
Tap Size Tap Drill Size (mm) Clcar:mce Hole (mm)
~ I -I 3.3 -1.5
.\15 4.2 5.5
Table 6.3 - Extract fro m ISO melnc thread lable
Tap Size Tap Drill Size (No.) Clearance I iole (No.)
-1-18 ~2 33
5-4-\ r 29
Table 6.4 - Ex ml ci (rom Ame ric an Na tional Fine thteHd Ilible
Classes of Fits (threaded fasteners)

The module syllabus links 'classes of 6ts' widl 'drill sizes for bolLholcs'. \vmm:
it maS[ probably intends this to mean the definitions for clcarance, transitio~
and imcrfcrence fits, there are, however, other definitions of 'classes of fit' that
relate specifically to thc production of the different thread systems. Boltholet.
arc often threaded so to overcome any chance of misinterpretation on the paff
of cxaminers, J \\-ill include a brief description these classes here before
mo\"c on to deal ...\-ith the more standard definitions. This may seem like <~ It
*
and braces' but it is beuer to be <safe than sorry'. Detailed infonn~on
regarding thread fonns and the <classes of fi e of screw thIeads Inay be found in
l'v lodule 6 Chapter 5 but you need not worry about that for the PllrpC'.l~ S of
this module. 1;:'"'
-
,
345
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CHAPTER SIX
F I TS & CLEARANCES
British Standa rd W hitworth (BS\V) T h reads
\\fhinvorth form threads are used on British Standard \,!hinvorth (BS\X0.

Bmish Standard Ene (BSF) and British Standard Pipe (BSP) threads. 'fhere are
three classes of fit for external threads and two classes for internal threads.
1. Close Class External Threads: This class applies to threads where a

good snug fil is required. It is achieved by the use of high quality
production equipmem and an accurate system of inspection and
gauging. It is used for speciaJ applications where close accuracy of pitch
and thread fonn are required.
2. wl edium CI."Iss Internal and Extcrn:1i Threads: This ci:Jss of fit

applies to the better class of ordinary interchangeable screw thrcads.
3. Free Class E::\'1eroal Threads: This class applies to rhe majority of

ordinary commercial quality bohs.
4. Nom Jrl/ Cluss IJJteroal Thre:Jds: This class applies co the ordinary
commercial quality nurs thac are intended for use with medium Ot ftee
class bolts.
British Associ a rion (BA) T hreads
This is a metric sizcd system used on some small diameter British fastcners.
There is only one class of fit for internal threads sizes OBA to 1GSA. There are
nvo classes of fit for bolts:
1. Close: This class applies to sizes OBA to 10BA and have similar
requirements to the 'close fit' definicion for W'hitworth bolts.
2. Normal: This class is reserved for commercial grade bolts used 10

gen~~l llRt6nee[i.ng.
e'2-\)\:
Piiffl':;'[i T h .. ad ,
~;I.{
c
_\\~. . \.. - There are three tolerance ranges for Unified rhreads of 0.025io diameter and
(. ~...~.... above. Numbered sizes arc limited to Class 2 and UN] threads to Class 3.
1. Class 1A External and Class 1B 1l1lem:u Threads: These classes

apply to the majority of commercial grade faHeners.
2. Class 2A E .v temal and Class 2B I lllernai Th reads : Tbese classes

apply to the majority of fasteners used in the aircraft industry nnd
equate to the 'medium class' shown above for \\'hitworth threads.
3. Class 3A External and 3D I ntern.?1 Tbreads: These classes apply to

threads that require a snug fit and equate ro the 'close class' for
Whinvorth threads. They are being used in increasing quantities in the
aircraft industry, particularly on engines.
346
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C H AP T ER S I X
F ITS & CLE A R A NC ES
ISO Metri c Threads
There arc three classes of fit applied to ISO l\ letric dm:ads. You will notice
alphmlUmcric codes in brackets agains t each class . These specify the precise fit
of the external and internal thread. W' e will be examining the meaning of these
codes when we deal with the British Standards system of fits and clearan ces
la ter in this chapter.
I. Close Fit (H5/h4): This class includes bolts that require a snug fit
with good pitch and thread form accuracy. It is produced using high
quali!."}" production equipment and ,"er)' accurate inspection and gauging
processes.
2. flt/edilln1 Fit (I-l61g6): This class includes bolts used for general
engmeenng. The clearance permits free assembl\" withom risk of
seIzure.
3. Free Fir (E/7Ig8): This class is for general commercial use where
quick assembly is judgcd more important than the closeness of fiL
Thread Inserts
T hread inserts arc hel ical stee! wire thread li ni ngs that arc often used in
componen ts made of soft marerials and as a repair scheme for holes with
damaged [h reads. Thread insens arc manufactured for the "a nous types and
sizes of thread. Tapping hole drill size tables arc used and the thread insert
manuElcrurers supply the taps for ever)' size of insert. The insert is screwed
into the tapped hole with a special inserting key or inserting tool supplied by
the 1min manufacturers. The tool engages widl an inward fadng dridng tang
,I; J.I."-"?fl 't1~e boltom of the insert that is broken off after the insert is fined. Inserts
. . ; (f'WS': are normally a permanent lir but special extractor tools with hardened and
~ \"\<lS't tempered blades are supplied by the insert manufacturers. Further infonnation
\,.\'Y. on the insertion and extraction of thread insertS ma\' be found in Module 6
,,'t ""
(,0~. Chapter 5.
Fastener Clearance Holes

The accuracy and finish of the clearance bole through which a fastener passei
has a bearing on the strength and fatigue resistance of a joint. 1\ drilled hole ffi
seldom very accurate. The bole may not be truly round; it may be slighdy la r~
than the nominal diameter of the drill and have la scored surface. \Vhere l1ffih
accuracy is required, the bole is first drilled and is then carefully reameti' to
achieve the correct dimension and a smooth fi nish. T h e amOllnl of s~plus
material thal is left after drilling to allow for reaming should be rhe mi!'Umum
,
amount that is necessary to produce a smoofll and accurate h't.~. Large
'v
diameter holes may require re1arive1y more surplus material fo r' reaming
because the degree of roughness and ovality may be greater. Typically. O.003in
347
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CHAPTER SI X
FITS & CLEARANCE S
would be left for holes up to 1/ 8in diameter with an increase of O.OO l in for
each 1/8in step up to 3/ 4in . Holes larger than this would cypicaJ!y be drilled
around 1/64io smaller thao the size of the reamer.
Tn many primary and secondary aircraft structural assemblies, both the

fasteners and their holes are often produced to 'dose tolerance' . Fasteners used
in low load bea ring applications would nor necessarily require rhe same degree
of accuracy; the expense alone would prohibit this. For mat reason, there are
four general classifications given [Q fastener holes.
Class Applic ati on
Close ream Close Tolerance bolts,l li-locks and Lockbolts.

(interference type fits).
Chss 1 Standard bolrs and Close Tolerance bolts, dependent

on type. (interference t)pe fits).
Class 11 Bolts used to annch remO\'able panels.
Class 111 Bolts used to auach rell1O\-ablc panels nor

subjected to strucrurnlln:lds.
Table 6.5 - Fas te ne r Hole Classifi cations
Classes of Fit
\'(le discussed these in Chapter 2. The classes of fit between a shaft and a hole
are:
lorf
C learance,.\I1h
<>
co\\.;~
'el,,1?; clearance fi t exisls when there is a posicive allowance between the minimum
~\,\. ( size of the hole and the maximum size of the shaft. TIle shaft is smaller than
~.:•."y;. th e hoe.
I
(~..,~ .
Interference Fit r,
~
".
An interference fir exis ts when there is a ocgacive allowance between the ~.
minimum size of the hole and the maximum size of the shaft. T he shaft is ~
":r:;
larger than the hole.
If
-
T ransition F it
A transition fit exists when the tolerance zones of me shaft and the hole
overlap. The fit can be biased towards a clearance fit or inrerference fit
dependtng on the actual sizes of the bole and the shaft. The shaft and thc hole
arc approximately the same size.
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~O[inimU111 \hrumu lll I
o!U
Clearance Interferen ce
JU
II U
D-- LJ
n n n
Clearance Interference Tr:msirioll
Fig ure 6. 1 - Classes of Fit
From the illustration, yOll can see that the dimensIOns of the shaft and the hole
each have upper and lower limits forming tolerance zones. The grade o f fit
\\~thin each class depends on where the acrna! dimensions lie \\~thin these
tolerance zones. It is essential that component parts be produced \\~th the fit
that is appropriate to their imended lise. A rotating shaft for example \viil
regUlIe bearing surfaces with clearances that permit lubrication and free
running within a range of thennal expansion. In this example, the magnitude
of the limits applied will be influenced by the diame ter of the shaft and hole.
To take other examples, the security of a run on a wheel mar depend on the
correct grade of interference fit and the security of a replaceable bearing bush
in a housing will be similarly reliant o n the choice of fit.
\'(fhen we translate this to the cleamnce holes for bolts we may see that some
bolts may require a clearance fit whilst the holes for close tolerance bolts
wOl.~\5\yproduce interference. This is where an extensive range of drill sizes
. ?.(\C&ecomes useful. Taking a purely hypothetical example for a 1/4in diameter
_c.o\\e~1.:. bolt, we can produce a particular clearance fir or :1n interference fit as follows.
~S,...~1.':
. ,\'.\
:>.,...\'i"
'" For bolt diameter 1/4in:
- o'?
~.
• Clearance hole diameter limits (clearance tit)
o Maximum diameter 0.2520in (6.lmm)
o Minimum diameter 0.2500in (6.35mm)

.1"
• Clearance hole diameter limits (interference fit) ,f'
o Maximum diameter 0.2460 (6.25mm)

'"
.~
0'
r?:::::
o :Minimum diameter 0.2441in (6.2mm)
f!
I stress th:1t these are hypothetical figures; ~fOU must comply )Xjth the
specifications for the particular task in hand. Ndte that the drill size,.,~bles do
'"
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F IT S & CLEARANCE S
include all these sizes. Il owe\'er, you may have [0 alter your choice when
reaming is rC(luircd.
Common System of Fits & Clearances

Various limit systems have been used [0 specify various types of fit. or these,
the Newall system of fits was used extenSi\Tc1y in genernJ engineering. This ha s
now been largely replaced by Brirish Standards systems. BS ~SOO (BS EN20286
1993) 'ISO Limits and Fits' is the latest metric standard. BS 19 16 'Limits and
Fits for Engineering' is the imperial ,Tersion. Before we deal ,\o;Eh the principles
of the Brirish Standards systems, \ye should take a quick look :H the Newall
system, bearing in mind that it has been superseded.
Newall System of Limits & Fits

The Newa.ll system is a ' hole-basis' system. This means that the hole \"nIl be
produced as ncar [0 the basic size as possible and dle desired fit will be
achievcd by varying the size of me shaft. There are twO grades of hole
specified in thc system, Class :\ and Class B. Class A holes are machined to
fin er limits rhrlll Class B holes. There are .LX shaft sizes associatcd with cach
nominal size and class o f hole giving six possibl e fits. We only need to look at a
simple example of a table for these.
Type o f Fit Class of Fit Shafr Application
Interierence Force F Mechanical pr.:,~ur(' r('<!uifC(1 to :Is(emhlc

shaft in hole. 1\0 di'manding ltkcl\
after assembly.
Drh'ing D Less t.i~ht than :I force fit where p:\ft$ can

be dr;\'cn togcther.
Transioun Push P P.lrtS can lx ;15~embkd :md di~mantk(1 br

manual prc~~urC'.
Clearance Running
"
y
Su;tcd [0 mOlln)! partS.
Su;l.:d to mOl1ng parts.
Z Su:ted to mOI'ing parts.
Table 6.6 - Newall S)'s lcm
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Shrink & Contraction Fits

Before we moye on to discuss (he current British Standards system, we can
take the opporrunity to examine two particular types of interference fit that are
not normally mentioned.
Shrink Fit
This type fit would require the casing containing the hole to be expanded
through heating before the shaft could be assembled into it. "111e shaft could be
removed again by re-expanding the hole. ?v!etal wheel oms would be an
example.
Contraction Fit
This type of fit requires the shaft to be frozen to reduce its diameter and
peront assembly into the hole. It would be used in circumsta nces where the
application of heat would affect material properties. The Installation of cams
onto shafts or gear ri ngs ontO wheels would be example.
British Standards System

\'{/ehaye already identified BS +500 (BS EN20286 1993) as the ISO metric
Limits and Fits system. BS1916 is the imperial version. The principles are
similar for both. \\"ie will use cylindrical shafts and holes as our example but the
system is equally applicable to mating parts tha~ do not ha\Ce a circular eross-
seCOOD.
T ole0"anccs
'1~6-'2:
. O~\e(tr'""- Before we moye on, we should app reciate that a 'tolerance' is the difference
• -v.¢(" between two limits, for example an upper and a lower limit. A shaft will have a
~\..-b maximlun diameter and a minirnwn d iameter and rhus has a 'tolerance zooe'. A
,~,;.;'\Y hole will also haye a maximum diameter and a minimum diameter and thus a
~,
'tolerance zone'. How fine these tolerance z<ylOes are will depend on the
manufacturing processes that are used to produce the parts. T hese in nun \.\ill
depend on the quality of the product and its eventual usc. -:1
Standard Tolerance Grades I "'"
13S 1916 specifies 16 grades of fundamental tolerance (ITI to IT1 6) fo r eaci"
basic size range up to 19.69in and 11 grades of tolerance (1T6 to TT16) fcir
sizes above this up to 124io. 8S4500 on the other hand has 20 grades £ f
standard tolerances (1T01, ITO and ITt to IT18) covering the same size r~e.
You need not memorise these figures but you si0uld know their applicati8:ri..
Consider the standard tolerance grades ITt to IIrt6 as an example. The lower ""
the numbet, the more precise the manufacrurirlg process and the slj1'1;'ner the
"pccified ralemoce will be. Let', cake '0 examPll of, "h,ft that h" a b,"ic ,izc
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within me range SOmm to 80mm, say 6Smm. The smndard tolerance grade ITl
for this shaft would be just 2.5 microns but at tolerance grade ITI6, it would
be over 1200 microns!
Fi ts
\'('hen we consider a shaft and a hole, barh will have tolerance zones. It would
be difficult to obtain a specified fit by adjusting both zones. To derennine an
accurate fit, it is easier to specify a fi..'>:ed tolerance for one parr and then obtain
tbe recp.nred fit by altering the tolerance of the otber. For example, if \\'e
specify a single tolerance for the bole, we can select a tolerance from a range of
standard tolerances fo r the sbaft that will produce the required fit. This would
be a 'bole-basis ' system. Conversely, we could specify a single tolerance for
the shaft and vary the tolerance of the hole. That would be a ' sh.-di-basis '
system. In most cases, the 'hole basis' system is preferred.
Fu ndamental D evia tion
A fu ndamental deviation is the position of the boundary of a [oler:lnce zone in

relation to a 'zero' or reference line, whicb is normally the basic size of a
component.
Fundament:ll Deviation
Fundamental Zero Line Fundament:tl
De\-iation
D
DC\'iation
of Hole
of Shaft
+ .-l
f B:lsic
Size
.1~<\6
(p\\c'l-'
- '100'
- D
~ \',-:o.(t'i
,\' ,,!--- \. Figure 6.2 - Fundamc[Jlal Deviation
:'.~\o,;.;
,. \,~ .
In the illustration, we have shown tbe 'zero' line passing through tbe ccnuc of
the clearance or 'allowance'. Ths means that botb the hole and the shaft have a
fundamental de,riation from this line. The hole deviation is positive, being
above the 'zero' line. The shaft deviation is negative, being below the zero line.
YOll can sec that this has produced a clearance fit. However, the same result
could have been achieved by fi......mg the fundamental de,-iation of the hole at , ~'
zero and then adjllsring the fundamental deviation of the shaft to obtain the
required fit. Before we move on, let me remind you of the definitions for
bilateral and unilateral limits.
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Bilateral Limi ts
T hese limits are displaced above and below (he basic size. For example, if the
basic size of a hole i~ 2in plus or minus 0.004io , then the high limit i~ 2.004in
and the low limit IS 1.996in. The tolerance is 0.00~1O.
Unilateral Limits
1bese limits are displaced in one direction only, either above or below the
bask size. For example, our 2in bask size hole may be described a being 2in
plus 0.008in. ' nlC high limil in this case is 2.00Sio and the low limit is 2.o00in.
Com-ersel}" the hole may be specified as being lin minus 0.008in. In this case,
the high limit is 2.000il1 and the low limil is 1.992in. In each case, the tolerance
is O.OOSin.
1T'Ion
Interfe rence Clea rance I
+ 1D
=::::---'---"~L-S"ldn=h"T
±--1°1 H ole
Tolerance Tolerance Basic
Size
Fundamental
De\' iado n
Zero Lin e
Figure 6.3 · H o le Basis Sys tem
Imagine that we now fix the fundame ntal deviation o f the hole at a specified
~al®."'\Gfor e.xampie on the 'zero' line. This rrieans that the hole will have
;-.,\.:.,?-c '!.\I~njJateral limits ,",,;th its lower limit being the basic size. Now we choose a
(' (P positive fundamental deviation for the shaft that places it just above the 'zero'
h.."'''~
. line. ' nlC hole and shaft tolerance zones are no\J oyerlapping and we will have
,.:,\\~,," a transition fit. Quite what the transition fit will be will depend on the value of
Cp'Q fundamental denation we ga,e to the shaft. Remember, the hole deviation was
fD,ed. Now imagine we increase the fundamenta l deviation of the shaft until).ts
tolerance zone lies above tbat of the hole. \'(Ie now have an interference ~.
AgaIn, the fit will depend on the value of the fundamental deviation we gave to .
~.~ ~
From the above description, it seems that \ve need to have some standar&'
'"
fundamental deviations that we can apply first the hole and then selectiv~
tb
to the shaft. That is what the British Standards I system does. 1n BS 1916, t§e
fundamental deVIations for holes are indicated by 21 upper case letters and .ine
fundamental deviations for shafts are indicated bv 21 lower case letters.
, 1i &
Holes: _,; Be 0 E FG I-IJ KMN P RST'U VX Y Z R
Shafts: abc de f g h j k fi n p r stu v x y z
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A to II and k to z indicate tolerance zones tbat lie abO\-e the 'zero' line. K to Z
and a to h indicate rolerance zones that lie below the 'zero; line. This means
that J and j lie on rhe 'zero' line. For mosl generaJ engineering purposes, rhe
fundamemal deviation alloned [0 the hole will be 1-1. The required fit is then
achieved by selecting an appropriate fundamental det~acion for thc shaft.
BS 4500 uses rhe same codes as BS 1916 except that there arc seven cxtrn leller
codes, ZA, ZB, ZC eec. The imperial and metric systems arc const.ructed TO be
identical so thar the same combination of leners for a hole and a shaft will gi\'c
the same dimensions in both systems, albeit BS 1916 will be imperial and BS
4500 the exact metric equivalent.
Class ifi cation of Fits
W'e can now specify a fundamental deviation and a tolerance grade for the hole
and the shafl. [n the hole basis system, we will fix the hole and select options
for the shaft. For example:
J lolc Shaft
Clearance Transition Interference
116 e6 fS g6 h6 is k6 ,4 15 u4
118 c9 cS f8 j7 k7 1116 S
- I - -
U
Table 6.7 - Examples of Engineering Fils
These arc JUSt a few purely hypothetical examples and rou would need [0 refer
10 the British ~1tl dards Data Sheets to obtain selected fits. These arc very
extcnsi"~ "1\n\!l1 ic\vould not be appropriate to include them here. However, the
~'i?~9.\~f fit ehC}' produce arc worch examining and examples of these are
, \l)'tincluded.
. ~,\.
<'"
,. CI'" Clearance Fits Transition Fits Inte rference Fits
\'cry loose running Push Light press
Loose running E:lsy keying :>.tedium dm'C
Eas), runntng Tight kcying Il ea\)' drit·c
Running Ught dri\·c Heavy pres~ or shrink
Table 6.8 - Types of FilS
You should now appreciate that for each combination of fundamental

deviation and tolerance grade of hole there is a rnnge of shaft fundamental
devia tion and tolerance grade combinations available from which lO choose.
For example, a lypical classification fO( a loose running fit would be I !7/d8. A
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typical example for a push fit would be J-I6/j5 and an example o f a heavy dnve
fit would be H8/ s7. T here are numerous combinations but do remember, the
upper-case letter refers to the hole and (he lower-case leHcr refers fO [he shaft.
Also, remember that when the hole classification is fixed and the fits are
obtained by varying the shaft classification, we are using a 'hole basis' system.
Schedule of Fits & Clearances for Aircraft & Engines

Aircraft and Aircraft Component l\'lamtenance and Repair Manuals lnclude a
schedule o f fits and clearances for all mechanical parts . Common features
included in these schedules are: the figure/reference identiry of the
component, the initial manufacmring dimensions and limits, the assembly
clearances and the in-service wear limits. Some schedules may describe tbe
initial manufacturing dimensions and limits as the 'permissible dimensions' and
the assembly clearances as the 'pennis sible clearances', The information is the
same, only the title is different. The schedule is normally cross-referenced to a
Figure (drawing) where the components are identified by a reference letter. It
would be a good idea to look at a coupic of hypothetical examples of these
schedules.
Table for i-igu re 123
Manufacmring Limits I In-Sen'icc Wear Limits

Fig Parts
Dimension Ass), clearancel Dimension Allowable
123 List Fig/
(mm) (mm) limits (mm) Clearance
Ref ItcmNo.
i'v[jn ),lax 11in Max i i\fin Max lfax
A 21-210
6.235 6.236 6.235 6.244
10
G 0.009 0.011 0.029
20-.')5
6.225 6.226 6.215 6.226
OD
21 -305
B 2.554 2.559 2.554 2.620
10
0.002 0.009 0.08
2-90 5~
) --)
2.550 2.552 2.540 _.JJ _
OD ~
Table 6.9 - Example Extract from a Fits & Clearances SchcduJe

1
That is enough of an extract to show you the content of this typc of sched~~.
T he parts are identified as having internal (lD ) and outside diameters (<W5).
The 'manufacturing limitS' specify the maximurri and minimum size limi~ for
each component. The differcnce between the limitS is the 'manufacltring
tolerance'. ,§:,U
V
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The 'assembly clearances' specify the maximum and minimum clearances that
should exist afrer assembly. If we have a component with a ma..ximum internal
diameter of 6.236mm assembled onto a shaft with a minimum outside
diameter of 6.225mm, the clearance would be 0.011mm. Conversc!y, if the
ourside diameter werc at the minimum value o f 6.235mm and a shaft at the
maximum value of 6.226mm, the clearance would be O.OO9rnm. T his gives us
maximum and minimum assembled clearances of 0.011mm and 0.OO9mm
respecri.ely.
The 'in-service wear limits' will produce the 'maximum allowable clearance' for
LIS. If the maximum i.nternal worn dimension is 6.2+-I-mm and the shaft
minimum permissible outside diameter is 6.21Smm, the maximum in-service
clearance is 0.029mm. We can now look ar mOlher hypothetical example of an
extract from a schedule for the overbaul of nn engine.
Permissible Permi ss ible

Dimensions Ciearnnccs
Item (mm) (mm)
i\ lax ~Ijn ~ I a...... Min
Crankpin dia standard ·W.238 40.225
1st undcrsize (O. 127mlll) 40. 11 1 40.098
2nd undersize (O.2S4mm) 39.984 39.n
Big end bearing standa rd bore size 40.403 40.390
Crankpin running deamnce 0.178 0.152
Table 6.10 - Example of a FilS & C le ~rances Schedule (Engine)

l')\f;J~
The 'f,:~~~bi;dimensions' specify the O1flximum and minimum limits o f size

[Qr-.oX~~ manufacnlred parts. The difference between these limits is the
'i. r... \\.~"\. manufacruring [oic.rance. The 'permissible c1enmnces' specify the maximum
" .\J:;....
( ..\'.
. and minimum clearances that should exist when partS are assembled. This is
similar to our previous example. The maximum size of a standa rd crankpin is
40.238mm. When this crankpin is assembled imo a bearing with a bore at the
minimum limit of -IO.390mm, the clearance would be O.lS2mm. Conversciy, if
a cranh.-pin at the lower size limit of -«>.225 were assembled into a bearing with
a bore at the maximum size limit of 40A03mm, the clearance would be
O.1 78mm. T hus, the maximum perrnissible assembled dearance is O.178mm
and the minimum is 0.lS2mm. I will not bother with the oversize entries in rhe
example as 1 think the point is already made.
The schedules we have discussed are used br engineers to compare acrnal

dimensions and clearances with those specified for new partS. Care has [0 be
exercised when a clearance is viewed as having reached or exceeded tbe
maximum permicted value. .l\'i ost of the wear may ha"f"e taken place on one of
the components and not the other. For example, a bush may be worn outside
of the maximum limit whilst the shaft may be well within limits. T his means
thal the correct clearance could be restOred by replacing tbe bush. You can
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CHAPTER SIX
FITS & CL.EARANCES
only arove at that conclusion using the dam contained the schedule of fits and
clearances for the parts. In many cases, the maintenance manual may require
you to renew both parts when one reaches the limit. This is normally based on
the philosoph\' that yOLI should only refit parts that h:wc a rCflsollabk life
cxpectancy. There is little point in refitting a half-\vorn part fhar is likely to
becOl:lc f~ll y ,,:orn long before it:; mating part Idocs ..The message here is to
cxcrclse dlscretlon; and comply \nth the approved malntcnancc procedu res of
course.
Limits for Bow, Twist & Wear

Bowing Limits
I f it is suspected that a structurnl member, a strut for example, is bowed, the

method used to check for this will depend on rhe design. I f the stnll is free
from protruding parts and a straight edge can be applied along its entire length,
feeler gauges can be inserted at the point of maximum cleamnce. The amount
of bow presem can be calculated as follows:
Bo\\' Clearance measured br feele r gauges

Lengrh of member
For eXflmple, if the member is 4ft long and the clearance is ascertained to be
0.080in then the bow is:
Bow::: 0.080 ::; -.!.. 1 or 1 in 600

48 4800 600
'l(\~(
')l~'6 -
_l,W.:~e -' A maximum bow of 1:600 is normally considered acceptable unless the Repair
... \-..,;}{{..: l. i\lanual states otherwise. The manual may allow a greater 1Olerance.
c
~...\. .-
",'\\.~
-o~·
C
Depth Gauge _
TraTmel
-'- "'-
• ~
Straight Edge
j
L
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C H A PT ER S I X
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Figure 6.4 - Checking fo r Bow
When the member has protruding parrs, collars for example, it may not be
possible to apply a straight edge. The problem may be o,'crcomc by using a
trammel clJuipped with three pointers. nle pointers should be first aligned on
a surface table. The rrammei may then be offered up to the member and
positioned so that the ou ler poimers contact each end. Feeler gauges ma)' then
be used in con junction witb the centre poimer to establish the clearance. :\
more accur:tte measurement can be obtained by replacing the centre pointer
widl a depth gauge o r a dial test indicator. The depth gauge should first be
aligned with the protrusion of the outer pointers using a surface table and the
reading noted.
Allernati\'ely, if feeler gauges cannot be used in siN, the protnlsion of the

centre pointer ma), be adjusted to contact the member. Jf the latter method is
employed, the lCammel can be placed on a surface table so that the centre
pointer and one end pointer arc in contact with the table. Feeler gauges may
then be used to establish the clearance of the opposite end pointer from the
table. \'rhen using trus method, you must remember that the clearance you arc
measuring will acrually be twice the .alue of the bow.
! , Trammel
j
1
Surface Table 1x I3{)W~
Figure 6.5 - Simple Bow C heck
Twist
;::
,
The course of action you would adopt in order to check for twist would
depend on what mechanical strucrure you were dealing with. On the large
scale, an aircraft strucrure may be defolTIled after a heavy landing or overstress
in night. Evidence of possible distomon ffi.'ly be as simple as a visual indication
of wrinkling of the skin. Less obvious evidence may be revealed during
symmetry and geometry checks on the struCtUre. These parnclll:!r checks arc
dealt with in Chapter 19 so we will not pursue them any further at this point.
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Suffice to say that the limits for errors reyealed dunng such checks will be
stated in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual and the Repair Manual.
On a relatively smaller scale, shafts, strutS, tie rods etc. may suffer twist if they
have been subjected to excessive torSion loads. Again, in extreme cases, the
evidence mar be as simple as a visual indication of distortion . HO\vcver, an
accurate measurement of small yalues of twisl would require you to establish
radial datum lines along tbe torsional a.......is, ideally at each end of the
component. . <'\' good illustration of this would be a check on a reciprocating
engine connecting rod.
!\ Iandrcl
""''--j\[andrcl
Figure 6.6 - Check for T\\>ist
By using a mandrel, the axis of tbe bore of the big end bearing can be
accurately aligned to be parallel with a surface table. A second mandrel may
then be inserted through the small end and its parallelism rclat1\T to the surface
table flL1.y be checked with a dial tcst indicator. This check can be extended by
'1\.""\l.t1l.9ra~g the connecting rod into the vcrtical position and checking the
Co\\~~e ... parallelism of the. mandrel at the small end in rclation. to the ~andrel at t~e big
. ~';l.{{' end. 1\ mandrel IS an accurately ground bar that WIll fit \V1thout play Into a
:\'\. ,\'" bore. It would be classified as a piece of special equipment that is provided
• ,~::..-i.\'?! specifically for the inspection of a given part.
i...,'-
T must emphasise that the example given is for a check for [wist on a particuJ:a,r
component. However, the principle could be applied to shafts with end fhng&;
or fittings where one end can be accurately aligned in a fitting, not necessarily~ .
mandrel, allowing you to check the alignment 9f the other end relative to i ~
The limits for twist \vould be unique to the particular component and woul&-
be stated in the relevant component manual. ff
~
,~
o·
"0
J?
o
Wea r
"
cS;5
Again, the course of action you would adopt to check for wear wouid"depend
the component and tbe pennissible limits woUld be specifically [~ed to it.
011
'"
A good illumacion would be a check on Chi ckarnnee in a bill m collet
359
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CHAPTER S I X
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bearing. Excessive wear will result in large internal clearances. A rough check
might be conducted by holding the inner ring and moving the OUlcr ring
radially [0 'fccl' for mm-cmcO[. This would be vcry subjccth-e because bearings
do han manufactured clearances. A more objecti\'e guide could be obtained by
mounting lhe inner ring on a shaft or mandrel and establishing the a\-erage
radial movement of the OUler ring by taking readings at different angular
positions using a dial test indicator. Again, you would need acccss to the
perm.issible wear limitS in the relevant component manual before a judgemcnt
on acceptability could be made. The limits, and the conduct of the check, are
not personal choices; the approved manual procedures must be applied.
~_DiaI Tcst
W Indicator
I 8 2
7 -++++*-+--1+-1- 3
6 4
,
Figure 6.7 - Bearing Cleara nce Check
I have been usi~\gsillustrations to show some geneml principlcs of measuring

compone~r610 Tn
rhe next section, we will look at some furthcr general
tc'(,i)n\'q"ties that are employed to check various components.
~;..~f"l
Q
<,~
,'0'
_ ~,''l
\....~.'
Standard Methods for Checking Shafts, Bearings & ~<

~
Other Parts S-
"'~
In Chapter 3, we discussed .acious measuring instruments and their uses in
checking component dimcnsions. This infonnacion will apply in this section.
For example, the diameter, roundness and parallelism of shafts and round bars
may be roughly checked with the usc of external calipers. Conversely, similar
checks can be conducted an bores using internal calipers. If we wish to obtain
accurate measurements, we can employ outside and inside micrometers or
vermer calipers.
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CHAPTER S I X
FITS & CLEARANCES
8
Figure 6.8 • Simple Cbecks for Ovality & Parallelism
\'(Thcn we wish to conduct checks to establish if ~ hafts or bores are within their
prescribed tolerances, we mar employ the system of limit gauging.
Limit Gauging
Limit gauging is often used as an altcrnacive to direct measurement to indicate

whether a component is inside or outside its ] specified tolerance. Another
advantage is that it can be used by semi-skilled personnel.
UNnr(i O
Plug r."~C
Figure 6.9 - Limit Gaugi ng
~
A limit gauge has two gauging elements, GJ and NOT GO. The mo~
common limit gauges are 'plug' gauges for asses~ing holes and 'ring' gauges for
I R
assessing shafts. Taking a 'plug' gauge as an example, the GO end of the gaug~
ensures that the related hole is nOI below the low or ' nJaximunl metal ' lirrll'f
of size and the NOT GO end ensures that the hole is not above its high B,r
'minimum metal' limit. If the GO cnd enters the hole and the NOT GO d:!a
does not, the hole must be within its size limits br tolerance. T his is kno\v,¥"""""as
Taylor'S principle of gauging. ~
~
OJ
Wle can now interpret this for the function of a 'ring gauge'. 'nle 'ring' %0
ensures that the shaft is not above the high limit or 'maxinui"m metal
361
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CHAP T ER S I X
F IT S & CLEARANCES
condiu·on ' and rhe NOT GO ring ensures that it is not below the low limit or
'minimunl m e tal condition '. In other words, the shaft is within its tolerance.
Alignm ent Checks
TIlerc may be occasions when we need to check the alignment of two bearin~.
A good illustration would be a shaft that has to pass through twO separate
bushes or bearings. If the bores of these bearings are not axially aligned, the
shaft will be at risk of seizing or creating unequal bearing wear.
Dial Gauge
Mandrcl - -/ ' Y-::>I.
Surface Table
Figure 6.10 - Check for Alignment
J Jere we ha\(f :I$6'thcr requirement for a mandrel that is passed through the
[wo R9cih~. I f there is any significant misalignment, the chances are that the
d uh·J11i el will not fit. However, providing we can sec the component parallel to
\."':J. a surface table so rhat the axis of the bores are also parallel to it, we can use a
dial test indicator to check the alignment of the mandrel.
Run-Ou t Checks
1\ rorating assembly that is not concentric with its a.'Cis of rorarion will create
problems. For example, when a shaft is carrying componems that revoke
within casings, the reduction in running clearnnces can lead to fouling and
chafing in addition to vibration. Run-out checks are designed [Q detect radial
variations in [be angular path of points on the circumference of a revolring
shaft and detect the track of points on the axial faces of components that are
being dri\-en by the shaft. Errors may occur on a manufactured assembly
simply because the parts of the rorating assembly are not within their individual
or assembled rolcrances ../\ good example would be a shaft carrying a couple of
turbine wheels . All parts of the assembly should run concentric with the axis
and rhe rurbine discs should rOtate true in the radial plane. Variations would
ca Llse dynamic imbalance and vibrarioo leading to accelerated rates of wear and
fatigue failu re.
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CHAPTER SIX
FITS & CLEARANCES
Gauge
Fm27
1
6 4
5
Figure 6. 11- Run-oUl Mcasurcmcnl
' [11 C illustration shows a hypothetical rotaring Jsembly and positions where a
manufacturer has specified that run-out is [0 be measured . The wtal indicated
run-out (TIR) for each position is determined by the biggesl recorded
difference in the readings on a dial res t indicalor taken al specified points as
the shaft is rurned through one complete revolution. The manu fac rurer has set
the limit for the 'total indicated run-out' at each posItio n. Note that the 'total
indicated run-out' given hete is the to tal range of DTI deflection occurring at
one position during one complete revolution. Note that the unit we selected
for use in this particular illustration was the micfon ()l). If you are not familiar
\vith this unit, a micron is a micromerre, which is o ne millionth of a metre
(0.000 DOlm) o r one thousandth of a millimcl le (O.OOlmm). It was included
hem ~lIst to show you H exists.
10.1.'/') - -
i\\ecre. -
"C...~ '" \Vhcn a shaft is not runrung concentrtcallr besause 1t 15 bowed or bent, the
;: .\"\,:>\{, error normally occurs either side of the true axis of rotation. 'nlere will be a
_,;,\¢'' ' ~ maximum positiye DTl reading at one point, chknging to a maximum negative
(,0.;;:,..... reading after 180 degrees revolution. The aClU:ll run-alit in this case will be
half (he value o f the full range o f DTl dcflection during one complete
revolution . An example would be an aircraft engine propeller shaft. A hea\;
landing or a shock load 00 the propeller mJ)' cause the shaft to deflca
pcnnanently out of its true rotational axis. This would cause the propeller {ij.
run our o f true and would create scycre v-jbratiot~ . E
co
""
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CHAPTER S I X
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Dial Test
Figure 6.12 - Propeller Shafl Run-oul Chtck
'n,e propeller is rcmo\'cd and a ballast weight is anachcd to thc shaft to restrict
any backlash in the shaft reducrion gear. A dial test indicator (0'1'1) is then
anached lO lhe reduction gear casing and its plungcr is set (0 comact a plain
portion ncar the front of the shaft. The shaft is then rmatcd by hand through
one full revolution and the full range o f defl ection of the OTI poimcr is
recorded. 'lllc run-o ul of the shaft is b"lf (be total of tbe DTI fiu ctll:lIion.
For examplc, if thc DTI reading ranged from -O.020in to +O.040in during one
compl cte rcvoluuon of the shaft, the tOtal '-:trianon is O.060in giving a run-out
O.030in. Thi s value is then compared with the specified tolerance in the
Aircraft t-. laimenans::c Manual. TI,e check is normally repcated using a diffcrcnt
locaoon 0l~\OC pl}Un poroon of the sha ft .
..
. ;..\~ ....~
~~ rl.aClround tubc or a ba r is suspected of being bowed, it can be chccked for
\. 1-. \\:> run-our by supporting it on V blocks on a surface table and then using a DTI
,. . . .5\~' to check for variaoon whilst rolanag the item through one rcyolmion. Again,
"-..,.. the run-out would be half the yalue of the total DTl de£lecuon during one
re"olution.
Ch ecking Surface Deprcssions
A depression may form on a flat or cUfyed surface as the result of impact, wcar
o r corrosion. The surfacc may for example be on a propeller blade face or on a
structural member such as a leading edge or a tubular strut or rod. Dents in the
middle third region of load-bearing hollow rubes and push·pull rods arc
particularly hazardous and would not nonnally be acccptable. A method used
to measure rhe depth of a depression is to mount a dial test indica tor on an
adapt or block that has a straight edge. TIle DTI plunger is set at right anglcs to
the edge Readings are then taken at twO points on the unaffected surface
adjacenr 10 the dcpression, for example Y and Z in the illustration. A reflding is
then taken fir rhe maximum depth X in the depression.
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CHAPT E R S IX
FITS & C L EARANCES
Dial TeSt _ _ ..{U

