Fundamental Mechanisms of Penetration
in GTA Welding
Liquid metal flow patterns in the weld pool
are of prime importance in the control of
weld fusion zone shape
ABSTRACT. Continued study of arc
properties using emission spectrosco-
py coupled w i t h computer simulation
of the heat flow in welds has led to an
understanding of the phenomena that
control weld fusion zone shape. It was
found that the liquid metal flow
patterns in the weld pool are of prime
importance and that arc current densi-
ty characteristics and base metal prop-
erties have only indirect influence. The
mode of interaction between the arc
and weld pool flow is presented in
qualitative terms.
Introduction
During the course of investigating a
problem encountered in making deep
penetration GTA welds in high manga-
nese stainless steel (21Cr-6Ni-9Mn), it
was discovered that the determinative
effects occurred in the weld pool rath-
er than the arc. The details of this work
were reported previously,' but high-
lights are repeated immediately below
as background and for completeness.
Emission spectroscopy was used to
measure temperature profiles in the
arc plasma immediately above the
weld pool (manganese vapor d o m i -
nated) for identical arc parameters and
different heats of steel. These mea-
sured profiles were then simulated by
a computer solution to the radiation
equations using assumed radial tem-
perature and vapor density distribu-
tions. The results of these measure-
ments and calculations showed that
the temperature distributions (current
density distributions) were essentially
the same even though the depth-to-
width ratios ( D / W ) of the fusion
zones in the different heats of steel
varied by a factor of 1.8. Since there
were no definitive variations in heat
BY G. S. MILLS
were clearly implied by the data analy-
TABLE 1—Full Width at Half Maximum of
sis.
Current Density Distribution—100 Ampere
Arcs on Cooled Copper Anode Two questions resulted from this
work:
Shi elding gas
1. Do weld pool effects dominate
over arc character in all GTA welding?
100% Ar 50% Ar-50% He 2. What, exactly, is the mechanism
10.1 11.9 by which the pool controls weld pene-
10.9 12.7 tration?
9.8 11.6 To answer the first question, another
10.0 12.3 fusion zone shape effect in arc w e l d -
- 13.3 ing was explored. Typically, helium is
- 11.8 added to argon shielding gas to obtain
Average: 10.2 12.3
an increase in weld penetration w i t h -
Standard
deviation:
out the increase in weld w i d t h usually
0.5 0.6
obtained with an increase in weld
current. The resultant increase in
fusion zone volume implies an in-
Table 2—Arc Parameters for Extended crease in the energy of electrons strik-
Weld Series"" ing the workpiece so that the change
in arc anode voltage (not the same as
Arc total arc voltage) was relevant to
Current, length, Gas mixture
understanding this phenomenon. The
A mm"" (20 cfh total) 1 0 '
change in D / W implies a change in arc
100 1.5 100% Ar current density distribution and/or
125 2.0 50% Ar - 50% He weld pool flow, making measurement
150 2.5 25% Ar - 75% He of these quantities important in an-
175 — — swering both questions.
The results of experiments and
'"Thirty-seven welds using most of the possible combina-
tions were made, including some repetitions. further computer modeling carried out
""1 in. = 25.4 mm.
""20 cfh = 9.44 liters/min in comparing pure argon arcs with
helium-argon arcs are presented in this
paper. Conclusions concerning the
flow within the arc which related to
general importance of weld pool
the changes in D / W , the differences
effects and the mechanism by which
had to occur w i t h i n the weld pool. In
they interact w i t h the arc to control
fact, different patterns of heat and
material flow w i t h i n the weld pools fusion zone shape are also given.
Results and Discussion
Paper selected as an alternate for the 59th
Annual Meeting held in New Orleans, Loui- Current density distribution mea-
siana, during April 3-7, 1978. surements were made, using the inten-
sity-maximum method,- on 100% Ar
G. S. MILLS is in joining Research and
arcs and 50% He-50% Ar arcs. The
Development, Atomics International Divi-
sion, Rockwell International, Rocky Flats values of full w i d t h at half maximum
Plant, Golden, Colorado. (FWHM) taken from these current
W E L D I N G RESEARCH S U P P L E M E N T I 21-s
Table 3—Typical Results of Weld Simulation and Comparison w i t h Expe imental Data

