___ 2. Teaching and Learning in Te Tutne My Appropriate Programs41 Chapter 2 > Teaching and Learning in D aes Olt cero lu—1) After reading this chapter, you should be able to: ;pmentally Appropriate Programs > Describe how principles of child development and learning connect to your daily teaching practices > Describe how content knowledge and learning standards are incorporated into early childhood programs. > Identify developmentally appropriate teaching strategies to use with young children > Explain how you will integrate and apply knowledge about children, conten effective teaching strategies in your daily teaching, NAEYC Standards and Key Elements Addressed in This Chapter: Standard 1a: Knowing and understanding young children’s characteristics and needs Standard 1c: Using developmental knowledge to create healthy, respectful, supportive, and challenging learning Standard 4b: Knowing and understanding effective strategies and tools for early education Standard 4c: Using a broad repertoire of developmentally appropriate teaching/learning approaches Standard Sa: Understanding content knowledge and resources in academic disciplines sto design, Standard Sc: Using their own knowledge, appropriate early learning standards, and other reso implement, and evaluate meaningful, challenging curricula for each child 1 the last day of school, the following entry appeared on the kindergarten teacher's log at Central School my first “first ‘oup year I will always remember—my first classroo first field trip, my fir acher conference, my first g dren that were all mine engraved on my heart. 1 i at the movies or the mall and won: don’t, I know that what we di 1m the rest of their lives. “little ones” really is! ds 10 years from ni f they will recog, oom this year will influence each s for me, I know now how impor t teaching Working with young children is exciting, exhausting, and rewarding. Itis also a tre mendous responsibility. To do your job well requires you to build a professional know!- edge hase that leads to effective teaching. This knowledge base has three parts. First, early childhood educators need to know what young children are like. They must understand child development and learning and use that understanding to create early childhood envi. ronments where all children can thrive. This knowledge prompts teachers to focus more clearly on who they are teaching, Second, teachers must demonstrate deep knowledge of academic disciplines and subject-matter content. This tells them what to teach. Third, early childhood professionals need to know about the learning process as well as the teaching techniques that best support learning. This involves knowing how to teach. Well-preparedly Childhood Education FIGURE 2.1 Teaching-Leaming Knowledge Base teachers combine all thre 3s of knowledge in their work with children (Guermiet >t Medicine & National Research Council, 2015). THis Deligiannidi, 2016; In tic approach to teachin tion for enacting DAP exploring these os the fl gs depioed in ene 21 oe childhood programs. The rest of this chapter is devouaill ssential dimensions of teacher know + the foll hat are 3-year-olds like? How as 6-year-olds? How aretiel different? ee eer: “Ww ! ae ‘1 Most likely to by periences? * Ifa child is scrip) Se Oe ss ideas it How might you ansy ! ; 1” response, the 5 eh there is more than one “correct” respd ele 2 Young children develop and learn. This a "quality programs for children. In fact, teache opment an ill reflect an awa ctor in the deliver lid foundation han are individ factual i of hig as inchild deve als who lack et interactions y formation to hy n the classrg childhood edi the unique char. learning cor learning are more likely to engage ctaateedge (NAEYC, 2009; Stronge, 2007). Ins h children as whol n how the ®, and the educational intuitive, knowledgeable each Hae fink about hile, how they interact ih Cxperiences they plan for them. This me mcralike all education, demanck ate P el who appt ccs of ie it demands welrepared person a ledge of child developm™ Pmental principles thar gueChapter 2 > Teaching and Learning in Developmentally Appropriate Programs 43 observing children playing a vigorous game of tag might categorize their activity as purely Physical. Yer, the children’s ability to play the game is influenced by many developmental Processes that operate in concert with one another: Aesthetic. Appreciating another player's speed; enjoying the rhythm of the Affective. Coping with the emotional disappointment of not being “it” right aways accepting compliments and criticism from other players; expressing anger over a disputed call Cognitive. Determining the sequence in which the game is played; mentally calculating how many children can ft in the space available; remembering who had a chance to be “it” and who did not Language, Determining what verbal “scripts” to use to get into or out of the game; Googling” a variation called “reverse tag”; responding to the teacher's directions Physical. Running, bobbing, and weaving to tag orto miss being tagged