Indicator U
'H"
Adap tOl~
Block
I I
L
-I y z
Figure 6.13 - Meas uri ng a Dt:pressioD
The true depth o f the depression is o b tained by subtracting the average of the
two readings Y and Z from reading X.
Depth::::X- Y + Z
2
Oth er MeasllJ'ement Tech niques
I am including tillS secoon merely to show :ou that measuring capability has
been advancing with technology and there are instruments capable of
" ,
extremely fine measurement. Automated ad,anced measuring machines now
exist that are capable of spatially checking and storing literally hundreds of
work-piece datum positions in computer software form so that precise
information on shape, size and location can be retrieycd. These arc beyond the
uGlc ejWOof this module bur we can examine a couple of instruments lhat ha\-e
.
( o\\'-'?'- l' b een aroun d.lor some orne
" " ulat
' illustratc wIlat"IS 1pOSS "bl
I e.
c_\V'i.'i.' '
;,.,'\,---' Comparators
::;"'\\"?'
(,0'\ .
\'(1hen there is a requirement to measure particularly small variaoons, a
comparator is often the most effective instrument. The dial test indicator,..is
often used as a foml of comparator but actual cOfTIparators work on a differeiy
principle. \\le did not deal with these in Chapter 3 because they do not fiB
under the beading of commonly used ins&illnents. However, a brik
description would not go amiss here as they are used in inspectiorD
departments. I .f
T he principle of a comparator is that it accurately compares a measur§:l
dimension against a known standard. They can b~ used to measure angularyitid
linear dimensions and smface finishes. There are mechanical, optical, clec,@cal
and pneumatic comparators but a feature that tlJey all have in commondfthat
they magnify m ovement of a stylus and so enab~e accurate comp arisop~ of size
with a standard such as a slip gauge. For illustration, we can look a~ simple
optical comparator.
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C H APTE R S I X
F I T S & C L.EARANC ES
1..1g ht
, - j}r.
• ,,-~ ProjcClor
Graduated Scale I
Projected lmag,_c___./I~
of Datum Line
•
Stylus
Figure 6. 1-4 - Optkal Comparato r
t-. ragnifieanon of movement in the simple optical comparator ill ustmted is

achieved in the ratio of the lengths of the lever arms between thc stylus and the
mi rror and the amplified movement of a reflected ray in a tilting mi rror. A very
sm:ill deflection of the stylus is multiplied at the mirror. A light sourcc projects
the image of a datum line Onto dle mirror where it is then reflccted omo a
graduated scale. As the stylus deflects, the mirror rotates and the datum line
moves across the scale. These instruments are extremely sensiti,"c and art"
capable of magnifying sm:ill variations seYt"ral rimes. This magnification of
mon:ment is actually quite low when compared to that achie,"cd by clectrical
comparators that can magnify mO\"ement up to 30,()(X)X!
AUlocoUim ators
t\lIlocollimators are primari ly used to detect angular variations but they can be
acl:-tpted (0 linear measurement. The principle is that a be:un of light striking a
reflecting surface that is at riglH anglcs to the beam will be reflected su-aigbt
back along its path. I f the beam is directed through a lens, it will form an image
at the focal poJ,~(\"' l-f owe"er, if the mirror is tiited, the light beam will be
reflected. !.~h· angle that is twice that of the angle of tilt and the image will
_\\ .I!,~
1llQ\'l!:""
'\'i).'(.{'
L,,~'L'i>'" t :- -_::-~D;'Phccmc'"
. ,\Iicromeler
Drum
~, ~ ,.-
.;1
.!
Serting unts' Eyepiece
Reflected I mage
Fig ure 6. 15 - AUlOcoHima lOr
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CHAPTER S I X
F IT S & CLEARANCES
The autocollimator has two pans; one part cOll,1prises fl micrometer dnlll1, a
light soucce and a lens with an illuminated eyepiece that reveals the reflected
ill13gC of a datum line and a pair of sighting lines . The second parr comp nses a
mirror mounted on an adaptor block that has a s~raight edge. You do not need
to remember this next bit because it is included for ill ustration only. T he
micromcrcr drum is graduated in seconds of an arc where one revolution
equals thirry seconds. A scale adjacent to the eyepicce is grad uated into ten
minutes of an arc whete one divis ion is equal to o ne rcvolution o f the
micrometer drum. Any moyement that tilts the mirror will shi fl the da tum linc
image in the eyepiece. The micrometer drum is then rotated to bring the datum
within the sight lines and a reading of deflection is thus achic\'cd. Thesc
instruments arc also extremely seositiye and are often used to test surface
flatness. Suitably fldapted they haye man~- flpplications.
Conclusion
This chapter bas provided you \\;th an introduction into the extensive subject
of tits and cleamnces. Space would prohibit the inclusion of c\'ef)' check on
eycry typc of flircrnft component. TIle informauon contained here, when taken
in conjunction \\·; th the information on dimensions, allowances find tolcrn!1ces
fine! precision meflsuring tools contained in earlier chflpters, should enable you
to be farniliflr with any question posed and to recognise the flppro priflte
answer. Before we mm-e onto someth ing completely dirferent, takc fI breflk
and hfl\'e a go at the questions that foliow.
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CHAPTER S I X
FITS & CLEARANC ES
Revision
Fits & Clearances
Q ues tions
1. On a number drill s ize cha rt , the sm aller driUs b ave the:
a) lowest numbers
b) highest numbers
c) c,'cn numbers
2. The British Stand a rd used in the U K for ISO fi ts and Limit s is:
'J B5308
bJ B55750
cJ B54500
c) clearance
4. Wh en cond ucting a run-o ut check on a p ropcllcr sh aft tha t has been

sub jected to a s hock load , th e d ial test indicator defl ects from -O .04in
10 + O.06in during on e comple te revolution of th e shaft. This
indi cales a run-oul o f:
a) O.05in
b) O.02in
c) O.lin
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CHAPTER SIX
FITS & CLEARANCES
5. T h e s h aft SIze tha t \yo uld p rodu ce a cle arance fit In a ho le O.8Sin
di am e te r is:
:I) 0.852
b) 0.85
c) 0.848
6. A numbe r driU s ize tab le h as a ra n ge o f s izes fro m :
a) I roSO
b) 1 to 80
c) I to 26
7. In th e absen ce of oth er limits, the m ax imum permissib le bow limit

IS:
a) 1,600
b) 1200
c) 10300
8. On.. a le ttered drill size table, A is:

ll.)IJ
the largest size
b) the smallest size
c) leflour
9. A typical reaming a lJowan ce fo r h o les up to 3/ 4in diameter i%-

between:
:I) 0.018in to 0.023in
b) O.ODin to O.0 18in
c) 0.OO3in to 0.008in
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FITS " CLEARANCES
10. A limit system where the hole d iam ete r is fi xed and th e fit is
achi eved by se lecting an a pp ropriate shaft d iame te r is known as a:
a) shaft basis system
b) hole basis system
c) shaft and hole basis system
11. Whe n a shaft and a hole a re at their ' m aximum m e ta l' conditi on, it
m e ans:
a) the largest shaft is fi tted in the smallest hole
b) the smallest shaft is fi tted in the largest hole
c) the largest shaft is fi tted in the largest hole
12. In the system of limits and fi ts, H 7/ h7 m eans:
a) Shaft H7 assembled to hole h7 as an interference fit
b) Holc 1-1 7 assembled to shaft h 7 as a clearance fit
c) Hole H7 assembled to shaft h7 as a trnnsirion fit
13. Th e equipm&r t that could be used to check th e run-o ut o fa shaft is :

.,~,b 1-
.&..;~, th ree point trammel and a surface table
L.
~:\s("
( b) a pair of V blocks, a OTI and a surface table
.\"\\
,;,.,\"i"
"y\" c) eXTernal calipers and a steel rule
14. T h e tap lIsed to prepare a hole fo r a thre ad insert is :
a) the same size as the original thread diameter
b) supplied by the thread insen manufacmrer
c) one size larger than the original thread diameter
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CHAPTER S I X
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15. A letter E drill equates to:
a) O.250i.ll dct;imal, 1/ -Jin fractional

b) O.625in decima l, S/8in fractio nal
c) O.12Sin decimal, 1/ 8 fractional
16. If the limi ts for a shaft are 20.04mm a nd 20.03mm an d for a bole a re
20.06 ml11 a nd 20.05mm, the assembled clearance limits are:
a) 0.0 111111110 O.03mm
b) O.O lmm to 0.02mm
c) 0.02mm to O.03mm
17. \Vhen th ere is a positive allowance be rween the smaUest poss ible
hole a nd the largest possible shaft, the only fit possible is a :
a) interfen:ncc fit
b) transition fit
c) clearance fit
18. A Dress fit is achieved by:

'00
.,\0(:)--
• ,:>,..:\!.I!"'1.. a) expanding the hole using heal
l·\" -
\\;\~~~
:0.. \- b) contracting the shaft by freezing
-{\~....
(:.§:.... c) using mechanical force
C;.
19. T be depth of a small surface depression resulting from blending

.,
-0
0\11--
corros ion may be accurately m easured using a: -;:,
"-
?
a) dialtcst indicator
.~
,.
b) straight edge and feeler gauges p5.::
c) th ree poim tranuncJ
~
,..
,~
o·
371
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CHAPTER S I X
FITS & C LE ARANCES
20. Th e purpose of a re am e r is to:
a) producc OYcrsi7.c holes
b) enlargc holcs to obtain an accurate dimension and a smooth fi nish
c) drill holes 10 an accurate size
Revision
Fits & Clearances
Answers
I. B 16. A
2. C 17. C
3. A 18. C
4. A 19. A
5. C 20. B
'l\)\)"":
6. B \\~Jb
~\ .\!.~ ..
(P ..
\"\:.tfl-. A
1\" "
. (\~'
8. B
I'>'
9. C r .
"
-';
<,
ID. B
-E.
I I. A
12. C .~
,
.~
.~
"
13. B
14. B
:,g
0
'u
'"
,
'""'"
15. A c§''0
,
372
C(JP)ri!,hJ C RI'!)' ulkgt :006 Joo- All r1,ghu rmmd IN,'/j·.p01t66.trJIII
CHAPTER SEVEN
ELECTRICAL CABLES & CONNECTORS
Electrical Cables & Connectors

Introduction
Tills syllabus for this chapter includes : dle installation and testing of electrical
cables and CO!U1ectors; bonding techniques and bond testing; crimp tools;
connector pin removal and insertion; the testing and installation of co-axial
cables and \\>iring protection techruques. Most tests carried out by the
maintenance technician will be in support of inspection or faul t diagnOSIS. The
testing of circuits should be carried Ollt in the right ordet, wruch is normally:
bonding, cOn afllli{y, inslllacion and [hen ;. j functional test. For that
reason. we will structure the first part o f tills chapter .in that order by
commencing ""i.th bonding techniques and testing before moving on to deal
with continuity, insulation and functional testing.
Common sense tells us that there must be an assumption tbat you will already
be aware of the information on the types and characteristics of cables,
connectors and tenninations and o n the operation, function and use of
electrical and a\i.onic general test equipment that is contained elsewhere in the
syllabus. It does not make sense to repeat all of that related infornlation in its
entirety when the syllabus for this particular chapter does not include it.
However, tllls chaptet is frequently used .in isolation to support conversion
courses. TillS presents us witb a dilemma that we can overcome to some extent
by 6WJ.sensing selected extracts from that information where it might have a
~ c 1.a~1trricular bearing on a topic or, more importantly, tempt a 'quizmaster' into
" Co\\'"'~ pOSIng you a question on the assumption that 'you should know ie - it does
,.:..\,{":S{. happen. TillS sbould explain why we might occasionally divert to include
"s~""'''' . supporting infonnation. The references that follow identify the sources of that
(.;:0",,- information. ~-\..lso included, are useful referelices from the Civil Aircraft
Airworthiness Information and Procedures (CAAIP). Again, relevant
~,
in fonnation from these latter references will be included here. "c

~
""?:.
~
"
References
Ivfodule 6 (l'vIaterials and Hardware), Chapter 11 (Electrical Cables aiKl ,~
Connectors): 0 '
This chapter includes iofonnarion on : ,~ ""'"

...,~
• Cab le types, construction and characteristics '"

~~
• High tension and co-axial cables
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CHAPTER SEVEN
ELECTRI CAL CABLES & CONNECTORS
• Crimping
• Connector types
• Pins, plugs, sockets, insulators
• Current and \-olmge rating
• Coupling
• Identification codes
b-fodule 7 (J.faintcnance Practices), Chapter 3 (\'(/orkshop Practices):
T lus chapter (in tlus module) includes infonnarion on:
• Operation, function and use of electrical general test equipment
Module 7 (Maintenance Practices), Chaprer -I- (Avionic General Test

Equipment):
This chapter (in this module) includes information on:
• Operation, function and use of avionic general test equipment
Ci\ril Aircraft J\i.f'J?rthiness Information and Procedures (CAAIP):

'1(\(16 ...
_C~\~g>art 9, Leaflet 9-1, Bonding and Circuit Testing
- ~';I.««'
. ~,... >- • Part 9, Leaflet 9-3, Cables - Installation and ~laimenance
,~
...~...'l\ -
, '" • Part 11, Leaflet 11-5, Aircraft Electrical Cables
Electrical Bonding Techniques

T he build-up of static and electro-static induced electrical charges created by
fricoon and from lightning strikes bas to be dissipated so dlat the safety of the
aU:crafl, crew and passengers is not jeopardised. A failure to do rlus risks
structural or component damage. malfunction of equipmem and the creation
of high potential differences in the aircraft. Bonding is the electrical
interconnection of metallic aircraft parts to enable me safe distribution,
normally at earth potential, of electrical charges and currents and to provide a
low resistance path for electric current in earth return systems. Bonding
reduces the risk of electric shocks from the electrical power supply system and
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CH A PTER SEVEN
ELECTRIC A L CAB LES & CONNECTOR S
the risk of electro-magnetic interference with the operation o f aircraft radio

and Ila,igational aids .
Tills topic atuacts a number of questions so you will fInd a lot of detail
included here. Better La have too much information lhan too little!
Bonding Conductors
A ircraft bonding conductors are classified as: primary conductors that are
designed to carry and dissipate lightning strikes, and secondary conductors that
senT the remaining bonding functions. The aircraft metal structure and its
equipment may also provide an inherent bonding path that is supplemented by
the provision of additional conductors .
T he most likely question to be asked is why a primary boncling conductor has

such a large cross-sectional area. The answer is that it is designed to carry a
lightning strike. Notwithstanding this, 1 will give you in formation on me size
regulations for primary and secondary conductors, extracted from BCARs - in
case some 'quizmaster' is tempted to go down that route. Hopefully not!
Primary Conductors
These have a large cross-sectional area because they arc designed to carry
lightning strikes. Copper primary conductors must have a cross-sectional area
not less than 0.0045 sq in (0.25in wide by 26swg). In cases where a slOgle
conductor is likely to carry me full discharge from an isolated part of the
aircraft, the cross-sectional area must not bc les ~ than 0.009 sq in (0.5in wide
by 26swg). Primary conductors made from aluminium must have a relatively
larger cross-sectional arca dlat gives a current surge capacity equal to that of a
coppc[...ConciuctOr.
)(\1.)1
'""),§.:i:-, - -
. co\\c"C'- - Secondary Conductors
<. '?I"-{{....
,=c' T hese are designed to dissipate charges other than those created by lightning
.\0:' strikes. A braided copper secondary conductOr must have a cross-sectional area
~o"'X" .
~. not less than 0.001 sq in (+-I- strands of 39swg). Single solid Wl1:e copper
secondary earth conductors must not be smaller than 18 SWG. ..-..,
~~.
Additional Conductors
\\1hen additional copper conductors are used to prO\ride or to supplement th~

primary bonding path through the aircraft str~cture or its equipment, thef
must have a cross-sectional area not less than 3 mm2 (0.00..J.5in2). If one of
these conductors is likely to carry the. fuU disehar~e from an isolated part of t§l:
aircraft, the cross-sectional area mUSt Ilor be less than 6 mm2 (O.OO?ii?).
Aluminium Primary conductors must have a telatively larger cross-sect;ig nal
area that gives an eqwyalent current surge capacity to that of a s&pper
conductor. '
&
'u
,
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CHAPTER SEVEN
ELECTRICAL CABLES & CONNECTOR S
Additional secondary bonding conductors made of braided copper should nor

be smaller than 1 mm l (0.00 I5inl). \Then a single copper wire is used, it should
nm be less (han 1.2 mm 2 (0.OOI8inl).
Bonding of Met al Aircraft
T he skin of an all-metal constructed aircraft will prO\"ide adequate protection

against a lighllung discha rge pro'\;ding there is sacisfacrory electrical contact al
the skin joints. 111e electrical resistance across a joint should be less than 0.05
o h m for it to be considered as being a satisfactory contact. Ir is worth noting
here thaI an odic films are non-conductive so ther do nor provide metal-lO"
metal contact.
The earth system of a metal aircraft is nonnally considered to consist of the

aircraft strucnt rc. There must be a means of aUlomatically connecting the
aircraft structure with the ground when the aircraft lands. "I1lls con nection is
normally achieved by the prO\;sion of an electrically conducting nose or tail
wheel tyre. 11le tyre is impregnated \1,;th a conducting material th:u provides a
low resist:\nce path to the ground. Alternatively, an earth strap or discharge
wick may be fitted so that it trails from the landing gcar to make contact \1,~th
the ground on touchdown.
Bonding of Non-Metallic Aircraft

Non-metallic aircraft of either wooden or plastic composite construction
incorpora te a ' C::lgC ' made up of a network of thin copper strips att ached to
lhe fuselage longerons and the wing spars tbat have a current surge capaciry
eClual to that of;., Rl1mary conductOrs. T he 'cage' fomlS a part of the stnlctural
configuqlg.CIl"' of the aircra ft and all metal parts such as the landing gear,
e"gin'ef~nd control hinges etc. are connected to it by flexible, braided copper
~>{ships. "I1lls 'cage' forms the earth system and all the main Strips are connected
. \~............, TOgether in a network that tenninates at the earth point of the radio and at a
-1\....... - conducting nose or tail wheel tyre or a trailing eanh Strnp or discharge wick
I.. attached to the landing gear. The system ensures that no potencial difference
will e..xist between metal pam and it \\--ill discharge any static charge to earth on
la nding.
Glass fibre and many composite materials do not conduct dectricity. A build-
up of static electricity on the sucfaces of parts made from these materials is
reduced or removed by the application of a conducu-"e paint fin ish during
manufacture.
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CHAPTER SEVEN
ELE C TRICAL CABLES & CONNECTORS
Bonding - Refuelling/De-Fuelling Operations

\Vhen conducong aircraft refuelling/de- fuelling operations, it is imporrant that
the fuel tanker and lhe aircraft are at a common eiectric;li potencial. The fuel
tanker is earthed to ground through an earth strap permanently attached to the
vehicle. The aircraft is earmed to ground through a conducting nose or tail
whcel or an approved earth point. Prior to connecting the fuel hose, the
alrcraft and the fuel tanker arc bonded together through a bonding lead that
connects from me tanker to an approved bonding attachment point on the
aircraft. 111C fuel hose is also equipped with a bonding ,vire that mus t be
connected to an approved point on the aircraft before connecting the fuel hose
to the aircraft fuelling point. The bonding leads remain in place until aft er the
fue! hose has been disconnected on completion of the refuel/ de-fuel
operauon.
Bonding Connections
T h e number and the location of the aircraft bonding connections are very
important and you must consult the aircraft drawings if in any doubt. A good
example that often draws a question is that of an aircraft engine that is fitted
on ro non-conducting mountings. The engine Jhould be equip ped with (\VO
primary bonding conductors, one each side of the engine, to connect Jt to
the aircraft stnlcrure.
It is important that, \vhen making or renewing a bonding connection, the

correct conductor with the specified current rntirig is used. Tt must be borne 10
mind that d1e conductor may have been designetl to carry high loads resulting
from particular circuit fault conditions .
All ~ding connections must be properly secured ro prevent lOterrruttent

1\.)~ntacr that may be caused by "ibration. In bonding systems, intennittent
. (.o\\C~e" contact is considercd worse tha~ no contact at all .
.,.,~':\.~(': I
,\.....<.. y" \\Then bonding connecnons have to be made across moving parts or parts
(.ci-X'.\'\'f where there is relative moYcmenr bccausc of vibration, a flexible 'bonding
jlunper ' is used. Care must be taken to fit these connections so that they do
not foul or interfere ,..;rith the electrical ~r mechamcal operation 'Bf
neighbouring equipment. A good example would be the flexible bonding
connections from flying control surfaces . Thesb should be kept as short at
possible ro a,Toid fouling the control surface mechanism whilst penni tung a ~
and free range of movement. These particular connectors should not bf
tinned. I =;
.~
.~
The lay o f all primary conduc[Qrs must be as straight as possib le and sh~
bends must bc avoidcd. Primary conductors b ften consist of flat bni.@ed
copper wire strips. The cross-sectional areas jof solid bonding strip~l..and
braided bonding cords that have been supplied by lTl.'lnufactuters are sp&ified
on data sheets. If you have to renew a connJction and cannot ~eh the
specification of the original conductor, you must use a replaceme~t that is
I
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CHAPTER SEVEN
made of the same material as the original but with a larger cross-seceional
area.
Bonding Jumpers consist of cormgated flexible Strips or braided copper or

aluminium cords that have a tag or lug at each end. The tags or lugs are
crimped onto the braided cord and it is essential that the correct crimping (Dol
be used when fitting these. \'\'hen crimping tags or lugs to aluminium braided
cord, the connections should be first treated with anci-oxidanc crimping
compound that comprises 50% by weight zinc oxide in white petroleum jelly.
When installing 'Bonding jumpers', care must be taken to ensure tha I tbey are
not roo taut or too slack and, as ahead)' stated, they must not interfere with the
electrical or mechanical operation of equipment.
I f the fitting instnlctions call for the t.1.gs or lugs to be soldered onto a copper
braided cord, pa rticular care is required because overheating and subsequent
cooling \vill cause britdeness and a loss of flexibility in the cord up to one inch
from the tag or Jug. This is caused by the capillary action of the braid that
'draws' the molten solder along the cord. Soldering sbould be carried out using
a resin flm;.
A number of types of joint on an aircraft are self-bonding. Ri\-eted or bolted

metal-to-metal jointS, clamped or bolted fitrings, metal panel hinges and
cowlings joined by metal fasteners and latches fit this description providing
they are not separated by anodic films or non-conductive compounds or
gaskets. Control surface hinge bearings may also provide a satisfactory bonding
path prO\;ding the bearing is metal to metal or is packed with conducting
grease.
High-pressure flexible pipes are normally self-bonding through their

reinforcing layer of wire btaiding. A bonding test rna}' be carried out between
the pipe end couplings and between an end coupling and a component
connection. Rcs~~f3T1ce should not exceed O.050hm.
"f)6 - ~
>1.~
S ~~~!ectrical cables are screened with metal braiding to reduce or prevent
~.}.{rhcm causing or being affected by electro-magnetic interference. One end of
. ~,\. .... the screening only is nonnally single point bonded to earth so that the metal
(''''~'"";<' sheath cannOl provide a path for a circulating current or ' carch loop ' under
normal or earth fault conditions.
Confwnation that an acceptable bonding patb exists through the joints we

have discussed may be achieved by carrying Out a bonding test.
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CH A PTER SEVEN
ELE C TRI CAL CA BLE S & CONN E CTO RS
Flexible Bonding Connec tors
\\le have already discussed 'Bonding J umpers', \vhich are the flexible bonding
connectors used as a bridge benveen munng bomponems and the aircraft
structure. There is also a need for ~ flexible bonding connec[Or to bridge rigid
pipes that are joined by flexible rubber hose connections. Metal clips are
poSItioned on the rigid pipes 1( 2in away from each side of the hose
connection. A bonding jumper in the fonn of a Icorrugated strip or a braided
\vire is then attached to the clips [0 create th e conducting bridge. The
connector must not be tucked under the clips; it must be connected to them
securely by bolted tags. The metal pipe surface under each clip must be cleaned
to ensure good metal-to -metal contact and the area should be Ie-protected
after the clip has been fitted.
Bonding Strip
T
,;:::;~ ::;;~
:....b i='
~
-
L -.... i-.=
~
Figure 7. 1 - Example of a Flexible Bonding COll1lcctor
If a flexible bonding coonection breaks, it must not be repaired. No attempt

s ho uld ~be made to repair a bonding strip or cord by soldering it wgether; it
dHustl~e replaced with a new conductor. Each rigid pipe run that has been
~\C.,?-c '}.G' bonded in this way must be earthed at each end of the run and particularly
'\."t<' C..... within a radius of 8ft of any unscreened radio eguipmcnt or aerials where the
,
<.. ~ ",. eartI ·
1 connectlons must not be morc tIlan- f:> t apart.
.,~
~<. ':'
I
U ...<;; · When bonding connections arc made between differing m aterials that have the
potential to create elecrrolytic corrosiotJ between them, a corrosion washer.-4
often used at the connection points to reduce the ris k. Thes e washers a:b:
manufactured from materials that have a reduced electrode potential in re1atiO"a .
to the materials they contact. \",\lith this in minU, it is important to use tKt
correct specification washers. r,;<
'v
§,
379
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CHAPTER SEVEN
E a rth Terminals
The earth system on a metal aircraft connects to the strUcrurc. There 'Will
normally bc a number of main eanh point connections on the structure. The
leads That connect to these terminals are normally insulated cablcs thar ha'·c
crimped tcrminal lags that connect onto lugs on the eanh terminals. It is
imponanr thaI Ihese terminal assemblies are checked for electrical resistancc
between them and the strucnJre. Thcy arc classic corrosion points; think how
often the bane!,)' earth connection on a car gives you troublel ·11'e maximum
resistance value is specified in aircraft maintenance manual, for example
O.0250hm. Additionally, whcn an earth tenninal is required to ca rry a specified
live clcClricalload as a part of a circuit opemtion, a milli-volt drop [CSt must bc
carried Out across it after connection is made. \'\'here a resistance value is
found to exceed the limit, the terminal assembly should bc dismantlcd and the
contacring faces should be cleaned with a fine abrash·e such as aluminium
wool. Thc lcnninal is then re-made using new corrosion washers and is rc-
protcctcd.
\'(Ihen earth connections arc initially made ontO the aircraft S(n1cture, it is often
necessary to remO\"e non-conducti,-e protective coatings to establish a sound
connection. Where this is done, the approved anti-oxidising and scaling
treatment should be applied. Protective coatings [hat arc known to be nOIl-
conductive include priming and finishing paintS, anodic fLims, varnishes,
chromic and phosphate coatings. i>.fctallic coatings such as rin and cadmium
arc conductive and need not be disturbed.
To sum up, when an earth tcrminal has been reassembled or replaced, a

bonding {cs t and a milli-l'olt drop test should be carried out. The conduct of
a milli-voit drop test requires a current flow and tills is discussed later in this
chapter.
'1r~,f
'l\'t\.,G
I\{aih E arth System
\ ....:\0\'"
In the a.bscnce of a fuse or a circuit breaker, there is likelihood that the main
earth s)'stem could fonn part of an unprotected short circuit under an electrical
circuit faulr condition. In another case, the syscem may be designed co pass a
~
specified e1eccricalload to eanh under normal operation. In [he first case, the
cross-secrional area of the system connectors and any associated connections
..,o
~
,
to them must be capable of carrying the short circuit to earth without the risk
of o,"erheating or fire. In the second case, the system must be capable of ~
passing the electrical current withom creating an excessive voltage drop and
withom overheating.
Resistance Values
The Civil Aviation Authority has laid down maximum resistance values fo r
primary and secondary bonding conductors. These are:
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CHAPT E R SEVE N
ELECTR I CAL CAB L ES & C ONNECT O R S
Maximum
Classifi c ation Tes t Conditi o n
Resistance
Prim:!ry Bl:lwccn cxt renmies of the fixed portions Estil11:Hed and
of :lircraft of non·mct:!llic o r c ~ ll1pos ite stated b,- the
construcuon. manufacturer
Be[wCt.'n e'l;trClllIties of the fixed portions
-- 0.050nm
of metalhc aircraft
Between bonded components and portions

-- of main earth syslems to which they arc 0.U5 ohm
conncCted.
Seeondan' Between metallic pans norm:llly in contaCt

with flammable liquids and rhc mam earth I ohm"
sr~ rcm. :lnd also oerwccn rhe parts
themselves.
Between all isolated cnncluc(lng pans The lesser ,·:tltle
which rna\' be subject 10 appreciable oi 0.5 megohm
-- dectroH.,UC charglllg and the Ill:!in earth or 100 kilohrns
Sl"Slem. lpa rtS hanng :111 area wearcr than per sl:! flof
3m l and lon~er than 3in) su rface area
l3clwccn cqwpment supplied from an
-- unearthed system of an\" \'olt:lj.!:c and the I ohm"
rn:lln eanh s\"Stem.
Between eqwprnent cont:l.lmng Circuits
-- carrying 5U "olts (rms or de) or more. and 1 ohm·
the malO earth sy.:;tem.
Table 7. 1 · Bo nding ResiSlllnee Values (EXlrael from CAAlP LcafleI 9.1)
"U'-f
"l\,,-,b - ...
. "ci!.":'" .., The I ohm "alues shown in the secondary table allow for the maximum
_C(w ·
:\.:\.<;<' resistance of any cable that may be used in these examples. Howe\'er, the
... '" '\:, resistance across a single contact should not exceed 0.050hm. The odd
......<"~:\. quesrion arises on the maximum bonding resistance values, for example,
(,~'\ maximum resistance for lhe primary circuit classi fi cation is 0.05 ohm and the
maximum value for the secondary circuit classification is genemlly I OIU¥l.
However, lhc resistance between a flexible hose and the component %
connects to for example should DOt exceed 0.050hm. ''S
3-
Bond Testing
Bonding T eSt Set
1\ bODding tester consists of a low range (0 - O. l ohm) ratiometer~'type

ohmmeter incorporating a 1.2V nickel alkaline cell contained in a \",&den
carrying case. The test set incorporates twO flexible cables, one of 69,lt length
and another of 6ft length, thar are connected to the instrument with'iplug and
socket connectors. The 60ft cable has a single spike probe and the 6f[ cable has
381
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C H AP T ER S EVEN
E L. ECTR I CA L. CABL.ES & CON N EC T OR S
a double spike probe. The length of these twO cables is critical :lnd rheir
resistance is accommoda ted for in the calibration of the instrumenf. They must
nOI be altered or modified in any way. If a cable is damaged, rhe teSI SCI and
rhe cables must be returned to the manufacturer for repair and fe-calibration.
T(.:ak Carrying
Case Iuuiometer Type
Figure 7.2 - Bonding Tester
Prep3ration ror Bonding Test
The state of charge of the nickel alkaline cell should be checked by connecting
I.he twO spikes of the 6ft cable probe together with a suitable shorting link and
obscn·ing that the instnunent pointer deflects fUU-SC.1/C. Following this
check, the twO spikes o f the 6ft cable probe should be shorted by pbcing the
single spike of the 60ft cable probe across them to check (hal the pointer
tlligns with the zC£o mIlrkon the instrument scale.
,)\1\.1
'll'\.\ b -
~~I~~~ct 0 1 Bonding Test
<,
<.,. \"\~tThe 60ft cable should be connected first to a main earth poim, called a bond
-.~~...... darum point, at the position shown in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual
(. ..'-;: . Because the lead is 60ft long there may be a need to identify further bond
datum points for successive tests on a large aircraft. I f this is the case, the
resistance \"alue between the main earrh points needs to be checked before
proceeding [0 check the furthest point.
Af[er [he 60ft lead has been connected, the twO spikes of the 6ft cable arc then
brought into contact with the aircraft structure at selected points specified in
the maintenance manual. This enables readings to be raken of (he bonding
resistance in ohms of the strucrnre between the probes. TIle probe spikes have
[0 penetrn.tc through any non-conducting surface finish [0 make effective
contact with the metal strucrnre. Anodic films arc non-conductive so the
spikes have to penetrate through them. Corrosion rends to fo rm around
bonding and earth system connections and is often the cause of high resistance
readings. \'(!here this occurs, the connections should be stripped and cleaned. It
is imporL'lnt [Q restore the surface finish at any contact points where it has
been penetrated or abrn.ded.
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CHAPTER SEV E N
ELECTR I CAL CABLES & CONNECT O R S
The bonding tester should be periodically checked for accuracy. This is done
by using the tester to measure standard test resistors. 111ere are three standard
test resistors, O.02ohm, O.06o hm and O.l obm. The accuracy of the bonding
tester readings should be \v;dun 10% o f these values. ~r\ pan from replacing tbe
alkaline cell and checking the tester fat accuracy, dlere is no other selvicing
pennined on the test set. N o attempt should be made to open the case or
rep air or modify the cables. If a fault develops, the complete test set, including
the cables, sho uld be returned to the manufacturer for repair and re ~
calibration.
There is a requirement to check the resistance between the aircraft main earth
sys tem and the ground. This is normally carried out by positioning a metal
plate under the conducting nose or tail wheel and 1connecting a 250V or a 500V
resistance tester to the aircraft main earth system and to the metal plate . The
resistance reading should not exceed 10 megohms.
An alternative type o f bond tester consists of a special milli-ohmmeter that bas

four terminals and two flexible cables, each havin g a double spiked probe. 'l1us
instmment has a self-contained battery that delivers a two amp current. \'(then
the probes are brought into contact with the aircra ft stmcture, the instrument
measures the voltage drop and compares tbis with the current flowing ro gJ.ve a
reading of the bonding resistance of the structure between the probes. Befo re
using dus type of test set, the tWO probes should be placed close together
across a low resistance conductor to check that the instrumem pointer will read
2cro.
Circuit Testing - General

For those of us who are of a purely mechanical persuasion, it might help to
temind~oursel\'es a few basic terms before describing the various tests.
r")\JI)
'1(\ill) - -
\\'!,'Z...c -- ~eries and Parallel Circuits
(0" --
,~\....'1>-~~~ ,
1\ series circuit is a circuit where all the cables and components are connected
, l<' ~-
'I..
~~\~ to fonn a continuous chain so that there is only one possible current flow path
(p'X across the terminals o f the voltage source . .A p arallel circuit on the other
hand, is a circuit where twO or more current flow pa ths e...ust between tJ:l-e
terminals o f the voltage source. The more alternatives there are, the l~
resistance there will be to the flow of current. j.
r~
==jj ,s"
.~
'"-- ":
P
1 ""
0"
'~ '~ 0'
"
'u "
Series Pa rall cl
Figure 7.3 - Circuits

Series Paralli:!
'"
,
~
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CHAPTER SEVEN
O pe n a nd Short Ci rc uits
A short circllit is a term used to describe an abnormally low rcsisrancc path.

The path may exist between two adjoining circuits, across a component in a
ci rcuit, or it may be between a circuit and earth. \'('hen a short circuit occurs,
resistance drops and current flow increases. The increased current now may
create o\'crhearing o r sparking and may blow the circuit fuse. An Opl.'n circ uit
on the olher hand, is a term used to describe a circuit (har is not complete
because of a break or an unintentional disconnection. Current cannot now in
such a circui l unless it has an alternati"e route through a parallel branch.
D e tecting Short Circ uits
When a short circuit occurs, the fall in resistance and the increased current
now will oftell blow rhe circuit fuse and open the circuit. Failing rhis, it could
bum our another component and cause an open circuit. \'('hen there arc a
number of resistors in circuit, these mar prevent the current reaching the level
where the fuse will blow and the circuit willscill be li\·e.
Figure 7.4 - Volnnetc r in all Open Cire lli1
I f the circ~{bi s 1!dii live, a voltmeter can be used to detect a componenl that
has *,~W'~'il OUt. There is no need to break into a circuit when using a
~~<o~ 6;'eter because it is connected in paralleL \'(11cn it is connecred in parallel
... "- ~). across a good componell(, it will indicate a reduced voltage. \'('h en it is placed
.....:5\.;;:.' in parallel across a component mat is shorred out, it will indicate zcro.
(. co\: Conversely, when it is connected across a break in a circuit, ir will act as a
shunt and read the source ,'ohagc.
,,,-_ Reads Infinity
RcsiS(!lncc
Indication
I
c;,,!L
InliSlbe
Isol:ucd
Fig ure 7.5 - Ohmmete r in an Open Cireuil
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CHAPTER SEVEN
ELECTRICA L CABLES & CONNECTORS
If the circlln is not live, an ohmmeter can be used to detect a resistor that has a
short circuit across it. Again, there is no need to break into a circuit to use an
ohmmeter unless you need (Q disconnect a parallel branch of the circuit An
o hmmeter will register zero when placed in parallel across the shorted resistor.
If the resis tor is a part of a parallel circuit, it must be isolated from the other
paths or the ohmmeter will indicate the resistance of them.
Will Read the

__ Reads Zero
r-vV\/VI'--, Break Circuit

here to Obtain
True Reading
Detecting a Short Problem of Detecting Open

Circuit in a Series Circuit Circuit in a Parallel Circuit
I
Figure 7.6 - Examples of use of Ohnuneter
The connection of an ammeter does require you to break the circuit in order to
connect the instrument in series with it. If an amq:1eter is placed in series with a
circuit thar has shorted, it will register zero if the fuse has blown or will give a
high reading if the circuit is scilJ li.e.
Open No Current Shorr

Circuit Flow Circuit
l I
r
L
Zero
~
Cading A
A (FUSI: Blown)
,,~
!-<
~, '
Open Cireui t Reduced Current Increase Currenr
Zero Reading Flow Flow Blows Fuse
Figure 7.7 - Examples of use of Ammeter p

~
,
W/e \,,;ll can now move on and look at the testing of circuits . Remcmbe~
, the
correct sequence for tests is: bondJilg, continuity, insulation and tlien a
"""
fUDctionaileSt. \Ve have dealt with bonding tests so we will now m~xC on to
. . . ~
conuOluty tesnng. '7
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CHAPTER S EVEN
ELECTRICA L C ABLE S & C O NNECTOR S
Co n tinu ity Testing
A break in a cable or at a connection can be detected using a continuiry tester

consisting of a low voltage battery (2.5'V) connected to either a lamp or a low
reading voltmeter. If the circuit has a known resismnce then a contin uiry check
could also be ca rried out using a low range ohmmeter or a multimctcr. It is
imporrant that whatcve r method is used, the voltage of the leSler must be kept
low to avoid damaging circuit components such as fuses and lights.
It is imporrant that the circuit being tested is disconnected from ItS power
source. If a voltmeter or lamp is being used to check continuity in an open
circuit that is connected to its own power source, there will be a problem. If
the voluneter for example happens to be connected across a break, it will act as
a parallel circuit or shunt and register the ,'oitage of the circuit power source.
T his is why the continuity tester has its own banery power.
P reparation for Continu ity T est
The main electrical powe r supply to the circuit must be disconnected. -nle
circuit fuses should be checked to ensure ther are present and intact. 'The
circuit should be checked to establish that there are no other disconnections.
All switches and circuit breakers should be closed to complete the circuil.
Condu ct of Continuity Test
A low \'ohage continuity test should be carried ou[ by working progressively

through the circuit. TIle testing should commence at the circuit fuse :'Ind
progress to the equipmen t. Parallel circuits should be tesced sys tematically
keeping the number of disconnections to the minimum required. Remember
chat it is pointless attempting to check several low resistance paths in parallel
togerher, they need to be disconnected and checked independently.
I I Iow C I lIi"lIncter
r~n$t\u
'00~ can alb
so e use d to cIlec'
k concnwry
. . .m a ClfCUll.
· · 1n t1·liS
ca~\'tl~ circuit must again be disconnected from its power source. Remember,
\):>'tShmmerers have their own battery. I f the ohmmeter is connected across a
break, it will register infinity. If it is connected across any other good
component in the circuit, it "ill gi\'e a resistance indication.
To remind YOli. care needs to be taken when an ohmmeter is used to check for r
continuity in a parallel circuit. If the ohmmeter is pbced across an open circuit ~,
in one of the paths. it will read the reSistance of the components in the
alternate path. The circuit to the open path needs to be broken to isobte it and ~
then the ohmmeter wiU read infinity, which tells you that there is :'In open "
circuit of infini te resis tance.
Ammeters arc not suitable for continuity testing as they have to be connected
in series and they rei), on having the circuit power source connected. I lowever,
if an ammete r is placed in an open series circuit, it will register zero current
flow. I f it is placed in the intact section of a live pa rallel circuit, if will give an
indication despite the fact that the alternate path may be open circuitcd.
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CHAP T ER SEVEN
EL EC T R I CAL CAB LE S & C ONNECTORS
Millivolt Drop Test

Loose o r corroded connections or poorly made swaged connections often
c reate high resistance in high current circuits. You may recall that '\ve referred
to tlus p ro blem when discussing corrosion at bonding and earth connections.
These faults can cause low volragc at the tenninal connections to circuit
equipment and the connections may get hot as a result. It might be possible to
detect the voltage drop by progressively checking through the circuit with an
accurately calibrated voltmeter. However, a millivoltmeter may be connected to
each side o f a suspect connection and the "\""oltagb drop acro~s it when a given
currem IS passe~ ~ay the? _be c.alculatcd. ~hc dlop shoul~ be. compar.ed with
the allowable hmu spcClt1cd Hl the maJntenance publicanon, rypKally 5
miJfkol{s / 10 am p s current flow.
For continuously rated circuits, the normal operating current should be flowing
in the circuit during the test. For short rated circuits, the current should be
reduced using suitable resistors to prevent overheating. If the component is a
relay, then the relay has to be closed with the power on in order to conduc t dlC
test.
Insulation Resistance Testing