Current
Current, density, Fusion zone Depth/width, Depth/width, Energy input, Energy input
A FWHM area, c m ' exp. calculated watts w i d t h , cm

1.5 mm arc length, 100% argon shielding gas

100 72 0.28 0.62 0.62 230 0.27
125 80 0.49 0.65 0.65 288 0.33
150 88 0.64 0.55 0.56 339 0.50
1.5 mm arc length, 50% Ar-50% He shielding gas
100 80 0.40 0.60 0.60 266 0.35
125 88 0.64 0.68 0.70 332 0.30
150 96 0.82 0.68 0.68 380 0.37
1.5 mm arc length, 25% Ar-75% He shielding gas
100 100 0.46 0.62 0.62 285 0.35
125 108 0.71 0.79 0.79 336 <0.10
150 117 0.92 0.85 0.80 394 R_0

d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s are s h o w n in 3.0 f l o w equations was p r o g r a m m e d to

Table 1. •STANDARD DEVIATION
d u p l i c a t e t h e f u s i o n z o n e areas a n d
100% Ar
D e s p i t e t h e scatter i n h e r e n t in s u c h w i d t h s of the various experimental
data, the current density d i s t r i b u t i o n welds. The parameters adjusted to
f o r t h e 5 0 / 5 0 m i x t u r e is c l e a r l y b r o a d e r 2.0 obtain the various area-width c o m b i -
t h a n f o r t h e p u r e Ar case. F u r t h e r n a t i o n s w e r e : t o t a l i n p u t e n e r g y per
qualitative measurements of current unit length of w e l d a n d w i d t h (trans-
7,3.0 50%He-50%Ar
d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s in arcs w i t h 75% verse t o t h e w e l d p a t h ) o v e r w h i c h
H e - 2 5 % Ar a n d 100% H e s h i e l d i n g gas energy was s u p p l i e d t o the surface of
s h o w e d even more drastic b r o a d e n i n g t h e s i m u l a t e d r o t a t i n g bar. T h e c a l c u -
w h i c h serves t o c o n f i r m t h e fact t h a t o lated i n p u t energy for each w e l d was
i n c r e a s e d h e l i u m spreads heat i n p u t t o > 2.0 d i v i d e d b y t h e t o t a l arc c u r r e n t t o y i e l d
the w o r k p i e c e rather than c o n c e n t r a t - Q an " e f f e c t i v e " a n o d e v o l t a g e , a n d t h e
i n g it. o 3.01 w i d t h s were c o m p a r e d o n a relative
This e f f e c t is q u i t e l o g i c a l in v i e w o f basis t o t h e F W H M o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d -
t h e large t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of i n g arc c u r r e n t d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s .
7 5 % H e - 2 5 % Ar
helium, relative to argon, which C o m p i l a t i o n of these data revealed
2.0
e n h a n c e s h e a t t r a n s p o r t transverse t o IOO 125 150 175 t h a t t h e heat i n p u t w i d t h s d e t e r m i n e d
t h e arc axis. T h e e f f e c t o f h e l i u m o n CURRENT (amps) from the calculations d o not correlate
c u r r e n t d e n s i t y is c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o t h e w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s of c u r -
Fig. 1— Anode voltage drop vs. arc current
observed w e l d shape changes and for three different shielding gas mixtures rent density F W H M . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e
suggests, a g a i n , t h a t f u s i o n z o n e s h a p e (20 cfh total) and three different arc larger v a l u e s of D / W cannot be
is i n f l u e n c e d m o r e by t h e w e l d p o o l lengths: solid line—1.5 mm (0.06 in.); a c c o u n t e d f o r by d i f f u s i v e heat c o n -
t h a n t h e arc. ( M e a s u r e m e n t s of r e l a - dashed line-2.0 mm (0.08 in.); dotted duction alone and the anode voltage
t i v e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y vs. arc l e n g t h a n d line-2.5 mm (0.98 in.) varies w i t h s h i e l d i n g gas m i x t u r e o n l y