Social. Negoriating the rules of the game; signaling others about wanting a chance to play; making way for a new player This all-inclusive developmental picture is true for every task children undertake, Social Processes shape cognitive ones, cognitive processes promote or restrict social capabilities, Physical processes influence language and cognition, and so on, Consequently, when cach; childhood teachers think about children, they see them as whole human beings whowe learn ing is enhanced by addressing ll aspects of their development. Tis is referred to as focusing, on the “whole child” (National Association of Elementary School Principals [NAESP}, 2014; Weissman & Hendrick, 2014) Child Development Follows an Orderly Sequence Try putting these developmental milestones regarding children’s fears in the order in which they tend to appear during childhood Fear of ghosts Fear of animals Fear of being embarrassed in front of others Stranger anxiety What did you decide? Sample progressions like these illustrate the notion of develop. mental sequence Scientists around the world have identified typical sequences of progression in every developmental realm (Berk, 2016). Their findings confirm that development is a stepwise Process in which understandings, knowledge, and skills build on each other in a predict able order. This is true both for typically developing children and for children with special needs (Nemeth, 2012). For instance, before children walk, they first learn to lift their heads, then sit up, then crawl, then pull themselves up, and then step a few steps forward. Eventually, they toddle, and then run. Similarly, childhood fears tend to emerge in the fol hosts, and later, the fear of potentia lowing order: stranger anxiety, animal fears, fear o embarrassment. Maturation provides the broad parameters within which benchmarks like these emerge (c.g,, initially children Ss cognitive structures are such that they recognize or animals; later, they become more capable of imasin only tangible fears like st. ing abstract frights such as being embarrassed). Experience also plays a role, modifying and influencing children’s progress (eg., a child with exposure to dogs may think differ ently from a child who has no dog experience). Progress from one benchmark to the next happens in fits and starts, however, not in a rigid or even fashion, Individual children may spend more or less time on each one; they may move forward a bit, back a litle, then forward again. Some children may even skip steps. In spite of allthis individuation, development emerges in roughly the same order in all children. Initial skills and abilities form the foundation for those yet to come (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Knowing these sequences helps teachers understand children’s current development and what may come 'eXt, no matter their age or special needs. These are essential things to know and keep in mind when teaching,These second graders share ame birthday but vary in their rates of physical, lan. 9uage, cognitive, and social ‘emotional develonment. Children Develop at Varying Rates Id; s Lawrence. Emabl was walle in complete sentences | has difficulty sharing peom k until he was 1 fluidly only at 3 years ral strategies for sharing, Bow Emabl and Lawrence arefole lopmental paths but at different oping normally These snapshots in time of Emahl and Lawrence SHOW children progress through the same developmental $l according to their own timetables. Those timetables areal uct of maturation and enviro intra- and inter Developmental progress is not unif sonally, different threads of devel Asa result mental factors and lead tol ‘onal variations in child development across domains within the same child. Int ap nent are at different levels of maturity at any One ale to identify the letters in his name, climb quick r climber, experience great success cutting with scissots same child may str highest par of the o also become easily f with the iPad. Such intrapersonal¥ are typical ofall children i rinerestaly i you were wo char the development of an entire Case dren, the time at which each ed certain milestones would also vary ons [eawick Smith 2018), These varaonsamone a uals may be due to differencesif li rity, exper special needs, For instance child reac me first graders come to school in: Ssocia ters and sounds. Other children just starting to make th read words and phrases, Stil he elementary years HO ind contribute to the wide rage Cue 20 assrooms (Copple Breda Koralek, a Bae Children Learn B est When They Feel Safe and Secure ‘re 2" more easily than children who are worried ail nes from being in the Compal onal relationships (Hamre, DOW Children are most comfortable with adults the time to rune in to what children ares When children see chat thei families 8 it World exper “age at school, and see materials and images that the cages PES they fel accept Physical security is importants the gm environments has ee aie canna he program with « fidence, W nd routines are predictable, children’ Promote prg vie