The approved aircraft test schedules for the particular aircraft must be
consulted and complied with when conducting th ese tes ts. \X' here specified in
the Aircraft ivlaintenance .Manual, eguipmenr insrhlIed in an aircraft is normally
tested using a 2S0V insulation tester that has a maximum voltage control that
will preyent the test voltage exceeding 300V . Ail systems having ,-oitages of
3DV or over that are related to the safe operation of the aircraft must be tes ted
separately. Circuits other than these can be connected in groups for test bur
th e number of circuits so joined is to be limited w here the insulation resis tance
1i"J& fJ~d to be less than the minimwn specified value.
_ ,\~C,!;. ~
_lP\\ ~
'" ~.~,s5' \\lhen an insulation test has been carried out, a functiooal check shouJd be
, ~;.
'\.b carried out on all the sen1ces in,olved in the test. ShouJd a fault be foun d and
, 5'''1' rectified, a furthe r insulation test and functional t cst should be carried o ut on
( ~~ .
~.
the affected circuits .
I
T h e resuJts of insulation resIstaoce tests are of little value unless thev can 6}
compared to rcsuJts obtained ducing earlier t~S ts. Insulation resi~rance 1%
affected by humidity and temperarure. If the l aircraft has been in dam-g
conditions for any length of time before the test, fower than nonnally expecte~
readings may be obtained. The amb ien t temperature and hllmiditf!
con diu'ons should always be recorded along +th
insulation resismnce te?'t
results. T his enables a comparison to be made when a future test indicate~"1t
drop in resistance.
'&""'"
Preparation for Insu la tion Resistance T est
.~
I have extracted and condensed the follo\Vin~ information fromciLAAIPs
, '"
because many questioners use these as a referenct;.
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C H APTER SEVEN
E L ECTRICAL C ABLES & CONNEC T OR S
The system should be disconnected from the aircraft battery and an}' other
external power supply. Circuit breakers should be closed. The powel' selection
switch should be set to the nonnal in-flight position. Circuit switches and
micro-switches should be made. Dimmer switches should be seL to the
minimum resistance position. Any ancillary systems that may be connected to
the system under test should be disconnected from it. Ths includes generators,
acruarors, capacitors, capacitive filters, semi-conductors, voltage regulator coils,
instruments, fue excinguishers etc. \\'7here rhe insulation resistance of these
items is less than 2 megohms. they may be disconnected at the earth lead
leaving the component in circuit. Components such :1 capacitive filte rs should
be disconnected to pre\"ent them from being damaged.
Cutours and relays that would normally be open should be bridged across their
terminals to ensure continuiry. Suppressors should be disconnec[Cd from the
circuit :l.Od bridged to ensure continuity. When a suppressor cannot be bridged
and it is has plug and socket connections, the circuit capacitors must be
discharged before re-connecting them back into the system to avoid arcing at
the pins. All disconnected components that are connected in series must be
bridged to ensure continuity in rhe circuit. System component controls should
be set to the positions specified in the test procedure.
Conducting lh e Test
\X' hen testing single-pole circuits, the line connection from the tester should be
connected to the cable or group of cables and the earth connection should be
connected [0 canh. When it is pennined to test a bunch of cables together, the
group should be kept small. I f the insulation resistance of a group is below the
minimum specified value, the number of cables in the group should be
progressivcl), reduced until the defective cables arc identified.
If the system is t'Wo-pole (older aircraft), the test can be conducted by first
connecting the ~R'H! [ to each battery lead and measuring the resistance between
them a~.~\dllc n c hecking the resistance between each battery lead and earth.
T4..Q~'uit fuses would be left in during this test.
\.y\.....'
"
(\~....
, '.", Minimum Insulation Resistance Values
There are minimum insulation resistance values that have been issued for
guidance anI),. These values are likely to be considerably less than the acrual
values obtained on new equipment. I have extracted a table of these values
from CAA IPs as the odd 'luestion does rum up that requires you to know
them.
3BB
Col!Jri&hJ C Barry (A1!t&r!006 :(xr All ngM rtsmyd flJJI_
'1l'.port66.rol1r
CH A PTER S EVEN
ELECTRICAL CABLE S & CO NNECTOR S
Wiring (including accessories for jointing :md Icrminatin,l()
E!l~illc n~ccl!es, undercJlrri~j!c wheel wclls and other

2 megohms
lo(~tions expo$eJ [ 0 \\"e~ther OT extn:ml'S of (emp~ r~ rurc,
Galk y ;md Othl'r nnn-essf'mial sen'ice~, lighting, signalling 5 megohms

:md in<lle:llion .'cn' iee ~.
Other SCf'nees 10 nwguhms
W iring acceliliories .done (terminal blocks, C<)nllcclOr5, plugs and sockets)
Between terminals 1()() me).tuhms
2{~1 megohms /
Betwccn tcnninals bunched together and earth,
~(),o( terminals
Rot;lt in g lI.bch ine ry
The gfe:ltef uf:

ROlminl! m:tch1l1cry rated \'o)t:tgc/ 150
:lnd 0.5 111l:J.!ohms
All olhcr equipment
\11 0I11er equipment (including insrrumems; :; megohms
T a ble 7.2 - Minimum Resis ta nce Values (E x t:ract from CAAJPs Lcafl cI9- t )
Functional Tests
1\ funcliona l test of a system is required following circuit !cs ting. \Vhe rc\'er
possible, fu nctio nal tests should be carricd out using an exterm li g ro und
(':/CCLric;" p o w er supply connected to the aircra fl ground supply connector.
Some circuit s, such flS standby lighting, fire powered by thc aircraft battcry and
this would be used as the power source for functional testing in thcse cases .
, i-~ll 'hWessary precautions in respect of personnel and aircraft safety should be
_(.o\\c,,?-c ,J taken. Functional tests must be carried out in accordance with the approved
\.....,).~ test schedules in the Aircraft l\{aimenancc p,{anual.
c
....,\
,,{ ,........ Some circuits depend on the inherent resistance value of the circuit for lheir
(..0 '\ .
successful operation. \\'here this is the case, tbe resistance of the circuit should
be measured with a low reading obmmctcr to Cl;tablish that the resismnce...is
within limils. ..,"
.~
Afler the functional test of a system has been carried our, the c.!ectrical circui-
should be s\vitched off, the fuse should then be removed or the circuit breaker::
trippcd. The circuit switch should then be selected on again and a check made ,
to vcrify that the circuit has actually been isolated. .;J
.~
o·
Fuses f!
o ""
"-
I-laving mentioned fuscs in the last section, a q uestion sometimcs arisWbn a
description given to some cartridge fuses in circllirs. Fuscs that brca~,.:al vcry
high fault currents are now described as HBC fuses (high Im::a king f apaClty).
T hcse used to be referred to as being HRC fuses (high rupturing capacity).
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CHAPTER SEVEN
Aircraft Electrical Cable Classifications

\Vie arc going to sidetrack from the syllabus for a while to examine rypes of
electrical cable and their conductors and some of the faults that occur. T his is
an area where questions arc sometimes asked on the 'you arc assumed 10 know
it' basis. II docs seem logical that wben faults are revealed during tests, there is
usually a cause. \'\fe will commence by looking at the classification of cables.
Airframe Cab les
Airframe cables arc constructed to be robust enough to meet the requirements

of 'Open' airfra me and power plant wiring.
In terconnect Cables
These cables arc used in prorected areas such as in the inre rconnection of
racked equipment. They are usuallr installed within an assembly that is then
fined to the aircraft so rhey are Dot subjected to stresses and strains such as
being 'pulled through' cable looms etc. They ha\'e trunner insulation than
airframe cables and this saves weight and space and makes it easier to rum
looms through small radii when routing them [0 connectors. Americans refer
to these type cables as 'hook-up' cables.
Equipment '\'Vire'
This rype of c:lble is referred to as 'wire' and it is used inside equipmenr. It is

very flexible and is re:ldily soldered.
Pire Resistant Cables
This type of cable is designed to retain a specified level of electrical insulation

for a minimum period of {i"e minutes when exposed to a fire.
"l)O-
~i~~1~[~8OC&bl~S
... ~~s'fhis type of cable is designed to operate for a minimum perio d of fiftcen
~ minutes in a fire and is used in designated fire zones.
Multieore Screened and Jacketed Cables
Airframe and imerconnect cables are sometimes supplied in multicore fonn up

to four cores. 111e cores are lightly twisted together and are usually jacketed o r
sheathed. Some are jacketed and then screened with brnid. The cores are
nonnally coloured to assist identification.
E
3
Data Bus
D ata bus cables arc designed to specifica tions set by (he Design AUlhority and
may only be repl:lced by cables of the same specificacions.
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CHA P TER SEVEN
ELECTRIC A L C A BLES & CONNECTORS
Conductor Plating
Conductors uscd in electrical cables are plated tb

improve thei r resistance to
corrosion and to aid the making of c~ble tenninations . The plating material
also h~s an important bearing on the temperature r~ting of the cable.
Ma.ximum
P lating Con ti n uo us
Temperature
Tin plated co pper 135°C
Silver plated copper 20DoC
Nickel plated copper 26DoC
Nickel Clad plated copper 260°C

(used on fire -rcsistant cable)
T able 7.3 - Co nd liClor P lating
Aircraft Electrical Cable Failures

These are but a few of the possible causes for cable failure. They are included
because 'quizmasters' particulacly like to ask you about them.
Abrasion
Tlus describes the wearing th.rough of cable insulation at points where the
cable rubs on a neighbouring cable or on a part of tbe aircraft structure. Tt can
occtq,il\,'hen the insulation and flexibility of a cable is less stiff tha n that of its
oC l.Q\t~~;acting neighbour. It is particulacly pre-.;-alent in regions of high vibranon .
. O·;\l.C:~
.~ \...,,~s0:. Glycol Fires
\~"\\.
,;.'- .
L:-~'\ . If de-icing fluid contallung glycol contacts silver plated electrical conductors it
can cause a reaction that \.vil.I start an electrical fire. It is for tlus reason that
silver plated conductors are not used in regions where de-icing fluid may €"e
present. -0
-.
r-,.
"
Knuckling Through .
~
co
T lus is damage created by an electrical cable corc metal conductor pushi4i;
through the insulation cover. It is caused by applying excessive 'pull throu~ '
force when installing the cable. R..'
0-
1'f
Red P lague &
~
Cables with silver plated conductors will suffer from tills defect if t~plating
becomes damaged and is subsequently exposed to moisture. It i~for tillS
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CHAPTER SE V EN
ELECTRICAL C A BLES & CONNECTORS
reason that silver plated conductors are considered unsuited for usc in Ull-
pressurised regions of rhe rurcrnft.
Wet Arc Tracking
This is the fail ure of cable insulation resistance resulting from 'tracking' when
the cable is subjected to fl uid contamination. T he cause has been attributed to
insulation damage resulting from h ot stamp prindng informaLion on ie.
''\Ie can now move on TO the next item on the syllabus, which is the usc of
crimp TOols.
Use of Crimp Tools: Hand & Hydraulic Crimped