total current exhibited the trends ( i n d e p e n d e n t o f arc l e n g t h a n d c u r -
e x p e c t e d f r o m arc t h e o r y a n d served rent).
to c o n f i r m t h e d e p e n d a b i l i t y o f t h e T h e first p o i n t is seen f r o m T a b l e 3
measurement technique.) by n o t i n g t h a t t h e e n e r g y i n p u t w i d t h s
T o get a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e base vary i r r e g u l a r l y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g c u r r e n t
o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n G T A w e l d i n g re- while the current density FWHM
s p o n s e to p a r a m e t e r c h a n g e s , an increases l i n e a r l y w i t h c u r r e n t . T h e
e x t e n d e d series of w e l d s w a s m a d e o n IOO s e c o n d p o i n t is e v i d e n t f r o m T a b l e 3 as
PERCENT ARGON
r o t a t i n g stainless steel bars u s i n g a w e l l , in t h a t an e n e r g y i n p u t w i d t h of
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e range of arc l e n g t h , Fig. 2-Anode voltage drop vs. percent of z e r o or less w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d t o get
argon (mixed with He for a total of 20 cfh or
c u r r e n t a n d gas m i x t u r e v a l u e s — T a b l e t h e largest e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e of
566 liters/h) for all currents and arc lengths
2. T h e w e l d s w e r e s e c t i o n e d (90, 180, D/W.
used with each mixture. The error bars
270 d e g after t h e s t a r t ) , a n d p h o t o m a c - include the standard deviation plus the T h e t h i r d p o i n t is i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig. 1 .
r o g r a p h s m a d e to s i m p l i f y m e a s u r e - scatter for each mixture shown in Fig. 1 Here the voltages d o not s h o w any
m e n t o f f u s i o n z o n e area a n d w i d t h . c o n s i s t e n t t r e n d w i t h respect t o arc
These d a t a t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e arc l e n g t h o r c u r r e n t ( t o w i t h i n t h e scatter
c u r r e n t d e n s i t y data y i e l d e d a g e n e r a l , of t h e d a t a a n d t h e i n f l u e n c e of
q u a l i t a t i v e p i c t u r e o f t h e effects o f s e c o n d a r y h e a t s o u r c e s s u c h as r a d i a -
w e l d parameters on w e l d geometry. t i o n a n d heat c o n d u c t i o n in t h e gas).
However, the variety of distinct q u a n - F u r t h e r , Fig. 2 i l l u s t r a t e s a s t a t i s t i c a l l y
titative parameter-effect relationships s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e in v o l t a g e vs. gas
derived f r o m the data suggested that a mixture w h e n t h e values for all
g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e G T A c u r r e n t s a n d arc l e n g t h s are p o o l e d f o r
w e l d i n g process w a s n o t y e t in h a n d . each gas m i x t u r e .
Fig. 3—Schematic of the current flow (solid
As an aid t o u n r a v e l i n g t h e c o m p l e x - lines) and liquid metal flow (dashed lines) W h i l e t h e t h i r d p o i n t is i m p o r t a n t t o
ities o f this p u r e l y e x p e r i m e n t a l e f f o r t , as seen in a transverse (perpendicular to the the general understanding of arc
a c o m p u t e r simulation was e m p l o y e d . welding direction) section of a convecting b e h a v i o r , t h e first t w o p o i n t s m a k e it
A f i n i t e e l e m e n t s o l u t i o n t o t h e heat weld pool—reduces weld penetration clear t h a t w e l d p o o l e f f e c t s are of