et tacher st reasonable limits on childrens nap they create classroom st Sting, and address bali or aggressive behavior eg & Grady, 2009, Thee Rene that chldren interpre as eopomnve and safe KG eter ethane childhood lsming as own in Figure 22 Children Are Actiy, thei play @ Learners r ae vet 2 act out the story “Jack and the Beans "disagreed about the relative size of two rugs they were The big rug Beth rege Rin caste, The small rug i Jack's house "UBS are the same. ssom Chapter 2 > Teaching and earring in Developmentaly Appropriate Programs 45 FIGURE 2.2 Emotions Are Gatekeepers to Learning Although supporting children’s emotional wellbeing makes common sense, it makes neurological sense, too Scientists who study brain development tell us emotions influence children's emerging cognitive abilties in either 4 positive or negative direction (NSCDC, 2007). Positive emotions such as affection, enthusiasm, and pleasure prompt children to be more attentive and emotionally engaged in the leaming process (Medina, 2008). Thus, children who feel comfortable and sate are primed to leam, Feelings of fear, loss, or anger, on the other hand, can impede leaming if they go on too long. Although everyone has emotions like these once in a while with no harm done, when children experience periods of fear or distress their Szutee: Based on Kosieink, M. J, & Grady, ML. 2003) Gettng tight hom tho star: Conwin Press 107, Way: walk, walk, walk, walk, walk, Okay? Now count the other rug. Walk, walk, bodies produce elevated levels of the hormone cortisol in the brain. Prolonged exposure to cortisol weakens the: Connections amiong brain cells, particularly in those parts Of the brain responsible for memory and reasoning (NSCDC, 2007). If these toxic conditions become the norm, they can have detrimental effects on brain development and cognitive function. Neuroscience suggests that strong, sive emotional atachments with adult caregivers actually reduce the production of too much cortisol, Protecting brain cell connections and prometing leaming fall kinds. Physically safe environments also contribute to the postive feelings associated with healthy brain growth, The prinipats guide to early chiinood et on. Thousand Oaks, CA They can't be the same. Watch me. I'll walk around this rug. Now , walk, walk, and walk. walk, walk, wall See? That bigger one has more walk (Paley, 2002, p. 14), In this situation, Wally wasn't satisfied with merely looking t the rugs to determine their size; he was compelled to act on his idea that one was larger than the oxher aad rove it” using his whole body. When we say children are active, we literally mean they ace cople fon the move. Recent studies of children’s brain development underscore the commecry as between children’s physical activity and their subsequent intellectual functioning (Bjorklang cic Medina, 2014). Young children use their whole bodies as instruments of learning, ‘aking in data through all thei senses. As they act on the environment, children conmes thought with behavior—exploring, discovering, acquiri and skills, and applying new knowledge Children Learn Through Physical Experience, Social Interaction, and Reflection Sung Won is talking to rself as she moves the pieces arou nal pus “Hovey! How can | do it? How come this won't g Although she has tried several combinations, Lis also working om a puzzle. He is group is strat Sung Won notices a bit of pink that flows the “challenging” piece too, Wait! Wait! Ob, [know She slips the piece into place. Physical Experience Children have a powerful ne their efforts focus on of ronmental demands by dire Piece seems not tc to complete a three fit anywhere gall the pieces by color. Sung Won iece to the next. There is pink on to make sense of everything they encounter. From birth, nizing their knowledge more coherently and adapting to envi ly manipulating, listening to, smelling, tasting, and otherwise Acting on objects to see what happens (Medina, 2014) From their investigations childen generate a logic or knowledge of the properties of thing relate to one another. This knowledge comes not simply how they work, and how they pm the passive act of observing, but also from the more complex mental activity of interpreting and drawing conclusionsSs ee 46 Part > Foundations of Early Chitdhood Education about what happens. Such conclusion either add to children’s existing ideas or cause to reformulate their thinking Social Interaction Children’s experiences with phy with people (Bodrova & Leong, adults, they exchange and compare interpretations a ask questions, and formulate answers (Copple & Bredekamp, often face contradictions in the way people or objects respond, and these discrep force children to obtain new understandings from what has occurred, Through suc experiences children construct knowle: ‘nally. continually shaping, expandingaaay ical objects are further influenced by their interactions 3012), As children play, talk, and work with petal ind ideas. They generate hypotheses 2009). In doing 50, tet reorganizing their mental