Connections
The most common type of cable termination is the crimped or 'solder less'
conneccion. "nle connection is made by compressing a metal remlination OntO
the prepared end of a cable so that there is a firm and close metal-to-metal
contacl between the cable conductor aod the termination. A correctly crimped
tennination should produce a joint that has the same tensile strength as the
cable conductor. A crimp termination consists of two parts, the crimping
'barrel :tlld tongue' and in some cases a pre-insulated copper sleeve that is
designed to fit over the ccim ping ba rrel at one end and to grip and support the
cable insul:t tion at the other end. T he colour of the pre-insubted sleeve
identifies rhe size of the termination and [he crimping tool required .
T he ba rrel fits closely over the prepared end of the cable conducto r and when
it is compressed in the crimping process, it will grip it in close contact. There
are numerous types o f tongue including ring, spade, hook and fo rk
lerminations. Th~fng type is the most commonly used because it resists being
pulled ouR.~£ tH~ tCIJTIinal and caus.ing a circuit failure when under tension.
Prl!.l$.'uilfis applied in the crimping process by a hand or hydraulically operated
, ~;.~tb~l that incorporates a die that is speciall)l configured to produce a particular
,\-..\ l". cross-sectional shape in the completed tenninaoon .
.....;.'\\"c
(. ~-,\:
[mutauon B:I.I:rcl
Ihrrcl Length Gnp Length
+lr·llm~1 I' '14 Pre-msulated
~ [[ I r u,~p<,SI~<
t
Crimping HJrrd
:lnd Tongue
~ ~II!#;J
~~~=~(I~I
Insllimionl ,
Gnp
,I, ,i B3rrc1
Length
F ig ufe 7.8 - Examples o f E nd and In-Line Crimp T e rmina lions
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CHAPTER SEVEN
ELECTR I CAL CABLES & CONNEC T ORS
It is vcry important that the metals being crimped together arc sim.i.lar to avoid
the risk of gah-anic corrosion. T ills means, copper to copper and alumi(llum to
aluminium. Aluminium crimp rcnninations are charged with an ant-oxidant
compound. Crimp cross-sectional fo rms are, hexagonn l, dinmond or '\'\"
shaped. 'fhe pre-insulated diamond form is nonnally found in the i\jvn)
(A ircraft and f-.larine Products) range of terminations. lVlany terminations are
internally se rrated to increase the te[ls ilc strength ~f the completed crimp.
=======::r:;{ro.: :COO====
==~ (Q:.C1===
Fig urc 7.9 - Complclcd A1vlP T cnnimuions
I n-Line Spikes
There arc occasions \vhen two lengths of a cablfj may be joined togcther by a
crirqi}"o(:onncction eiciler by the manufacturer or as a temporary measure
",0\.jSt:n<iLng a cable replacement. This variant is known as an in-line connection, or
. (p\\.;-;..e .. splice, and it must only be used where ..,pecilicallyauciloriscd For example,
_ '\'I"~~'" they are not normally pennitted on autopilot circuits, fire protection sys tems,
_ .~'\"\.\. <,; I-IT cables, co-a:Jal cables, \;ta! cu-cuits, multi-core cables, thermocouple
_0'\'..'- cables, cables bigger than 10_\\\"G or on cables that will flex during a
~,
component movcment.
I f in-line splicing is specifically authorised, a number of restrictions related ik

standard codes of practice may be imposed. We should take a brief look ai
some of the morc obvious restrictions. Splices in twO or morc cables should b ~
staggered so lhat they do not lie together side by side where there could be e;
ri8k of cracking. Splices made in a single length of cable must be a minimum cff
500mm apart and limited to no more than twO splices in a three-metre run '({,f
cable. A cable 100m comaining a splice should be, strop tied within a maxi m~n
distance o f SOmm either side o f the splice and single cables should}""bc
supported either side of rhe splice by clamps ho more than SOOmm iran.
Splices should neve r be used on bends or be poLtioned under a cable <&amp.
Splices should be protected against moisture ~nd lay horizontal ~Wterever
r
practicable. Where a splice bas been installed as tempora ry measure, it must
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CHAPTER SEV E N
EL E CTRICAL CABL E S & C ONNECTOR S
be recorded in the aircraft technical log book together ,,,,;th precise details of
the locarion, cable size and type, terminarion type and equipmem used.
'111e butt rype of in-line connector has a crimping barrel at each end to accept
the cable conductors. PoUowing the crimping process, an insularion sleeve is
pulled O\'er the connection.
Prep aring the Cable

Before a crimped tennination can be applied [0 a cable, the insulation has to be
stripped back to expose the end of the metal conductor. Extreme care is
rC(luired when doing tlus to avoid nicking or cutting the wire strands. Particular
ca re is required when stripping an aluminium conductor because lhe wires are
very easily broken when nicked. Tn addition to lhis, aluminium (Iuiekly forms
an oxide when exposed 10 air thal acts as an insulator and increases the
resistance at the joint. Aluminium crimp barrels are filled with an anti-oxidant
compound [0 prC','em this occurring. In all cases, the recommended stripping
tool should be used for remo\;ng the insulation. You would nO[ for example,
usc tools such as side-curting pliers for dUs job. If you c..'(amine the illustrarion,
rou will see that the insulation is cut back to expose a length of metal
conductor equal to the b:lrrel lengch pillS O.Smm. \X'hen this has been
achie\'ed, rhe exposed conductor wires should be Iight~v twisted by Imnd to
bring them back into the narura1lay and rightness of [he conductor. They must
nc\'er be tightly twisted because tlus will reduce the diameter of the conductor.
H and Crimping Tool
The most com~t\{:rhand operated crimping tool is the 'Pre-insulated Diamond

Grip' (PI~O) tYPe, Some tools are equipped with a selection o f sizes of die to
suirdtMitrent sizes and types of tenninanon. Other types arc suited to one size
, \.... ::shild lype of termination only. The tools have colour coded h:llldlt..·s that rdate
, ,\....' (Q the colour codes used to identify termination size ranges. Additionally, the
~0~
( .~~~ . tools are marked widl the. temu'nation size range that they are suited for use
on.
Colour coded
Insulation crimping handles
adjusoncllt pin
o 0 .........
\\ Q
.o-=-
Cable size range
stamp R3chet
- -
Fig ure: 7.tO • Trp ical Hand Crimping Tool
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CHAPTER SEVEN
EL ECTRICAL CABLES & CONNEC T ORS
The tool illustrated has a self-locking ratchet mechanism that prevents the
barrel crimping jaws from being re-opened until the crimpmg action is
completed. The handles of the tool have to be sCJueezed fully closed before the
jaws can be released. This ensures that the crimp has been fully completed.
T he tool incorporates two adjustment pins that a~e selectively placed in one of
th ree holes in each barrel crimping jaw to sct thc requLred grip on the cable
InsuJation during the crimping process . The holes are numbered, 3 (loose), 2
(medium) and 1 (tight). .A test crunp shouJd bb
carried out to establish the
correct setting.
Crimping Barrel Abuts Lo catOr
Locator
Indem ed \\-'indo\\" Facing Loca ror
Figure 7.11 - Locating Crimping T ecminario ns in Too l
The temunation is inserted tongue flrst into thl barrel crimping jaws o f the
tool until the barrel rests flush against the rool StOP or locator. An in-line crimp
is positioned in the tool with its centre, indented window facing the locator.
The prepared cable end is inserted into the terminal barrel. If the termination is
not a pre-i.nsuJated type, the cable is pushed i6. until the end of the cable
insulation rests flush against the end of the barrel. If the termination is of the
pre-in\~Hlated type, the cable is inserted into tbe termination until the end o f the
"1('1I...(illbih insulation reaches the top of the insulation support. The handles of the
. C0~C~':' - tool are then squeezed fully together to complete the crimp and release the
"'(t.... Jaws.
,~ c· '"
,,\",::-.'
~
"
T h e crimping tOol will indent a 'dot code' mark onto _'"\ .MP termination sleeves
(.0"'\ ·
d uring the crimping process. 111e presence of this imprint verifies to the
operator that the right combination o f too l and termination has been us~ .
.A fter the crimped termi nation has been remove? from the jaws, it shouJd ~
Inspected to check tbat it is correctly formed and that the 'dot code' is deaqj:
imprinted on tbe sleeve. 2""
e;
AMP Range ?
The form of crimp is determined by factors such as the size and cons~~on
of the conductor, the materials aod the form of the termination. It is e ~ntial
'"
0'
that the correct type of die and crimping tool be !used. The AMP ran&s is o ne
of the most common. In order to ensure that the correct combi.natiiji of tool
and tennination is being used, the ..'\1'\'0) range ha.s colour and dot codes for
395
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CHAPTER SEVEN
ELECTRICAL CA BLE S & CONNECTORS
insulated terminals used on 10 A \,('G (American \'(·ire Gauge) and smaller

cables. Cables larger than 10 AWG have un-insulated terminals and vinyl or
heat shrink tubing is pulled over the termination prior [0 crimping.
Ydlo\\' 26-22 One

Rnl 22·1H ( )Ill:
Blue
Yellow 12-10 One
Table 7.4 - AJ\fP Colo ur and DOT Codes
Hydraulic Operated Crimping Tool

Hydrnulic crimping tools are normally used to conduct crimping operntions on
heavy cables wherc high force may be required. There arc a number of
different rypcs. Some are hand operated whilst others arc operatcd by a foOl
pedal. The crimping head incorporates a four posicion 'nest die' that can be
moved to select the corrcct sized die by releasing a 'nesl lock' and rurning a
lillllnb knob. 'n1C two-ha ndled, hand-operated tool is self-contained and is
opernted by I:\visting the reservoir handle clod.-wise, inserting the crimp
tcnnimHion and then raising the ram using the pump handle until the
tenninarion is just held. The prepared cable is then inserted into the b:mc\ and
the mm is raiscd fully us ing the pump handle until a sudden decrease in effort
is felt. ·111is indicates that the internal hydraulic prt!ssurt! relicr ".'Ilve in the
tOol has opene~ \~{ihis is sometimes re ferred to as being the by-pass valve. The
opening ",t',Jfthis valve indicates that the crimping process has been fully
cQ".tr;lpk;t'i!d. When this occurs, the ram can be released by rwisring the reservoir
\\=''< lfundle anti-clochvise.
, c-
o ,\'
~«\""
,. ~-x.
The fOOl operated pedal type is similar in its operation except that it has I:\VO
partS; a crimping head and a foot pump with a selector \'ah"e in place of the
rcsen:oir handle. In both tool types, it is important to ensure that the correct
hydraulic fluid is used and that the internal pressure relief valve setting is
correct.
Testing of Crimp J oints

A badly fonned crimped joint may suffer high resislance and cause a \rohage
drop across the connection. A milli-I'ol( drop (est is used to check t'h:tt any
voltage drop occurring is within specified limits. When the joi nt is in an
installed circuit, an external power supply should be connectcd through the
:1ircmft electrical ground supply connector. \"'{'hen crimped joints h:we been
made on lll1i1l!Halled cables, a milli-volt drop reS[ rig is nonnally used thar has
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CHAPTER SEVEN
ELECTR1CAL CABLES & CONNECTORS
its own source of electrical power. \Vhen a large number of crimp joints are
being made, tcsts may be carried out on sample basis.
Checlcing of Crimping Tools

Crimping tools arc prone to wear lUst like any other tool and the accuracy of
dies find the compressIOn fo rce needs to b ~ checked periodically. It is
importflnt to check that fI tool will consiStently produce a sfltis facto ry crimp.
The periods at which calibration is reguired would depend on usage . .:\ tool
mfly be used infrequently or it may be in continuous daily use. The calibration
period is bflsed on a number of crimping operations, nomlally a th ousan d
crimps, father than a calendar period. Typical checks would include the usc of
GO and NOT GO gauges to cbeck the wear on dies, milli-\'olt drop tests on
test crimps and pull off checks on completed test terminations. Cable
insulation stripping tools also need periodic checks to \'erify that they are
operating correctly. Tools should be identified so that they each relate to a
calibration record. In some organisations, the identity of the crimping tool
forms part of the work record and thus offers traceability back to Ihe (001 and
its record.
Connector Pin Removal & Insertion
There is fI range of electrical plug and socket connecro rs. These werc discussed
in Modulc 6 Chapter 11. To remind you, an illustration of a typical plug and
socket assembly is repeated here.
Socket
r ,
-
C
-0
To~
,
~
Pill
'-
L -_ _ _ _ _ _~ILI ______~
Socket PIlig
Assembly Asservblr
Fig ure 7.12 - Plug and Socke t Assembly
397
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The svllabus for this section deals solelr with the rcmo\'al and insertion of the
pins . Actually, the procedure for the pin and socket contacts is the same so we
will refer to them as the 'contacts'. There are different designs of insertion and
extraction tools. There are metal tools and disposable plastic tools. They are
nOffimlly colour coded to correspond to the size of contact and havc a Part
No. Plastic tools for example have different coloured tips at each end to signify
whether they arc for insertion or extraction and the colours relate to contact
sizes. The extraction end tip is normally white whilst the insertion end colour
relates to the contact size. For example:
Contact Insertio n Exttaction

D escription Part No.
Size Colour Tip Colour Tip
22D ABCO -22 0-01 113-000 Green \,("hirc
Table 7.5 · Example Tip Colours
Ftom this hypothetical example, you ca n see that it is very important to check
that you arc using dIe correct tool in relation to the con£acr. The tips o f
disposablc plastic tools can become disrorted and damaged and will in rum
cause dam:lgc [0 inscns and contacts if )'ou continue to re-use thcm in this
statc. You mllSt only remove or inscrt one contact at a rime to a\"oid the risk of
inad" enenr cross-connection. I f a pin is bent, you must not anempt to
straighten it because the resulting work hardening ha s the potential to causc
the pin to fracture in use creating a circuit failure.
Figure 7.13 . Examples of Contac t Insertion and EXltac rio n Tools

'1';
Removal of Wired Contac ts

There are two types of contact relention llsed in plug and socket connectOrs;
front release and rear release. Both types are removed from the r ear of the
plug or sockct. A different extraction/ insertion tool is used for each type.
Before a contact can be removed, thc plug or socket cable srrain relicf clamp
should be loosened and the back shell unscrewed and pulled back to expose
the rear insert of the plug or socket.
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Front Rele:1se
Rear Release
eLJ[Jit.. J=~ ,cc-_I'~]
C:::iim Rele", ~eacRCkase
g.: Front Release
,EJREl
Figure 7.14· COWlcctor Pin Release Methods
Rear Release
'111e extraction tool is located meet the cable thar connects to the rear of the
comact being remoycd. Tbe tool is then inserted imo tbe contact bole in the
plug or socket until it meetS firm resistance to further movement. 'n1e cable is
then held against the tool and both ate pulled to extract the contact out of the
rear of me plug or socket.
Front Release
The T;juaction tool is placed over the contact to be removed. The plunger on
"luO-ihe. 1601 is held back while the tool is pushed into the plug or socket to release
. Co\\c'?,.e'" the contact. The plunger is then depressed to eje~t the contact out of rhe rear
" y..~{(.' of the plug or socket.
~0«'
C·
'"c'".
'f..<s~
Removal & Insertion or U n-Wired Con tacts r.

b
I ""
Vacant contact insert boles in plugs and sockets are fitted with proper Si2~~
contacts and sealing plugs. The rear of the plug or socket is exposed as;,
before and the sealing plug is removed. An wH.v}red contact extraction tool it
then pushed imo the contact insert hole until it Ib utts against the shoulder r!
the contact. The tool is then pulled back to remove the contact from the nil(r
of the plug or socket. \'('hen inserting an un-wired contact, the insertion toetts
used to push the contact into the rear of the contact insert hole until it ~1: ts
fIrm resistance and locks. The tool is then drawn lback out and a sealing!plug
is fItted into the rear of the co ntact insert hole. You may sometimes h~ that
all unused holes in a cable sealing grommet should be fitted with an :pproved
filler plug. We have just discussed this sealing plu I. ,.~
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CHAPTER SEV EN
Crimping Contacts
\Vhcn preparing to fit a new comact OntO a cable by crimping, the cable must
be prepared by stripping thc insularion back \\~th the appropri...'ltc cable-
stripping tool. The length of exposed conductor wire should be sufficient to
allow the conductOr to be insened into the crimp barrel of the new contact
until it is visible in the inspection hole in the base of the barrel.
T he contact is positioned 10 the apptOpriate crimping tool, the prepared cable

conductor is inserted into the crimping barrel and the tool is operated to crimp
the joint. The contact should then be inspected to check that it has not been
distorted. The crimped joint must be checked to ensure that the conductOr is
still visible in the barrel inspeecion hole and that the crimp pattern is even and
does not overlap onto the cable entry end of the barrel or OntO the shoulder of
the contact. Finally, there should be no evidence of cracking around the
inspeccion hole or around the cable entry cnd of the barrel.
AF Crimping Tools
The AF series of crimping tools arc used to crimp contacts onto cables. They
come in £\\'0 sizes, the AF8 and the AFJ\I8. Both tools have a ratchet
mechanism that \,,-jJj only release the tool when the crimping process is
complete. The AF8 is a high precision hand-crimping tool that incorporates an
adjustable turret head that has numerous scrcing opcions for the size and
position of the contact. The AF1[8 is similar bur has a different type of turret
head.
Insertion of'\ll'~ed Contacts

'1\.'1.10 ...
,c; ...
B~\\'tYPes of contact arc inserred from the rear of the plug or socket. The
[1 ~':oSt'able is positioned in the open s.ide of the appropriate insertion rool so that the
.<.y~'\. =- LOol rests against the contact shoulder. \'(' hen inserting a contact that is
(. ~,'\... . positioned near the edge of a connector insert, the open side of the insertion
tool must face towards the edge of (he insert. This ensures that [here will be
adequate clearance as lhe contact is inserted, avoiding strain on the insert. The
contact is pus bed straight lora the appropriate hole at rhe rear o f the insen in
the plug or socket without twisting unci! it meets firm resismnce to movement.
A slight click sensation may be fcle This indicates that the contact has seated
and locked correctly. The cable may then be released from the tool and rhe
tool drawn straight rearwards to remove Ie .:J
\Vben there arc unused can met insert holes in a plug or socket, these should be
fined with correct sized contacts and scaling plugs as we discussed earlier.
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Testing Contact Sockets

\\:then using a test probe to connect a test meter [0 a socket contact, you must
use a probe thar has the same size or a size smalle r than the pin that will mate
with it. If you attempt. to force an oversize probd into the socket, it will spread
it and this will lead to imerminent contact o r an open circuit when the
connector is assembled.
Co-axial Cables
The importance of taking precautions when installing co-axial cable is best
illustrated by examining its characten stics and use. You n1fly be familiar with
tills type of cable because iT is used among other things as a link between your
televisio n aecial and the set. .r\ cO-fl xifl l cable is a concentric twin wire line. It
consists of a central axial solid conductor wire that is encased in dielectric
material that is sheathed with a metal braid conductor co,ered b, an outer
proteeti\-e jacket. Properly I"uatched co-axial cables ha\"e low characte ristic
impedance and providing the: are correctly tenninated this will remain
constant regardless of length. A mismatched cable on the other hand will
suffer a large power loss in relation to irs length. Coaxial cable is screened in
that electro-magnetic fields arc confined in the space between the central
conductor and the braiding. Because the braiding is eanhed, little o r no
external interference can penetrate into the co-axia l cable circuit.
Insulator Br:J.id
i \'\'ire
Conductor
Figure 7.15 - Co-Axial Cable
Co-a:-.i. al cables arc widely used for connecting radio and radio navigatiol~
equipment to antennae because of their ability to prevent radio frcqllel1~
interference (R.FI), particularly to reeciying systems. Rigid co-a.ua1 cable is als~
used in telephone communication systems to carl)' signals over significant-
distances. The distance between the inner and outer conductors, the diclectri.e:
constant and \'olume of the insulating material and the capacitance arc ali
critical to the maintenance of low attenuation (energy loss) and interferensc.
These will be affected if the cable is distorted by tight bends o r is compre~sed
by m-er-tightened clamps. Finally, co-axial cables that link some eX%I"nal
aircraft aerials arc exposed to the airflow and thele are speed-rated in te!i:T1s of
thcu" tenSI1e strengt 11. t '"
~v
~
<
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CHA P T E R S EVEN
E LE CTR I CA L C A. BL ES & C O NNECTORS
lsolfltion
Byd y Washer Cap
~MII Contact
! tp~D Bmicl Fertrule
SuPpOrt
Figure 7.'1 6 · BNC ConneclOr for Co-A.xial Ca ble
From what we have discussed so far, it is clear that if we do not exercise

ca ution when selecting, routing, clamping and terminating co-axial cables we
will run the risk of degrading me very characteristics that arc critical [0 the
systems in which they arc used.
I nstallation of Co-axial Cable
Co-axial cable ruos should be kept as direct and as short as possible to further
minimise the risk of electro-magnetic interference. In manr cases, cables are
marched [Q the equipment they serve. \'('hen routing the cable nround corners,
you must keep in mind the risk of creating kinks lhat will distort the dielectric.
As a guide, when insta lling single co-axial cable, you should observe a
minimum bend radius of not less than six times the cable diameter to avoid
kinking the cable. Some textbooks quote a 'rule of rhumb' limit of no less lhan
ten times cable diameter so be alen that you may encounter either figure. TIle
cable should be supported at least every 2ft throughout its run. \Xfhen clamping
a cable, YOli must ensure that the clamp docs not squeeze tbe cable and
compress the di~fttic. This will affect the dielectric constant. You should not
route co-a~ crtt:les close to sources of higb dectro-magnecic radiation or in
ar~~\\ltfe;e the cable may be trodden on or used as a bandhold .
. \,,>':\.;;f~
,\,<" &; Co-axial
cable terminations are normally of the BNC type and they arc critical
. ,"',\":5\~ to me maintenance of the characteristic impedance of the cable. Therc are
.... many different configurations for these bur some general rules apply. When
stripping a cable to receive a termination, you must ensure that you do nOt cut
the braid strands in tbe outer conductor or damage the centre conductor. T he
exposed centre wire should be insened in the connector body uncil the
dielectric is firmly seated against the dielectric in the connector. The wire braid
should make good cont:lct wim the connector ferrule or sleeve. Care must be
taken when tightening a connector assembly to avoid damaging the seals or
washers.
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CHAPTER SEVEN
Testing Co-axi al Cables

FauJts in co-axial cables can increase attenuanon ()r energy loss Ln the cable run
and create electrical interference. This is critical to the operation of the
equipment that the cable sen-es. i\ simple continuity test 'Will not always be
accurate enough to measure these losses or identify their sources. A Tilll c
Domain R cOcctometer will do this . This piece of test equipment can measure
the attenuation of energy along the cable length whilst comparing it with the
attenuation in a theoretically perfect cable of a similar configurarion. T he
results are dispbyed o n a cathode ray tube that displays the loss of energy over
distance. This accurarciy measures the value and identifies the position of any
loss that deviates from the standard. This couJd be from a bad connector, a
tcmunatiOll or damaged braiding etc. The instrument can also be used to
measure attenuation per urut length be fo re and after a cable run is installed.
Fibre Optic Cable

I will include a yery brief note on fibre optic cable because it is reported that a
couple of questions on testing it have been encountered. Fibre optic cable IS
now in \videspread use. It has a large bandwidth and can carry a multirude of
channel frequencies. There are no electrical conductors so the cable is not
affected by electro-magnetic interference and can , be routed through high
voltage fields. The thin glass fibre core means that the cable is very small in
diameter. Fibre optic cable suffers very linle loss of optical power over large
distances . A light source such as a laser transmits the light signal at one end of
the cable, which is received by a light sensitiye cell at the other.
The installation, routing and coupling of fibre optic cables requires special care
to avoid introducing backscatter and attenuation pf the light signal. Continuity
and)\lf.fenuatioo testing is carried out using a calibrated light generator and an
c :J')rt!JpdcaJ Power Meter (OPM) . This instrument ~vill measure the power at the
. C0\\C~ receiving end of a cable enabling a comparison to be made with the power
e .\"\",st" being transmitted. T here is also an Optical T ime Domain R e fiectometer
{\~-..\. ~ (OTDR) that will measure anenuaoon in a cable and compare it with a
())\;" - theoretically perfect cable . This latter instrument will measure and identify the
position of losses in the cable run.
Wiring Protection Techniques

In troduction
The installation of electrical cabling in an aircraft conforms to the requiremefrs

of the Aircraft i\Iaintenance Manual, the \\firing Diagram .l\{anual and ~ny
associated Modification Drawings. Cables must be protected against abr~on,
mechanical strain, electro-magnetic i nterfercn~e, excessive hear sdilrces,
extreme ambiem temperatures, chemical contamination and mois rur~,Jngress.
Humans tend to live in aircraft fo r relarivelyj long p eriods and~his can
introduce additional risks in food preparation and toilet areas and in places
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where food and drink is consumed. Hazardous cargo can introduce further
risks if the nlles for its carriage arc not strictly obseryed. Un~pressurised
regions of the aircraft are exposed to low temperatures at altitude and a variety
of ambient conditions at locations around the Wodd. All of this underlines the
need ro protect electrical cabling.
\,'hen cables arc installed in groups or bundles, it is important thar cables

ser...ing main and standby functions in a system are not installed together in the
same loom. Common sense would show that rou cannot risk losing both the
main and back-up systems because of a single loom failure. Additionally, cables
carrying high AC or pulsing DC currents that create electro-magnetic
interference fields should not be placed in close proximity with sensitive circuit
cables that may be affected by them. This highliglm the need to comply with
rhe authorised manuals when installing electrical cables.
Cable Looming & Loom Support

T here are three principal methods of wiring installation used in aucr:1 ft. These
are: open loom, ducted loom and conduit.
Ope n Loom
The most convenient and quickest W:1)' to inscall winng is to install it as an

open loom. This offers easier access for faultfinding and maintaining individual
circuits. Cables that run close to each other along parallel paths arc grouped
together into a bundle that is bound together by either continuous lacing cord
or by binding or strapping them together at suimble intervals. The bundle is
supported by clamping it [0 (he aircraft structure at intervals using metal clips
cushioned with non-metallic insulating material. W' hen a sub-group of cables
have to branch 'AW from the main loom, they must be arranged so that they
form a s"tQd~h curve away from the loom and do nor eross any other cables in
thE..~)Utcess. Sometimes, cables arc pre-formed into harnesses or looms by the
, 'i!>~{hi.anufacturers and have the correct bends and branches needed to insmll the
_ ,\-..\ L. loom as a complete assembly into the aircraft.
-,\~
. +"'1'.
\...).-'\'
Lacing: L1cing consists of continuous PVC covered nylon or waxed linen
cord that is bound to the loom with knOtS consisting of a clove hitch finished
with a square or reef knot at inren'ais of 3in to 4io along the run. Tn smaller
looms, rot-proof waxed linen or braided flax tape may be used instead of cord.
Cables in the loom should be held close together and there should not be aoy
evidence of individual cables sagging or separating from tlle main bundle,
additional knots should be used where necessary to preYCnt this. The
disadvamage with lacing is that a break in the lacing will loosen the bundle and
its use is not recommended in many areas including the power plant.
Binding: i\ bundle of cables may be spot tied tOgether at suitable intervals

using pre-tensioned nylon straps. These are sometimes coloured to aid circuit
identification. 1\ special binding tool incorporating a reel of strapping may be
used to apply tcnsion and lock the straps. Alternatively, Ty-Raps are now a
common feature used in strapping. The bundle is then supported by clamping
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CHAPTER S EVEN
it to the aircraft structure at intervals using clamps cushioned \vith non-metallic

insulating material . I
Fig ure 7.17 - E xamples of Open & Dueled Wiring
Ducted Loom
A dUeled loom is bound together in a similar way to an open loom except that
the bundle is supported in a rectangular-sectioned duct attached to the aircraft
strucmre. D ucting may be manufacmred from alurniluum alloy or fibre
reinforced plastic material. Some ducts may incorporate channels designed to
support and route individual lo oms related to specific systems. Channels may
also be used [0 separate looms where there is a risk of electro-magnetic
interference between them.
Conduit
CQr~Hits are plastic or metal rigid or flexible tubes that are clamped to the
,,\)\)
\\ >~r:. ~IC alIcraft strucmre. They fully enclose and protect cable looms when they are
-o\\\:.~
, ~..; C routed through areas where they are prone to chafIng or crushing. The inside
fJ \"'I'=' diameter of the conduit should be around 25% larger than the outside diameter
,;~\¢-"\.... of the cable bundle .
. 0\1 '
L.
High-enetgy ignition cables used in gas turbine engwe 19runOI1 systems ~e
often routed through nickel alloy rigid conduits ~hat are screened with nick?i-
plated braid. --::;
%
Cable Routing & Protection .::?

(J
Cable mns should nor be routed in the bottom of lhe fuselage or bilge ~~s
where they are prone to contamination from spilt or leaking fluids ~ nd
accumulated moismre. Cables should be routed so that they mn down~rds
and away from connections with equipment. This is to prevent 9.1~Sture
seeping along the cables ioto the equipment. i\Jt~natively, the cable ~ should
incorporate a downward loop (drip loop) adjacent to the equi pment
connecnon.
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CHA P TER SEVEN
ELECTRICAL C A BLE S & CO NNECTOR S
The radius of bends in the run of a bundle of cables should not be Jess than
eight times the o uts ide di:lflJ eter o f tiJe bundle. \\lhen cables have to pass
though a bend to connect with a terminal block, a minimLUTI bend radius of
tiJree times the o utside diam eter o f tbe bundle is acceptable providing the
cables are adequately suppo rted at each end of the bend. You may come across
different figures for this quoted in various textbooks; the figu res quol cd here
are from Civil Aircraft Airwonhiness Informacion and Procedures (C J\J\ IP).
\'(' here cables have to connect with moving parts, such as the retractable
landing gear, they must have adequate slack ro avoid being placed in tensio n
throughout the range o f movement whilst not being exposed to fouling or
chafing in the process. Electrical cables should not pass close to unguarded
mechanical control cables or rods or imerfcre in any way with their movement.
As discussed earlier, cables carrying AC or pulsing DC current will radiate

clectro+magnetic fields that can induce stray currents in adjacent cables. Cables
must be rou[(~d to avoid interference between electrical circuits. t>.lain and
sta ndby circuit cables servi ng the same system should not be PUt together in a
loom.
Cable runs must be supponed separate from pIpes carrying fluids o r gases,
particularly o"-l'gen lines, and be routed to allow the maximum possible
clearance from them. They must neyer be anached to them or be allowed to
contact them. To avoid the risk of contamination from spilt or !caking fluids,
cables should always be routed ab Ol'e fluid pipelines rather than below them.
As a guide, opcn cabling should be at least SL"": inches dea r and conduit should
be at least twO inches dear and not be attached to the pipes.
Cables that arc foured through engine nacelles may have to pass through hot
zones and should have high temperature resistant insulation.
Cables must n0-fl)Re supported or routed in such a way that they come inlo
contact wi.d'() ~llarp edges presented by lightening holes in structure, panel
e~~. . fftDngs and fasteners. \\:rhen cables are roured through an aperture in a
. ~:l5 Sulkhead, rhe edges of the aperture must be smoothly radiused and fitted with
. ~""\\. <.,; an insulated sleeve or grommet. Ducts and conduits must have smooth
. ,'~...:..~\- surfaces, exits and entrances . \"\ben cables are routed through a pressure bung
L· into a pressurised comparunenr, they must be fitted into the correct diameter
r,
holes to ensure adequate sealing. C
Conduits must incorporate provisions to drain away any moisture that

"".,,
accumulates in rhem. For e..xample, a 1/8in diamcter drainage hole should be ~
.j'>.
provided at the lowest poim in each conduit run.
Cable Clamps
Cables must be adequately supported by securing them to the aircra ft strucrure
using suitably spaced cable clamps lined with non-metallic insulating material.
This is necessary to prevent vibration that would otherwise present the risk of
fractured conductors and damaged insulation. When clamping cables, the
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ELEC TR IC AL CABLES & CONNECTORS
objectiyc is to prmride secure support and to prC'Tnt movement, nor to

squeeze them to the point they deform. Clamps should be suitably placed so
that the cables do not sag or yibrate between them. Cables must ne,'er be
installed or clamped so that they arc placed in tension o r in a way where they
would be put into tension because of structural flexing created during any
aircraft operation. As a guide, you should be abld to flex unsupported sections
of cable runs be['..'leen clamps by abOUT half an inch by hand.
Protective Sleeving
There are instances where additional cable proteacion 15 required, either to give
added support or to protect against abrasion lor heat sources. In another
instance, shorr sleeves may be fitted to prm;de insulation at temllnations or
for identification purposes. In the latTer case, thl slee\'es are installed onto the
cable using special tools. \'\ben small diameter sleeves are fitted , the
recommended lubricant should be used together with a thimble jig or needle
tool. Three prong fitting pliers are used to stretch and fit larger diamctcr
sleCycs. The sleeyc should not be strctched more than 300% of the sleeve
internal diameter and care should be taken to slille the slee,-e into position on
thc cable whilst not pcrmitting It to roll up. I
Spiral PVC wrapping is somecimes used to enclose cable and provide a flexible
sleeye that guards against abrasion. TIllS is not classified as conduil so care
should be exercised in irs use. Cable bundles are Jometimes enclosed in ilexible
PVC tubing. The bundle is pulled through th~ tubing prior to connection,
often with rhe help o f a little talcum po\Vde~ to reduce friction. Teflon
(PTFE), nylon and fibregbss sleeves and wrapping tapes are also found in use.
Cables exposed to heat sources may need ad9itional protection. Nylon is

lirn4h~1:0 around 140°C. Teflon (PTFE) has a safe ''lorking temperature up to
c
C
'1\Jm50 er and is a good, and expensive, electrical insulator. Other materials such
_O )\\c'b '" as asbestos felt and glass fibre would be suited to this temperature range. The
r:: ~~~{' short term and continuous ratings for a gi,-en cable type and size determines
.\~"\.'" = the protection tbat is required. CA.A J\.mvorthiness Notice 12 Appcndi.'i: 32
C.c-X'i' . u~ed to rder to this . CAAIV Leaflet 11 -5 ~-\ircraft Electrical Cables contains
information on approvcd cables and remperarure lranges.
Heat Shrink Sleeving

~
I-Ieat shrinkable sleeve consists of a polymer plastic that has enhancecf
elastomcric properties. Supplied in its expanded form, it will shrink when bea.2
is applied, moulding itself tightly to tlle contours of the ca ble. Once the slcc"'f
has been shrunk, it cannot return to its original form. Heat is applied from'-'a
heat gun. This may be a direct heat or an infrar~d lype. The gun is usually fJ.t
to a temperature 10(}oC above the initial heat shrink temperature of the sl~'e .
The ~uns can prodLlce [emp~raturcs up to 60(}l~ so cxtrem.e care needs ~ be
exerased. The sleeve matenals and the heat guns are typICally prod~~d by
Rlychcm Lrd. ~v
'.
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E L ECTR I CA L CAB L ES & CONNEC T ORS
Shielding
\'(!e have referred to shielded cables earlier in this chapter. \'{!hen current nows
in a conductor, it sets up an electro-magnetic field around it. Merely switching
the current off and on causes the field to collapse and reform. \X!hen AC or
pulsating DC current is passed, the field is constantly changing. I f this field is
allowed to Cllt through another conductor, it will induce a flow of current in il.
This could be hazardous if rhe other conductor is an adjoining cable serving a
critical function or is a communications cable carrying a radio signal. TIle
interference ca n be reduced or even eliminated by shielding the cables.
Shielding is simply a means of intercepting the radiated field and passing the
induced current to earth. Shielding used to screen cables from producing or
receiving dectro-magnetic interference, known as radio frequency interference
(RFI), consists of tin, cadmi\.UU or nickel- plated copper braid sheathing that
encases the cable. The braid is conneered [Q earth at a single point connection
at onc end of the sheath to a'-oid the for:mation of an earth loop where
currents circuhne in the braiding.
Conclusion
We have now reached the end of this chaprer. .A point worth noting is that
different textbooks sometimes tend [0 quote conflicting general guidance
figures for things such as minimum bends in co-axial cables and cable looms
for example. Tn one example, t'-\'O con flicting figures were quoted in separare
places in the same bookl Here we have the Catch 22 problem of which book
is used by the examincr and which is used by the candidate and in onc case,
which page. T he information contained in this chapter has, as far as is
pra cticable, been verified against that contained in current CAA publications .
Examiners use ,!hOse but do be on your guard for the odd 'rogue' question
fronl. tt\E Ha~k unearthed in a car boot sale, metaphorically speaking of course!
AN.C."'I\\~tal point is that you should always use the authorised Aircraft
..: \,>)."tKlaimenance and Wiring ~Ianuals for all infonnation on parciculflr aircraft
.<-..f:-'' - . electrical wiring installations. This is a good time to take a break Or a short dash
(0'X"" to the pub -strictly for counselling of COur5C!
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Revision
Electrical Cables & Connectors
Questions
1. The correct sequence for circuit tests is :
a) . .•.tn~ulanon,
funcnona.t, ' . .ty
COnl1JlUl an db on 8lng
1
b) bonding, continuity, insulation and function al
c) continuity, insulation. functiona l and bonding
2. When the two spikes of the 6ft lead are shorted by the single spike of
the 60ft lead on a bonding tester, the instrument pointer should:
a) align WIth the zero mark on the scale
b) move to full-scale deflection
c) register in ohms the resistance of the leads
..;gre
3. maximum permissible resistance for bonding between primary
c '2.\."IOb - s tructure components and the main earth system to which they are
. (.o\\C~ connected is :
~ . \"I',I.~('~
hi
\,,"'.... a) 0.5 ohm
1'.5 r'
- ('I~.
L·
b) 0.05 ohm
c) 0 .005 dun
4 . The maximum permitted resistance between an aircraft main eartif-"

system and the ground is:
a) 10 ohms
b) 10 kilohms
c) 10 megohms
409
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CHAPTER SEVEN
5. The main reason why primary bonding connectors have a large

cross-sectional area is that (hey must be capable of::
a) carrying circuit fault currents CO earth
b) bonding highly stressed strUcmres
c) carrying a lightning discharge
6. An a ircraft engine that has non-conductive mountings must be

bonded to the aircraft structure with:
a) twO primary conductors, one each side of the engine
b) one primary conductor
c) cwo secondary conductors, one above and one below the engine
7. Non-conductive plastic composite panels:
a) do not require bonding
b) are treated wirh conduccive paim
c} are equipped wid, a bonding jumper
8. \'Vhen cond1~ting a bonding test on anodised structure:

§V-
O~'':Sth112 prongs must penetrate the anodic ftIm
_ 'C>).t~"
\. h' b) the prongs do not have to penetrate the anodic film
,
;\.~
c
...
(0'1.... c) a 500V resistance tester should be used
9. Following a functiona l test on a circuit:
a) a duplicate check must be carried Ollt

.~
b) rhe fuse should be removed to check that it isolates the circuit
c) a bonding test must be carried out
410
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CHAPTER SEVEN
ELECTRICAL CAB LE S & CONNECTORS
10. The tests carried out to check a n earth tenninal would include:
a) insulation resistance and continuir..
b) bonding and continuity
c) bonding and milli,'oIIS drop test
11. An instrument that can be used fo r continuity testing is a:
a) low range o hmmeter
b) mcgger
c) ammeter
12. Mt er stripping a cabl e in preparati on fo r c rimping, the exposed

conduc to r \\;res should be:
a) straightened
b) twisted rightlr (a reduce the core diameter
c) lightly twisted by hand to restore the lay
L3 . The correct b and-c rimping tool may be identified by:
1W'-:the colour of the handles and tile t.ermination size marking
b} the part number
c) the colour of the rcmo'-able die
14. The insulation grip exertcd by a ha nd-crimping tool:
a) cannot be adjusted
b) is adjusted by the pressure exerted on the handles
c) is adjusted b)' altcring the position of the pins.
411
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CHAPTER S EVEN
ELECTRICA L CABL E S & CONNE C T ORS
15. The jaws of a ha nd-c rimping tool can b e re-o pened:
a) as soon as pressure on the handles is released
b) only after the handles have been full}' closed
c) when rhe lock is withdrawn
16. A h ydrau li c crim p ing to o l \"ill have comp leted the crimp w he n the:
a) pressure relief valve opens
b) pwnp handle locb
c) reservoir \'ah-e closes
17. The d ots imprinted on the p re-i nsulated sleeve during Crlmpmg
indica te th at th e:
a) crimp has been completed
b) correct combination of [Qol and tcrminaaon was used
c) correct pressure was applied
18. A fo rward rele ase connecto r contact is :

I''"' extracted from the front
a) re~~~d1ffia
_;)\\c'/:.I:."
...{\ C'b) released at the rear and extracted from the front
, ,,~'" .
",
,,"..;:\~ c) released from the front and extracted from [he rear
- ...0
1.... ''>
19. U nu sed contact ho le s in a connector in sert a re:
a) fitted with a con tact and a sealing plug
b) left open
c) filled witb porting compound
412
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CHAPTER S EVEN
ELECTRICAL CABL ES & C ONNECTOR S
20. \Vhen inserting contacts near th e edge of a connector insert the

insertion tool should be positioned:
a) with the gap facing the centre of the insert
b) with the gap facing me OUler edge of the insert
c) :ll the from of the insert
21. The minimum pemlitted bend radius in a cab le loom approac hing a
te rm inal block w h ere both e nds oCthe bend a re suppo rted is :
a) eight times the outside diameter of the bundle
b) three times the ourside diameter of the bundle
c) six times the inside diameter of the bundle
22. Cab les conn ected to equipment should he routed:
a) downwards and away from the equipment
b) upwards and away from the equipment
c) in a suaiglu line away from the equipment.
23. Wben installing a co-axial cable, th e minimum bend radius is:

llJ\l
.,~""G
. ".(.:i!,":" a) eight rimes diameter of cable
\. .~"\\ .
'\"\:-.-(~'
~ ~ b) six times diameter of cable
,\....'1.
,5\":-
(.0'\· c) three rimes diameter of cable
24. The temperature setting on a heat gun would be set :
a) (SOC aho\·c the initial heat shrink tempernture
c) 100°C above the initial heat shrink temperaturc
413
CHAPTER SEVEN
25. The braided m e ta l sh eath o n a s hielded cable servlllg electro ni c

equipme nt is:
a) connected to earth fit both ends o f the bmid screening
b) no t earthed
c) connec led to eanh fit one end of the braid screening
Revision
Electrical Cable s & Connectors
Questions
I. B 16. A
2. A 17. B
3. B 18. c
4. C 19. A
5. C 20. B
6. A B
23. B
9. B 24. c
r
10. C -,.
?-
C >
-j ,
~
I I. A ~
12. C
-
13. A
14. C
IS. B
414
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U''''/J 1
CHAPTER EIGHT
RI V ETING
Riveting
Introduction
In Module 6-5-4, we dealt with the various types of solid and blind rivets and
special fasteners in tcrms of their specifications and identification and the heat
treatment of solid rivers. Therc is a degree of correlation between those topics
and this chapter in regard to usage and installation. With that in mind, some
modified illustrations from Module 6 will be rcpcatcd here where they have a
particular bearing on installation processes and tools.
Do nOte that the title of this chaptcr does not specify an!" particular type of
rivet. \Ve must assume from this that all types, solid, blind and special
fas teners, are included. In addition to tlus, it wo\lld be difficult to describe the
tools used for rivcting and dimpling without also describing the particular
installation processes to which thc), rclate. \Vc will be maki ng a start by
discussing the principles underlying riveted joints in order to give some
appreciation of why rivet selection, spacing and pitch are so important in
aircraft design.
Riveted JDints
~~ I
. ;.0\Ri\Tenng pre-dates the screw thread by several centuries as a simple, light and
\.. n\\c\!..-= effective means of fastening m.'ueri.lls together; so effective that we place a lot
\"\":\~{' of reliance on it today. Howeycr, there are a few rules. For example, when an
, ~
. ,\"\. aircraft is Hying through turbulence, the structure flexes and the I·oimed skins
~ .
U"\ arc constantly pulling against lines of rivets before springing back into shape
under me clasuc tensile, compressive and shlar stresses generated in the
metals. \'(!hen we gaze abstractly out of a passengcr window at the \virig s
bending, \ VC do not \vish to contemplate the I effect o f rivets shearing ~
altematively, tearing through thin skinned joints. Someone, somewhere, mu ~
surely have considered tlus? ~
The pattern of riyeting used on an aircraft bas been specifically chosen by t!-$
manufacturer after ex tensive stress calculations and structural test programrnf!~ .
\'\!hen we arc required to conduct repairs, we do so by complying wit.$ a
manufacrurer's approved repair scheme in every detail. This ensures tha @:he
repair will meet the same design requLrements and quality of riveting ~at is
essential to the maintenance of the original strucrural i.ntegrity. i f we fifi''ci that
we need to deviate from a repair schemc, wc must first gain the a p pro.~l of the
~
manufacturer to ensure that the strength of the repair will not be affected. For
our part, tbe pracucal drilling and riveting tecHniques that we use must be
415
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CHAPTER EIGHT
RIVETIN G
conducted to the highest of standards to ensure that we do nor negligently

degrade the integrity of the structure. That should go some wn.}' rowards
answe ring the question posed abm·c.
Shear Strength
Shear stress occurs in a body when opposing forces tr), to make its material slip
in opposite directions either side of a plane surface inside the body. If rhe shear
stress exceeds the clastic limit of the material, permanent defonnation will
occur. I f the stress exceeds the ultimate load limit for the material, the mat erial
will fail across the shear plane. In other words, it will be cur in IWO. The load
\'alue where this occurs identifies the shear strength. The limiting value for a
rivec would depend on the cross-sectional area of the shank, the sltength of the
material and the force applied to it. In a correctly designed ri\'eted ioiot, the
ri\'ers react shear forces only and should never be required to react tensile or
compressive forces.
She:!.r Pbne Shear Pbnes

~
=~EiP
_.------,
~r===\ -
Single: Shear Double Shcar
- '=~Q:::s~= -
Figure 8. 1 - Shear Strength
\'(!hen there is JUSt one shear plane, such as that found where tWO skins arc
jointed, the join~~,described as being subject co ' single sbear '.
"~'I..)b -
. "'~\!..c ~
l.')\ .