22-s I J A N U A R Y 1979
Fig. 4—Illustration ol the convective flow which results from a
constricted heat input to a beaker of water and the analogous
welding situation. Note that the ink rises above the heat source in a
well-defined column and sinks outside the diameter of the copper
heat conductor
primary importance in determining
fusion zone shape and the arc current
density distribution has, at most, a
secondary effect.
Having confirmed that the behavior
of the weld pool has primary influence
on weld shape in the case of varying
arc parameters as well as the case of
varying material properties,' the details
of the mechanism and its interaction
w i t h the arc were sought. The mecha-
nism which fit all of the welding
results obtained to date was "inverted
convection" driven by the flow of
weld current through the liquid met-
al.
Current flowing into the weld pool
exerts a (Lorentz) force distribution on
liquid metal; this is the analog of the
force exerted by the acceleration of
gravity acting on a thermally induced
density gradient in a fluid (normal
convection). Under proper conditions,
this force on the weld pool will induce
a circulation of metal downward at the
center and radially inward at the
surface with outward flow at the
bottom completing a stable convec-
tion cell—Fig. 3. The flow of metal
carries heat to the perimeter of the
pool and produces a relatively broad,
shallow weld.
W i t h such a convection analogy in
mind, the effects of the arc current
density distribution can be under-
stood. If the distribution is narrow
(argon arc) rather than broad (he-
lium-argon arc), convection is more
likely—just as in heating a beaker of
water w i t h a constricted (Fig. 4) rather
than broad (Fig. 5) heat source. In
the case of a welding arc, another
phenomenon enters which explains
the exceptionally deep, narrow fusion
zones. Instead of a strong transverse
Fig. 5—Illustration of the absence of convection in the case of a
broad heat source and the analogous welding situation. Note that
there is only random stirring of the ink and no overall circulation
flow developing as above, a predomi-
nantly front-to-back flow can occur in
which heat is carried d o w n by the
metal flow at the arc center but is held
near the weld centerline as the metal
flows backward and then to the
surface at the rear of the weld
pool—Fig. 6. This flow will develop if
the transverse flow is suppressed by a
broad current density distribution or
surface forces which restrain spreading
of the liquid metal.
Flow patterns such as these have
been suggested, simulated and (in the
second case) observed by others. 1 ' 7
However, a clear, direct observation of
the vertical, convective cell in a weld
pool seems usually to be masked by
single or double swirling flows in the
horizontal plane. During the course of
this present research, indirect evi-
dence of vertical convective flow,
possibly superimposed on the swirling
flow, and the front-to-back flow was
obtained in the case of the high
manganese stainless steels dealt with
earlier. The surfaces of weld pools
were observed w i t h a video camera
Fig. 6—Schematic ol the current flow (solid
lines) and liquid metal flow (dashed lines)
as seen in a longitudinal section of a weld
pool exhibiting front-to-back flow. En-
hances weld penetration
W E L D I N G RESEARCH S U P P L E M E N T I 23-s
(and recorder) through a narrow band
optical filter which singles out manga-
nese characteristic emission light
whose intensity depends on plasma
temperature and manganese vapor
density.
The physical set up of camera, torch
and rotating bar is shown in Fig. 7. For
welds of intermediate to poor D / W , a
ring of light concentric with the arc
center appeared—Fig. 8. For welds of
high D / W , a plume of light was emit-
ted behind the arc center, and there
was no ring—Fig. 9.
These areas of enhanced light emis-
sion resulted from local increases in
manganese vapor density' caused by
the surfacing of manganese-rich metal.
The ring of light suggests the strong
convective flow which spreads heat
transversely and gives a weld of low
D / W ; the plume behind the arc center
corresponds to the front-to-back flow
that increases the D / W over that
expected on the basis of thermal diffu-
sion alone.
Conclusion
The measurements of current densi-
ty distributions and fusion zone geom-
etries w i t h the aid of computer model-
ing, have shown that:
1. An increase in arc current causes
an increase in the half-width of the
current density distribution such that
current density remains very nearly
constant w i t h no change in anode
voltage drop.
2. An increase in arc length causes
very little if any change in current
density distribution or anode voltage
drop but there are changes in second
order heating effects which can affect
D / W in certain cases.
3. An increase of helium in the
 TORCH