structures. , Social experiences also provide children with factual information they cannot cota totally on their own. Through their interactions with others, children learn the cultural based knowledge and skills necessary for successful functioning in society. Hlere aig examples: + Names of things (door, window + Historical facts (Martin Luther King’s birthday is St. Louis) + Cus muion; some children wh nuary 20; you were born ey make their first Holy Com 1 their pillow) © Rules (wash your h ‘cissors * Skills (bow to form the rectly) Reflection —what teh As children interact with objects and people, they reflect on their experiencss are doing, how they know what th compare witht (Yoder, 2014), Sometimes this thinking wd how their plans internal and sometimes childr ideas aloud, as happens when they answ How did you decide ths bridge was longer “What do you want to know about insects? Hi Youth a What ou es 10 make your city. Is th ‘questions like these n that one?” will you find thar out?” ou think now?” youd ainer had mor gto use blocks and past event Another way children 1 ton their experiences occurs when they recall a ible wa and cot ‘ sin the yard) and then represen that event in some ta mat ee blocks or in writing, As children reflect on, represent cate experiences and ideas, they develop greater self-awareness and also dee ther thinking although such eons cefletve thing is mos ot st Physical experiences and socal nteracton enhance chiarens earning. ‘ elementary years, children as young as 3 — in the practice (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009s juring: ars begin %0 5 Golbeck, 200%! Children Are Motivated to Learn. Through a Continuous Process © Challenge and Mastery a At a parent-teacher conference Molly's ‘mom a ‘Molly loves puzzles. Since she was 2 she has beer 7 puzzles. We have tried all kinds—right now she tikes fog puzzles best. She’s up to ones that have more be ite flees. When she gts stuck, ll have 2 do is givea "nt and she just keeps working at it 'til she igure what todo Shell be wanting even harder ones £00" ‘Young children learn best when they are stimulated. cessful in acquiring new knowledge and skills:————<———— Chapter 2 > Teac they love te challenge of trying to do what they can almost do but not quite achieve unas- te and of learning what they nearly understand but do not quite sp. This excitement prompts children to pursue concepts "snd skills just slightly beyond their current levels of proficiency. Italso encourages them to ‘keep striving until they achieve greater competence Bodrova & Leong, 2012). Children who frequently master new learning tasks remain \notivated to learn. They perceive themselves as up to the job, even when it is not easy oF sro tly attainable, Alternately, youngsters who are overwhelmed by the demands of a ata Ao fall Those who lack stimulation tend to fal as well In eithe’ Case children ‘aho fail repeatedly eventually give up (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009) Children who stop veying also stop learning. Adults play a major role in managing the environment and offering learning tasks that stimulate children rather than frustrate them. Children’s Learning Profiles Vary Although children use all their availabe senses to learn, they have unique profiles in how they learn best. Consider the following examples: Sarah likes to work on her own. Consuelo prefers working with a friend. Wilma has been interested in numbers since toddlerhood. Carlos has a way with words. Jerome seems to have a special feel for the outdoors Steve enjoys the thrill of competition. [All ofthese children are demonstrating diferent ways of approaching the w orld with differ aa France of mind. These frames of mind are commonly called intelligences, Based on more Cree pO peas ok esearch, Voward Gardae« (2004) hypothesized that everyone POSS" at leat eight different intelligences. The eight intelligences are: + Bodily/kinesthetic + Intrapersonal + Interpersonal © Linguistic + Logical/mathematical + Musical + Naturalistic + Spatial Hligences develops independently (in the brain), 013). He emphasizes that people Gardner suggests that each of these in although ultimately they all work together (Strauss, iiht categories. No person is strong or weak rest, making it the only d profiles of intelligences possess varying degrees of know-how in al pm tvery invelligence and no one intelligence overshadows 2 vray a person navigates the world. Infact all of us dsp) {come higher, some lower) that combine to create a unique intelligence profile. The eight intelligences are summarized in Table 2-1 Hence arin children’s learning profiles may also exist because 0 temperament or cull factors For instance, some children think quickly, spontancoX and impulsivelys oo ease deliberate, Some children focus on the “big idea”; 50% think more about “he daraile Some children constantly look for connections among ideas; others take a single though and follow itin many directions Some children ore their thoughts in sequence; are think faa mote circular fashion. Some