\\).1: 0 Single Shea r Suess = Shear Force
Cross-sectional Area
There are occasions where a body may have tWO shear planes, such as in a
fork-ended joint, or where three skins are joined by a single fastener. TIus is
known as ' double shear '.
Doubl~ Shear Stress Shear Force

2 x Cross-sectional Area
In both examples, increasing the cross-sectional area of the shank or reducing

the shear force will reduce the \,atue of the shear stress. However, a rivet made
of lead will fail at a very low stress niue, whereas a rivet made o f high strength
aluminium alloy will fail at a much higher stress value. Selection of (he correct
rivet depends on the right balance of material sltength, cross-sectional arca and
the predicred working sltess.
416
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CHAPTER EIGHT
R I V ETING
Diamcu'r :md Cruss-seCU'On:IJ Aretl: A point you need to keep in mind is

the square law relationship mat exists between diametet and cross-sectional
area. If you double the diameter, you do not double the area - you quadruple it.
So, if you wamed to replace one 1/8in diamet~r ri\'et with 1/16in diameter
rivets, you will need four 1/ 16in diameter riyets to achie,e the same cross-
sectional area as the one 1/ 8in diameter ri'-et. The shear strength of a riyet is
proportional to its cross-sectional area not its diameter.
Another consideration to be made is the bearing strength of the material in

which the rivets are placed.
Bearing Strength
The bearing strength o f a maLerial is its ability to resist the riwt tearing
sideways through it under load. You might have rivets with high shear strength
but it will serve little purpose if for example, they are llsed to clamp two pieces
o f tinfoil together! The fact that the rivets will not shear under load merely
means that they \vill rip through the tinfoil instead.
LandI
o 0
f-------
'l\)\}~
'1\,\\)6 - ... Figure 8.2 - Bearing Strength
,'c. . .o.: ...
. Cp\l .
. \.,.:I.,t'
~
~
~,'-
,.:5\'?- Shear Strength V s Bearing Strength
L-~'~
We could cover all our bets by constmcting a joint where the shear strength pf
the rh-ets and the bearing strength of the material of the clamped skins ha~
such high factors of safety that nothing could qer go wrong. The problem 1$
that the forces transferring across this joint would result in the failure o f tiTt
surrounding structure unless we made it equally as strong. Once we go dowr£.
that path, the overall increase in 'weight would mJke the structure econoffilcaUf
umiable to operate. \X7hen we consider the design of a joiot in the light of wh~
we ha,Tc discussed so far, we can appreciate that a joint should not be t§O
weak, but neither should it be too strong. The joiht should be strong enollgg-~ o
accept the design operating loads with the required factor of safety, but sb.,9uld
not have too much additional strength. To a~lle\e tills, we must s4lke a
balance between the shear strength of the rivets in me joint and th~~vbearing
strength of tlle materials they damp together. -!f
417
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CHAPTER E I G HT
R I VETING
Incorrect
Shear strength high

Bearing strength low
Incorrect
Bl!aring strength high

Shear strength low
Correct
B Bearing strength
slightly higher
than shear strength
Figure 83 - Ri\'e r Selection
The illustration shows three combinations of rh'et diameter and skin thickness
where the material strength of the civet and the material it is placed in is
similar. In the first example, we hayc a large diameter oyet damping twO thin
skins. The shear strength of the ci\Tet is very high compared to the low bearing
strength of the skins. The joint can fail at low load resulting in the intact rh'e!
ripping sidew:l),s through the skins.
In the second example, we haye a small diameter riYet clamping twO thick
skins - very low rivet shear strength and high skin bearing strength. f\g:tin, the
joint can fail at low load and will result in dte ovct shearing in tWO leaving the
skins intact.
TIle third example strikes a balance where (he civer diameter is such that its
shetlr s trL'ng lh is slightly less than the bcaring strengrh of tIlt., m:llcri:l/ of
the skins - boti;\,(\te strong and will support rhe design operating IO:lds. 1\
failure ?f-...ilils) jOint because of a design overload will cause the ril'cl 10 shc:u
ra.{ft'a-'1han 111e material to rip. That is very fortunate for us; il is much less
,?>).\£xpensi\'c to replacc a few rivets than to repair tom skins! This balance is
generally struck when the ri"et diameter (0) is at least three limes the
thickness of the thickesl single skin in the joint and the material strength of
the ri"ets is similar 10 that of the material in which they arc used.
In the light o f what we haye discussed. it is very imponanr that you comply
with the approved slructura1 repair scheme instructions when selecting rivets
:Ind sheet material. There are ri,'et rabies that gi,7e the ultimate strengths and
single shear strengths for the range of diameters of various rivet material
specificatio ns. A fi ctional illustration of a typical table follows: -
3
R,j"ct diameter 1/ 16 3/ 32 I/ B 5/ 32 3/ 16 1/ 4 5/16 3/ S

Smgle shear
strength (psi)
90 200 360 570 S()() 1,440 2,280 3,200
T able 8.1 - AI Alloy 0 1234 cive ts
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CHAPTER EIGHT
RIVETING
Tile shear strengdl values are d o ubled when the joint involves double shear
loads such as those found where three skins are jdined.
There are also tables giving dIe bearing strength for each combination of single
sheet material thickness and rivet diameter for different sheet material
specifications. A fictional extract [rom a table foUows:
Rivet diameter 1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/ 16 1/ 4 5/ 16 3/8

Bearing
260 390 520 650 780 1,040 1,300 1,565
strength (p';)
T able 8.2· Al Alloy sheet 1234·T3 O.05in thick
Taking a hypothetical example from the extracts, the diameter of [he rivet
should be at least three times the thickness of the sheet. The sheet we have
chosen to give as an example is 0.05rn thick. This means we choose a rivet 3 X
0.05 ::: 0.15in diameter. The nearest standard ~ized rivet to this is 5/32in
(0.156in). '111C shear strength of our D1234 5/ 32in rivet is S70psi. The bearing
strength of the sheet m aterial when used with tHis sized rivet is 6S0psi. Note
that the rivet \\o1.l1 shear before the sheet material tears.
Common sense tells us that any component will fail at its weakest point and we
have shown that dIe rivets in a joint will fail befbre the surrounding material.
P utting a riveted joint in a sheet of material therefore \\-ill reduce the original
tensile strength of the sheet by anything up to 25 %. Turning this around, the
shear strength of the riveted joint would be around 75% of the strength of the
original sheet. Repairs have to be as strong as the original structure and the
manue'lCturers will produce repair schemes that lachieve this. For our part, it
1
1\.\\l tmpNa sises the need to comply with these repair schemes .
e-
. CJ'\\<.:t:
When we consider the strength of a riveted joint, we should note that the more
,,\,<'"
,.... \"\;).\\'. boles we drill in it, and the closer dlose holes are to each other, the weaker the
. (\.,..
sheet material becomes. Howe,er, the shear strength of the rivets we place in
(~~'
the holes will finally detennine the tensile strength of the joint because the
rivets should fail first. \'{/c can say, therefore, that the strength of a riveted joipt
%
is determined by the shear strength, number and pitch of the rivets in it.
-
Load Transfer
\,(:rhen a load transfers across a multiple row riveted joint, the load is not eve6l'y
distributed between the rows . The row of rivets nearest to the 1000d will al~7s
react the highest part of the load, passrng a propornonate1y lower load on~ [he
fo llo\\ring row and so on. ;(
,~
~
,
419
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C H AP T ER E I G H T
R I VE TIN G
Lower
Lower
I.oad
Figure 8.4 _ Dis tribution of Suess in a Mulci-Row Rive t Panc rn
11tis means dUll the first row is at more risk frorn distorted holes and ri\'el
shear than subse<:]uenr rows. You can demonstrate this by pinning a length of
elastic band to a board with n\'Q or more evenly spaced dress pins and Then
pulling the [rcc end of the band to see which pin deflects first. Designers can
compensate for this by varying me number, diameter and spacing of the rivets
to even our the srress levels. Howel'er, joints mat are subject to load rcversals
create a more complex problem. Single row riveted joints are clearly exposed
to the full load and are thcrefore potentially weak in anything but low stress
levels. For this reason, single row ri\'eted joints are nonnally a\·oided in favour
of multiple rows.
Lap Joints
T he simple lap joint is only used ill lightly stressed siruations where there is no
requirement for a flush surface. The joint is constructed by overlapping two
skin panels. It has a disadvantage in tlmt the loads transferring across the joint
are nOt truly aligned. Tins means that when a tension load is applied across the
joint, the twO ~t~rs will attempt to align with each other and there is a
tendenc~ fpo<dlsrortion. This will shift the load on tbe rivets from whoU)' single
s~!lh\'to a combinacon of shear and tension. For thaT reason, it is only suited
~;>.<:tor light stress.
I @ I
r
..,,,
0
L'lp joint "%

"
f:
,
~
I
'(- @ I
'0
-
.~
;;!::;,
0'
joggled Llp joint '"

ot
Figure 8.5 - Lap JointS ,~'"
420
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CHAPTER EIGHT
RIVETING
The primary purpose of joggHng a lap joint is to produce a flush sur face. The
load transfer across this type of joint is still not lfuiy aligned and ir suffers the
same disadvantage as (he simple lap joint.
Butt Joints
The bun joim is suited to highlr stressed siruanons where heavier gauge skins
are joined O\'er frames and ribs. The skins arc aligned wirh each other in tlus
type of joint. eliminating an~' tendency for them to distort under load, thus
keeping the rh-ets wholly in shear. The single shear bun joim has a single strap
or doubler attached to the underside of the joint that produces a smooth
aerodynamic upper surface, making it well suited to higher speed, large allcrafl.
\Vhere a repair has to be made to;l, large hole in the skin, and strength has to
be restored. a flush insert patch supported by a butt strap could be used. As
with all multiple row riveted joints, the load is not evenly dh-ided between the
rows.
Single Suap (Single ~hl..-:lr)
gg
Double Strap (Double Shc;u)
Figu re 8.6 - Butt J oiols

"II ,-
:.\.\I~l'he-doub1c si1(:ar butt joint is proportionately stronger and fatigue resistant but
I.."\\\.' - suffers the disadvantage oflosing the flush upper surface. This joint has a strap
\ ... ;\«.... or doubler on each side of the joint. In addition to providing a stronger joint.
. ;\:'I.!ei tbe ri'-ets arc better supported. However, Ihe load transfcr across the rivet
. ~~'Y."'" ~~
, wws is still une\'cnly distribuced.
Fr:tmc-
I
Butt Stmp
Figure 8.7 - ButtJ oiot:at:a Frame -

p::::
On some large aircraft, there is a need to strengthen a butt joint at a framc;.,:;nd
often provide a joint where there is a change of section invoh-log skins f12:..,& ting
at an angle. In these cases, rhe bun strap or doublcr may be repIaced,.~vith an
extruded metal bat with a cross-section that matcs ,vith the skins ar# clamps
them to the frame. strengthening the joint in the process. A <Y' bar joint is
421
CO/')njhl :O 8m!) Co,j,§ J006 - 200- AU riJ,hfl I1'srnvd 1l~'1/.,.pl1rf66. lYJm
CHAPT E R EI G H T
RI VE TIN G
commonly used in these situations. The skins may be ril-eled to the inside or
the oUlside o f the extruded secrion.
'Y' • Bar
Figure 8.8 - Reinforced JOinl
Flange Joints
Flange joints arc used on strllcrural componems such as fanners and ribs
where mainly compression loads are felt.
Figure 8.9 - Flange Joints
Sphere ofinOuence
The 'sphere of influence' is the area within which a propedy closed rivet will
damp the sheets in tight contact wim each other. \'X'hen sheets are clamped
together with rivets, the aim is to produce 'faring surfaces' that are tightly
fastened in full cont."lC( with each other to fonn a sealed joint. The telm 'faying
surfaces' denotes the surfaces that contact each o ther in a joint arc thus hidden
frolll view. Normally, these surfaces arc treated with insulating jointing
compound prior 1'0 assembly to protect against cleclrolytic corrosion. This is of
parrjcular importance when there is a risk of dissimilar metal corrosion. 111e
la st thing we need is gaps between me 'faying surfaces' in a rivel'ed joinr that
:tllow moism re in to eventually degrade the strength of the joint. I t is for these
re:tsons that we need to consider the sphere of influence of a rivet.
422
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CH A PTER EIG H T
RI VE TING
T he sphere of influence of a correctly installed rivet is a circular area that has a

diameter approximately five times (SD) that of the shank of the rivet that lies
at its centre. This is where the pitch and spacing of rivets in a joint becomes
important. If the pitch were set at 4D for example, the spheres of influence of
adjoining rivets would overlap, producing tight c'cntact between sheets. If the
sp acing between the rivet rows were to be also set at 4D, then the spheres of
influence existing between ri,ets tn the adjoining rows would also overlap .
SD
-
o o
o
Figure 8.10 - Sphere of Influ ence
Rivet Layout Terms
Spac~¥J is tlle term used to denote the distance between adjommg aver rows.
-,0l.i firt lJ is the term used to deno te the distance Ibcc\vcen the centres o f two
f:nTI
(,0\1.C'?(' - ad joining ri,~ets in a row. The 'hmd ' denotes t~e distance between the
. \ .....(t": centre of a rivet and the edge ot the sheet. All these dIstances are expres sed as
:\.,,\ .... values of the riFct shallk diamcter D .
,,5\';'
(C\~
Edge of Sheet ------------
~ - - - - - - - - --- , ---
I
F igure 8. 11 - Rivet Layo ut Terms
423
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CHAPTER EIGHT
RIVETIN G
A pitch or spacing of greater than -lD would not produce the required contact.
A pitch and spacing of less than -l0 would increase the overlap but we must be
ca reful not to increase the number of rivers in the joint [0 the point where an
excessive number weakens it.
Ri vet Pitch & Spaci ng

It is vcry important that rivets are placed In a joint so that they win give it
maximum strength. Conversely, we must not place them so close together that
the holes will weaken the joint. By a similar token, we must be careful nOt to
place rows of rivets too close to tbe edge of the joint ,""here they arc likely to
tear through, or 100 far away from it where the edge of the sheet willlif( up.
___ ,t~:l, __________ _

-.--
2D
--~-~ 0 0 0
2D
-~<!r 0 0 0 0
~~4--4---------7
2D' 3D '
I I
Figure 8.12 - Minimum Pitc h & Spacing on a Staggered Lap Joint
To avoid weak~J,1'g the joint, the pitch between rivets in a highly stressed
joint shC(l!!d' Re\;cr be less than 30 in a staggered row riveted joint or less than
-H~ i.i»<.;: fdouble chain riveted joint. The sp:Jcing should be not less than 21/ .. 0
,. 'i.\~~fn a staggered row joint and not less than -lD in a double chain joint. In all
:\J)....... . cases, the Imld, or distance from a ri,er to the edge of a sheet, must be no less
,,>,'\." than 20.
-
"
'"~,"
Figure 8.13· Minimum Pitch & Spacing o n a D o uble Chain Lap J oint
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CHAPTER EIGHT
R I V ETING
We might make the mistake of thinking tha t all riyers o n aircraft run in straight
lines. There are many examples of circular river lines on insert repairs and on
access pands. The rules for ciycr spacing, pitch and land srill apply in these
situn tions. Mnrking out the rivet positions is do n~ using angular measurements
but the measurements still coofoan to similar limitations.
/
/
~ ------
e e r,
,
/
I e e \
\
/
a a e \
/ e I
I a 0
I
\ e a 0
Ie /
/
I
\
\
, e e /
I
, e e Y
"-
- -~--
~
/
2 : : :::: : :; : I : : "
Figure 8.14 - Inserl & Do ubler
The figures we have been using here are those that are generally quoted.
\'I/heneyer you are engaged in the repair of aircra~t structures you must always
comply nith the figures for pitch, spacing and and stated in the appro ved 1
repair scbeme.
Dimpling
In order that we may describe the tools, we need to gain some idea of their
application. \Ve cannot do that without having knowledge of the vanous
riveting processes. The syllabus main heading for this chapter is 'Riveting' and
that, by default, seems to indicate we should expect to be questioned on it. \y"'e
will cover that eventuality by describing the riveting processes and introdus§:
the tools as and when they are needed. \, ' ith thad strategy in mind, we need ~
look at a few basic points. 1;2-
Action of a Rivet o
"-
0-
A t tlus point, it would be usefuJ to examine what occurs when a solid ri\~ is
installed. The act of forging the second head on the rivet expands the sh~'k to
squeeze against and grip the sides of the drilled hole. The expansion 'tf the
rivet material against the sides of the drilled holc lstresses and work qfrdens it,
increasing its strength, and it also stresses and hardens [he material iri the area
surrounding the hole, increasing its bearing strength.
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RIVETIN G
The heads on each end of the river secure it and fumly clamp the join!
materials together within the 'sphere of influence' as described earlier. The
:1mounr by which the dinmetcr of rhe drilled hole exceeds rhe diamClcr of (he
rivet shank is c:1l1ed the c1ear:wce. Too small a clearance will destroy the
prorecti\·c cO:lIi ng on the rivet during insertion and will create burrs rhar may
become trapped under the rivet head. As the rivet anernpts to exp:lnd, it will
push up the surrounding material creating gaps between the faying surf.1ces.
Too large a hole will not allow the rivet to grip cmrectly when it expands
during driving and the sheets may separate. Rivet material mar swell into the
gap in the surrounding faying surfaces.
It is important that rivets arc installed in a way that allows them to de\'clop
maximum strength. The relationship between the relative strengths of the
sheets being joined and the riYers is not the only consideration. The choice of
rivet length is important to the achievement of a correctly fonned head.
Solid Rivet Dimens ions
The diameter (0) of a solid ri,Tet is taken as being the plain shank diameter.
The length of protruding head rivets is taken from the bearing surface under
the head to the end o f the shank. The length of a countersunk rivet is
measured from the flat upper surface of the head [0 the end of lhe shank.
Some specifications of countersunk rivets also have a raised portion on the
bead. The length of a raised countersunk head rivet is measured from the
upper end of lhe coumersunk portion, not including the raised portion of the
head, to the end of the shank. The angles of different types of countersunk
rivCt include 90°, 100° and 120°. TIle 100° countersunk head is now the most
commonly uscd lype.
-- ("' -- I
Shank Diameter
Fig ure 8.15 · Solid Ri vel Dimensions
Allowance
The length of the plain shank of a solid rivCt that protrudes through the far 'u
side of a drilled hole when ir is inserted is called the 'allowance' and it is ,§'
,
expressed in tenns of rivet diameter '0 '. Ir is important that the correct
426
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CH A PTER EIGHT
RI V E T ING
'allowance' is provided to ensure that there is sufficient material for the rivet
head to form properly when drin'n . An 'allowa nce' of 1.SD is sufficient to
form a flat head "I jD diameter and O. SD thick during reaction riveting.
rIat Head
F igure 8.16· Allowance
.An allowance of 1.50 will also permit the formation o f a snap head and O.7SD
will pennit the formation of a countersunk head. \"'\nen selecting rivets, an
appropriate standard length rh-ct should be chosen. Rivets are normally
supplied in a variety of manufactured lengths. It is possible to cut a ri\-et to dIe
correct lengdl using a rivet curting tool. This is not recommended practice as
there is a risk that any tool marks on the tail of thb cur shank will initiate cfflcks
in the driven head as it is being fooned .
Drilling
Pilot H oles
All holes should be drilled cleanlv to the correct size. This means that drill bits
should be sharp. It is normal practice to drill pilot holes in repair pieces and
then :tpen them up to accept the civets when you arc assembling the pieces .
..,\..,6Fhi~'?tvoids the siruation where you have to use a fully drilled hole as a 'guide'
. O,'Ut:"t-C: ~ to drill a second hole in an underlying sheet, with the attendant risk of
• \"'>).<'(.... enlarging the first one.
e
'I.,,\"\.'I. -
,,~ """ \'\!hen marking out the pitch and spacing for rivets, scribers should not be used
(,0\: .
as they leave sharp indented lines that will act as a stress raiser. \"'\'here thin
lines have to be drawn, a graphite pencil no harder than HB rna>' be used b.nr
all traces of the marks must be removed as soon as they are no longer neede§.:
Graphite is a cathode to aluminium alloy and causes galvanic corrosion . Fcft
accurate drilling, and to avoid the possibility bf the drill running off au.f
scoring the surrounding surface, a light centre pop should be made at each or
the marked rivet positions . I f
Hole Lrn::arion Peg
Figure 8.17 - Hole Location Tool
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CHAPTeR eiGHT
RiVeTING
H ole Location
There are occasions when it may be necessary to locau:! or 'pick-up' a hole in

underlying stnlcture and transfer that location ontO a repair piece. -nlis is
usually due to a lack of access from the rea r. A simple hole locacion tool can
provc effective when faced with doing dus. 'n1e peg is inscrrcd into [he
exiscing hole and the position of the new hole is marked by part drilling
through the drill guide.
Drill StOPS
\X!hen carrying out repairs to aircraft structure, there is a very real risk of
creacing very expensi\"c damage if you fail to consider what lies within range of
the drill. There have been numerous instances where an o perator has
inndvertcntly drilled into underlying primney structure. components or cnblc
looms, turning n simple job into a major sttucrural repair - or a career altering
disaster! \X'here there is a risk of this occurring, there are a couple of simple
tools that can be employed. It may be possible to slide a thin hardened steel
back-platc between the back of the repair and the structure at risk. ' nus will
block the driB from moving on and will gi,-e you a posicive indication that
maybe you should stop drilling. If you employ this method, do remember to
remo\"e the piate before you close up the repair!
~~----~)
Figure 8.18 • Drill Stop
Another s~p' lc ~o1 is a locally manufacrured drill StOP that consists of a collar
that is 8:tffl~1: d OntO [he drill bit to limit its depth of penetracion. This is a
ROlre~'-'6pcion than wrapping tape around the drill to indicate the limit of
.: \'\:-<;penerraoon because the tape gradually gets pushed back if you arc drilling
{\~. . \ man)' holcs. Do check the coUar after you ha,'e finished drilling each hole. It is
( ....~... a bit embarrassing to find that it is missing after drilling a hundred holes!
Dri Ui ng Machines
ll1ere is a range of hand and power-operated drilling m:l.c1unes and these may
be found illustrated in Chapter 3 (Figures 3-39 and 3-40) of this module
together with descriptions. Elecrrically dri"en machines should never be used
on aircraft where there is a possibility of flammable vapours. The general-
purpose air-operated drills are supplied with 6ther straight o r pistol grips.
These arc powered by an air driven impellcr that transmits its drive through
gea rs in a gearbox. Angled and offset air-driven drills are supplied [Q carer for
areas where access would not be possible with a general-purpose drill. rl11ese
drills require a separate chuck collet for each size of drill.
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RI V ETING
D e-Bwring
It is ycry important that all swarf and rough edges are removed after drilling.
This often invoh'es dismantling the repair after drilling to do this before final
assembly and ri\-eting. i\ special de-burring tool is supplied that is similar to the
countersinking tool that will be discussed later on in this chapter. -nus tool has
a micro-adjustable depth cutter with a concentric scop sleeve and it will remove
sharp edges and burrs without creating an unnecessary chamfer on the edge of
the hole. Some repair schemes actually call for rndius de·burring to eliminate
sbarp edges and this requires a specially shaped cutter. You oftcn hear that a
drill that is t\vice the diameter of the hole can be turned by hand in the hole to
remoye burrs . This is nOt considered good practice. On no account should
emery cloth or files be used to remove burrs.
Hol e Size
Wle ha\"c already discussed me importance of drilling the correct size clearance
hole for a river. Tbe size of the hole has a direct influence on the strength of
the joint. T o remind you, if there is too little clearance, the sheets will buckle as
the rh-et expands. [f the clearance i~ too large, the sheets may be forced apart.
The choice of hole size is gi,en in tables pro\;ded by the aircraft manufacrurer.
The ri\-er hole and countersink sizes vary \\~th the thickness of the materials
being joined and the type, material and length of n\"el being used. In very
general tenns, the longcr the riyet and the harder the rivet material, the smaller
the clearance required. Howcyer, close tolerance and inrerference fits are
frequentlr specified.
COIHltersinking
"')~,0b -
, (.~,\\.;~.; '" \Vhcn countcrsunk rivets are specified, there are t\vo methods used for
. ~,,~(' adapting drilled holes to accept a countersunk head. Cut countersinking is used
on truck gauge materials whilst dimpling is used on sheet materials of 16S\\!G
and thinner.
Cut Countersinking
\'\/hcn the thickness of the sheet is greater than the depth of the countersunk.
portion of the riyct head, cm countersinking is carried out uSing a speci#,"
countersinking tool that may be fined into hand or power operated drills. 'TIj(s
tool can be set to adjust the depth of cOllntersink. There is a [able for guidaa?;:-e
on the minimum sheet thickness for counrersinking particular rivet diam~-;s.
For example: 6"
§;
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C H APTER E I G HT
RIVETING
Rh'ct diameter 1/ 8 5/32 3/ 16 1/ 4
Mimmum Shcct
18 16 14 12
Thickness (SWG)
Tab le 8.3 - Minimum Shee t Thickn ess
Dcpth of
Cu t Tube
Holder D epth or Cut

Adjustment
Grub Screw
Spigot
Currer
Figure 8.19 - Countersinking T ool
.,(\~\"";
T he rool hdN.lcr is designed to accept one of a pair of cutters provided for cach
9n..op 'ie:6'o and 120 Q countersink angle. Each cuner has an a.xial bo re designed to
, \'\~~~c:cept an interchangc:lblc centralising pilol spigot to locate it and to enable it
.\{:"\ .. to cut a conccntric countersink in a drilled hole. The interchangeable cuttcr is
(. ~...~,,, threaded and screws into the tool holder, the pilot tip is locked in the cuner
bore with an Allen grub screw. Olle cutter in each pair can acccpt 2...tmm and
3.2mm di!l.mcter pilot spigots and the orner will !l.cccpt -Imm and 4.8mm
spigOts.
-nlC holdcr can be rotated to adjust the position of the cutter in rdarion to the
scop tube. This is done by pulling back the spring loaded lock slec\'c to
disengage it from the serrations and then scre'\\ting the holdcr in or out. ,
.~
-
Adjustment may be made in steps of O.DO l in using the graduatcd scale on thc ;-
holder.
'v
~
't
'"'"
0'
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CHA P T ER EI GHT
RI VET I NG
Head Stands Proud

0.U01 in
1
A I
\
AllO\vance Ed
\.
. ge., }.fust Not
J
1 Create 'Feather'
Figure 8.20 - C ut- Coulltersink
The depth of cut should be adjusted so that it dais not create a feathered edge
at the bottom of the countersink and all O\VS the head of an inserted rivet to
stand proud by approximately 0.001 in. It is not l cceptable for the head to lie
below the surface of the sheet or to project toO much above it. The
countersunk recess must be free from scores and thatter marks.
Dimpling
When the thickness of the sheet is dose to, o~ less tban, the depth of the
countersunk rivet head, dimpling is reqUlred. T his is a process where sheet of
16S\\7G and thinner is indented around a drilled hole to accept a countersunk
ovet head. There is a choice of three methods, punch dimpling, spin dimpling
and hot dimpling. The method chosen depends on the ductility of the sheet
material. Soft., ductile aluminium alloys are suited to punch or spin dimpling at
room temperarure. Less ductile aluminium alloys and titanium would become
wQt~futrdened and crack and these require hot dimpling.
1(\(\()
{{' c."1"\\c'b ~
C
\,\lhere doubt exists as to the suitability of a material for dimpling, a controlled
'- \"\'"1- . test should be carried out. It is unlikely that you will be called upon to do this
,,0'~'<'" test because the manufacturers \...1.1..1 have alread), cleared the material and
(0'\ method prior to issuing the approved aircraft repair scheme. However,
someone might pick on it as a suitable question so we had best look at it. T \!e
tes t im-olves producing a test piece from the material approximately 8in lo ~
by 1in wide. The test piece is then drilled and dimpled along its centre-hilS.
using the same pitch that will be used in the reRair scheme. The test piece (:f
then bent sharply across each of the dimples in turn. Apart from an expectect
width-wise crack, there should be no eyidence of other circwnferential qr
radial cracks.
Pun eh DimpUng
This is the most straightforward method and is suited to soft aluminium .4lloys
and some sheet steels. The tools include a I71a19 die that incorporates 'ii'pilot
spigot that engages with a femalc dic. A hole marching the diame# of the
spigot is drilled in the sheet and the punch is then placed and driven t6 squeeze
the metal loto the female die thus ctea ti.ng the dimple.
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CHAPTER E I GHT
RIV E TIN G
Punch
Pilot
Tip
Figme 8.21 - Punch Dimpliog Tools
Dimpling increases the size of the drilled o"et hole. Because of rhis, the hole is
normally drilled undersize and is reamed to fit the pilot spigot. After dimpling.
there is normally enough surplus mateoal left to permit a final smomh hole
size to be achieved by a reamer or clearance drill. The hole is then dc-burred.
Spin Dimpling
T he tools used for spin dimpling are very similar to those used for punch
dimpling. ·I11e difference is that the male die is spun and pressed into the
fem:tle die. The material around the hole stretches and spreads around the
com-our of the die. \,({hen clad aluminium alloys are dimpled in (his way, the
cbdding is also spread by the spinning action.
Hot Dimpling _
."!\\Ci ;
The'\~o.:. i~ A~\ll~;oi~e of two methods. The first method, referred to as 'coin-
~ fljfnp1.'irig', employs electrically heated dies. These are nonnaU), incorporated
\'l:-' in ro a portable har squeeze-dimpling tool whose jaws may be adiuS[ed [0
A.~ accommodate different material thickness. The second method invoh-es
,'"
l.. ..-..~ passing a specified e.lectrical current through the material to resistance heat it
whilst pressing it between the rues to foon me dimple.
Sheet Gripping Pins

It is necessary to hold repair pieces in correct alignment during drilling and
hold them finnly together in close coomct during rivering. Sheet gripping pins "
can be inserted inro a suitable number of pre-drilled holes and tightened to i>o
.,'"
J"$
draw the pa rts tOgether so that there are no gaps. A gripping pin is a close fir o
and it must be Llsed in the correct sized hole. They must never be fo rced or ~
used 1"0 lever holes into alignment!
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CH A PTE R EIGHT
R I VE TING
Unlock ed Locked Un locked
Figure 8.22 - Gri p Pins
Two types of grip pin are illustrated; the circular type incorporates a plastic end
cap that protects the surface of the sheet from contact with the metal pin. The
plastic caps are colour coded to indicate pin diameter.
Spring Loaded
Plunger
Fig ure 8.23 - Cicco Fastener
The Cleco fastener is another type of gripping de.ice in common use. It is

installed using special pliers thaI grip the fastener and compress the locking
plunger, allowing the fastener to be inserted into the hole. When the pliers are
released, the plunger springs up locking the fastener securely in the hole wh.ilst
dra\ving the sheets together. These fasteners are also colour coded to indiq.te
the size of hole the)' fit. .~
-"
-.
~.
Jointing Compounds & Sealants

T he faying surfaces are normally coated with a jointing compound prior Jb
final assembly. This is re fe rred to as 'wet assembly'. 111e primary objective i#to
~
inhibit electrolytic action between the sheet materials and to preyen'~ the
ingress of moisture. This is particularly important where materials of diw rent
electrical potential are to be joined. Yellow chromate jointing compound is
commonly used, zinc chromate and barium chromate being exam~~s . The
compound should be applied as a thin even film.
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RIVETIN G
Sealam is used [0 seal ri"cted joints in pressuriscd cabins and in fuel tanks. " is
normally applied in a O.030in thick layer so that it exudes from the joint as it is
riveted.
Jigs, Fixtures & Jury Struts

This topic is often overlooked when discussing st:rUcrurai repairs so we will
give it a special mention here. The structure of an aircraft may require
supporting during repair work that involves dismantling primary IO:ld bearing
components. The structu re may have to be supported on adjust:lb!e tresues
and fonners or be held in shape with special alignment fi."cures :lncl jigs. The
approved rep:lir scheme will specify what is required. Ilowcver, once the
structure has been correctly supported and braced, you must ensure that the
e'luipment will not be inadvenendy interfered with during the course of the
repair. This may require the locking of adjustable tresdes etc. and the pro\-ision
of clear waming notices. You would not be best pleased ro arrive at work to
find that someone had 'borrowed' a tresde during the night. It has happened.
Jigs and alignment fL"rures are also used to locate parts in their correct
locations while they are being ri\·eted and are often used to locate and guide
tools. For example, when holes have to be drilled within \·ery close tolerances,
a drill fixture may be used to hold the drill accurately in position while a hole is
being drilled. \,(/here jigs and fi."rures have a direct bearing on the accuracy of a
repair rhe), must be subjected to periodic checks to ensurc that they still
confonn to specification. I\ lot of this equipment is nOI in frequent lise and a
decision needs ro be made whether to rely on a pre-use check, with the
obvious time penalty if il fails, or to periodically check the equipmcnt in srorc.
Jury strurs :lre (cmpor:uy load s upport devices that are fiXed into position to
fulfil the role "R-f" stressed components when they arc being rcmo\fed,
disasscmb...ldd")or repaired. Again, strict precaucions must be taken to prevent
th<:.~e'b~~ng imerfcred with during a repair.
,• \"\)10:
Installing Solid Rivets
Up to this point, we havc co\·ered the poslDoning, drilling, countersinking,
dimpling, and de-burring aspects of the ri,eting process. We havc also
discussed the requircment [0 remove swarf and other debris before applying
jointing compound and bringing the sheets to be joined together in close
contact and securing them with grip pins so that there are no gaps. We can 3
now look at the process of installing and closing the Dvets.
\'{Ihen we arc preparing to install a rivet, we must ensure that wc h:wc the
correct 'allowance'. As you already know, rhe 'allowance' is the amount of
material that is rcquired ro fonn a rivet head and is cxpressed as the lengrh of
the pan of a rivet shank that protrudes through the work. To remind you, for a
solid rivet requiring a flat or snap fanned head, an allowance of 1.5D is
sufficient. For a coumcrsunk fonned head, 0.75D would be sufficient. Rivet s
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CHA PT E R E I GH T
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may be closed using hand or pneumatic hammering. Hand hammering is rarely

employed on modern aircraft but we do nced to dxamine it. Before we do, we
should remind ourselves of the heat trcatrnent of ovets .
Heat Treatment
Hear treatable, aluminium alloy rivets ha,e to be hard and strong in order to
fulftl their role. However, they cannot be dri,en in that state because they
would crack. Prior to installing these rivets, ther are 'solution' treated to rcnder
them temporarily malleable. As a rule, the rivets must be uscd \vithin 0"0
hours of thi s treatment or they \'oill have 'age hardened' sufficiently ro prevent
their usc. They may be re-treated twice more because there is a maximum limit
imposed of three 'sollltion ' treatments in total. Repeat treatments beyond
this number will embrittle tbe ri'ets.
The time between a 'solution' treaun ent and lOstallation can be extended by
refrigerating the rivets. Age hardening can be delayed by refrigerating the rivets
immediately after quenching. \'('hen stored at a temperature
, ofOoe to -SoC the
rivets will remain in a usable cOfldition for 45 h o urs. \\Then stored at a
temperature of _15°e to _20 oe the ovets \vill r~main usable for 150 hours.
HO\ve\'er, the ri,'ets must be med within two hours of rcmo\'al from
refrigeration. You m ust comply with th e particular rivet specifi cation sheets
because there are exceptions. For exam ple, 2024 ri,"ets must be used wi thin
twenty minutes of heat treatment or refrigeration .
Hand Riveting
\\lh,~,the rivet has been inserted into the hole, the pre ~ formed head must be
> 2.f\~§friTil.Y supported in a dolly that has a matching profiled indentation. The dolly
(P~.:.'f1;. should incorporate a heavy bolder or failing tlliJ, it should be backed with a
, \"I~«(~ heavy block. To give you an idea, a 1/8in diameter rivet would idcally require a
.,.,\,... "" block weighing approximately one to o ne and a half pounds .
,-
. ~\?'
c·,
Hand
Set
Dollr
Figure 8.24 - H and Riveting
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CHAPTER E I GHT
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A rool called a draw set is slipped o,er the rivet shank and is tapped lightly
with a hammer to ensure that the sheets are drawn fmnly togedler. \,\'hen
forming a flat head, a hand set is placed sqlmrely on tOp of the river shank and
is struck sharply with a hand hammer to compress the shank to a thickness of
0.50. You must ensure that the dolly is flnl11y backed to preven t Ihe rivet
moving and locally distorting the work.
As few hammer blows as possible should be employed. A large number of light

blows will work·harden the riYCt material making it more difficuil to Conn the
head and will more than likely crack it.
You sometimes come across descriptions of hand riveting that say that rhe
rivet shank may be struck directly 'with a hammer to form a flat head. This is
not good praccice because hammer faccs afe often scarred and misshapen and
hammers frequently hit more than they are aimed at! 'ne hand set has a
smooth polished face specifically designed for the job and transmits the force
more squarely, so why not use it?
I f you arc required to fonn a snap head, a tool called a snap is used instead of a
hand set. You should partially, and carefully, pre-form the shank using the ball
of a ball·pein hammer and tllen finish it with the correct shaped snap.
Pneumatic lliveting
Most of the rivet,s installed in modern aircraft are closed by a reciprocating air
driven hammer, more commonly known as a rivet gun. BecaLlse the pre·
fomled heads of the rivets are usually on the outside of dlC aircraft skin, and
access to the rear is often restricted, the Type of riveting employcd is different
to that we have just discLlssed. to this type of riveting, the shank of the ri'-ct is
supported by ~i,\~oll y or reaction block whilst the pre-formed head is
hammercd.1t¥1rough thc snap. Americans often refer to the snap as a 'scr' and
the ...&'IlCfi~n block as the 'bucking bar'. The rivet shank forms by reacting to
~).1.this hammering against the block or 'bucking bar'. This is called rt.' actio n
J::" . . ril'cting and lhe proccss requires t\\'o people, onc (0 operate the riveting
..;;",:1.\. hammer and a second person to hold the reaction block against the [ail of thc
\.. riveL Before we look at the process, ,ve need to examine the riveting hammcr.
Snap
Hcactiun
- Block
(Dolly)
Fig ure 8.25 . Reaction Rive ting
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CHAPTER E I GH T
RIVET I NG
Pneumatic Riveting Hammers

Pneumatic riveting hammers are used for reaction riyeting solid ri'-ets. There
are two main types. light, fast hammering, shorr stroke guns delivcr up to
2,000 light blows per minute suited to driving 3/32in to 1/8in diameter rivets
and 1,100 blows pcr minute suited to driving up to 1/ 4in diameter light alloy
rivets. Slow hammering, long stroke guns deliver heavier blows suited to
driving larger diameter rivets; some of these deliver a single blow each rime tbe
trigger is pulled.
Pi smn
lnrerchangeable Sn ap
~=~g~~~!~T~h~rotiJe Bunon
Snap Retainer
<>:--- Spring
[I
H,unmcr
Figure 8.26 • Pneumatic Rive ting Hammers
Riveting hammers are available \vith pistol grip, straight or offset handles . All
types opcrate on a similar principle. Thc air pressure supply is controlled by a
throtde button or trigger and it causes the pistorl in the hammer to oscillate
back and fo rth in its barrel. The piston impacts with an interchangeable snap
that is loosely held in position in the gun by a snap retainer 'beehive' spring
thasj\\.fcrewed onto the end of the barrel. I\n air regulator screw on the handle
1\'\Wla{be adjustcd to reduce the maximum rate and force of the blows . The gun
c.. -.,W.:.'f.~
. - is operatcd in short bursts.
\'\;,;«'
,
, ;:......... j\ riveting hammer can be badly damaged if it is operated with no snap fi tted
<'~
·0'Y." ' or if the snap is not in right contact with a rivet or other solid object. A far
l
more dangerous situation will bc created if the trigger is operated with a snap
fitted without the retaining spring screwed on the barrel. The hammer can tuw,
dIe snap into a pro jectile that can be lethal at close range so, whether ~
spring is in place or not, you must never point a riveting hamnler di
anyone when it is connected to an air supplyl :
Using a Riveting Hammer C'

~
:P
The first job is to go and get yo ur ear defenders! The next job is to sc1c~"thc
correct hammer for the sizc and material of the fivets you \"1s h to piaai' The
correct size snap should be fined into the barrel and secured by scr~ng on
the retaining spring before the :111' supply is connected For dafue head
rivets, the snap should have an indentation diamc1ter that is slightly larger than
437
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CHAPTER EIGHT
R I VETING
the rivet head so that the force will be coocemrared ar the centre of the head
rather th:1n :u the sides. Howeyer. too large a snap will create an indentation on
the skin around the head and too small a snap will indenr a ring on rhe head.
Because there arc different shaped dome head rh'cts, it is essen tial that the
co rrect snap be used. A snap designed for closing a counrersunk rivet ha s a
smooth, slightly convex face to avoid damage to the surrounding skin.
I f you wish to adjust the air regulator to deliyer a desired rate and force of
hammering, you should ensure that the snap is finnly pressed against a block
of wood before o perating the gun to check }'our adjuscmem.
Reacrion Riveting
\X' hen the rivet is insened into the drilled hole, another person musr be on the
o ther side of the work to firmly apply the dolly or reacoon block to rhe tail of
the rivet. The dolly is a hardened Heel block or bar with a smooth polished
reaction face that prC\·ents damage to the rivet tail. The river tail is spread by
the rcacoon block so the position in which it is held in relation to the ri,·et
shank is critical to the correct formation of the head. If the bar is angled, the
river shank will be pushed over and it will nor fonn a concentric head. 1f the
bar is pressed against the shank tOO hard or the bar is tOO heavy, the head may
be driven toO flat and thin. If the bar is not held tightl)' against the shank or it
is roo light, the riveting ha.nuner will locall), distorr the skin around the rivel.
The aim is to balance the pressure placed on the rivet shank with the pressure
being applied by the riveting hammer so that tbe pre-fanned head is held
fi rmly against ("he skin. It req uires a good sense of feel [0 achieve this. Because
the person holding tbe reaction block has [0 gel it right, there is a large range
of different shaped reaction blocks and ban designed [0 give access in difficult
locarions.
Figure 8.27 - Examples of Reaction Blocks
When you commence riveting, rhe soap (set) must be placed square onto the
rivet head, the trigger of the rivering hammer should be o pe.r:ued gradually and
you should restrict the o peration to short bursts. This makes il easier for the
person holding the reaction block (bucking bar) to control the exp:l1lsion of
the rivet. The rivet should be fanned using the fewest blows possible to avoid
work ha.rdening it.
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C H AP TER EI G HT
RI V ETIN G
90·
Figure 8.28 -lns lalling So lid RivclS
A question for you, if the hidden person is in control, how does (he ri\'ering
hammer opemtor know when to hammer and whcn to Stop? They usually ha\ye
an agreed code of taps . Shouong 'StOp' above a riycring hammer when both of
you arc wearing car defenders is not the best idca of the day. j \ 5 the o perator
of the hammer, you need to know that the reactio n bar is in place and when
thc othc r chap wants yo u to hammer. Yo u need to know exactly when to stop,
and you need 1O know whether the rivet has been success fully closed - because
you will hav e 1O remove it if it is not!
Squeeze Riveting
.... \I\.I
,\llll -
. ~\\.;.-:"c .1 ll ammcring is not ' tcry conduciye to riveting non-metallic and bonded
'\~~' l,'- laminated materials together that may suffer through the percussion and
, ~ \",-. vibmtio n. Some thin gauge metal sheets may suffer distortion fo r similar
,'0-
:0;:.... -;>.... reaso ns. Squeeze o r compression rivering does not employ hammering but it is
(.0 only suitable fo r ri,-eting small assemblies where there is access to both sides of
the work. The rh·ets arc squeezed using equipment that is powered by either
hydmulic or pneumatic pressure. ~
'-,
·s
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Figure 8.29 - Squeeze Ri veters
T he squeeze ciycting machines in the illustration have one stationrtry jaw and a
moving jaw thrtt is moved by a piston in an air cylinder. For dome head rivers,
a suitably shaped dolly is fined onto the stationary jaw to support [he pre-
formed head whilst a flat set is fitted OntO the moving jaw. Shims are fined
between the jaws and these anachrnents to adjust their separation and (hus the
height of the formed head. Before riveting with these tools, the working
pressure must be adjusted for the material, thickness and nyet size of the work
being carried out. If the tools are required for usc 00 other work where there
are changes to these specifications, the working pressure must be re-adjusted
to suit. Adjustm'¥i'-ts are done by trial and error using a test piece.
,,()I.)o ...
"c<;!.,c ...
. (.0\\ "
c
. \v·«'
\~'\\. llivet Milling
...,...'.< -
, '" \'{'hen countersunk rivets have been dosed, the pre-fonned countersunk head
usually stands slightly proud. The protrusion is very small but a repair scheme
may call for milling of the heads to obtain a specified degree of flush surface.
Avdcl civet mandrels also need milling down after Lhey have been cropped. \Yie
will discuss the installation of A\Tdel rivets brer i.n th.is chapter. T he Rivet
MiI1er is an air-operated tool that incorporates an interchangeable romry cutter
housed in a nosepiece and a micrometer adjuster thar moves the nosepiece in
or au[ relative to the cuner ro adjust the depth of cU[. Adjusunems cao be
made in increments of O.OOO2Sin. You may hear this rool described as a
'Micro-shaver '.
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CHAPTER EIG H T
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i'\[icromcter Aclju"'f
o Lock Sleeyc
Rubber P:td
F igure 8.30 - Rivel l\.liller
The rh-et miller illustrated is stabilised by two spring loaded telescopic legs thaI
have rubber pads designed to gh-e :l. fcicrion grip on a surface. Prior to usc, the
correCt sized cuner and nosepiece sbould be fitted. There are twO sizes, 5/16in
and 3/8in. The tool is adjusted by pulling back the sp ring loaded lock sleeve
and rotating the micrometer sleeve. The miller is inirially set up by adjusting it
so that the cutter just contacts a straight edge placed across the nosepiece.
Further ad justment would require trial cutting on a test piece.
T he miUer must be held firmly when it is bdng opcrnted. 1t ope rates al around
18,OOORPM and can easily throw itself away from the work area . Care must be
taken not to mill into the skin or into the beads of Avdel rivets. One poim
worth making here is tbat you are not allowed to mill down the heads of
coult\~ofs unk rivets that pwtnJde due to incorrect cut countersinking or
~I.: ;.\\Icllmpling!
,,1.:'
-("",~
\\:-.{{"
Removing Solid Rivets
YOLI may need 10 remove ri\-ets as part of a repair scheme, or because th'€y
haye nUl closed correcrly. \\"'hen conducting reaction riveting on large numb ~.
of D\-ets, you necd to identify those that require remo\-al if you are not going r~
remo\-c them at the rime. You do not need a thin line to mark thcse, a waX.
cmron, not black, may be used to idellrify them. Graphite pencils and crayon§:
containing carbon should not be used for this task because they form powerfUl
cathodes when left in contaCt \vith light alloys and can calise subseclueRt
galvanic corrosion and make stressed stmcture prone to cracking. To pre\~lt
enlarging the hole, the removal process is normally conducted on the ~ re
formed hcad because this is more symmetrical than the forn1ed head ~d ts
oflcn easier to access. ~
'u
>S
,
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CHAPTER E I GHT
RIVETING
Removing D ome H ead Rive ts

File a small flat on the pre-formed head of rhe river. Make a centre punch
indentation on the flat at the estimated centre position of the river using a
single light blow on rhe punch. Using a drill sHghf~" s n w J/er fh :m the rivet
sh:mk, drill down to the depth of the head. Keep rhe force on the drill light to
avoid the risk of the rivet spinning around with rhe drill in the hole. If the head
docs not come away at this stage, tap it off with a flat chisel in the direction of
the rivet row. Support the underside of the rivet with a hollow dolly and usc a
par:1l1el pin punch the same diameter as the rivet shank to tap Out the
remaining shank into the dollr. If the rivet is installed in bonded, laminated
structure, ca re should be taken not to cause de-lamination of the layers when
doing this.
Drin: OUt Shan k
~
Knock Head Off
~
Dnll i lcad
c::? "'D
Et:P
Suppon
IT"'
Sk;n~
"1fl
Fig ure 8.3 1 • Removing a Dom e H ead Rivel
. C,"'-
RemOVlm}' ountersun k Ri vets
\\ .. >!...: ...
<.: ,\\'-
\~~\Make a centre punch indcntarion at the estimated centre position of the head
' ~\. . ,. of the rivet using a single light blow on the punch. Using a drill slighrJ}' smaller
~ 'i\ than the rivet shank, lighcly drill down keeping the drill concentric with the
\. ~,'\
head until the head either comes away or it can be prized off with a pin punch.
SuppOrt the underside of the ri,et in a hollow dolly and tap our the shank with
a parallel pin punch the same diameter as the rivet shank. It is possible to drill
right down through the shank and push the shank through with the drill. l1Us
tactic does carry the risk of enlarging or distorting the hole so extreme care is
required if it has to be used.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
RIVETING
Centre Pop
Figure 8.32 - Removing a Countersunk Rivet
Blind Rive ting

Blind rivets are used when anI\" one side of the rivet hole can be accessed.
They may only be used when specified in a repair scheme. Blind expansion
rivets are hoUow and are dosed by pulling a mandrel through the bore of the
rivet in an action called broaching. T1H~ fTl.,1.odre1s, often have grooved stems to
increase the grip of the Lool mal is llsed to pull the mandrel into the bore to
fo rm the blind head and expand the rivet. In some types, the mandrel remains
in the bore of the rivet to act as a plug and La increase the shear strength.
Friction lock types rely on the friction between the stem and the body to hold
the stem In place, whereas mechanical lock types Incorporate a locking collar
that is s\vaged into a groove on the Slem as the rivet is broached. In another
type, a separate sealing pin has to be d riven in to the bore to plug it.
i'v lodule 6 Chapter 5-4 deals with the detailed descriptions and identification of
the different types of river. For lhe purposes of trus chapter, we are only
interested in the tools used to install them. The blind rivets we shall examine
are-")\.'l\f
,,,)\.1\,) .-
, , c.~ ..-
_C,,\\'-~
• \"':..«~
• Avdel
, ,'\'- "
,'C,
(.~",,\ .
' • Chobert
• C herrylock and Huck
• Tucker Pop and Imes
Grip
·0
Because a blind riv et is inserted and dosed from one side of the work only~is
not always possible to view the pari of the riyet tbat projects 00 the othe[/~ide.
Tt is important that the correct length of rivet is selected in relation ,# thc
thickness of the material to ensure that the blind head is able form s;;o rrectly
and that the sheets will be properly fastened. The length of the posh~o of a
blind rivet that is inside a hole is called the <
grill
The 'grip' of a countersunk
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CHAP T ER EIGHT
RIVETIN G
head rivet includes the depth of its countersunk portion. Rivets are produced
in a variety of di fferent grip lengths, each baving a Grip Range that identifies
the material thickness they will fasten.
Dimple Countersunk Unin:rsalllcad Cut COllnter~unk
Figure 8.33 - Grip
Installing Avdel Rivets
Avdelrivets are produced with snap or countersunk heads. They have a similar
strength to that of solid rivets. Each rivet incorporates a body and a bulbed
stem (mandrel).
Avdel
lIT lIT
Chobert Chobert
Figure 8.34 - Avdel & Chobe n Rivets
The rivet is pre-lubricated at manufacture to give consistent results and it must

nor be washed in solvent before being installed. TIle ri,et is inserted into hand
riveting pliers or a riveting gun and is then inserted into drilled hole. A steady
pressure is applied to push o n the rivet as the tool is operated.
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S,\:m puUcd
br Too !
Stem Brcak~
~ ~ I
r----c Srem Stem i'.1i!!cd Rush
- -
- -
r , - fio
fL--'
Figure 8.35· Avdcl Rh'et
T he tool grips the stem and pulls on it, causing the bulbed end to enter the
lower pan of the body to expand and fonn the blind head . This action is caUed
'broaching '. At a SCt load \'allle, [he stem fractures at a break point jus t abO\'c
thc manufactured ri\'et head. TIus action Ica\'Cs pan of the stem in the bore of
the body to act as a pl ug. TIle surplus stem is snipped o ff with a pneum:uicaUy
opernted mandrel cropping tool and is then milled flush with the head o f the
rivet. Care needs to be taken when using the ri\'et miller to a\'oid cutting into
the head of the n\·cl.
Whl10- ,1he installation is complete, rhe tighwcss of the stem or pin in lhe
~\,\ I~bUo\V rivet bore is checked using an Al'del Pin TeSler. T his [001 has a
(l"\.:--:..C. ... retractable spring.loaded pin that is pushed against the stem. The stem should
not moye when exposed to the full compression of the tool.
Figure 8.36 · Blind Ri\'ct Pliers
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CH APTE R EIG H T
RI VE T I N G
Riveting pliers arc used when only a few rivets ha,'e to be placed or where
access prohibits the use of a ril""ecing gun. Avdel ri\Teting pliers arc designed for
one S[rokc operation and they have a ratcher operation that enables them to be
used in confi ned spaces where ani), small. repeated handle movemenrs can be
achieved. There is also a long handled version dlal enables an oper:ltor to reach
a remme location.
Oil Reservoir Intensifier
,, , ,\IT Supply
, ,, ,
, ,, ,
, ,,
Figure 8.37 • Avdel Riveting Kil
When a large number of rivets are to be fined, a rivering gun can be employed.
The i\vdcl riveting kit consists of a hydraulically acruated rive ring gun lim is
connected through tWO flexible pipelines to an air.opernted intensifier. 'n1e air
supply to the intensifier is regulated at 60psi to SOpsi and acts on one side of a
piston to create a high hydraulic pressure on the other. One flexible pipeline
carries oil under pressure [Q the riveter whilst the other carries compressed air
to the conlrol button. \Vhen the control button on the riveler is oper:ued, it
opens an exh au!.~\r>ort that causes the air pressure to fall in the pipeline. This
opc'1? A!}~tYl~upply shuttle yalve to the intensifier and the hydraulic pressure
F9cll't~ropera te lhe riveting gun. Releasing the control burton shuts off the air
... \':-'\ upply, exhausts the air pressure in the intensifier and releases the hydraulic
,\{-'\. -. pressure. The intensifier must ahvays be kept horizontal during ri\·eting.
>"
co,
TIle riveting kit contains three front cones that arc clearly marked with the
rivet sizes to which each relates. The same cone is used for placing both dome .-..,
head and countersunk rivets. W1h.en preparing ro inStall ri\'ets, the correct from
cone should be fined. The intensifier resen'oir sight glass should be checked to
-%-.
ensure the correct oil level. The air supply should then be connected and the
gun operated to check that the barrel extends fully and then retracts when the
control button is released . If this tCSt pmves unsatisfactory, it indicates that dle
riveter needs priming/bleeding. You must neyer operate the riveter with a ri,-et
fined that is not placed in a drilled hole. If you inad\'enently do this, the
mandrel will be drawn right through tbe ri\'ct body and into the gun where it
will become wedged.
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Installing Chobert Rivets
Chobcrt rivcts are simihr to but are not as strong as Avdcl rivets of the same
material fi nd size. They arc produced with snap or coun tcrsu nk heads. They
consist of a body only and these are nomlally supplied in tubes that facilita te
their asscmbly onto a reusable steel mandrel that is part of the installation
tool. 'l1,e lower pan of the o"et bore is tapered and the upper part is pa rallel
The 'broaching' of [he mandrel through the tapered section fonns the hcad of
the rh·c(. As thc mandrel is dmwn completely through the bore, the rivet body
expands in the drilled hole. The hoUow bore of tbe placed rivet is then sealed
by dri"ing an interference fit pin into iL This inc reases the shea r strength and
excludes moisture.
1--- Re-L' sable

.\Iandrel
Scaling Pin
Figure 8.38 - Chobe n Ri vet
JYh~1'1'ji.lsl a few Chobert ri,'ets are to be fined, riveting pliers can be used . The
,.~..:. ~\\\ehobert riveting pliers are specific to Chobcn rivets and cannot be used with
, ,'\\0... I .
<' \...' or ler type nvets. They ha'\"'c an interchangeable jaw and mandrel and the
'" \""~ appropriate size must be fined for the size of riYer. TIle mandrel needs light
,,<-~.. lubrication prior to threading a oyer 00(0 it. The nYet body is threaded Onto
\.. ~~'\ the mandrel lIntil it abuts the tool nosepiece. The ri"er is thcn pushed into the
drilled hole and a stead~' pressure is applied [0 il as the pliers arc closed ,to
completc the broaching acnon. After broaching, the correct sized scaling pinj$
do,'en inlO the bore. ~
:G..
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Hydraulic Riveter
PneUm3t.lc RepClluon RI\'ctcl'
Figure 8.39 - Cbobect Repetition Rivelerli
\'{'hen a Iar~ number of ri,"ets have to be fitted, it is advisable to use a

reperirion riveter. Repetition riveters mar be eithcr pncumatically or
hydraulically operated rypcs. 111e ri\'eter has a mandrel that can acccpt up to
thirry ri,'er bodies in a tubc up to 12in long in one loading. Thc rints are
:lutomaocally positioned by a spring feed as each river is closed and high rates
of closing can be maintaincd. The front jaw assembly, the mandrel and the
mandrel spring are removable and a range of sizes is a,-ailable ro suit the rivet
size range. Both dome head and countersunk ri\'cts can be placed with the
same jaw and mandrel combination.
The cond~Rea- .ol;'l1e reusable mandrel is critical to thc succcssful operation of

lh.isll~h The mandrel should bc checked periodically with a m :mdreJ b ead
:>,).{<gAuge that consists of a GO/NOT GO gauge that also incorpormes a drill
,\,\
"- \ ' size gauge to indicate the correct size drill to 0"
mve the correct clearance for each
,,~\Y. size of rivct. 111C bulbed end of the mandrel should be smooth and free from
(~" . scormg,
T herc are [wo rypes of rcpetition rh'eter illustrated, one hydraulic and tbe other
pneumatic, The hydraulic riveter is larger and has a longer mandrel and bigger
diametcr nosepieccs. It is designed ro close larger diameter rivets and the
hydraulic pressure is supplied from an air/ oil pressure intensifier. \'I.le discussed
the operation of an intensifier when examining the A"del rive[er, I f the ri\'erer
fails to broach a rivet cou ecLly, it rna)' indicate that there is air in the hydraulic
system. There is a bleed screw on the riveter, \Vhen bleeding the gun, it must
be held below the level of the intensifier.
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CH A PTER EIGHT
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Chcrrylock Chen-vlock Huck Huck
Fig ure 8.40 - Cherryiock & Huc k Rive ts
Installing Cherrylock Rivets
C herrylock riyets arc similar to Avdel rivets except that the stem of the rivet is
mechanically locked into the bore wi th a lock. collar during the broaching
operation . There is another yersion of this rivet called a 'Cherrymax' that is
similar in its operation. In both lypes, the rivet stem has pulling grooves on it
and installation requires a special pulling tool. fn the final stage of pulling the
stem through the bore, the locking collar is pressed into a recess formed
between the head and a groo\'e in the stem. After dus, the stem breaks off
slightl! proud of the rivet head. The protruding parts of the broken stem and
locking collar are then milled with a rivet miller to produce a flush surface.
Care must be taken not to cut into the head of the rivet when milling.
Grooves
Stem l ' OI\'ersal
~
Break
Shear
Ring
Figure 8.41 • C ben)'lock fvct
,~
Cherry rivets are installed with hand or pneumatically powered tools that §ie
fitted with the correct type o f head fo r the size and type of rivet. The riv~ is
first inserted into the drilled hole and the pulling tool is then pressed ov ~ the
stem until a finn resistance is felt. "Maintaining p~essure on the rivet, tht;~ol is
operated to broach the rivet. A pin tester similar to that used for Avdti'£ivets is
th en applied to the sheared end of the locked slt em to check that t~re is no
movement \vhen the tester is fully compressed.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
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Installing Huck Rivets
I-luck ri,rcts :1.tC vcr}' simil:1.r to Cherry!oc k rivets in their design and operation.
They arc mechanically locked in that they have a lock collar that is pressed into
place by an anvil on the pulling tool in the fi nal stage of installation.
,
Grooves
Ring
)
,J
Figure 8.42 - Huck Rivel
Tucker Pop & Imcx Rivets

Tucker Pop and Imex rivets are known as blind expansion, friction lock rivets.
They are produced with domed or countersunk heads. A Tucker Pop rivet is
mounted o n an.,i~¢ividual sleel mandrel that has a bulbed head that is pulled
into the ritcil body to expand the blind head during broaching. There are two
stt.l1..dR-.rd" tYpes; the 'break head' type bas a mandrel tbat is waisted near the
~;..~ S!ind head, the 'break-stem' type is waisted part way up the mand rel. In the
.\"\\ ... former type, the bulbed head shears and falls away whilst the mandrel is
(: ,...'\....,\'v-o completel)' removed leaving a hollow bore. in rhe latter type, the mandrel
shears part way up the stem, leaving the lower portion held in the bore to seal
it. The break head type is llO[ often used on aircraft due to the problem of
locaring and remo\·ing the broken mandrel heads.
Short Long Break Break

Rrcak Break Head Stem
li\rEX ThrEX Tucker 'Pop' Tucker 'Pop'
Figure 8 .43 - Tucke r Pop & Imex Rivels
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CHAPTER EIGHT
RIVETIN G
The Imex rivet is similar to tbe Tucker Pop type except thal both (he Imex
types arc sealed in that they lea\~e a part of the mandrel held in the bore to seal
it. The nvo types of lmex rh·er mandrel are the 's hort break' and lhc 'long
break'. The 'shan break' mandrel breaks off inside the body after broachmg,
rhe 'long break' mandrel breaks off proud of the head. The Imex rivel has a
larger and more rapid expansion than the Tucker Pop ri\fc r and is not to be
L1sed as a subsomte for the latter without repair scheme authorisation.
Installjng Tucker Pop & Imex Rivets
The same riveting lOoIs are used to install Tucker Pop and Imex Rh·ets. \X'hen
a small number of rivets are to be placed, ri\·eting pliers may be found more
suitable. The pliers ha\-e interchangeable nosepieces and mandrel-gripping jaws
[0 match [i\·et sizes. \X·hen installing a ri\'et, dle pliers should be held so that
the rivet is held squa re in the drilled hole rhroughotlt the broaching operation.
;\f(er broaching, the pliers han' to be fully opened to release the sheared
portion of the mandrel stem. You have to do tlus before attempting to insert
another riyct. Particular care needs to be exercised not to let these surplus
stems become loose articles.
I
I Bre:1.k
Head
~bndrcl
/ Break
Stem - - ; J
~~I"~
Head 6 I-lead
She3fs Retained
Off in Rivet
Figure 8.4. -1-· Tucker Pop Rivel
.§-
The long break Imex ri,-et Iea,es a portion of [he mandrel projecting abO\'e th~
pre-fomled head after broaching. The surplus material has to be cropped ani
may have to be ground flush. .~
0 "
'""'"
'0
ac'"
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CHAPTER EIGHT
RIVETING
Shon~
Break
~\landrcl
Long
Break_
f\landrd
0
Figwe 8.45 - Imex Rive!
TIle rivcts rna)' also be installed using a rool of the 'lazy tong' type. The
mandrel of the rivet is inscrted into the tool while it is extended, the rivct is
(hen pushed squarely into the drilled hole and the tool is operated by pushing it
down finnly until the mandrel shears. The tool is prO\;ded with a range of
interchangeable heads to overcome access problems where a direct, srraiglu
approach is n OI possible. The offset head is used where rivets have to be
installed close to a flange. The corner head is used for a similar purpose bUI i.
offers a differem angle of approach. The right angle head is used when rivets
have to be installed inside the confines of a channel.
Off-Sct I lead Corner Right Angle

Head Head
Coupler
Figure 8.46 - Lazy Tong Rivelu
There is a hydraulically operated riveter, used in conjuncuo n with an

intensifier, which operates from an air supply pressure of 70psi to SOpsi and it
is designed for the installation of Tucker Pop and Imex Rivets. We have
discussed a similar arrangement for installing both Avdel and Chobcrt ri\'cls,
rh e operating principle is the same. The riveting gun has imerchangeable
nosepieces that have an identification iener code that is related to rivet type
:md size.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
RI V ETING
O il ResermLr (nrensi fier
l( /~l~
1 /
~I/ I Air Supply
F igure 8.47 - Tucker Pop & Imex Riveting Kit
The oil level on the intensifier reservoir mUSt be checked prior to use. Tbe
correct nosepiece should be fined. After each broaching operation, the gun
should be tilted to discard the sheared rivet mandrel before a further nvet is
loaded. If the gun fails to broach a rivet in one operation of the gun, the gun
should be bled to remove au- from the oil. If the gun still fails to broach a rivet
after bleeding, it is likely that the jaws are slipping on the mandrel . The jaws do
tend to become clogged with mandrel surface material over time and they need
removing and cleaning.
Removing Blind Expansion Rivets
Blind rivets may be rcmm-ed by drilling off the head with a drill the same size
as the hole diameter and then punching out the sJ;1ank of the rivet. Because it is
not usually possible to support the blind side, blind expansion rivets may have
to be removed by drilling them out with a drill of nominal rivet diameter. A
hand drill brace should be used and the drilling force should be kept as light as
possible to avoid forcing the rh-et to spin in the, hole. Consideration must be
givCJt\\!P the removal of ri\Tet swarf and debris.lf 1allowed to remain, rills debris
1..1. 'IW
. taycause galvaillc corrosion. I
\\ -i!-c
_ (,,1'>-'1.. "
,. \, .• ..;<;:'
"!\.,'t -
~\".;..
(.,--.~' - Removing Mechanical Lock Rivets
These rivets can be removed by filing a small flat on the stem before punchifJg
it out from the locked end. The head may then Be drilled off before punchiil"g
out the shank with a parallel pin punch, However when the rivets are placed
l
i4-
thin material, the locking collar should be removed first by drilling a pilot hol ~
in the stem that is then opened out to re,eal the lock collar. The collar ma£::
then be drilled or levered off. \\fith the lock c6llar removed, the remai~
stem may be tapped out. After drilling to the depth of the head, the rem~
shank may be tapped out, ji:"
'0 '"
0'
;,
"
OJ
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C H APTER E I G H T
RI V E TI N G
Special Purpose Fasteners

Because the syllabus is non-specific about river types, it would be prudent for
us to cover dlC installation of the more common special fasteners - bener to
be safe than sorry! Details of the identification of these fasteners may be found
in r-. fodule 6 Chapter 5-4. These type fasteners do not expand in the drilled
hole. Many arc interference fits and tlns suesses the material surrounding the
hole and strengthens it. Apart from the Jo-boh and the Rivnur, these fasfeners
re'luire access to both sides of the work. The special fasteners we will examine
in this regard arc:
• lii- shear civets
• Hi-Lok bolls
• Ja-bolts
• Huck Bolts and Avde.lok Fasteners
• Ri\'mlts
Installing H i-Shear Rivets

The hi-shear civet consists of a hi.gh shear strength pin that incorporalcs a lock
collar o f so fter material that is pressed into a groove during the riveting
process. The pins arc produced with standard or close tolerance shanks. There
is also an oversize range for repair work.
The pin is pushed into a pre-drilled hole and the head is supported on a block.
A special hi-shelJMivct 'sct' is used to drive and form the lock collar in the pin
groove, Yhe1lactlon of the set also trims the lock collar to the [e'luired length.
TQ.Q~'itar is impregnated with a special lubricant during manuf.'lCl11fe to assist
'(\~
, \,\).(lrs closure and to provide corrosion protection. It should not be washed in
solvent or lubricated prior to installation.
",
.... ~""
o;n-~;::,
D (ollar Furrow
a
~ =-c=Jl:;=
Fig ure 8.48 - Hi-Shear Rivet
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Installing H i-Lok Bolts
!\ J{i-Lok boll consists of a pin that is threaded at onc end to accept a hexagon
headed retaining colltl.r. The collar is pre-lubriGlled during manufacture and
should not be washed in soh-em or lubricated pn o r LO installation. The pin is
d riven into a pre-drilled interference tit hole a,~d the retaining collar is then
screwed on . A special wrench 1001 is used to tigh ten the collar uoril, at a pre-set
torque, the hexagon bead shears off leaying the remainder of the coliar firmly
in place. The relaining collars are colour coded to indic:ue the pre-set tension
that is imparted to the bolt when they are installed.
Shear NLH
I
~ She:tr POint ! )
tW-Rcta,rung
Collar ~~~r
I \ I
- 1---
Bolt
Figure 8.49 - Hi-Lok Bolts
Installing Jo-Bolts
A Jo-b91t is a blind type of fastener that is used in lieu of a bolt where access is
tifuilea to onc side of the work. It is a high strength, dose tolerance bolt. The
. :\\.:.\!...:. 2.~\\f~stener consists of a threaded bolt with a sleeve and a round head that is
~{' \. I" screwed into a hexagon or countersunk headed nut. TIle bolt incorporates
... \...... drh1.ng flats at the end of lhe threaded stem. The fastener is inserted bolt head
,\\'.
:-,.....<.y':' first through the accessible side of a pre-drilled hole. Jo-bolts are supplied pre-
U,,\ lubricated and should not be degreased or lubricalcd befo re fitment.
r.
"""ii.-
Bolt Blind Head
r="f Slee\"c
I
.~
Dri\'ing
Fbi Closing
i~e"goo
i l"'d "
Bolt Stem
Breaks Off
Figure 8.50 - Jo-Boh
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R I VET I NG
A special tool is used to hold the nut and to grip and rotate the driving flats on
the bolt stem. Different adaptors must be fined to the tOol to accommodate
different sized hexagon heads or cmcifonn slots. As [he handles of the (001 are
closed, the bolt screws through the nut until the head contacts the sleeve and
forces it over the tapered section of t.he nut to form a blind hefld whilst
clflmping the joint' together. At a pre-set torque, the driving flats shear off the
stem jusl inside the nut. The remaining threaded bolt stem, together with the
nut, acts like a solid ri,tet in the hole.
Fig ure 8.5 1 - J o-B01l Im lallalio n T ool
The special tool is pro,rided with adaptors tha t are designed to fit a hexagon
head or the crucifonn recesses on a countcrsunk head.
Ins talling Huck Bolts & Avdelok Fastene rs

Huck bolts and Avedelok fasteners are similar in design and installarion. For
the purposes of this sccrion, we will describe the Huck bolt. It is supplied in
either ' pull' type W 'stump' type form. ll1c 'pull' type has a stem that has
pulling g~Q.n:s 1~d it is plflced with a power-operated pulling tool, the 'stump'
ty~~'Jsl.{1nven into a drilled bole. The choice of type depends on access. The
. \,~~{~ tump' type is used in cases where there is no access for a pulling tool.
'\.~
,\'
..;,5\'y-
,~
C'.
Break / Collar
Neck Bolt Stem
Swaged
Sheared Off
Figure 8.52 - H uck Bo h
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CHAPTER EIGHT
R I VET I NG
The 'pull' type bolt is inserted imo the hole and the lock colla r is pushed on.
The collar is pre-lubricated during manufacrure to facilitate swaging and should
not be washed in solvent or lubricated prior to installation . A power-operated
pulling tool is attacbed to the grooved stem and is opem ted to pull the joint
together and swage the collar onto rue grooves. l}t a pre-set pull fo rce, the bolt
stem fmcrures at a break point.
The 'srump' type is inserted into the bole and rhe collar is pushed o n. A
support block is placed under the head and the collar is swaged Onto the
groO\'cs with a punch.
Installjng llivn uts

The Rivnut is a blind fastener tbat incorporates an anchor nut \\~th a locating
key to prevent it rotating in its hole when fitted. TIley are used to provide
anchor nuts in areas where there is only access to one side of the work. In tills
sense, tbey arc not rivets in the true sense that they are llsed to faste n sheets
together. [-I owe,cr, the process is similar to installing blind rivets and we do
not want to take the chance that someone will decide that they consti tute a
'fair' question.
Closing Tool
Figure 8.53· RiVnlll
A Ri\"llUt is installed with a special tool that incorporates a threaded adaptqf

that is screwed into the projecting portion of the nut and pulls TO collapse -it
and form a blind bead. The drilled hole has (0 have a recess cut in its periph~'
to accept the locating key. A special tool is provided by the manufacturer r~.zao
~s . ~
'"'"
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CHAPTER EIGHT
RIVETING
Removing Special Fasteners

Special fasteners that are locked in place by coUars may be removed by splitting
the collar with a chisel and removing it before tapping OUt the pin using a
hollow doUy to support the strucnlre. Alternatively. the collar may be milled
off \\~Ih a hoUow mill before tapping out dle pin, using a hollow dolly [Q
support the strucnlre. Other types of special fastener may be removed by
drilling off the head before punching oUl the remaining coUar and the pin.
Insp ection
Inspection of Ri veted Joints
Ag:tin, wc nced to take note of the wording in rhe syUabus. It docs not specify
whether the inspcction is to check joints jusr aftcr they ha\'e been made or
whethcr we are inspccting joints as a part of a scheduled check. Neither does it
specify the £}-pe of rivCts in thosc joints. It is no usc tr);ng to 'mind read'; you
havc to 'assume' char it means all types in all sinlations because there is nothing
stated to contradict (hat view. \X'e will cover this, starting with joints that arc
being made.
Inspecting New Joints

1t is no good relying solely on a final inspection to detect failure. If something
bas gone wrong during the riveting proccss, and it is allowcd to go undetected
until completion, you risk being faced with a complete waste of effon and
expense. Inspecrions should be carried out at certain crirical stages during the
making of a rive~88~joim . We will examine these.
,,\,,-,b . .
Aft~\lll..'u king OUt, a check should be made to verify that it conforms to the
~)~t'e~uirements of the rcpair scheme. Aftcr drilling, a check should be m'lde to
,,\,\ '-. confinn the correct location of the holes and that the holc sizes :tnd condition
".,.:..\\'C arc suitable for the type of rivets to be installed. If countcrsinking or dimpling
I. ~~~
h:ts been carried out, the maring of the skins, the condition of the holes and
thc flushness of the rivet heads should be checked. Prior to final assembly, thc
fit of the parts should be confirmed and they should be checked to ensure they
arc frcc of swarf and that all holes are free of burrs . .Additionally, a check
should be made to cnsure that any required prorecti"e treatmcnts and jointing
compounds have bccn cOt:rectiy applied.
After rinting, thc joint must be inspected to ensure that it has been correctly
made. 111cre should be no distortion or gaps and the ri'·ets should be tight and
properly formed. rlllC p re~fonned heads should bc undamaged and in finn
cont:tct with the skin. If you can insert a small feeler gauge between the head
and rhe skin, the river should be rejected. Each fcnned river head should be
inspected to ensure that it has not been deformed or cracked. rnle metal
surrounding each ri,'et should be inspccted for evidence of damage from
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rivenng tools. Rivets that are obviously defective should be removed and
replaced.
You need to exercise a bit of discretion 'when making judgements on what is

acceptable or not. Removing a rivet that has a minor defect may create more
problems than ir IS worth, particularly in thin materials. You should always
consider th e strength requirement of a particular joint and the effectiveness of
the rivets in question. \'{ihere a flush surface has been specified and milling has
taken place, you should check that there is no damage to the surface of the
surrounding skin and that the protective finish has been restored where
required. Reflecting on what we have discussed up to this point, there is a lot
more to inspecting a ri,eted joint than juSt doing a cursory check after it has
been made. The conduct of successful tnspccllon requues an lOspector to
know whar faults can occur and why.
CorreClh· lnsu fficienr

Formed Hammering
D oll\" nO I Snap too Large Snap too Small

Held ~ quare (Ringed Metal) (Ringed Rivet Head)
Figure 8.54 - Riveting Faul[s (1)
The first illustration shows some of the more common riveting faults. A flat
head formed on a solid rivet tail should be approximately O.SO deep by 1.5D
diat1].erer and be concentric with the ovct shank. With that in mind. it is easier
~ 0"<: :li't'b-identify ovets that have been over or under doyen. Equally obvious is a
,..; C<)\C,,- rivet that has been given an inco rrect allowance. Tf the allowance was too large
' },.{,
\ ..,. or too small, the head cannot fonn correctly. Excesslye hammering may have
. ;:......1....,
( .0'\":~. --~~~~~--=~~~
You need to be morc obselTant to recognise the use of an incorrect sized sn~.
A snap that is too large will leave a ring mark in the skin around the snap he~,
o ne that is too smaU will ring the rivet head dr even create a 'flashing' ~
squeezed our material around the head that will in turn make the bead appel"E-"
small. "5
;;
A n interesting situation once arose when imperial and metric rivets we~
inadvertently mixed together in the same storage tray because of a confusion~
part numbering. To make things worse, the relate~ imperial and metric rive.~g
snaps had also been mistakenly allocated the ~ame part number. Th,Oi1g h
similar in appearance, the snap head profiles arc not the same. Depend ~g on
the metric/imperial and imperial/ metric combinations of oyet and snrP; rings
started to appear sporadically on the heads dr on the surrounc@'i'g skin,
unmarked rivets only occurring where the correct combination of "'s nap and
rivet coincided by
ch,ncc. You would need to br
,len to deduce the unu,u,l
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C H APTER EIGHT
R I V E TIN G
cfluse of that problem but it does show whflt can happen. It also shows the
folly of unpacking vast quantities o f riYers and thro\ving them imo a bulk
storage tray with others. Once the identity is in doubt. rou ha\'c little choice
but discard the lot!
The same ring effects may be produced if a snap head is being fanned with an
incorrect ri,-et allowance_ If the ri"et tail is toO long, 'flashing' of excess
material will appear flround the head, too little allowance will result in a ring
mark on the surrounding metal where the snap has indented it.
Ri\-cr Rivct Snap nOt Squarc

toO Long telt) Short (Ringed on one Side)
Hole Hole Dolly nm

[00 Small [no Big Ilcld 'Firm
Figure 8.55 • Riveti ng Fauhs (2)
Our next illustration shows the effects of trying to form a flat head on a ril'"et
[ail that is either toO long or tOO shan. In both cases, the required dimensions
cannOt be achieved. Notice the effect of having a hole drilled undcrsize. The
expansion of the river in the hole has forced the surrounding material
outwards, creating a gap between the skins as they buckle to accommodate the
movement. Convcrsely, a bole that has been drilled ovcrsize will not allow the
expanding river tQ grip properly. The skins m:ly be forced apart during
hammerin~\..;w.d1ffi~terial may be extruded between them to fo nn a gap_ The
imPWJ.anC"c of holding the snap and the reaction block squa re is illustrated
..,"'\.{wfielre a snap has been allowed to dig intO the skin on one side of the head.
,\"\\ '0. ~. Finally, if thc reaction block is tOO light, or is nor held firmly in contact with
, "~
,~\'C (he rivet rail, [he hammering on the snap may push the surrounding skin in.
E:::U==J ~ ~
He.ld nor Flush Gap RCflcoon Block
(Rrused) Pushed too Hard
E::f::F @ @
Head nor Flush Cmcks on Face Piece Broken Ollr
(Sunkcn) of Formed Head of Formed Head
Figure 8.56 - Riveting Fa uhs (3)
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CHAP T ER EIGHT
RI VE TING
The final illustration shows some of the faults related to countersunk rivets, In
one example, rhe countersink has nor been cut to sufficient depth and the rivet
head is lefr standing excessively proud , You must not attempt to miH o ff the
excess to correct this problem. In another example, the countersink has been
cut l aO deep and the top of the o,et head has ended up beneath the sur face of
the skin with possible damage to the surrounding material. Alternativdr, there
may be a gap around the head.
When rivet heads have been driyen exccssi,~c!y . or they ha\'e been subjected to
excessi\'e hanunering, they rna: crack because of work hardening. Even when a
rivet has been correctly fanned, there may be signs of superficial vertical or
diagonal cracking in lhe material on the sides of a flat head. This can be
acceptable prm-iding they do not intersect, or look as if they might, because
there is a ask that parr of the head could break off. Any crack that has
propagated across lhe flat head into the nciniry of the shank diameter is not
acceptable. Neither is it acceptable when anr pan of a head has broken off.
If successh'e awts are displaying evidence of cracking, the riveting process

may not be the cause. For example, many light alloy [iyets require solution
treatment prior to use and ther must be used \....ithin a specified time. This time
can often be extended by cold storage, Tbe cracking may be due to incorrect
heat ucanncnt, incorrect cold storage temperatures or an operator exceeding
the prescribcd time limit. I f any of these are confirmed as the cause, all rivers in
the batch will be suspect.
I nspectin g Bli nd Rivets

The blind side of this type of ri,et is not no~mallr accessible for a visual
inspection. In this case, the inspection is limited to checking that the head is
progwy seated on the skin surface and tbat it is rsquarc. T he surrounding skin
. ?.\\~~ho@d be inspected to ensure th.:u there is no evidence of buckling or damage
(.l~\\";.z..\;. and that countersunk rivets are lying flush with the surface, Depending on the
, \\1'.\{.... ri\-ct type, sealing pins should be checked for security and thc lock collars on
{\,~,\ Cherry lock ri"ct5 should be checked to ensure that they are propcrly engaged
(\.~'\' and fom1cd. Some repair schemes may specify more extcnsi\'e inspection and
this may involve a radiological technique,
Inspecting Special Fasteners

-
1\ general inspection would include checks to ensure that the fastene rs a ~
.-
s'luare, thar the heads are correctly formed and not cracked, and thal any 10q...
collars arc properly engaged and 'fonned. The c610uI coding of the heads~f
H i-Lok fasreners should match the specifications in the repair scheme. ?f
~
~"
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CH A PTER EIGH T
RIVETIN G
Post Repair Tests

These will be specified in the repair scheme. They may include a pressurisacion
proof test when the repair is [Q a pressurised hull, a leakage test where the
repair is to integral fuel tank strucrure or a mass balance teS( where fl ying
control surfaces have been repaired.
Scheduled Inspection of Riveted Joints

TIlis type of inspection relics on your knowledge of aircraft structures and
operations and the long-term effects of those operations on strucmres. \'('e will
be dealing with this in more detail in Chapter 18 so we will restrict this section
to a brief overview.
The Aircraft J\laintenance J\Ianual will specify the particular areas to be

inspected. These may range from sections of the aircraft skin to areas of boxed
in strucrure. In Module 6, we dealt with Ihe corrosion risks associated \\~th
different regions in the structure and the effects of different environments.
Later in this module, we will be discussing the effects of abnonnal occurrences
such as heavy landings and flight through severe turbulence. In addition to
nonnal wear and tcar, all these factors can affect a.ctcd joints. An inspector
should always be aware of the general signs that might indicate problems.
When a stnlclurnl joint loosens in service, there is a strong possibility that

'fretting' corrosion will occur. Fretting corrosion is a combination of
mechanical abrasion and chemical corrosion. Fretting in a rivelcd joint is
revealed b)t black or brown powder or paste exuding from under the heads of
the rivets. Aluminium alloy exudes black powder whilst steel components
exude da.rk brown 'cocoa' powder. On aluminium alloy structure, lhis is
appears as bl:!ckencd 'smoke trails' leading away from the rivet heads in the
direction of the airflow, Once you have confinned that it is powde r or paste,
not migrncin~ o~ "pillage, you ha\'e strong grounds for suspecting loose rivers
in rhe j~~)\'
. ,\\...~
. U ..
\.... ;\,(' Direction of Airllow
Figure 8.57 - Fretting Corrosion in a Ri vet Line
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CH A PTER EIGHT
R I V ET IN G
The inspection should Include checks for any signs of distortion or movement
in joints and for loose or sheared fasteners. Sheared fasteners often remain in
place so YOLl need to check dlcm fo r signs of movement. You should look for
evidence of pulled rivets, elongated holes or wrinkles in the skin Ih;; 1 may
lndic;;te ;; previous ovcrStress in a joint. StructurJs often try \0 rClurn to shape
after an o \'erstrcss and this may be the only evidence le ft that it b;;s occu rred.
Fatigue in ;; ri\"etcd joint will always commencl \'lith a smaU crack that will
gradu;;Uy progress over time. As the crack mO\'es ;;cross the holes, the joint will
become progressi\"cly \veaker and it will then be at risk of a sudden 'zip
fastener' failure. Bearing in mind that most aircraft are painted and that paint
accumulates and often cracks at joint seams, you need to exercise particular
c;;re not to confuse this ""ith an actual crack. \\"11t::re there is doubt, the surface
finish must be removed. The Aircraft Maintenance Manual may specify this.
Periodic Eddy Current Testing may also be specified in some areas.
The edges of the faying surfaces of Joints should be examined for lifting or
blistering of the surface finish that would indicate interfay corrosion. Slight
undulations or bumps in the skins between rivets or 'quilting' in the areas of
overlapping skins can be an indicanon of adyanced corrosion. \Vonn-like trails
of lifted pa.int travelling away from rivet heads are an indication of filiform
corrosion occurring on the skin surface under the paint. Polyurethane pamt
finishes are particularly prone to this.
Conclusion
We have fi nally arrived at the end o f this chapter. This has been a subject
where practical experience, skill and professionalism counts. Nobody should
be permitted to carry out strucrural repairs to primary or secondary load-
bearf\'ilg aircraft strucrure unless their competence has been thoroughly tested
. :..\~\){hd - proved. Book knowledge and 'tick tests' ha\'e their place but arc nor
(,,\\..:-;"0.:. substitutes for practical ability. All repair and moclification work must be done
~:o.sf' strictly in accordance with tbe manufacrurer's approved instructions. No one
.. \~:.
(\--
~ should ever attempt to substirute fo r these by. using personal experience or
..: ,-,'\.' book knowledge alone. Si.milacly, nobody should attempt to engage in
strucrural repair work when not properly authorised to do so. In answer to our
introductory rhetorical question, me ri,"crs will not shear or pull through t,!:e
skins as long as e\'eryone follows the rules. ~.
. ~
There is a selection of multi-chOlcc questions im;:.luded fo r rou to Lry. Do no!

just rely on answering these, try making up sqme of your own for fut1.lt!::
reference. In rhe meancime, you should consider taking a wen-earned bre~
before tackling the next chapter. ..::
o
'"""
c·
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CHAPTER EIGHT
R I VETING
Revision
Riveting
Question s
1. If a riveted jo in t is to b e m ade between two s heets of m etal, each

1/ 16in thi ck, the co rrect rivet diame ter woul d be:
a) 1/ 16io
b) 3/ 16in
c) 3/ 8to
2. Th e numbe r of 1/16in diam ete r ri ve ts requi red to match the s hea r

strength o f a 1/ 8in di am eter rive t m ad e of th e sam e materi a l is:
a) 4
b) 3
c) 2
'10li'
3. The,gjl~Ri streng th of a riveted join t sho uld be:
,\ -\!.,"
_(.0'\'-.
.\,\
, \\~~{': a) greater than rhe bearing strength of the skin
.~\""
, ..
~' b) the same as (he bearing strength of the skin
c) less than the bearing strength of the skin

-,
."
~
Y;2-
o
4. In a riveted jo int, the distan ce from a rivet cenue to the ed ge o f a
sheet sho uld b e no less than :
a) 4D
b) 3D
c) 2D
464
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CHAPTER EIGHT
RI V ET I NG
5. A lap joint is joggled to:
a) increase its s trength
b) provide a flush surface
c) remove tension from the civets
6. The length of a countersunk rivet is meas ured from th e end of rivet

tail to the:
a) top of dIe head
b) top of the shank
c) underside of the head
7. The grip range of a blind rivet refers to th
a) expansion o f the riycr in a clearance hole
b) thickness of material that can be fastened
c) clamping force applied to the joim
8. When the clearance IS too large, the action of closing a solid rivet
may:
""l\)ll
..,~\\,6 ~ ~ . .
" c..:.,..:... a) Illdellt the marcnal around the hole
. C~"~ .
:'-.-:\.~('
. ;-.....,.\ ;:. \ . b) buckle the material around the hole

:;..0(,'-':--
...
'- ,-,,, . c) separate th e s heets
9. The term 'raying surfaces' in a riveted joint relates to th e:

-.
a) upper and lower surfaces of the joim
b) COlltaCting surfaces
c) the surfaces exposed to the airflow
465
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C H A P TER EIGHT
R I VE T ING
10. The primary purpose o f a p plying jo inti ng compound is to:
a) inhibit electrolytic corrosion
b) make a joint leak-proof
c) provide electrical bonding
11. Wben rem oving a solid rivet, th e head is d riUed us ing a drill size:
a) slightly larger than tbe riyec shank
b) the same as the rivet shank
c) slighdy smaller than the rint shank
12. The minimum rive t pitch on a s taggered row lap joint is :
,J 2D
b) 3D
c) m
13. The minimum.rivet sp acing o n a d o uble cham lap joint is :

,,,.'II.)
IIlb -
, ~~~&
«,. '-'
, ..:~~·
. b) 3D
,,<\~....
((I\: · c) -ID
14. The 'sphe re of influ enc e' o f a rivel is approxi m a tely:
a) 5D
,E
o
b) m ~
o·
c) 3D '"
,::;
"
466
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CHAPTER E I GHT
RI V ETING
15. The term 'allowance' used in relation to a solid rivet refe rs to the :
a) distance between a rivet and [he edge of a sheet
b) difference between the hole and Clvet sha nk diameters
c) amount of material rCCJuired to form the head
16. The joint most su ited for use in a high stress area is a :
a) lap joint
b) butt joint
c) fla nge joint
17. A fastener that can be used where there is access to only one side of
a joint is a :
a) Hi-shear fastener
b) Avdelok fastener
c) Jo-bolt
a) broaching
b) reacnon I1vetmg
c) sCjueezlIlg
'0
'"1-::',
~.
19. The mandrel used to install a Chobert rivet: '",

o
a) remains in the rivet after insmllauon I

' -;
b) remains in the riveting tool after installarion
c) breaks off and is discarded
467
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CHAPTER EIGHT
RIVETING
20. A hole is punch dim p led using a:
a) countersinking rool
b) male die
c) male and a female die
2 1. T he le ngth of solid rivet shan k p rotrudin g through the work that is

requi red to s llccess full y foml a flat head is:
a) l.SD
b) 0.75D
c) 0.5D
22. A solid rive t shou ld be closed using:
a) a large number of light hammer blows
b) o ne heavy hammer blow
c) a small number of sharp hammer bbws
23. M l er i n~~alr~11~n ,
1\'1"
th e stem of an Avd e1 rivet is:
" .;\\..:~.:; ...
, ~;\1:0. I... a) cropped and milled flush
~<-.¢'. . ~ b) left in the 1001

, .........""1
c) disc:udcd
24. An Avdel Pi n Tester is used to check the:
a} rightness of the civet in the hole
b) tightness of the sealing pin in the riyct bore
c) grip length of the pin
468
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CHAPTER EIGHT
RIVET I NG
25. Prior to installation, th e collar of a Hi -s hear rivet should:
a) not be washed or lubricated
b) be soaked in light oil
c) be washed with solvent
26. ~lben placing countersunk rivets in 18SWG titanium s heet, the holes
should fust be:
a) Cut-countersunk
b) hor dimpled
c) punch dimpled
27. The indentation diam eter of a riveting snap for a so lid dome- head
rivet should he:
a) slightly larger than the head diameter
b) slightly smaUer than the head diameter
c) the same as the h ead diameter
-,o\f
't\06-~
(~)\)..:'t-c."'1. 28. During reaction riveting u sing a pneumatic riveting gun, the h e ad is
~ '\.{\' ' formed by holding the:
,. \'>.
,,~"\\ -
,,\
(0\·
- a) snap in the gun against the rivet tail
b) reaction block against the rivet tail
c) reaction block against the manufacmred head
29 . The most likely cau se of an indented ring on a solid dome head riv:tfi
IS:
a) use of an overs ized snap
b) insufficient allowance
c) use of an undersized snap
469
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CHAPTER E I GHT
R I VE TI NG
30. The s nap in a pneumatic riveting gun is held in the gun by a:
a) retaming sp.cing
b) threaded sleeve
c) a snap ring
Revision
Riveting
Answers
J. B 16. B
2. A 17. C
3. C 18. A
4. C 19. B
5. B 20. C
l~'l\~
6. A,O\.'b 2'1. A
..< -
. (0\\":'
,~)...<': 7. B 22. C
~.
. ~\."'\.
__..,,,,"l. ~",'f 8. C 23. A
c
9. B 24. B ~.
..,"
10. A ,"
-,. A -,
r-
"
I I. C 26. B
:-
-
12. B 27. A .~
~
~.
-:::
13. C 28. B ..f:

Ii
14. A 29 . C '"
~
~
15. C 30. A '0
,,~
470
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CHAPTER NLNE
P I PE S & HO S ES
Pipes & Hoses

In( ro du crio n
In 1\loclule 6, Chapter 6 we dealt 'W1tb tbe identification and description of the

types of rigid and flexible pipes and their associated connec[Qrs and unions.
The syllabus coment for this chapter is confincd to the bending, belling and
flaring of aircraft rigid pipes, and the inspection. testing_ installation and
clamping of pipes and hoses. There would be ad\-anrages in srudying the
tVlodule 6 coment whilst working on this chapter. Howe\'cr, I will include
infonnation that is pertinent.
Pipes used in aircraft are normally receiycd as full~" pre-fabricated assemblies

and no anempt should be made to re-bend them. Pipes arc manufacUlred in
accordance with approyed dra\\rll1gs. This is critical to their inrerchangeabiliry
and is designed to prevent Stress on the end fittings and chafing when they arc
installed. The manufacturing process depends on the material being worked
and the aircraft system in which the pipe will be installed. T"he characteris tics of
the pipe material and its heat treatment state must be known be fo re any
bending or flaring process is carried out. .All ri~d pipes \vill have at lenst one
bend in them to absorb vibration and ro allow for expansion and contraction
duc ro tcmpcraUlre changes.
i\gain,n here arc numerous textbooks, moscly American, covcring this topic,
, 'C
. '\'\~?tch having their own particular slant. The information in this chapter has
l.','\ .... ,... been \'crificd with that contained in the CK Ci\"jJ _\viation publications and
\"\:,-{f" these arc included below as useful references.
Refe rences
Ci\"il Aircraft Airwonhincss Tnfonnation and Procedures (C:\ P 562)
Leafler 5 - 51-lose and Hose Assemblies

' -f
Leaflet 5 - 6 1nstallation and Maintenance of Rigid Pipes
Civil r\irc(:lft lnspection Procedures
BL/6 - 15 Manufacture of Rigid Pipes
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C H APTER NIN E
P I PES & HOSES
Rigid Pipe Materials

t."lodulc 6 inclllC!cd information on rigid pipe materials. In the evenr that YOll
have not encountered that module, we will cover the salienr details he re.
Copper
Copper was used eXlcnsivdy in the past but rhe yibrarion that is encountered
in aircraft syHellls caused it to work harden and become briule and it required
frequent inspection for signs of cracking. Its use was confined ro low pressure
and low temperature air and oxygen systems. End fittings can be brazed or
silver soldered OntO the pipes. Copper robing is supplied in its fully annealed
condicion. The slight work hardening that occurs when forming dle pipe is nOI
harmful but copper pipe must never be re-bent whilst it is in sen"tce.
Aluminium allo), and corrosion resistant steel pipes are no\"\' used
Tungum