NARROW BAND
OPTICAL FILTER

Fig. 8—Photograph of a single video frame

Fig. 7—Schematic of the video camera and
weld setup used to make the manganese
characteristic emission light images shown
in Figs. 8 and 9
argon shielding gas causes an increase
in anode voltage drop and an increase
in the half-width of the current density
distribution such that current density
is reduced. (Increasing the electrode
tip angle has a similar but weaker
effect on current density.)
Computer modeling of the weld
process to duplicate experimental fu-
sion zone geometries and experimen-
tal data have shown that:
1. Fusion zone shape is primarily
dependent on flow patterns of the
liquid metal in the weld pool.
2. The current density distribution
in the arc has a secondary effect in that
a decrease in current density (increase
in distribution width without a c o m -
pensating increase in total current)
reduces the tendency toward trans-
verse metal flow in the weld pool.
3. Two key patterns of metal flow
have been identified; one reduces D /
W and the other (front-to-back)
increases D / W .
It is concluded that a general, quali-
tative understanding of the arc w e l d -
ing process is now in hand. The ques-
tion of whether arc or weld pool
effects are most important in deter-
mining fusion zone shape is resolved
in favor of the latter. However, data in
from a recording of manganese characteris-
tic light emission above the weld pool of a
100 A arc on low D/W stainless steel. The
electrode tip is visible at the top and the
leading edge of the weld pool is visible at
the bottom. The black dot is a reference
mark on the vidicon face used in obtaining
quantitative data
the welding literature indicating that
fusion zone shape is affected by arc or
material differences are accounted for
by the fact that these differences
determine which metal flow patterns
develop in the weld pools. This under-
standing does not explain the details
of the delicate balance between c o m -
peting effects in every GTA weld but
serves as a basis for dealing w i t h pene-
tration problems in specific GTA w e l d -
ing processes w i t h o u t having fo's,tudy
the whole arc welding problem w h e n -
ever a new situation arises.
Acknowledgment
The investigative results described
in this paper were prepared under
contract EY-76-C-04-3533 for the A l b u -
querque Operations Office of the U. S.
Department of Energy.
References
1. Mills, C. S., "Analysis of a High Manga-
nese Stainless Steel Weldability Problem,"
Welding lournal, 56 (6),)une 1977, Research
Suppl., pp. 186-s to 188-s.
2. Mills, C. S., "Use of Emission Spectro-
scopy for Welding Arc Analysis," Welding
Fig. 9—Photographs of two video frames
from a recording of manganese characteris-
tic light emission above the weld pool of a
700 A arc on high D/W stainless steel. The
two views indicate the extent of random
oscillation from side to side of the plume as
it trails out horizontally over the back of the
weld pool
lournal, 56 (3), March 1977, Research Suppl.,
pp. 93-s to 96-s.
3. Bradstreet, B. [., "Effect of Surface
Tension and Metal Flow on Weld Bead
Formation," We/d/ng lournal, 47 (7), July
1968, Research Suppl., pp. 314-s to 322-s.
4. Woods, R. A., and Milner, D. R., "Mo-
tion in the Weld Pool in Arc Welding,"
We/d/ng lournal, 50 (4), April 1971,
Research Suppl., pp. 163-s to 173-s.
5. Demyantsevich, V. P., and Matyukhin,
V. I., "Characteristics of the Movement of
Molten Metal in the Weld Pool During
Welding with a Non-consumable Elec-
trode," We/d/ng Piod., 19 (10), 1972, pp.
1-3.
6. Lawson, W. H. S„ and Kerr, H. W.,
"Fluid Motion in GTA Weld Pools Part I:
Flow Patterns and Weld Pool Homogenei-
ty," We/d/ng Res. Int., 6 (5), 1976, pp.
63-77.
7. Lawson, W. H. S., and Kerr, H. W.,
"Fluid Motion in CTA Weld Pools Part II:
Weld Pool Shapes," Welding Res. Int., b (6),
1976, pp. 1-17.

AWS B3.0-77, Welding Procedure

and Performance Qualification
This Standard specifies the requirements for the qualification of welding procedures, welders, and welding
operators for joining ferrous and nonferrous metals and applicable combinations of these materials using the
shielded metal arc, gas metal arc, gas tungsten arc. flux cored arc, electroslag, electrogas, submerged arc, plasma
arc, and oxyfuel gas welding processes for groove and fillet welds.
This is a general qualification standard for qualification of procedures and performance of welders and welding
operators and is intended for use in any welding situation where a specific product specification does not exist for
the application. It is not intended to replace the qualification requirements of AWS or other recognized product
codes and specifications.
This Standard contains 112 pages and is saddle-stitched, soft cover, 8V2 x 11 in., and three-hole punched.
AWS B3.0-77 is priced at $12.00 per copy. Discounts: 25% to A and B members; 20% to bookstores, public libraries
and schools; 15% to C and D members. Send your orders to the American Welding Society, 2501 N.W. 7th St.,
Miami, FL 33125. Florida residents add 4 % sales tax.

24-s I J A N U A R Y 1979