children cet socially oriented, working best Jhievement and enjoy com there is no single best way hildren value individual a cooperatively and in groups. Other ¢ petition (Trawick Smith, 2018). All these variations uEB=S th Pefearn and that ehere are many ways to be “smatt” Children Learn Through Play Children from every place on Earth play. Why? Becaure play is their primary means for Exploring and learning, for developing new skis and for connecting with others (Almon, SO16), Although children do not learn everything through play, they learn many things and Learning in Developmentally Appropriate Programs 473 Early Chih ere cue ce nC eo a Intelligence Child Learns Best by Bodily/kinesthetic | Touching, moving, processing knowledge through bodily sensations The Mover Intrapersonal Working alone; pursuing own interests; being aware of inner moods, The Individual intentions, motivations, temperaments, and self-desires Interpersonal Sharing, comparing, relating to others, cooperating The Sociaizer Linguistic, Reading, writing, talking The Word Player Logical- Exploring patterns and relationships, working with numbers, doing iii mathematical experiments : The Questioner i Musical Listening to and making musio, using rhythm and melody The Music Lover z. 2 a Naturalistic The Nature Lover Spatial The ArtstArchitect ting with plants and animals, perceiving Tels sada rated things, ving nature, int ons Tore ie al between. They play i cating, or seeking emot can remain occupied that way for hous slayful activities. Plays fundamental me rough children’s Pa er and proces information, earn ne Sy 8). Within the context of theie play. ¢ nd manipulate symbols as they take on roles and transagg 5. Chil " relationships, too, experimentifig Ms ympromises, and 1 enables children to extend their PHYS skill, language and literacy ¢ imaginations. The safe have play provid Ng ns by which child and practice old ones (Trawick-Smit also been well documented (Wenner, 2009) As a resi researchers that there is 4 pete act a ated ay is critical to. children's lami ety, and overall deco (6 Video Example 2.1 Watch this video and notice the diff at the video, choosing at ferent play episodes depicted in this classroom Reps at least three vignettes to Vhar do you think childs ae ang nea ane tess on sly. What do youth eee Pmental Knowledge Informs Your Teaching = sivtlopment and learning i key o being an effective teaches Soy cher is central to helping chi ‘ Oy seilpmetal expense onc ap ee creas cing an efcctiv 2012). etl hood programs are hi are high quality (Nell, Dre what they know with what they do The vated in Table 2. been (Turner tise alone snr safer o ensure sha 20 rew, & Bush, 2013), Practitioners must aa ‘Connection between theory and practiceeS ———— << ing and Learing in Developmentally Appropriate Programs 49 Chapter 2. Te eric Principles of Child Development and Learning | Developmentally ‘Appropriate Teaching Practices «Teaches plan daly acvites and routines to address aesthetic, emo Teachers ne enguage, physical, and social development |. Tense legate aos ihe cured omnes cera cal and sovalcomaiing math, scence, and reading) Children develop holistically Child development follows an orderly sequence | «Teachers use their knowledge of devoloprientt sequences to gauge | 9 nether children are developing as expected, to determine reasonable expectations, and to plan next steps in the learning process. Children develop at varying rates «Teachers give children opportunities to pursue activities at their own pace. « Teachers repeat activities more than once so children can participate according to changing needs and abilities + Teachers plan activities with multiple learning objectives to address the needs of more and less advanced learners ‘Shicren eam bestwhen they felsafe and secure | + Teachers develop nurturing relationships wth chen and remain wih fasten long enugh so they can easily identiy a pectic adut fom fiom to seek help, comfort attention, and guidance. | + Daly routines are preditabe, Changes noun ae explained in Paiage so children can anticipate what will happen « i0GNe two-way communication between teachers and families, and || eres leone nme pom, « Gtluson have access to images, objects, and activities that reflect their home experiences. oar ely childhood environment complies wit all safety require eae escrate docrine oenbence cisrens selenium Settcontol and problem-solving ables « 72kGee agrees aggression and bullying calmly, fmiy, and | proactively + Activities, transitions, and routines respect children’s attention span, eed for activity, and need for social interaction. Inactive segments of the day are short. + Children participate in gross motor activities every day. Children are active learners + Adults encourage children to explore and investigate. They pose ques: tions, offer information, and challenge children’s thinking + Gnlldren have many chances to document and reflect on their ideas. Children leam through a combination of physical experience, social experience, and reflection + Practitioners