Tungum is an alloy of aluminium. nickel, silicon and brass that was used in the
low to medium pressure hydraulic systems of earlier aircraft. Tubing was
supplied in the annealed condition and could be worked at room temperature
followed by furrher annealing. The pipe can be readily Oared or have end
filtings brazed or sil\'er soldered on. The alloy has a problem in lhat it is very
reactive when in Contact with aluminium alloys causing corrosion in them. The
pipe securing clips had to be packed with 80 mesh tinned brass gauze, not
mbber. Tungum has now been replaced with aluminium alloy and corrosion
rcsismnt steel.
High Nicke l Copper Alloy
T his pipe material is strong and is suited to use in high, medium and lo\\'-
pressure systems. 'Che pipes can be easily flared. The presence of copper docs
present a ~~~w;osWH risk to aluminium alloys
c'\\-;'-,!-: -
~ .(\tumln1Um
\.... ).
Pure aJuminium (1100) is very light but is not strong enough to \\~thst:\Od
, anything more than very low pressures. Aluminiwn tubing is anodised during
manufacture and pipes Icss than 3/8in diameter that are made from it arc r
usually gi\"en a double flare to make them marc resistaQ[ to shear rorces. \,\'e "
will examine the process or double flaring later in this chapter. '", .~
';:;-
Aluminium Alloy
The heat treatment and working of aJuminium alloy tubing varies according to
the specification and condition of the alloy. Non-heat treatable specifications
5052 and BS 1..56 arc frequendy used ror low-pressure (250psi) ruel and oil
systems and for medium pressurc (1,500ps~ hydraulic and pneumatic systcms.
These are bem and flared in the 'as supplied' condition. The stro nger, heat
treatable alloy 2024 is also used but it is harder to bend and flare. Duralumin is
a heat treatable light aHoy that is used ror piping in low ro medium pressure
systems. "nlC heat treatable alloys have to be heat treated be rare and after
working. All aluminium alloys are prone to electrolytic corrosion when in
472
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CHAP T ER N I NE
PIPES & HOSES
contact with steel, copper alloys and many non-metals, particularly rubber and
graphite compounds .
Corrosion Resi.stant Steel
Corroslon resistant or stainless steel is used in an annealed or semi-annealed

state in high-pressure (over 1500psi) fud, oil, hydraulic, pnewnatic and o:\;gen
systems. Stainless sreel was originally confined to use in high-pressure systems
but this use has now been extended to all systems where me operating
conditions include exposure to corrosive products . Because stainless steel is
very strong, the thickness of the U1bing walls can be reduced, making it a
l
\veight fat weight substiUlte for aluminium alloy. The adyantage gained is a
resistance to corrosion and high temperaUire with no weight or strength
penalties . .Many modern :urcraft now haye dlelr entire rigid pipe nenvorks
made from stainless steel.
T hough described as corrosion resistant, stainless steel will react and corrode
when In contact with the poly-chloroprene rubber that is often used as a
packing and slee"e material on aircraft. ObYiou~ly, it is not suited for used on
stainless steel pipes,
Size of Rigid Tubing

The size of rigid tubing is determined by its outside diameter and this is
graduated in 1/ 16in. steps. Number 8 tubing \vould be, for example, be 8/16
or 1/ 2in. The outside diameter of a tube is stated in conjunction with its \vall
thickness graduated Ln thousandths of an illch . The inside diameter of a rigid
tube is not stated but if you know the outside diameter and wall thickness it
ma\' be calculated . Tbe outside diameter and wall thickness arc normally
markeri.
"1\)1.\ '
on the mbing.
l\..~lJb _.
_ \\,:~c.-
_L')'\ --
o \""'~~~
Rigid Pipe Bending
When manufacturing pipes for use in aircraft systems, bending should be
carried o ut wi th the aid of a tube-bending machine. Some pipe materi:!)s
require heat treatment to so ften them prior to b ending follo\vcd by furth9,"
heat treatment after bending to relieve stress and restore their properties . Priqt
to conducting any heat treatment, the pipe should be thoroughly cleaned. Th~
presence of carbon in oils, greases and degreasing agents can lead to seriou;
weld decay problems in some marerials . 1-ligh-pressure paraffin sprays may 1$
used for initial cleaning bur this should be followed by degreasing with ~
appropriate soh-ent such as trichloroethylene and blow-drying in warm air. i
;;
Tubing normally requires some form of internal support during the be ~ing "
process to prevent it from tlattening in the bend area . There are limitscto the
bend radius that can be formed in given sized d bing and these may d~cide the
type of bending equipment to be used. Y
473
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C HAPTER N I NE
PJPE S & HO SES
We need to examine the various methods used to provide internal SUppOrl

during bending. Before we do this, it would be advantageous to look at the
bending machines.
Pipe Bending Machines

There are twO types of bending machine, the draw bending machine and the
compression bending machine. There are hand operated and power operated
models of each type, some being fully automated.
Compression Bendi ng Draw Bending

~Iachine Machine
,, ,
o
,
o :'(0
,
Fixed Former with )'fm-ing f-ormer with

Full Depth Profile Half Depth Protile _ _
Fig ure 9.1 - Bending Machines
Draw Bending Machine

The draw bend ~!fmachine, sometimes referred to as a m3nd rel bender, is
used fOkb):W&illg large outside diameter uJbing up to ..J.1 nun (15/8in) . It is larger
than"\'11e compression bending machine and is usually installed on a floor-
b: \\).~~ounted frame. Because of its size, it is nonnally only found in main
~\.~. .\. production areas where there is likely to be repetitive work TIle machine
l. ~.,,\!-- incorporates a set of plain and articulated metal mandrcis mat are selectively
used as a rube filler to provide support to prevent me rube collapsing during
r,
bending operations. $,,
o
T3-
474
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CHAPTER NI NE
P IPE S & HO SES
Tube Tube
Tube
Stop Guide
i\landrd
o Extractor Former
Bend
r.cn'r
~
)
o
\CO
Bend ;\[mdrels
Figure 9.2 - Draw Bending Machine
The machine consists of an interchangeable fonner that is rotated about a

pivot by II bending leH'L 111e periphery of the fonner incorporates a proft!ed
semi-circular groove that matches the outside diameter of the pipe to be bent.
The pror.Je depth is half me mbe diameter. '111e tube is inserted into the
machine until it abuts an adjustable rube stop. It is then clamped onto the
former rim with a profiled grip. The appropriate mbe bcmhng mandrel is
scrc\vcd onto the connecting rod and is then inserted round end first into the
tube. The connecting rod is adjusted to position the mandrel so th:lt the end of
the str:ught portion before me round end is about a third of a rube diameter
beyond the proposed start of the bend.
The rormer is rotated by pulling on the bending leYe[' This action pulls the
,\iil
.,\\I,rubc- away from the stop and draws it around the former. t\ roller moumed
l.,lW--!.!,; - rube guide holds the rube firmly in conmct with the former as the bend IS
\"\:-.\\': fann ed. The mandrel mechanism, the centre pivot and the tube guide arc all
\,;;,,<. . ,. interlinked to ensure that me mandrel ahvays occupies the parr of the rube
(~,,\'" where the bend is being fanned and that the guide is kept at me correct
distancc from the fonner. The machine incorporates an adjustable angle stop
to limit the rotation of the fanner to achieve the desired angle of bel$.
Different materials produce yarying degrees of 'spring-back' when dlC rubc~
released from [he machine so setting the angle stop will be a matter o~
expenence.
The draw bending machine is equipped ,\y;th fl range of formers, nlbe guid~
and mandrels to accept various sizes o f mbe. :~
,.
"-
~.
'"
'v
~
""
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CHAPTER NLNE
PLPES & HOSES
Compression Bending Machine
The compression bending machine is more commonly used for small quanri~'
work. It is smaller than a draw-bending machine and is usually clamped in a
bench \"icc. It is suitable for bending thin-walled mbes and when properly
adjusted, it can produce bends of up [0 18().l withom fracruring. rippling or
kinking the rube. There are 1'.\'0 sizes of compression bending machine. The
smaller type can accept pipes up to 12mm (I / 2in) outside diameter. The larger
type can accept pipes from 12mm [0 25mm (lin) outside diameter. The
compression bcndi!lg machine docs not employ mandrels so another method
of lube ruling has to be used. \,\/e witl look at rube fillers as a separate issue
later o n.
Pipe
P rc~su re Indicator
o L--!I,.-' S,,,i,,. Adjuste r
Guide
Bending Le ver
Fixed rormer
Fig ure 9.3 - Compression Be nding Machine
"!.(Vo.f'
.,~~\b
T~c. :fen:ner in this rype of machine docs nor rotate. The hand bending le,"cr
\\;\qbrces a roller along the back of a guide bar [0 gradually fonn the bend by
pressing the rube into the profiled groove of the axed circular fortner. The
profiled groove has a depth equal [0 the rube outside diameter. The machine is
equipped with matched pairs of fonners and guide bars, each pair being
marked with the related rube diameter.
Different materials and tube wall thickness do not all bend at the same
pressure. Scrong, heavy gauge tubing requires a lower pressure setting than
liglll gauge tubing. The machine incoq)Qrates a pressure-setting indicator that
may be adjusted to suit the specification of rube being bent. Tlus may require a
couple of trial bends to get the setting right. I f a tube ripples on the inside of a
bend and flattens on the outside, ir usually indicates that the pressure setting is
.~
toO low. Too high a pressure on the other hand can cause narrowing or ~
o
'th ro:Hing' on the inside of the bend. 'u
!<'
~
476
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CHAPTER NINE
PIPES & HO S E S
Good Flattt:m:d
I....:.inked
Figure 9.4 - Bend Fauhs
The mbc is inserted lnto the machine until It abuts the tube StOp. It is then
pushed imo the former recess and the guide bar is fitted O\"er it with its edges
inserted into the fonn er recess. The bending le,er is pulled until rhe roller is
firmly pressed OntO the back of the guide bar. "n le prcsliu re-sc u ing indicator is
adjusted for the speci fi cation of tube being bent and rhe setting sc rew is
locked . The hand-bending le,er is then steadily pulled until the bending is
complete. The machin e incorporates an adjustable bend degree SLOp that will
p revent over-bending.
Simple Hand Bending Tool

'"II II \
,b ...
. ,\\. .:::..':' ~~"'This hand held rool is suited to small diameter, thin-walled mbing. -nle tool is
• \\(' I. S slippcd oycr the rube at the point \,here a bend is required. The tube is
.
.\....... -
:: ,,,. I)ositioned into the recess in the famler and a clip i, pulled over it to hold it in
.;...-- place. In this position, a mark on the bending handle aligns with the zero mark
" ~~'\'
... on a degree scale on rbe former. T he bending le\'er is then pulled with one
h:md whilst thc tool is supported by the other until the required bend anglc..i.s
achic\·cd. ~
/
,
~
477
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CHAPTER NINE
PI PES & HOSE S
Figu re 9.5 • Simple H and Bending Tool
Bend Radius & Method

Draw bending machines are the preferred method of bending because they arc
supplied with mandrels, However, depending upon the specification o f the
tubing, large radius bends can be made by hand in mbing up to 112 in olltside
diameter. \,(/here the outside diameter exceeds 1/2 in or the pipe material, wall
thickness or radius of bend requires it; the pipe should be filled wil h fusible
alloy flller before bending the pipe by h3nd or in a compression bending
machine.
\'(!hen the mean radius of the bend is greater than four times the outside
diameter of the pi~_e, the pipe can be bent in a compression bending machine
without th{(,l]leeu" for filler. In some cases, a dose-fitting helical spring is
inse[tw.-in~o cl,e mbe to provide support.
u_W'
\\,,<t\,(lhen the proposed bend radius is less than four rimes the outs ide diameter of
the pipe, a compression bender IDay be used providing tbe pipe is filled with
fusible alloy filler. If the use of alloy filler is considered inappropri:ue, a draw
bending machine rna)' be used.
Fusible Alloys
Low melting point fusible alloy is used to fill pipes prior to bending in order to
provide supporr when full-bore bends are being formed. This reduces the risk
of fracrure, wdnkling and kinking. It also provides a simple means of remo\'ing
(he filler from the bore after bending without affecting the hear treatment Sta tC
of the pipe material. T here are a number of proprietary brands of filler
available, 'Cerrobend' being but one example. 111e requirements fo r a suitable
fusible alloy arc th:u it should be very ductile, ha\'e a low melting point and
should expand on solidifying. The e::>..-pansion of the alloy on solidifying docs
cause the pipe to become slightly ovcrsize, roughly O.002in per inch di:Hllerer.
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Bending machines are equipped with fonners and guides that are specially
designed to accept tubes loaded with fusible alloy.
f'usible alloys usually COntain lead, tin, bismuth and cadmium. They have a
melting point tbat is below lOO°C and can be melted by boiling water.
However, the alloy must not be exposed to temperarures in excess of lOQoC so
ther are normally melted in a separate contalll1f that is surrounded by water
that is controlled at a temperarure of 85° to 95°C. Flame heating must never be
used on thi s type of aUor.
A type o f lead/ rin fusible allor that is sometin1es used for low tensile steel
pipes has a higher melting point. This alloy must not be allowed to exceed
400°C. The temperature restrictions are intend~d to protect the condition of
the pipe materials. Any temperature exceeding 100° will start to affect the
condition of heat treatable aluminium alloys. Temperatures in excess of 400°C
will affect the condition of carbon steels. Fusible alloys can have a detrimental
affect on high tensile steels and direct contact wilt h them must be avoided.
Wlhen heat treatable almninium alloy tubing has been solunon treated to soften
it prior to bending, the bending operation must be carried out within two
hours of the solution treaunent. If yOll recall, the same rule applies to rivets
that have been solution treated . After two hours, the alloy becomes too hard to
\vork due to age hardening and it \v-ill crack.
Filling
Prior to ftlling or 'loading' as it is sometimes referred to, the pipe must be
thoroughly cleaned with soh'ent and thcn dried in warm dry air. Cleaning is
essential, particularly when the pipe has been heat treated because thc salts and
any l H\,\ces of carbon arc highly corrosive. Folk~\Ving clcaning and drying, th e
l~Hllipe\Jshould be coated with a film of clean l~bricating oil or a mixture o f
(p\\C~e -' lubricaring oil and paraffin. This should be ca~ried out by either completely
~ \">-;\~("~ filling the pipe or imme rsing it in an oil bath. The use of an oil-soaked fabric
,\,'. '= 'pull-through' does not saris£;" this requirement and it should not be used. T he
. '-~'\' , . ...,.. precise nature of the lubrica~t to be used is SP1Clficd by the m an ufacturers of
,,-. the fus ible alloy. for example, the llse of engine lubricating oils is not
permitted because the detergent additives in these causes the fusible alloy 'fo
stick to the bore of the pipe making it difficult to remove. 3. -.
~
As an alternative to oil, thin plastic sbeathin9 is sometimes recommclldea;.
where it is important to prc\"eot the alloy contacting with the pipe materiab
Only the specified sheathing should be used becausc sheadung that is toO thi,*
will affect the cooling rate of tbe fusible alloy. '....'
0'
One end of the lubricated pipe is plugged and it is immersed in hot wat~ to
within a few inches o f the open end . Wlh en the pipe has stabilised at the &ater
'"
temperature, the molten fusible rulo), is poured Unto the open end. Care-~ eeds
to be taken not to create air pockets or break fhe lubricanon film d!'i.cing the
loading operation. I f
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As soon as the pipe has been loaded \\;th fusible aUoy, it should be
progressively immersed in cold water, starring with the plugged end, so that the
alloy can solidify without the risk of cavities fanning. However, the ductility of
lhe alia), does depcnd on rapid quenching so, }'OU should not prolong ir. i\ frcr
loading, the pipe should be allowed to stabilise to room temperature before
commencing the bending operation.
Removing the Fi ner

Following the bending process, the fusible filler alloy is unloaded by immersing
the pipe in boiling water. TIle pipe must nOt be agitated in the water bccause
this will break the oil film and cause the alloy to stick on to tbe sides of the
bore. In extreme cases, the alloy may 'on' tbe inside of the bore and be
impossible to remO\·e. The molten filler should pour out of the bore. To avoid
the risk of 'onning', any beads of filler remaining should be allowed to solidify
before attempting [0 remO\"e them. If plastic sheathing has bcen used, the
sheathing must be examined following remonJ to ensure that there has been
no leakage of filler ooro the inside waU of the pipe. Final cleaning methods
include a stcam jet, nor superheated, or tight fitting felt 'pull-through'. There
arc sriff rotary brushes designed for this task but great care must be taken not
La abrade or score the pipe bore when us ing these.
It is nor possible to visually inspect the bore of a pipe that has a bend in it so
care needs to be taken when unloading fille r and cleaning. If conraminaoon is
suspected, fus ible aUoy will register on a mdiograph. Failing this, the
manufacturer of the alloy should be consulted for ad\"ice.
Altern ative P..iJIe Bending Fillers

1\'I\\b ...
TQ.e.&~If be occasions when the use of a fusible aUoy may nOf be permitted
\"\~qjccause of the intended usc of the pipe. For example, oxygen system pipcs
must not be lubricated or COntain any sediment that could spontaneously react
with oxygen. A draw bending machine urilises plain or articulated metal
mandrels. Alternao\"e1y, special, close-fin::ing springs that have a high standard
of finish are available for use in hand bending or compression bending
machines. Prior to insercing a spring, you must ensure that it is the correct size
and fonn and that it is not damaged or defonned. \\"hen a m:lndrcl or a spring
is exrracted aftcr a bend ha s been formed, it must be inspected to ensure lhat
there is no evidence of pick-up or flaking of thc bore of the pipe.
Dry sand is also used as a filling medium when bending oxygen s},s[Cm pipes.
Care must be taken to plug both ends of [he pipe [0 contain the sand during
bending. After bending, the pipe muse be thoroughly cleaned to ensllre [hat no
sand particles remain.
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Positioning Bends
rn most cases, the positioning of a bend in a pipe in relation to its end

connections, or a pipe cnd, or another bend, i~ critical. It is not difficult to
achieve correct positioning when us ing a compression bending machine. You
need to decide whether to position the bend from a given point in relation to
the Inside or to the outs ide of the bend.
c:::: t::
,, - U .1
,
,, - .1
I
, 0 I 0
~-- --J
- ~- ---J
.\leaSliring Distan ce from
L
MeaSUring Di stance from
Oursid o f Bend to
, : Inside of Bend to
End o f Pipe End of Pipe
Figure 9.6 - Bending to Qmside & Ins ide Measurements
T o create a bend that is at a giyen distance from a point, such as a tube end,
you measure off the required distance from the end and mark the tube. You
then insert the tube into the machine until it abuts the tube stop, place a square
on me tube and align it \Vim the mark. You then move the rube along until the
square abuts the outside rim of the foml er. TIle tube may now be bent and the
outside of the bend will be at the measured distance fro m the end o f the tube.
To create a bend that is at a measured distance from the inside of a bend. you
move t;!:le rube until the square abuts the bonom lof the recess in the form~r.
')~'\J I
. :-.\.:,:.!,o.:. 7..\\~\~ll;n using a draw bending machine, you must remember that the former
(..; ().. ..' recess on this type of machine IS o nly a half tube diameter deep. \\i'hen the
. . ;:. "'?-').~ square abuts the edge of the fonner, this places IYour m ark at the centre of the
..,. . .:..\,;;.:... tube diameter so you need to make an allowance of hal f a tube diameter when
U'\ measuring and marking the tube if you \v;sh to use the inside or outside of the
bend as a reference POIOt. Alterna tively. )'ou may wish to just use the centre. ,....
The positioning of offset bends and be~ds

that Jee in different planes is Sligh~
more complicated and is beyond the requirements of this syllabus. Though IF
would be interesting to discuss these, there is litde scope for a multi-choicG:
type question on the topic and you already have ,bnough to do.
'-'
Flaring Rigid Pipes ,~
;;;
The flaring of the ends of a pipe is done to prepare it for metal-lo~~etal
connections. A Hared connector consists o~ a union nut and ~I,) collar.
Americans often refer to the collar as a 'sleevej so be prepared to hear either
description. The flared end of the pipe is designed to seat on the coned face of
481
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CHAPTER N I NE
P I PES & HOSES
an adaptor nipple or an e..xternally coned adaptor. As the union nut IS

tightened, the collar mates with the back of the pipe flare and draws It mto
fum contact with the face of the conical seating of the adaptor (0 form a
pressure-right, leak-proof connection. The flare carries tbe load in a connector,
not the union nUl.
Figure 9.7 - Pipe 10 Component Connectio n
The end of the pipe is cur square and is then expanded \vith a special flaring
tool to form a conical flare. The subject of flare angles often comes up in
examinations and ),Oll need to be careful to read the question. The flare angle
rna)' be expressed as an included angle or just as a flare angle. However, there
are British and American pipe fla.res and their angles are significantly different.
'1\\\1~
'l\~\b
/
- Flare Angle [,I,c< Angle /
, \..... ~~~ . '\'~'- \

,,(s' '-.
.\.....\
.....;, ,\"i
(: ('):
Single Flare Double Aare

British Standard Flare 32°
American AN Flare 74 °
Figure 9.8 - Pipe Flares
482
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PIPE S & HOSE S
The British Standard (l3S), ~.urcraft General Standard (AGS) pipe flare has an
included angle o f 32°. The half angle or angle of the fla re is therefo re 16°. The
Amcrican Air Force/Navy (AN), r.1ilitary Standard (p,lS), UNF pipe Aflre has
an included angle of 74°. The half angle or anglc of the fl are in this case is 37°.
The Americfln AN pipe flare is currently the o nc most commonly referred to
but yOll do come across questions that fail to specify d1C type of flarc. I f in
doubt, the .r\merican AN flare angle is the mor:e likely answcr - better than a
crystal ball!
Co lb.r
1ncluded .\nglc
Cone
/ \O---L?_O
-:j)'
Figure 9.9 - UNF and American AN Flare Ang le
In preparation for flaring, the end of the pipe must be cut square. It is most
important that the end is cut at right angles to the a.."Xis of the pipe. The end
must be smoothly finished and not bave any ro ugh or burred edges rhat could
lnitiate splits i.n the plpe when it is subsequently flared. Special cutting tools
ha \"e been designed for cutting tube accurately. Alternatively, a locally
ll1:\nuf:\ctured jig may be used [Q provide a guide for cutting and ruing.
Roller:-
Size and Cm
Adjustment
/
Figure 9.10 - Light Tube Cutler
\\fhen the end of the tube has been cut to length and de-burred, it should lie
thoroughl), cleaned internally to ensure that there is no swarf remaining in t1~
bore. There are a number of different flaring tools available. Care must ;pc
-'
taken to ensure thar the correct type is chosen in regard to BriLish ~nd
American pipe flares - rhis time, you must not guess! For the purposes # this
section, we will examine two types of flaring tool. Both types incorporate
intcrchangeable half bushes mat are size rehted to the outside diamc,#r of the
pipe being flared. '~
483
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C H A PTE R NINE
P IP ES & HO SES
Expander Cone Flaring Tool

The expander cone flaring tOol can be mouDled in a bench \~ce. It consists of a
pressure screw assembly and an opposing die holder that contains a pair of
interchangeable half bushes. The expander cone can be rotated independent of
the pressure lead screw. TIlls means that the openllor can control the adnnce
of the pressure screw as the flare de\TeJops, avoiding excessive pressure that
could damage the flare and crack the rube.
L.!~.J:;--~ L'l.tch Fitting
f--.J-,- /-Ialf Bushes
Cone Pressure Scre\\'

Expander
Turning Sc: ~,,~···:,,:'·~--I.u
L'l.tch Retaining
Screw
Fig ure 9.11 - Ex-pande r Cone Flarin g T ool
\'('hen the pipe end has been cut and cleaned, the union nut and (he collar arc
threaded ontO the e,ipe. [f the other end of the pipe has already been flared, do
ensure that~e c811ar and union nut beLongmg to that end are also fined. It is a
bit ~lbn1hssing if tbey arc not and )'ou make the second flare! The
,,{appropri:ue hal f bushes are then assembled into the tool and the pipe is then
\.... placed between them and clamped with its end aligned with the half bush faces
nearest the pressure screw. The half bushes must close together fully. If there
is a gap, this will result in 'flash lines' appearing on either side of thc pipe flare
thal will create a potential source of failure.
The bore of the pipe is then oiled and the expander cone is advanced until it
just stariS to expand the end of the pipe. The cone is then continuously rotated
as pressure is slowly applied through the lead screw until the flarc reaches the
limits of the countersunk hnlf bushes. You will learn through experience what
rare of feed to apply. If tOO much pressure is applied, the flare will crack. It is
most tmportam that rou keep the expander cone rotating as pressure is
applied.
T he expander cone flaring tool is never to be used to flare stainless stcel tubing
because it will pick-up and score the flarc. A single operating tool is used for
stainless sleel together with a special buffer lubricant.
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PIPES & HOSES
Rolle r Flaring Too l
The rolle r flaring tool can also be mounted in a bench vice. The flaring cone in
this case is mounted in an off centre ball race fn
a holder that is driven by a
turning handle. This arrangement permits the cone to rora te freely in its holder.
J\ s the holder is rotated, the apex of the cone moves in a circular path whilst
the cone itself rotates around its own axis.
Half Bushes
Off-Centre Fbring (nne
I.cad Screw
Figu re 9.U - Roller Fla rin g T ool
Again, rhe union nut and collar are threaded on to the pipe and it is clamped
inro the tool between a pair o f half bushes. Do ensure that the bushes close up
full y. The lead screw IS then rotated to bring the pipe o n La the flaring Calle.
The holder is then rotated and the off centre cone roUs around the inside wall
of the pi pe, pressing it outwards into the fla re pro file. T he pressure lead screw
is turnSd slowly to feed the cone into the flare until increased resistance
indi'l.';\rcs that it has been completely. foaned.
" .,,:,":
(,,)11'-,
-
,,,\\~,
_ \"\,lJ1:'"
c
~:
...' <,'i- Double F laring
(Y'\
Soft aluminium and thin-walled aluminium alloy pipes arc weak and may ne>--d
reinforcing where the pipe passes into the connector. Tn cases where the pi~
diameter is less than 3/8in and the material of the pipe is soft enough, and c1~
enough, the end of the pipe may be folded in to form a double flare. Thft
improves the seal and makes the flare more resistant to shear fo rces that may-'
occur between tbe union nut and the pipe. D ouble flaring is not necesS:lry oif
thin-w:lJled steel tubing because this material has sufficient strength. =i
485
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C H APTER N I NE
P I PES & HOSES
St.'lrting Pin
Clamp Block
1=
- I--
GUIde Pin
Fig ure 9.13 - Do uble Flaring Alumini um T ube
The double fla re is formed by clamping the pipe in a special clamp block \\;th
the cut end abutting a guide pin. The guide pin is remm-ed and the sra ning pin
is then inserted and struck sharpl, with a hammer [0 close it down onlO the
shoulder of the clamp block. A finishing pin is men inserted and stnlck to
d ose it ooro the shoulder of tbe clamp block. The tool has a fla re pro rLie to
march a pa rticular size of mbing and it will automatically fo m1 the correct
double nare when it is properly dosed.
Insp ecti ng a Co mpl e ted Flare
i\ properly fo rmed Oare will be concentric and be free from cracks, splits and
thi nning. The flare diameter should be almost equal to the mreaded bore of the
union nut with 4~ft\ fla re standing just proud of the collar. \'7hen assembled, the
fl are should 'fJass through the mreaded portion of the umon nut with nor mo re
lhl!o~\1 ;Min c1ea mnce. To check this, the collar should be pushed finnly
~).{'h'gainst the back of the flare and me projection of the pipe beyond the collar
face should be measured. The permined tolerances are:
Tube Outside Diameter (in) Projection Tolerance (in)

3, 16 to 1 '4 o to 0.0 10
5/ 16 to 3/8 1/ 6-1 to 1/32
7/ 16 LO 1 ['2 1/32 to 1 16
T ab le 9. 1 - Fla re Pro jeclio n Tole rances

·3
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C H A PT ER NINE
PI PES & H O SE S
I I
Colla!"
" D;'L
Bore
f Ku t
I
Flare
-
pL
~
_ Fhrc Projection
Tolerance
Figure 9.1~ - Flare P rojection T o lernncc
Pipe Beading
T hough not specified in the syllabus for this chapter, it would not be a bad
idea to look at pipe beading. Pipe beading is used to pro\"idc a means of
coupling rigid pipes with a length of flexi ble hose. The beading is applied by a
beading tool that incorporates interchangeable rollers that [mllch the size of
beading required.
Tubl:
Profiled Rollers
Pressure
. \djustment Screw -.
~
Figure 9.15 - H and Beading Tool
,.
.~
The pipe is normally expanded to form a bead 9iameter 1/8in greater thn~~e
outside diameter of the pipe at a distance of 1/4in from the tube end. fi
.~'0
<':
"
487
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C H APTER N IN E
P I PE S & HO S E S
Bondin!:?: Stnp
j -
. /r~
~
?~
....L-"
L -.J
'-- '---
Fig ure 9.16 · H ose and Be ad Connector
Inspection & Testing of Aircraft Pipes & Hoses

There are a number of similarities in the inspection and testing of rigid pipes
and flexible hoses but there are just as maoy differences. For that reason, we
shall deal with them separately.
Inspection of Locally Manufactured Rigid Pipes

\X!hen a rigid pipe assembly has been through all [he required srages of
manufacnlre, il must be subjected to a fi nal inspection. Howeve r, we should
not rely solely on final inspection to son good from bad. I f a pipe has been
successfully inspected fo llowing each stage of manufacture, be fore being
passed on to the next stage, tbe final inspection should not reveal anything
untoward. Stage inspections give us the opporruniry to detect defects soon
aher they appca!\nnd this saves a lot of wasted rime and effort in conti nuing to
work <?Q a,1.'tI'Meccive part that is already doomed to fail at me final ins pection.
Trus~sl:Can underlying principle of good quality control - and plain common
,,,:-~f'
sense!
I f a pipe does fail a stage or final inspection, it should be immedi:nely and

physically identified with tbe cause of failure and be remand from the work
area to a place of quarantine to await a disposal decision on whether to pass it,
rework it or scrap it. r\ failed pan should never be left in a place of work where
there is a risk that it could be inad\-ertently mistaken for a good part. I f there is
no system in place to avoid this cisk, tile parr should be immediately degrnded
beyond lise and scrapped.
,
The final inspcction is still an important feature and we can now look at the ~
'"
'~
~.
points that need to be verified before signing a locally manufacturcd part off .~
fo r lise. ~
'v
• -nle malerial lIsed and me dimensions achieved should be checked to
ensure that they conform fully to the approved drawing speci fi cations.
'"
~
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CHAPTER NINE
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• The available records should be checked to yerify that any material heat
treatment processes thal \vere required before and after manufacture
were successfully carried out. This is an important point because you
cannot judge whether an item has been heat treated or not merely by
looking at it, never mind whether it was successful or not. There must
be evidence in the form of a record that relates unambiguously with the
actual item you are inspecting.
• If a fusible alloy has been used during bending, a check must be made
to ensure that it has been completely removed and that there is no
residue i.n the bore.
• The end fittings should be checked to ensure that they are of the
specified type and that the union nuts c·a n be withdrawn properly and
are not obstructed by the close proximity of bends or marker tapes .
• The pipe and the pipe bends should be inspected to cnsure that there
are no ripples, signs of ovality, flaking, kinking, bulging, splitting,
scoring or thinning.
• The pipe flares should be checked for concentricity and for freedom
from cracks, splits or thinning. The flare projections should be checked
against the specified tolerance.
• Recorded evidence should be checked to ensure that the pipe has

successfully passed any specified pressGre or bore tests. Again, you
should vcri~' that the record does acru·ally rdate to the pipe in your
hand and that the pipe bears any specified markings to indicate that it
has passed the prescribed test.
• ~The pipe should be inspected to ensurd that it is dean internally and

ll,)n externally and that It has been given the correct protective treatment
and is properly blanked io an approved manner. Finally, you should
verify that the pipe has been allotted th~ correct pan number and that
m"kings m dctffikd in BS M23. Thm r

any specified system code markings, part number marklllgs and
inspection marks hayc been properly applied. The system code
"p,""d foc you below. ::;
-0
.~
-.
ii.
Identification of Aircraft Pipes
The symbols and colours used to identify pipes used in aircraft comply witf
British Standard BS M23 - Tdcnti fication Sch:e me fo r Pipelines. All systeln
pipelines in a.n aircraft are marked at intervals along their length and at p o~ts
where they pass through bulkheads or other sJucrural members. This is q9he
to help you trace a pipe run in a system \,,;th~)Ut confusing it \\';th pip~ in
other systems and to draw your attention to any special hazards associatc_f""';.\';th
the substance it carries. The specifications for a manufactured RiPe will
normally state what ma.rkings should be applied .I 9. . .
489
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CHA.PTER NIN E
PIPES & HOSE S
The symbols, together with the related colour codes, are primed on one-inch
wide marker tape and arc applied as a decal to each end of the pipe and then at
app roximately two-foot intervals along the pipe length and adjacent to each
service point or inspection panel. The marker tapes are also applied to the pipe
immediately adjacent to every in-line connected componen t such as valves.
regulators and filters. The markers must be affi..xed sufficiently far from the
pipe end fittings to prevent tbem from interfering with the union nut or being
picked up when the union is assembled. A distance of nor less than nine inches
is recommended.
\'\/hen a pipe is less than two feet in length, one marker tapc is all that is
needed. If a pipe-run can be viewed easily, then [wo-foot imen'als will suffice.
In areas where access and viewing are difficuJc, then a shorrer interval may be
necessary. There must be at least one marker tape applied to a pipe in each
compartment it passes through. On pipes ha\'ing diameters of four inches or
more, or pipes that are exposed to harsh em·ironmems, identification tags or
paim mar be used in place of marker tape.
In addition to the standard identification marker tapes, supplememary

information relating to the substance carried in the pipe may be added in the
form o f half-inch \\~de market tape displaying black letters, symbols or figures
on a white background. These tapes are nor.mal1r positioned adjacenr to the
left hand edge of the sta ndard identification marker. These addition:!l lTI:!rkcrs
may be used to indicale pipes that carry flammable li'1wds (FL\l\'Q or as a
warning (Skull :!nd Crossbones). Additional marker tapes Olay be used to
indicate the function of a pipeline. These would include: PRESSURE, VENT,
RETURN and DRAIN. Further ma.rkers may be applied to indicale t"he name
of the particular system the pipe serves and the direction of flow.
"
fUEL
FUEL
of
\~-"mi". Symbol
Fig ure 9.17 - Examples of Aircrafl Pipeline Identification
490
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CHAPTER NINE
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[ will pro,-ide you with illustrations of the more common system identification
markers and tables of the symbols and colour codes used. TIle pipe
idencificatioo scheme is international and is also used by the military so J "ill
give rou a furthe r table sho\\ing some additional markers that may be more
commonly identified with milita ry rather than commercial aircraft systems.
~
I
" "Wit. "IW '
·n,,,.. ••
IIi!
""
'n"... ••
,I .
,,- ,n,.,", ••
" ,I>" ". ""...
•
'. ;~
•
" ' ".... ,
Figure 9.18 - Aircraft Pipeline Ide nlific:Hion Markets ( I)
,,~, '. Ill"

·\H.,·,
•.
IIR! \J 1II;>;l< -
"X".>" •
DF·IU'\:L £
D[·lC1'\:Ci £
DI',IU,\:G £
DEIC"{; £
.,\\i\b
DEKi:\<.; £
. "0.:",": -
l.'~\\ . \'\"arning
\"\).~~" Snnbol
,
Fig ure 9. 19 - Aircraft Pipeline Ide ntification f\.'larkers (2)
V,\r.t t -\I
"u"
"
" "
\fAU l "!
\'\Cl -\1
, "
11"
""
V,\( l l \!
,
Direction
of Flo\\"
'
" V\( l '\1
t!\TnMY ",0
DRfl't;}';J'\:l \\ \ :>~t
\cTIV \TOK
If • :nR
",0 \\ \11 R
II \1"ILRY
\( T rv nnR If DRINK''', ",0
W TI'R
\\ ' S IT-
\\ \ffR
",0
n.\TnR\
\{, rlJ \T<lR
If [b~1 K''-''
W nlR
",0 \\ \ 511;.
\\ \"Il:R
Figure 9.20 - Airc r'.tft Pipcline Identification Markets (3)
491
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CHAPTER N I NE
P I PES & HOSE S
SYSIClll Symbol Bac kgro un d Colo u r
'\If Condllionin~ DOl pallt.:m (5nowflakt:~) Bru\,\:n 3nd ~re\" b~nJ,
Ihuerr ,\ell\';1\(lf F ltipscs ....~rh TadiJong lines Yellow :lnd ~rc\' bands
Urc:uhing <h\'gco Recl.1.nj:!lt:s Greco

C()IIlPrl'~H~(1 G3..~ D la.~nn;IJ ~rnpcs Ur.l.nge
("ohm Bruad undularinA band ~ Blue
Dc leJllg Tn anl!lcs GTC\'
Dnnking \\:llcr 11 .0 Blue :md ~rt:m b~nds
Ficc\Tlc;li Ccmdull LIAhlmn)!: tlashes Brnvm and HunAc.: b.md,

Fire Prolcclinn I-Inll"/..omai diamonds Urn"'n
!'uel rour point st:lrs R,d
Ill"dmuhe Circles Blue 3nJ \'cltow band.
Imlrument AIT Zig-zag lme- OTln1,!c and grc\' b.lmh
I,ubne:lut>n SqU:l.n:.~ Yellow
Ram Rqx:llcm Raindrops Blue and Art..,· oondi
Pneumatic Linked 'X".s Or:lO~e and blue bands
Sokent I lori7.()nt.al striIXs Blue :lOd brown bamb
'·aeulIlll VcruC31 w:Jv)" Iinl." Gre\ lnd mange b:.l.nc\'
'\'l<te WaleT Veroa) ch:tio Red and blue band~
\\",lIer Injccuon ChcHons Hed. !-lTC\' :md red h'\I1II,
Table 9.2· Common Pipelinc Identification Ma rkers (DS 1\123)
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CHAPTER NINE
PIPES & HOSE S
Symbol Meaning
Skull and Crossbones "raming Symbol
Il on/om:11 arro\n; Flow dm;cuon
FL,,~r Flammable tl(lld
PHD.'''' Physically dangerou!'
PRESSl'RE Fluid prcs!'u l'C supply side of system
RI.TL·R\: Fluid rerum side of system
DR.\ I t< Flwd drain ~yl;t(;m
VE\:T Pan of a \'COt system
ST\nC Static pressure
PITOT Static :md dynamIC pressure
T O); IC POl sonuus or carcinogenic substance
11\,1) PO"TR Pipc J~ ;1 part of that namcd system
Table 9.3 - Examples of Add itional Pipeline Ide,uilication
Note: TIlis lis t is nOl exhaustive, JUSt an illustration of the kind of informatio n
that may be displaycd, Do note dlal the 'skull and crossbones' is a general
warning symbol; it is usually accompanied by a second marker tape gh-ing
s(le9flt infonnation on the hazard,
,:-,..:.,,:,,":
l'" '
-
~\'\l'~
Sys lem Symbol B:lck/Zroulld Colour

\\,~ <'
Filtered \" ,Be.: (,reell ;l1Id red b:lnd~
Jncrun~ I3rn~d crosse5 (hom).;c .md J!fccn bands
;\IlIno-pmpdbnl Uroad'Ts Ycllow and ur:m~c b;md~
Rocku c:.uah·~! Three ycrticll Strip(;$ Ydlow :md ~fCCfl band~
Rnck.,r Fuel rour lX'im StaT and crc:,C(;nL R.,J and we\' band~
Rockel t hali<Lor Lrc<ct'm~ lirecn and gfer Land.
-
Table 9.4 - Less Common Pipe line Idenlifica tion Markers ~
,
:P~
0'
~v
The.re is quite a lot of symbology used in pipeline. identification. It sccmii.-\fu aCl
like a magnct ro examiners so it is worth familiarising yourself with ~e morc
common exampleso y
493
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CH A PTER N I NE
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Testing Rigid Pipes

following the manufacture of a rigid pipe assembly, there will normally be a
recluircmcl1c for specific tests before the part is signed off Fluid and gaseolls
system pipcs h:lVe speci fied flow rates and pressurc racings and rests arc
designed to ensure that these specifications will be met.
Bore Test
The bore of a pipe should be dimensionally correct and dear. A simple bore
test may be specified where a steel ball with a diameter that is 80% of the
inl ema l d iametcr of Ihe pipe must be able to pass freely through thc pipe in
both direcoons. 'nus test is not aJways practicable due to the design of the pipe
or its connections. Furthermore, the specificarioo may call for a more precise
form of flow tCSt. Flow tests are conducted 00 a hydraulic tCSt rig to \'eril)' that
the pipe is capable of passing a specific volume of fluid in a gi\'en lime under
specified test conditions.
Hydraulic Pressure Test
Hydraulic pressure testing is carried out on a specially designed hydraulic st:ltic

test rig. The rig is used to check flow rates in addicion to pressure testing. The
fluid used in the rig must be idencical with that used in the system the pipe is to
be installcd in. One end of the pipe assembly is connected to the pressure
delivery point on the rig and it is checked for full-bore flow by pumping a
specified amoum of fluid through it whilst checking flow rate at the open end.
If the flow ratc,\flfSt proves successful, the open end of the pipc is loosely
blanked ,opt"hd~a fluid flow is produced ro bleed the pipe of air. The blank is
[h~I1;-..'tigt;tened and the fluid pressure is raised in stages, checking fo r leaks at
\'\;\.~~'ach stage. TIle pressure is finally raised [a the value specified b)t the rest. '111e
\,\~ ~ nonnal proof lest pressurc for a pipe is one and a half urnes lhe maximum
\. ..~,~ working pressure of the pipe in se rvice. The proof test pressure should be
maintained for the rime specified in the test, typically about three minutes.
During this time, the pressure should hold without am' funher need for
pumping and there should be no signs of leaks.
Hydraulic Test Rig

TIle hydraulic test rig is used for testing aircraft hydraulic system components.
A typical rig consists of a steel work table that is supplied with fluid from two
single plunger hand pumps, a rotary hand pump, a pressure intensifier, a fluid
reservoir, twO filters , two reliefyahtes, two release valves, a stop valve, pressure
gauges and a range of connectors and hoses for connecting components into
the rig.
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Hydraulic test rig instruments arc subject to periodic calibration and the
calibration record should be checked by the operator before testing
commences. The rig fluid must be clean and be of the type used by the system
components it tests. The rig filters are of the self-cleaning type but there is a
requirement to turn the band-wheels frequently. I f the filters are removed for
cleaning, tlle), must be cleaned in the same type of fluid that is used in the rig.
I-loses tbat are used to connect components to the rig pressure and rerum
points m ust be regularly inspected, a few nasty instances have occurred where
a rig hose has burst during a test. The rig is capable of intensifying fluid
pressures up to 6,OOOpsi so extreme care is required when disconnecting
components and when checking for leaks. The opera LOr should be wearing an
apron, gauntlets and a full-face shield when conducting any rests on trus type
of rig.
Pressure Testing Pnewnatic & O:~.-)'gen System Pipes
Pneumatic and oxygen system pipes are normally subjected to two types of
p ressure rest, h~'draulic and pneumatic The hydraulic pressure test carned out
using water as the test fluid. "nle second pressure test is carried out using
compressed air at maxim u m sys lem wooong pressure whilst the pipe is
fully submerged in a \vater tank. 111e pneumatic test rig incorporates a p ressure
regulator, a relief yalve, an oil and water trap, pressure gauges and filters . \"'\!hen
conductin g the pneumatic pressure test on a pi~e that is connected to the rig,
the regulator and relief "alve should be set to the required test pressure and the
air pressure should be slowly raised in the pipe. The test pressure should be
held for five minutes while the pipe is examined for leaks. Leaks will be
indicated by bubbles.
Pipes must be thoroughly cleaned after testing. The approved manufacturing

instructions ,vill normally include details of the cleaning process. Typically,
pneumatic system pipes are flushed with white spirit or a similar solvent and
then dried with a jet of clean, dry air. Pneumatic and oxygen system pipes
require particular care in that they must be fre~ of any trace of oil or grea ~.
Oxygen pipes are typically cleaned by a vapour degreasing process followed b):
washing through in boiling water foll owed by flushing with demineralise<;.
watcr. -me pipes arc finally purged and dried ,\.rith clean dry nitrogen, \vater~
pumped air or breathing m''"Ygeo before being blanked. Alternatively, the pipi
may be flush ed ,\~th trichloroethylene and blow dried in double filtered dry a~
Any additional external cleaning or drying required during the process sho~
be done with lint· free cotton cloth . If the pipe is not to be used immedia~y
I -
aftcr cleaning, it should be blanked off and th!,!n sealed in a clean polr~~ne
bag. ~"
~
"
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CHAPTER N I N E
PIPE S & HO SES
Inspection of Installed Rigid Pipes

1\ number of problems can affect installed rigid pipes because of their location
and oper:uing environment. Pipes in exposed positions such as wheel wells
may become damaged by regular contact with flying srones, grir, mud, water
spray and icc. [n other locations, they may become damaged by carelessly
performed and often unrelated servicing activities. Pipes can be stood on,
levered aside, used as climbing frames and be otherwise generally abused in
often quite unique ways during their sen>ice life. Particular care should be taken
when inspecting pipes in exposed locations to check for distortion, chafing,
cracks, kinks, corrosion and leaks that might be attributable to these causes.
I nspection should also include a check on the condition of the required pipe
identification markings
Cha fing can occur out of sight under pipe clamps and clips because of
constant ,-ibration.l\loisrure and spilt fluids can become trapped in the packing
and this can produce e.'Hensi'-e corrosion oyer time. Chafing rna)' also occur
between pipes and the aircraft strucrure. Properlr routed and supported pipe
runs should not be at any risk from chafing but loose and fracrured pipe clips
may quickly alter that situation. Fatigue aho becomes a fearure where pipes
become free to vibrate. Sharp bends in pipes that e).-penence high-pressure
pulsations, such as hydraulic fluid lines from pumps, can slowly develop an
oval cross-section on lhe bends that may eventually lead ro fraCnire.
Installed pipes will have been wire locked. The integrity of the locking should
be checked. Pi peline connections are often norociousl), hard to reach and
require skill, and patience, to lock. Locking wire mar break around the sharp
edges o f drilled locking wire boles when too much tension has been applied, or
where people have subsequently trodden on it! Com-ersely, wire may have
sli pped on large unions and loosened. In either case, the secu ril), of the
connections must be verified before re-Iocking.
'1(\\,r
Leaks . ~p ;.\ftn/d -systems may be revealed by the presence of fluid or an
~ccliYkUlation of dirt around a pipe connection. Minor leaks in a gas sYSlem will
\\).<'bften cause a noticeable loss in system pressure. A major leak can often be
heard but detecting the source of a small gas leak is a little more difficult. nle
application of a soap solution will often rc,-eal small leaks as bubbles. Care
must be taken when checking for either fluid or gas leakage in high-pressure
systems because the force of an invisible pinhole stream of fluid or gas C:1n
easily penetr.Hc the skin and cause serious injury. 1n a similar vein, care must be
taken when checking high temperature fluid or pneumatic lines and lines
carrying toxic substances. Leaks in oxygen lines are particularly hazardous
where they may create high concentrations of the gas in comparonents.
1fleakage is defCCted from a pipe connection, it may only be tightened where if

is suspected [0 be loose but it must never be O\·e r-tig h ten ed in an altemp! to
StOP a leak_ Loosening and then re-tightening the connection may cure the leak
but if this fails, the connection must be stripped and the cause ascerL'lined_
Leaks arc often the result of solid particles trapped or embedded on the Oared
connection faces and tightening down on these just creates the potential for
further damage and rarely stOps the leak.
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\\!hen any damage IS discm'ered, reference must be made to the approved

Aircraft Maintenance Manual to check the limits of acceptability. \'('-hen
corrosion is disco\"cred. the corrosive product~ must be removed before the
depth of any corrosion pits are be measured. I
Testing Installed Pjpes
At first sight, this section may seem to be in excess of the syllabus requirement.
However, the syllabus merely states 'inspection and testing of aircraft pipes and
hoses'. It does not specify at what stage the testing takes place. \'\Ie could make
the mistake of believing that it only refers to parts that ha\"e been removed or
that have been locally made up - it does not sa)' that! It is jus t as unportant to
'read' the syllabus, as it is to 'read' the question in an exami nation, The real
meaning can often lie in what is not stated rather than \vhat is. Again, we \,rill
play safe.
Hydrauli c Sys tem
Aircraft hydraulic systems are often subjected to flow and leak rate tests after
components have been disturbed. The Alrcr~ft Mai ntenance r.!anual \ Vlll
specify when these tests are required. Installed pipe-\vork is a part o f the
system and disturbing it may trigger a requirement for testing. Regardless of
this, whenever a hydraulic system pipe has been disturbed, it should be
checked for leaks whilst at m aximum syst e m press ure
Flow tests are usually conducted using an exterpal tes t rig connected into the
system. The hydraulic semces are systematically operated and the hydraulic
flow rates arc recorded from the cig flow meter. The leak rate check involves
pressucising the system to normal operating prbssllre, rurning o ff the test rig,
~nd,,8becking .the time t,aken for the s)'st~m ptess.ure to drop b)~ a specifi~d
,,\\(}\lTicfunt. All disturbed pipe-work connecuons are IOspected for SlgnS of flwd
_co\\C~c. -' leaks during this period. \'{'here a problem is isolated to a single source, the
\"';)'~~' part should be removed for inspection.
c
P neu matic System
High-pressure pneumauc systems are a racity these days on large aircraft btlt
may be encountered on light aircraft. These "rill be subjected to leak rate te~
when com ponents have been disturbed . \Vhegever a system pipe has be ~
disturbed, it showd be checked for leaks whilst at maximum systenf
pressure . Leaks can be detected by brushing connections with an acid fre£:
soap solution. The time taken for the ma..ximum system pressure to drop to !if
specified value is an indication of the leakage raie. Some aircraft have hydrau&
accumwators that are charged \\·i th nitrogen. Again, the time taken for tBe
acnunulator pressure to fall to a specified ,alue is an indication of the integilty
of any seals and charging connections . I ~.;
0\-
IV10st large aircraft h""e low-pressure pneumatic systems that rely on :4Jtanium
alloy and stainless steel pipes to duct high temperature air from the ~gines to
the "arious air operated sen-tces. Grea t care must be taken when checking
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CHAPTER NIN E
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these pipes for leaks because the air temperatures are high enough [0 cause
painful burns [0 unprotected skin. Again, these systems are subiected to leak
rate tests afrer components have been dis turbed.
O "J'ge n Sys te m
\'i:rhcnever an oxygen system pipe is disturbed, it must be tested for leakage.

The leak rest must be carried our with the system at its Donnal maximum value.
Leaks are detected using a leak detecting solution that is free of any
combustible sllbstances. The solution is applied with a soft brush whilst the
connections arc scanned for signs of frothing o r the formation of bubbles. AU
traces of the solution must be remm-ed after the test br rinsing it off with dean
warer and then drying with a clean. lint free cotton doth.
O"-ygen systems are subjected to £low rate tests a.nd special m"1'gen flow meters
arc supplied for tlus purpose. Special leak rate testing equipment is also
prO\~ided for checking the leakage cates through yalves etc. The predominanl
leak calC test is howeyer, the time taken for tbe system pressure to fa.U from
maximum to a given \·alue. Great care needs to be taken because an oxygen
system that has dropped in pressure below a specified "alue will become
contaminated with moisture and it will require purging.
Fuel System
\\'?henever an aircraft fuel system component or pipe has been disturbed, the
sys tem requires pressure and £low testing. The pressure test is nonnally
conducted by opening the related fuel tank low~pressure fuel cock and
switclung on the fuel tank booster pumps in the rank concerned. All pipes and
connections arc then inspected \"isually for signs of leakJI.ge under pressure.
Flow testing is carried out in accordance with the Aircraft ~fa i nlenance
~ranual. TIle tes t is designed to ensure that the system will provide a fuel flow
to each engine Il~~ is in excess of the normal requirement when operating at
maximum\, pb\V~~. All flow testing is conducted with the aircr:lft levelled
larc{iilJf and longitudinally and with the fuel tanks containing the minimum
\\:-.o\fbel qu ant ity, which is the un u sable conte nt p lus the am ount of fu el
.'(" required to conduc t th e test .
, .-;.\''c'
Full £low testing is required after a major component change or a major

breakdown of the fuel system. .A fuel flow rest rig is required for this [CSt. The
rig measures the gra\·jr)' feed and pump pressure fuel £low rates from each lank
to each engine.
Aircraft Hoses
Hose assemblies for use in high-pressure fluid systems are nonn:illy supplied as
completely made up assemblies. There are some l)'pes of hose where the cnd
fittings can be replaced. The syllabus for this chapter docs not require you to
explain how to construct a hose. However, to inspect a hose, it is useful to
know something about it.
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The size o f a hose is given as the internal diameter of its bore. You may recall
that the size of a rigid pipe is a meas ure of its outside diameter so there is an
important difference. A 1/ 2in hose means that its bore is 1/ 2in diameter, not
its outside diameter.
1\ hose as sembly is nonnally classified by it~ maxim l illl design operating

pressure. The maximum operating pressure of d hose is inversely proportional
[0 the diameter of its bore. The larger the diameter, th e lo\ver the maximum
operating pressure. As a guide, they are classified as follows: low pressure up to

2S0psi, medium pressure up to 1S00psi and high pressure above lS00psi.
Inn er
I ligh Pressu re I-lose TmpTcgn::ttcd

Cotton Braid
Inncr
Braid [jner
~[ e d.iu m Pressure H ose
Co,er
LO\v Pressure II ase

Cotton Braid rnner Tube
Figur e 9 .21 - H ose Asse mblies
d6mV}.p\essure hoses are constructed from thin walled flexible mbing that has a
"i\\C.":"':' "2.~' seamless inner liner that is covered with a reinforcing layer of braided cottOil.
~~'(.' (.\.) T he hose would normally ha\·e a protective buter cover made of smooth
;-.,.,,- \.- "\"'. rubber. Another type has a corrugated constrLlction that incorporates a spiral
,..:;~'~ spring steel wire embedded in the corrugatiolls. Low-pressure hose would be
(.\.~" typically used in instrument systems where negative pres sures exist..
Ivfedium pressure hoses have a seamless inner liner that is covered by a layer &J
syn~heric rubber impregnated with braided c6tton and a further layer C}f
braided steel. ;::
High-pressure hoses have a seamless inner liner covered in two or more layer,f
of braided steel that are separated by layers of synthetic rubber impregnatcil.
braided cotton that protects them and assists in bonding them in place. Tlili
type of hose is typically used on tbe pressure sid~ of hydraulic systems. ..f:
,"'"
The length of a hose assembly that has straight end fittings IS a measureR' the
dis tance between the extreme ends of the conn1e ctor nipples. \'Vhen ap angled
v
connector is fitted, the length measurement is taken from the cent.te of the
bore at the end of the nipple in the angled connector. ."
I
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CHAPTER NINE
PIPES & HO S E S
l.cnglh
fOOjl====too1
Length
Length
Fig ure 9.22 · Measuring Hose Length
I Jose assemblies arc designed for specific purposes and it is essentia l lhat the
correct hose be fitted. The materials used are specifically designed to resist
attack by the fluid used in a system. HowC1'er, these materials are ofren readily
atracked by other rypes of fluid. Some hose materials such as PTFE arc vcry
susceptible [0 damage from careless handling. Tn addition (0 [he pressure and
temperature that a hose is exposed [0, it is also subjected to vibrauon and. in
some cases, large angles of flexing.
I nspectjon)
,,,; . o~t~staJ.l ed Hose Assemblies
c.. .,\\<.:-;:;
.
\\>\1"here is ~ui[e a 10l [a check when inspecting hoses. I ha,-e highligh ted a key
word in each paragraph [0 enable you to list the cbecks in rour mind.
Aircraft £lex.ible hoses often haH a sen;ce life beyond which they have [0 be
replaced. \Xnen inspecting a hose assembly, the da te of manufactu re should
be checked to ensure that there is ade~uale life remaining [Q cover rhe next
inspection period. The date of manufacture is marked on the hose. It may be
displayed as a stencil on the outer cover or be impressed on a band auached to
the hose. In some cases, the date is sho\\'n as a colour coded series of woven
cotton strands to indic:ue the month and yea r of manufacture.
The g enera l cond itio n of a hose may be recognised by the stare of the outer
co\'er. This may be flaked, hardened or discoloured and it rna)' displa),
circumferential cracks or crazing. These defects are usually acceptable
providing the cracks do nO[ extend down to the underlying braiding. If the
braiding is exposed, the hose is rejected. If there arc any signs of separation of
the cover or braiding from the inner liner, the hose must be rejected.
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Excessively deep and pennanent indentations caused by tight clamping are

another cause for rejection.
Some hoses that do not flex 1Il service, particularly those used in hot zones
such as in engine compartments, often take up a perm anent set. Teflon hoses
arc yery prone to this in most locations. Other hoses are p re-fanned into a
required shape. You should never attempt to straighten any of these hoses if
they are remo,ed for any reason. The condition is not in itself a cause for
rejecoon but if you have grounds to suspect they have bee n damaged, you
should replace them .
Light chafing and cuts 1n the outer coyer ar~ also acceptable providing the
braiding is not exposed. !-Iowe\-er, the cause of the damage should be located
and put right. \,bere hoses do not have an oueer, protective cover, any damage
to the braiding is a cause fo r rejection. Care needs to be taken to check for
chafing under securing clips. \'{'here this is eddJnr, both the hose and the clips
must be n:placed.
Kinks in hoses are primarily caused by incorrect installation or mishandling. A

kink is recognised by a sharp increase in radius at one point along a bend . This
may be concealed by an outer cover so you should check by using ftnger
pressure to detect any discontinuity under the cover. A ny kink in a hose is a
cause to re ject it.
The ins taUati on o f a hose should be checked to ensure that it is nOt twisted
around ils axis, stressed or bent through too ~harp an angle. Hoses have a
longitudinal 'lay-line' on their oU[er cover and dus is prm-ided to indicate any
twist in the hose. Hoses that connect fr91TI the strucrure to moving
components should be examined to ensure that they have no signs o f having
chafed against anything during their travel or have been strained or kinked as a
result o f incorrect fitment. All supporting clips should be checked to see that
the~8be correctly fttted and that there is no sign of chafing or stress.
1\.\\)6 - "
Cp\\<-,?-C'" TIle hose should be inspected to ensure that there are no signs of
_ \'>;\~«' contamination on the outer cover. Tins normally shows up as swelling,
~,\ ... sponginess, hardening or a break~up of the surface of the hose. Any bose that
( ,-.,5'.--
~~,
shows anI.' of these signs of contamination must be re,·ected.
The hose should be checked for evidence of blistering on the outer cov~ .
Blisters do not always constitute a cause fo r I rejection. However, the h~
should be removed for further e:xamination. l11C examination will depend on
the sys tem in which the hose is fttted . T he checks are as follows: ~
Tf the hose is in a pneumatic system, you shoul1 insert a chisel-pointed neei

into the blister parallel \v-idl the outer coyer so that the needle penetrates tl;:e
outer cover only. If the blister collapses, the hose should be subjected t<;t~
pressure test at one and a half time the maximum working pressure of.~lEe o
system. The test is conducted on a pneumatic test rig with the hose subm~ged
in water. WThen the hose is pressuriscd, the air supply should be rurned Gtfr. Air
bubbles wi.U be emitted from the air t.rapped un1der the cm-er. If thescxirail o ff
and stop , the hose is acceptable. [f a constant stream of bubbles is ~seryed,
this indicates a leak and the hose must be rejected.
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CHAPTER NINE
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If thc hosc is part of a hydraulic systcm, the blistcr should be puncrured as

before. If fluid is emitted from thc puncture hole, the hose must be rejected. If
only air is emiued, thc hose should be subjected to a pressure (CSt with
hrdra ulic fluid at one and a hal f rimes the maximum system working pressu re
for a pcriod of tWO minutes. I f no fluid leaks from rhe hose in rhis time, the
hosc is acceptable.
,\ hose asscmbly should be checkcd for signs of corrosIOn on the wire

braiding or on rhe end connectors. Anything more than \'ery light, localised
corrosion is a rca son to reject the hose assembly.
The signs of overheating are scaling, crazing or discolourarion on a rubber

outer cover. Thcse arc not acceptable. \'\lhen the outer cover consists of wire
braid, this rna)' rum an overall golden brown when exposed to hear. This
overall discolourncion is acceptablc but if it displays patches of discolouration,
the hose must be rejected.
Finally, a hose should be checked for leaks when the systcm is pressurised.
Fluid leaks under the outer conr may appear at the cnds of lhc hose or m.1y
stain the cm"cr. This may nor occur when the leak is slight and thc outcr co,'cr
may havc to be squcczed to re,·cal the leakage. Pneumaric leaks may be
detected with the use of brushed on soap solution. If there is any doubt ahout
a hose asscmbly, it must be remol"ed for a pres sLlre check. Any leakage from a
hose is a cause for rejection.
Inspection of New H ose with Reusable End Fittings

Some hoses have re-usable end fittings co save the COSt of renewing :I hose
when only the hose section is rejected. Sockets and nipples that have been
removed from ~ynserviceabJe hose must be inspected for damage, corrosion
and evidell€'C1or parts of the old hose adbecing to the threaded portion. All
*?Lc,B~.:or the old hose must be removed. TIle union nuts and the cone faces
\\).~ ~hould be checked for damage.
;\frcr the new hose assembly has been made up, the umon outS should be
checked for freedom of movement and the hose should be inspected for signs
of damage :'11 the point of entry inro the conneclors. Signs of internal damage .
such as bulges and flaps should be checked by looking mrough rhe hose with a -3.,
light held at the opposite end. \'{'bere this is nO{ practical, a ball test or a flow "~
tcst should be carried Out. ,
After the new hose has been inspected, it should be thoroughly cleaned and
dried and prcssure tested to one and a half times maximum system pressure. 3
-
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Testing of Aircraft Hoses

Ball Test
The ball rest is designed to verif" that the bore of a hose is dimensionally
correct and is clear. 1\ steel ball ha~ing a diametJr that is approximately 90% o·f
the diam eter of t h e bore of the en d fittings should pass freely through the
bore under its own weight whilst the hose is suspended from one end. The rest
is repeated by passing the ball through the hose in the opposite direction. If the
ball becomes lodged in the bore, the hose should be cut open to remove it.
This avoids the risk of the hose being inadvertenciy issued for use. The test can
be carried out on small bore hoses using a rod dst~ad of a ball.
Flow Test
The ball test is not always accepted as sufficient proof that the flow rate is
correct. A flow test involves measuring the ~olume of fluid passed through the
hose in a specified time under rest conditions.
Pressure Test
Removed fluid system hoses are pressure tested 00 a hydraulic test rig similar
to that already described for the testing of rigid pipes. T he tes t fluid should be
similar to that used in the system the hose will be fitted to. \'\'hen pressure
testing a hose that has been removed from an aircraft, tbe operator of the rig
should be protected from tbe effects of a possible hose burst by a heavy plastic
screen. Polycarbona te screens are often employed for this purpose. \'Vhen
com~fI~ssed air is used as a pressure test medium, the hose should be
",\\\"Subfi1erged in water during the test.
,;:..': .-
,~
-.,
\'"
.:I.~~' "
(.0"'-
The hose is fitted onto the ng and should be restrained to the approximate
,\,,- - shape that it would have in service. Unless otheI"\vise stated, the proof tes t
{.\'-
pressure is one and a h alf times the maximum working pressure of the
,.'.
,~' .
h ose . The test pressure should be maintained in the hose for at least two
nunutes. If the hose does nor flex in seI"\Tice, it should be fle xed gy
approximately 15° from its normal shape sevCfal times each \vay during t~
pressure test. However, hoses that do not flex in service that are used in bigti
temperature regions should not be flexed during the test because they may b it
heat affected and could be damaged by flexing.
I-loses that are subjected to fleXIng In seI"\'1ce should be flexed through th ~

!lonnal operaung range plus ISO each \vay. Thtre should be no leakage fr~:n
the hose assembly during this rest. } ""'
There may be occasions where a fluid system h~se has to be tested in sin-ifOne
end of the hose is blanked off whilst the other end is connected to aAiressure
""
rig through a universal inflation adaptor. Installed hoses can also b(.~rHessure
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C H APTER NIN E
P I P E S & H O S E S
tested to check for leaks by subjecting chern to maxunum system pressure

usi ng an exte rnal tCSt rig or the system pumps.
G asoline fuel hoses tha t have been remO\red from the aircraft should be
pressure tested using pam ffin as the {cst fluid. Removed pneumatic and oxygen
s),stem hoses afC nonnally proof pressure tesred using water and arc then dried
in a warm air blast and re- tested with dry air at maximum system pressure.
Oxygen hoses must never be connected to a compressor for a pressure test
because of the risk of oil contamination.
Bonding Test
I-lose assemblies that havc met:t1 wire braiding, spiral wire reinforcemenl or any
other fonn of metal construction must be subjected w ao electrical bonding
lest. The bonding resistance should not be more than the greater of 0.05 ohm
or 0.025 ohm per foot length.
Storage of Flexible Hoses

l lose and hose assemblies should be srored away from sunlighr, strong lights
and elcctrical machinery and switchgear. Unpacked hoses must be Hored so
that air can circulate freely around them. The swrage temperature should be
maintained bcl\veen lOoe and 26°C. The storage life of hose assemblies is
calculated from the date of manufacrure or assembly. TIle li fe, storage
requirements and the inspection and testing of hose assemblies whilst in
storage and prior [Q instillation are contained in the releyant r-. la intcnance
l\·lanual or manufacturer's instructions.
Pre-fo[mG~l'ho~"~sscmblies and Teflon (PTFE) hose assemblies that arc

st,?:,cll-":a'fter remo\'al from an aircraft should always be stored so that their
\.... ).~ ~'hape is maintained. No attempt should be made to straighten them or bend
them further. The correct blanks should be fined [0 all hose assemblies whilst
10 storage.
Installation & Clamping of Pipes

Here we run across a dilemma. I\ Iany people carelessly usc the term ai rcraft
pipes when whaT they actually mean are rigid pipes and flexible hoses. ·nle
previous section was specified as being the inspection and testing of aircraft
'pipes and hoscs' whereas this section merely refers to 'pipes'. Do we lake the
risk that this docs nor include the instaUation of flexible hoses? It is even odds
dlal someone, somewhere is going to include them and witi justify the decision
by linking thei r installation to the earlier inspection requirement. On thal
premise, , would say that we are justified in including their installa tion here!
We will start with the instaUation of 'rigid pipes'.
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CH A PTER NIN E
PIPES & HO S E S
Ins tallation of Rigid Pipes
Before you attempt to fil a manufactured rigid pipe into an aircraft, you must
check that it bas the correct part number and that it has been inspected and
tested. The inspector's stamp is usually found near to the part number
marking. The part should be accompanied by a <;:ertificate of Release to Service
and this should be checked. The pipe should be inspected to ensure that there
arc no signs of corrosion or damage to the pipe, its end fittings and the flated
ends. Tf you suspect that the pipe has been damaged or deformed, it should be
returned for further flow and pressure testing.
The pipe should be thoroughly cleaned to remove any protective compounds

and then blown through willi clean dry air. rt IS recommended that fluid pipes
be Hushed out with clean, fihered fluid of the type used in the system. Oxygen
pipes are subject to a special degreasing and drying process that ensures that
they arc not contammated by oil at grease deposits that could cause an
explosion. If the pipe is nor gOlng to be fined immediately, it must be properly
blanked off ",,;rh approved blanks.
Care should be taken nOt to damage the pipe when carrying it to the aircraft.
You do not want to lean it lying around o n the serv;cing platfonn to be
trodden on or kicked over the side! Blanks should not be removed until you
are ready to lnstall the pipe - beetles are fascinated by open pipes!
The pipe should be loosely placed into positio? in its supporting clamps and
adjusted to align tl1t~ end connections. The unkm nuts should be checked to
ensure thal lhey are free [Q rotate and can be pulled back without being
obstructed by bends or marker tapes. If the pipe is of the flared end type, you
should check that any required nipple adaptors are properly fitted . You might
be surprised by rhe number of times a pipe has been fitted \,,;th the nipples left
in a plastic bag tied to a component!
-'uO""1
~1..\l'iPne- pipe
connectors should align \\11th the mating connections - pipes must
c",\\.;:-!.e never be forc ed or levered into alignment becduse tillS introduces stress that
; ~:..~(' could potentially lead to leakage or fatigue failure . This is not always that easy
,-l5"\\. " to achieve when YO ll are dealing with stainless steel pipes and you need to
(.I..~'\'~ . exercise a great deal of patience and restraint at rimes. You should also ensure
that the pipe is not being pulled into position by the union nuts as they are
tightened. TillS puts a direct strain on the flared sections or the pre-Ioad9
sleeyes in a flareless connection. 3-,
15.-
If the procedure calls for the pipe threads to be lubricated, this must be carrieq:
out using the specified lubricant, taking care not to allow it to enter the bore of
the pipe. Oxygen pipe connectors must never be lubricated with oil or greasi
TI1ere are special dry film lubricants that are sometimes specified for this. ,::.,
o·
T wo spann ers must always be used when righ~ening, or disconnecting, a w pe '"
connection. \"i"?here a pipe is to be connected o nto a component union ad~ tor,
one spanner is used LO hold the component union adaptor whilst the sec~nd is
llsed to turn and tighten the pipe union nut onto it. \,!hen a pip_4~to- pipe
connection is being made, one spanner is used to hold the eXlernallr9threaded
Ulllon adaptor while the internally threaded pipe union nut is turned and
505
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C H APTER N INE
P I PE S & HO S E S
ciglllcncd on to it. I f there is an adap lor positioned berween the pipe

connectors, the adaptor is held with one , panner while each pipe L1nion is
tightened on to it using a second spanner. Union nuts must nOI be over-
tightened because this merely places strain on the threads. In rhe case of
aluminium alloys, this can lead to fractured threads.
Nor all pipes have flared connections. Pipe ends that han compressed rubber
gland connectors must be presscd hard against thc shoulder of the recess in the
union adaptor before the union nU[ is tightened. Rareless connectors rely
either on the compressive force of a ridged metal gland or, a degree of 'bite'
exerred by the cutting edge of a compression slee,·e. OYer or under-tightening
these connectors when they arc being installed can render rnem ineffective. If
this type of connector leaks, it must never be rightened further. TIle connector
mUSl be dismantled and inspectcd. The details on these connectors and the
methods of pre-setting them may be found in i\[odule 6 Chapter 6 under the
heading of 'Standard Rarcless Connectors'.
I would remind you of the importance or wire locking pipe connectors 10

unions correctly. Details on this may be found in i\lodule 6, Chaptcr 5 under
the heading of ' Locking \'fire'. For example, when a hose union nut is
connected to a component through a sc rewed adaptor, there is little point in
JUSt wire locking the pipe union nut to the adaptor because the adaptor loosens
in rhe same direction as che union. The component adaptor mUSl be locked
separalely to a tixcd point on the component. Alternatively, the pipe union nUl
may be locked di rectly to a fixed point on the component.
G",~:d End of \,'ire ,_~_
,_-I- Angle of
Approach
Correct
Figurt 9.23 - Locking Unions
\,\' hen flexible hose is used to connect rigid pipes with beaded ends, the correct
type of hose that is compatible with the system fluid must be used. t\ gap of .J
0.25in ro 0.5in (6mm to 12mm) should exist berween dle pipes to pro\'ide
clearance should the coupling flex. The hose clips should be fitted on the far
side of the beadings and correcrly tightened. i\ 'bonding jumper' should be
fitted across the connection 10 ensure electrical continuity.
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CHAPT E R N I NE
PIPE S & H OSES
Supporting Rigid Pipes
Support clamps are used to secure pipes to the aircraft structure, or to

components such as the pO\ver plants. The clamps support the pipes, avoid
chafing and reduce stress. The [\Va most commonly used clamps are the rubber
cushioned clamp and the plain clamp. The rubber-cuslu oned clamp 1S used in
areas where "ibration may create a problem with chafing. \,:there there is a
group of pipes that run adjacent to each other, multiple pipe clamps may be
used. T hese clamps are frequently made of red fibre composite material,
alurruruU!11 allor, nylon or moulded mbber. The halves of the clamps are
usually bolted together and secured to the aircraft strucnm;. The recetises in
these clamps must match the size of the pipes they will support and any
cushioning that is req uired. Pipes that run parallel to each other and connect to
furrher ppe runs are frequently designed so they all make [heir pipe-to-pipe
connections through a fLxed bracket that is attached to the structure or to a
component such as a landing gear leg.
I I
Figure 9.24 - Pipe Support
;\)\'-;
1\)\\(\ - ~
C~)\\c.z.c ~ Single <P' clips that incorporate moulded rubber linings are used to secure
~ ~~{' . pipes to the structure at specified intervals. A double 'P' clip is used to hold
,':\'\. ~ adjacent pipes apart from each o ther to prevent chafing whilst providing
. ...-.\'.,,-.:.- support. Other plain securing clips require packing and it is very important
l· that the correct packing material is used that is compatible \vidl the material of
the ppe. Typical packing materials are: tinned copper or stainless steel gau~,
tape, rubber and Teflon . Teflon is used where there is a risk of comaminati®
by phosphate-ester oils such as Skydrol or Chevron B . .As a protection again ~
corrosion, aluminium alloy pipes are usually trea ted with varnish in the rcgiofif
where they contact rubber-cushioned clamps. Leather must never be use<£'
,
becausc this contains acid that \.v'ill corrode the metal pipe and clip material. €'
Some support clamps are electrically self- bonded (0 the pipe. Other clips ~,
require metal gauze packing to achieve a bonded contact. 'Bonding jumgi'''i=s'
are fre(luenciy used to bridge pipe connections and these must be of th ~iype
specified in the associated aircraft manual or drawing, .$:(
(,
ivIinimum clearances must be maintained to avoid chafing between Pipes and
fD::ed structure, control rods and other rigid moving parts and control cables .
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CHAPTER NINE
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The nurumum clcarnnces are: O.25in (6tnm) from fixed Slrucrurc; O.75in
(18mm) from control rods and rigid moving parts; l.Oin (25mm) from comrol
cables. These clearances apply throughout the fujI rangc of movcment of parts
and the vibrat.ion, movement, expansion and contraction of partS induccd by
the aircraft opcration. All fluid pipes are roured beneath clectrica llooll1s, never
above them, :'Ind they should clear them by a specified amount.
Fig ure 9.25 • Example of a Rigid Pipe lnslallalion
The distance betwccn pipc support clamps will be specified in the rcl:ucd
Aircraft ~1:'Iinrcn:lIlce ~lanua1. Distances range between nine inches for smill
diamctcr pipcs and forty inchcs for \'cry large diameter pipes. Smaller di:'lmclcr
pipes require morc support than larger diameter pipes.
"1.)\(
.,\,,,\b ...
p ~,~ .J Rstall ati o n Tes ts
«'
\"\~ All rigid pipes will have been pressure tested after manufacrure. There is,
howe\'er, a requirement [0 carry out a flow and a pressure leSt aftcr the), ha\"c
been installed. This is necessary to ensure that there are no leaks from the pipc
or its connections [hroughom the pressure range of the system and that the
required flow rate for the correct operacion of the system is achie\·ed.
Dcpending upon rhe system, the powcr for carrying out the rests is obtained
from either :'In extcrnal tcst rig or the engine driven pumps. All insmlled testing
must be carried our in accordance with thc rdevaI1t Aircraft ~laintenance
~fanua1. \'('hile the system services are being operated. the pipe should be
-
,;J'
checkcd for signs of flexing or movement that would reduce the stipul:'lted
clearances. The system should be allowed to denlop its maximum working
pressure, which should be maintained for :'I sufficient time [0 permit a leak
check to be c:'lrried out. \¥Je ha\'e already discussed the general nature of the
chccks that arc nonn:'ll1y associated with parCcll}:'Ir aircraft systems so there is
no need to repeat them here. Once the pipe has been installed and tested
successfully, if should be locked in the required manner.
508
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CHAPTE R NINE
PIPES & HOSES
Ins talling Flexible Hoses
Before a hose assembly is installed, it must be inspected to check that it is not

damaged or corroded. Its part numbet, date of manufacture and the date of the
last test should be checked. In some cases, the maintenance p rocedure will
insist on a further pressure test before installation. T he hose bore should be
examined as far as is practicable to ensure that is clear and undamaged. Straight
hoses may be checked using a light source but hoses with angled connectors
will require a ball tes t.
The bore of the hose should be blown through with clean, dry air and, where
reconunended by the manufacturer, it should be flushed with the type o f fluid
used by the system the hose assembly will be fitted to.
General Ins tallation Points
j\s pressure increases, a hose will expand radially and this will shorten it. For
this reason, a hose must ne,er be under any tension. There must always be
slack in the run of a flexible hose to allm" for this sh rinkage under pressure
and to allow for vibratio n and whipping. The minimum amount of slack
req uired in all straight hose assemblies is at least 3% of the distance between
the fittings to which they are connected. Simply, the hose assembly should be
at least 3% longer than the distance between the connection points.
,
~,
'-"%-,
Correct - Hosc Length 3 Percent
G reater than Di sta nce Re(\yccn the
End Fi ttings
Fig ure 9.26 • Allowing for Shrink
.~
o
If a hose runs from one fixed point to another fixed point that is at an angIf~ o
the fust, the use of a hose with straight end connections is not accep talf2e. A
sharp bend in a hose close to a connection creates a lot of strain. To av?-hl this
situation, one end of the hose should be fitted with an angled con!ic·e ror to
rcmove any sharp bend in the hose and lhus p revent the hose 'kinkini .
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CHAPTER NINE
PIPES & HOSES
Incorrect Co n ccr
Figure 9.27 .. H ose Inslalla rion
\Vben a hose runs from a fixed point on the aircraft structure to a componem
that moyes, rhe hose must be installed so that it will not foul anything
throughout the full range of its movement. Additionally. the hose mUSt not be
kinked or placed under tension at the extreme limits of its movemenr.
Tight Bend ---.,,,,, .':-'

......
,'~ 0
.... c.t;I:5.'
.. T· ,'~
.... ~
. .~
0
..
..-. .. .
.' '
" .,,'
,.
Taut
.'
" '".'
':-.,'
•...•.. ..
\ ,'
Incorrecr Co rrect
Figure 9.28 · M ovem e m of Hose Asse mblies
The life of a hose assembly is affected by the amount of bending it

experiences. A check must be carried our to ensure that the bend radius is not
less than that stipulated by the manufacturer. The.re. are two recommended
bend radii for each hose diameter. The minimum radii for hose used in
locations where there is no relaci"e movemenr is smaller than the radii
recommended for locations where there is relative movement between the end
fittings. For example. rhe radii for a hose that connects to the moving part of a
,~
landing gear would be larger than a hose that is connected between two fLxed
points. The 'flex' radius is approx-imately twice that of the bend radius of a ,.
~
~
fixed posicion hose, The radii recommended fo r Teflon (PTFE) hoses is ~;
different to that given for rubber hose due to the stiffer properties of Teflon.
The bend radius of a hose assembly fined to a moving part musr never be less
rhan the recommended minimum rhroughour the full range of movemenr o f
'"
~
the part.
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CHAPTER NINE
PIPES & HO SES
Lty ine
lncorrect - Tam and Twi STed
M~ Correct - Sbck and NO[ Tw]srcd
Figure 9.29 - H ose 'Lay Line'
A flexible hose must ne,-er be twisted around its longimdinal axis during
installation. TIlere is a continuous coloured stripe nmning along the omer
cm'er of a flexible hose that is referred to as the 'Iar-line'. This line is prO\-ided
to give you an indication that tbe hose is straight. I f the hose t\vists during
insrall:Hion, the 'lay-line' stripe will also appear t'.visted. \,\'hen the outer cm-er
of the hose consists of wire braiding, there may not be a 'lay-line' marked on it.
In this case, the correct lay of the braiding is taken as an indication that the
hose is straight.
1\ flexible hose assembly will £lex when internal pressure is applied and it can
'whip' because of surges in pressure. TillS will reduce the clearances bet\veen
the hose and neighbouring parts with the risk of contact and chafing. \'{Then
installing hose assemblies, there must be adequate clea rance bc::twcen the hose
and other parts o f the aircraft structure. \\'Th en there arc a number o f hose
assemblies in the sam e "lClnItY, thought must be given 10 correctly routing
them 1O a\'oid these problems. The Aircraft Maintenance Manual \viU illustrate
the correct routing for you.
InG .rre[( In,tallati(>n Correcr InStllllnuull
Figure 9.30 - Hose Installation
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CHAPTER NINE
PIPES & HO S E S
Ins tallation
When the threads of the hose connectors require lubricarion, this will be
specified by the manufacturer together with the rype of lubricant. Lubricanr
should be applied to me exteITlal threads of the mating adapror rather than the
inrernal threads of the union nut. This avoids the risk of lubricant entering the
bore of the hose. Oxygen hose unions muS( not be lubricated with oil or
grease. Special lubricants ate a\-ai1able for oxygen connecrions but these must
only be applied where authorised and in the manner prescribed in the releyam
manual.
The hose should be offered up to its connections and the union nuts turned up
to fi nger rightness only. The hose should then be held to prevent it t\visting
while the union nuts are tightened up with a spanner. Many hose end fittings
incorporate additional flats on the hose end socket chat can be held with a
spanner to prevent the hose twisring while the union nut is rightened with a
second spanner. You must neyer use these hose socket flats in an attempt ro
righten the union, they ate not designed for TUrning and you \"ill t\vist [he hose.
The hose 'lay line' should be checked to ensure [hat the hose is nOt twisted.
\,{'hen a hose is connected [0 a moving part, you must check that it can only
move in the specified plane. \Vhen a hose moves in more man one plane, a
torsional load is created thar can strain wire braided covers and put a strain on
end fi ttings, potentially loosening chern. Where a hose is required [0 move in
more than ooe plane. wire braided hoses are nor used and special anenrion is
given ro the locking of connectors.
Supporting Flexible Hoses

When there is qgllfclativc movement of the hose, it is clipped at intenTals of
about t\\!ep~four inches to give support. ,'('hen fitting and rightening clips on
fl~'tin'te~ose assemblies, you must not avec-tighten mem or distort the hose
... \,\;I.\,tbVCC. If a hose displays excessively deep and permanent indentations caused
\~,\ by clamping, it should be rejected. The position of me clips should nor put a
(~...~. . .~ . strain on the hose and distort it.
Hoses that are designed to flex in one plane are often fitted into a large U
sectioned support guide that guides the movement of the bose. Ollie guide must
be correctly posirioned in relation to the movement of the hose to avoid the
possibility of [he hose movement being restricted at the limits of travel.
Anti-chafing cape is sometimes wrapped around secrions of a hose where there

is a risk of it chafing agains t n6ghbouring parts. TIus must be strictly limited
because it reduces the flexibility of rhe hose. Leather must nor be llsed to
provide chafe protection because it contains acid that will corrode metal parts
that it contacts.
l'v letal braided hose is normally self-bonding. Other hoses may require 'bonding
jumpers' to bridge the connections. T he Ai rcraft Maintenance Manual will
specify the bondi ng measure to be taken and any required bonding tes ts.
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CHAPTER NINE
PIPES & HOSE S
Post Installation Tests
Wlhen a hose assembly has been 1nstalled, the assOClated system must be tested
to ensure that the flow, pressure and electrical bonding are correct. \\Then the
system services are operated, the hose should be checked for leaks, chafing and
excessive flexing under pressure, If it 1S connected 10 a moving part, the hose
movement must be checked over the full range of travel to ensure that it is not
kinked, tensioned or fouled,
Installing Flexible Metallic Hoses
This type of flexible hose consisrs of an annular or spirally convoluted,

seamless, flexible inner lining covered in stainless steel wire braid, \\"'e will give
this type of hose a special mention because there are a couple of important
points to remembet when installing it,
Flexible metallic hose assemblies are thin \valled, highly stressed parts and it is
very important that they arc not stressed beyond theu elastic limit. Great care
is required when installing the hose, Unions should be initially hand tightened
with the hose lying in its natural position . The construction of this type of hose
means that it \,,;11 always try to adopt a nanual posnion so It is important that
you do nOt t\vist it or place it in any tension "",hen the connections are finally
tightened .
Some of these hoses haye end firtings with Vee band flanges. Care needs to be
taken that the correct 0 ring seals are fitted and that the flanges fit correctly
into the mating spigots before tightening down the Vee band clamps.
This has been a brief excursion imo the world of high-tech 'plumbing'. Module
6, Chapter 6 contains a lot more detail on the varioLis pipes and unions that are
associated with this. The network of aircraft pipes and hoses is there to
transport fluids from where they are stored to where they are needed and back
again if so required. We hope that it \vill continue do this with some assuran'fe
that the fluid s will actually stay within the sys tems because we soon feel tlfS
effects if they do not. Anyone who has had the dubious pleasure of chasinit
'phantom' leaks through a labyrinth of under-floor compartments \vilt
understand this - and how long cheap torch batteries last! It is an importal15:
topic and exarruncrs will know this, T haye included a few multi-choice answdJ"
questions for you to try before we moye on to a completely different topi:~ ,
Meanwhile - the coffee pot beckons! 2
y:::::
o·
,}v
"
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CHAPTER NINE
PIPES & HOSE S
Revision
Pipes & Hoses
Questions
1. Th e Am eri can AN flare angle is:
a) -l5° or 90° inclusive angle
b) 37° o r 74° inclusive angle
2. A rig id pipe is proof press urc tes ted 31 :
a) maximum working pressure
b) 2 times maximum working pressure
c) 1112 times maximum working pressure
3. To absorb vibration and expansion a nd contractio n du e to

tc mp e [atur.~\~ rig i d pipe asscmbly shou ld luwc:
'll.~b
( <a."'t:~tleast one bend
" \'.~{ <'.
:-.,\ l- b) one flardcss connection
,\\'r
I... 'X
c} a sliding nipple adaptor at one end
4. Th e size of rig id mel a l tubing is a m eas ure of its:
a) internal bo re diameter
b) e:ucrnal diameter
c) wall thickness
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CHAPTER NINE
PIPES & HOSES
5. Low melting point, fusible alloy is us ed to :
a) provide internal support \vhen bending tubing
b) attach nipple adaptors into flares
c) tin the bore of rigid pipes
6. A draw bending machine is equipped with a set of:
a) spnngs
b) fixed formers
c) mandrels
7. If a tube ripple!,; on the inside and flattens on the outside 'when being
bent in a compression bending machine, the probable cause is that:
a) the pressure ~e tt:ing was roo high
b) the pressure setting was roo low
c) the mandrel had not been fully inserted
8. The most probable cause of diametrically opposed flash lines on a

pipe flare is:
'!W:I
the half bushes in the flaring tool were not fully closed up
b) exccssi,e pressure was applied during flaring
c) the pipe end \vas not cut square

~
's'
."
-.
~.
9. When bending an o>..]'gen sys tem pip e assembly it should be fillet!:-

,,;th :
a) low melting point, fusible alloy

-
b) mineral oil
c) dry sand
515
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CHAPTER NINE
P I PE S & HOSES
10. An e>.:panding cone Oaring tool s hould nor b e u sed to produce flare s
m:
a) heat treatable aluminium alloy rube
b) stainles s steel rube
c) copper tube
11. I n a correctly formed fla re, th e end of the pipe s h o uld:
a) project slightly beyond the face of the collar
b) be slightly recessed inside the collar
c) align wi th tbe face of the collar
12. A bore test o n a rigid pipe is carried out u sing a s tee l ball 'w ith a
dia m e ter:
a) 80% o f the imernal diameter of the pipe
b) 80% o f the external diameter of the pipe
c) 90% o f the internal diameter of the end connector
13. \'(/ben a pine lis s ubjected to a press ure tes t u sing compressed a ir it
~ O\.' I
m u s trRlf;a.t1 -
v
( .L1W:.'f:
{(" a) filled with water and tested at maximum s\,stem pressure
, '" lo- '
- ,\...\
,.,---.\\~ '" b) tested d ry at 1 V2
.
tlIlles maximum system pressure
\.. '''\
c) fully submerged in water and tested at maximum system pressure
14. Th e w arning s ymbol u sed in th e B S M 23 Iden tific ation Scheme for

pipelines is:
a) a red triangle on a white background
b) a black sh.llil and crossbones on a white background
c) the black letters HAZ on a yellow background
516
CopJnght © &17)' Colle!! 2006·2007 All right! rmrvrd WIIJJ/I.pmt66.rom
CHAPTER NINE
PIPES & HOSES
15. \Vben carrying o ut a p ressu re tes t on a hose ass embly that d oes not
fl ex in se rvice, th e hose s h ould :
a) bc flexed 15° cither side of its normal [cst position during tbe test
b) not be flexed during the test
c) be bent at 90° before carrying out the tcs t
16. T he miOimum le ngth o f a s traig ht hose tha t is fitted b e tween two

fixe d con necti o n s 100cm ap art s h o uld be:
a) 100cm
b) 103cm
c) 120cm
17. A comin uou s co lo ured line running a lo ng th e len gth o f a h ose outer
cover is intend ed to indi cate :
a) stretch
b) t\Vl st
c) flex
~i.\\l8. A\'[ut o n the o ute r cover of a h ose that exp oses the braiding is :
_ ~\\L":"":' ...
'
,~(" l-' a) acceptable subject to a srstem pressure ('est
\ .
b) acceptable providing the braiding is not cut
c) not accep table
.""c-:S..
19. When ti g htening a h ose conn ec tio n that has additional hexagon fl at;
on th e hose soc ke t, you s hould lI SC two spanne rs to :
--
a) hold the hose socket and turn the union nut
b) hold the union nut and rum the hose socket
c) hold the mating component adaptOr and turn the bose socket
517
CopJrighl C Btm) Co/legt 2006 - 2OQ- AD righls rrsm vd 1I.'WW.pllrl66.rom
CHA P T E R NIN E
PI PES & HO SES
20 . If yo u discover fr etting corrosio n on th e w ire braiding o f a hose

und er a suppo rt clip you s h o uld :
a) clean off lhe corrosion and tighten the clip
b) clean o ff lhe corrosion and replace the clip
c) replace the hose and the clip
Revision
Pipes & Hoses
Answers
I. B 16. B
2. C 17. B
3. A IS. C
4. B 19. A
5. A ' 8\'-
1. c
"'I.)\'\u
6. 1.. ~';';"''; ~
,
~ .\('
.'
7. B
, ," '"
~
S. A
9. C
10. B
II. A
12. A
13. C
14. B
IS. A
518
COPJT1ghl C &ny GJ/kgr :!006 . 200 - All right! mm'td R'Il'/J •.parr66.(O",

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BaIlY.

Cardiff .Airport Business Park

CopyrighT (l Darry College 2006 - 2007

.\11 righTS rc~cl"\"cd. ~o P;lrt of tillS pubJicalloll rna,' be reproduced or Ir:lnsnmrcd in

90 TOl1cnh:tm COUrI Road. l.ondon \,'rr -4LP.

Author: Chris Strike

Obj ectives """

A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of rhe subject.

F orwarde. '1C\l,b -. 1.f~~~. . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 1

Safet... Precautions - Aircrnf[ 13

Rcspuarory Protecnon ................................... . 43

Dcalingwlth Emergencies ... • _•• ___ .. _........ ..... ....... . 54

Chapter Two - Workshop Practices

Calibration of Tools & Equipment, Calibration Standards 82

Chapter Three - Tools

\'\food Drill Bits . ............. . ..... . 115 ~.

Dism:lnding & Assembly ' J'ools 124

Vernier Depth Gauge ................................... . 164 ..,,

Vernier Be\'e! Prouaclor ................................... .

Equipment . . . . . . ...... . .... .... .... .. ..... .. ...... . 185

Chapter Four - Avionic General Test Equipment

Knowledge Level: Bl- 2, B2 - 3

VHF Commurucations Tesring ............. . 267 c

Chapter Five - Engineering Drawings, Diagrams &

. \TA Spec 100 Zoning System ......................... .. 317 >;

Chapter Six - Fits & Clearances

Chapte,{\\Se\}~h - Electrical Cables & Connectors

Aircraft Electrical Cable Classificaoons 390

Chapter Eight - Riveting

Action of a R1"CI 4'-

Solid RI"CI Dimensions ................................... . ·126

Ri\'CI Milling ................. _ .. .................... .. . 440 ..,':

Special Purpose Fasteners .. . . . .......... .. . ... . 454

Chapter Nine - Pipes & Hoses

Flaring Rigid Pipes ........................................ . 481 '", ~

Expandcr Conc Raring Tool .......................... . 484 ~

Ai rcraft I-loses .................................................... . 498

The longest journey in a course of self-study c:tn be from :t comformble

Safety Precautions - Aircraft &

The safety culture of an aircraft maintenance organisation is critically important

')\..\c'wlie1~-are numerous publicaciom dealing with safe practices in diffe rent

EASA Part 145 Requirements

'Officc accommodation must be prm-ided appropriate for the management o f

Hazard & Risk

Management may also overlook d1e presence of unsafe environmental

In a perfect world we would all have comfortable, air-conditioned, \\'ell-lit airrl

2. Replace (he hazard \'Ce may be able to reduce me danger by finding

respuators, gauntlets, safety helmets and goggles arc good examples of

:l. Train th e perso n . Educacing people o n the nature of the dangers in

\Vhen an emergency occurs as the resul t of an accident, rour personal safety,

H ealth and Safety at Work Act (1974)

1. 'To secure the health, safety and welfare of people at \vork.'

in criminal law so there is a lot of imponance attached to them. Both the

T ills duty includes in particular:

• '_-\.rrangement for ensuring, so f.'l.[ :l.S is reasonablr practicable, safet~­

• 'fhe prOVISion of such infonn;tuon, mstrucDon, training and

• 'So far as is reasonably practicable as regards any place of work unde r

• 'So far as is reasonably practicable, to ensure char persons, not ~

• '_-\.rrangement for ensuring, so f.'l.[ :l.S is reasonablr practicable, safet~