simplify, maintain, or extend activities in response to Children learn through mastery and challenge children's functioning and comprehension. + Teachers present the same information in more than one modality (seeing, hearing, touching) and through diferent t activities. + Children have opportunities to play on their own and with others, fndoors and outdoors, with natural and manufactured materials Children’s learning profiles vary 28 of + Teachers prepare the envitonment to support play, provide materials: Fiaren can use in play, observe how and what children are learning in thei play, and interact playfully with children. «Plays integrated throughout the entire day and within all aspects of program. learn through play —— v Check Your Understanding 2.1 Gauge your understanding ofthe concepts inthis section50 Part > Foundations of Eatly Early Childhood Educators Need to Know What to Teach The children w fe excited about feed bits i ucks down by the river They f crackers and cracked corn and were thrilled as the duck y gobbled up the food. Nikolai asi How do ducks eat? Do they The teacher plans a measut thers a variety of measuring tool the children can use to make tubes and str rulers, tape measures, yardstick nonstandard measurements, Grade 2 C ind finds out that a major J rocks. She ponders she will introduce the mater the content during the ext several weeks focus for th Every time you answer a childs question like Nikolas or plan what ing the content dimension of and skills children willl want to know and design an activity such as thee idren during the year, you are addres arly childhood educat n other words, the informal nin your classroom. This dimension is driven by what ebiléfem ELveat ildren need to know. In both cases, Your learn all about the world and how it Wot eee enact s learning needs you will apa least three sources of content: « bject matter-related information, children’s interestaaM formal learning sasiociated with Po eft Subject Matter To enhance child yourself so you cai That is a lot of territory t standa rabies need to know a lor about the WOH ffer children accur tion and relevant experiences. Thus need a broad grasp of content ken lowing sal The arts Tey + Mathemati Physical health sc nd development Accomplished teachers appreciate how k ; ceatedy Tene . these disciplines “is reared, ake her disciplines, and applied to real ds Hyson, 2003, p. 148) Ti Tabet elated to each discipline and c help children pos roblems that touch o mpanying the chi th and help children de in the biological sce ates the measuring a dard units of the children m a8 using mult anid at Using tools example, the adult acc the children o they obsery have me. Fot cen on th a ge the child velop a pk nees andthe tivity understand bserve th field trip to feed the ducks m nd make notes or draw pictures about ether ducks “fu 10 develop hypotheses about whether Gp an for how to find out more. All of this knowledls is rooted er who oe Sent process. Similarly, the teacher WHO gE, cgay mana mathematical concepts of standard and non ray bring wth ata the preconceptions oa acre ound ka os Pring with them to the activi and considers instructional strateBies S05 iple tools £0 Measure, comparing measmee ne . ianhey enlarge children’s. al con ae plans for in children to earth students, what ‘knows childs ements, and graphing the resW Is and skills, As Marla Murphy ae t since content, she makes decisions aoa ‘de they already know, and how she can pro\ ional ati need. All of this runs counter to the conve! maturity Mathematc roducing the renChapter 2 > Teaching and Learning in Developmentally Appropriate Programs 51 professional preparation programs devote significant time to general education and study across multiple disciplines (NAEYC, 2010). You will draw on all of that background as ry years through second grade. Even then, you support children’s learning from the prepri teachers often have to consult references to answer children’s questions (e.g weed?") or to adequately plan and carry out a theme or project. Children’s Interests As you can see, the subject matter that makes up the world’s knowledge base provides the foundation for content learning. However, there is so much content from which to choose, it is natural to think, “I can't teach it all” and to wonder, “How do I decide what to teach: for answering these questions will be the children themselves. As children express curi osity about insects, family life, peer relations, or plants, you will provide experiences to support those interests and expand children’s knowledge and skills. Additional teaching around sharing, conflict resolution, and cooperation will also occur in the context of daily classroom life. You learn more about how to factor in children’s interests as you make content choices within each curriculum area presented later in this text. For now simply be aware that for content knowledge to be meaningful to children it must be con: nected to the things that interest them and what they are experiencing in their daily lives. and “What goals should I pursue?” One of the major sources of input Learning Standards Other critical sources for determining what content to address are teaching and learning, standards that describe what children should know and be able to do from preschool through the early elementary grades. As you embark on a career in early education, you will encounter three kinds of standards: early learning standards, content standards, and performance standards. + Early learning standards define the desired outcomes and content for preprimary children enrolled in early education programs within theit states. * Content standards describe what children should know and be able to do within a particular discipline or subject area such as reading or mathematics. In most cases these have been defined by professional societies associated with cach discipline and outline expectations for children in K-12 programs. ndards tell you what knowledge or skills children should demon- ade level. These are frequently determined within a specific en through grade 12. = Performance s strate at a particula program or state and in most cases extend from kind an in K-12 education as educators, families, The desire to create standards for teaching bs and community decision makers sought to enhance consistency and continuity of curriculum from one grade to the next. State departments of education also wanted to answer the ques tion, “What should children understand and what skills should they be able to demonstrate as a result oftheir education?” Professional societies such as the National Couneil of Teach crs of Mathematics and the Nat to define eritical content in their disciplines and to inform classroom instruction (Seefeld, 2005), States used these standards to develop their own documents defining what consti rade within a variety of disciplinary | Council for the Social Studies developed standards tutes adequate and appropriate learning from grade to areas, Building on this state-level work, a national effort began to create Common Core State Standards, starting with mathematics and language arts. These standards are the same throughout the country and are intended to provide a un what students are expected to learn from kindergarten through grade 12. Unlike the previ us state standards in these subject areas, which were unique to every state, Common Core State Standards representa united effort vo promote similar expectations for children’s earn ing at every grade level no matter where they live in the United States (National Governor's ‘Association 8¢ Council for Chief State School Officers [NGA & CCSSO, 2010). Over the past decade, many states have adopted them for local use. The Common Core State Standards are not without controversy (Camera, 2015; Strauss, 2016), Four states never adopted them and some states that committed to using them are consistent, clear understanding of52 Part » Foundations of Eay Childhood Edu backing away from those commitments. This is mostly due to issues around tesiig and concerns that subjects other than math and literacy are being a schools strive to do well in relation en SO, cul 7 Ora re still using them verbatim or with modifications Academic Benchmarks, 2017}, TES neo aE Poo eels eee ie and second grade. This sample standard is foci eer evens cach standard identifies de monsrabe heal aes n hey do not identify how for student learners to achieve relative to measurement. They d ape ers should go about Presenting related lessons to children nor do the ere Programs or curriculum materials teachers might a2 Inste i: dard eo dl content for teachers to address, bu leave the how of teaching up to them. a Tesde the ommon Core for K-12 programs, the standards novenee d A 9 states have established s to include the preprimary years as well. As a result, 49 state: 7 n cbbeerl carly earning standards for teaching in the early years. See Table 2.4 for an abbreW sample from Rhode Island of a state-developed set of early learning standards focused Ol secial and emotional development for children prior to kindergay to the Common Core. E ; KL G Video Example 2.2 ‘Watch this video produ Listen to ths brief explanatic age children, Identity at leas «ced by the Ohio Department of Education on early learning in Obi andards for preprimatf= m about why Ohi opted Ty, dards ora tone benefit the state hopes to provide ta ‘or their parents, and one forthe professionals who work with thems hetps://www.youtube.com/w atch?v=2W4dGETuckM eee tt aes Ts tenes Kindergarten and First and Second Grates Kindergarten First Grade Second Grade ingths in Describe and compare measurable Measure lengths indirectly and by | Measure and estimate length attributes iterating length units standard units = ibe measurable attbutes of 11. on 7 1. Measure the length of an objact s, such as length or weight, r selecting and using approprielse ibe several measurable sti ers, yardstick, met of a sing , and measuring tapes 1. Desc y Compare two ok Press the length of an object Measurable attributes Of lenath units ood 8 more of Copies ofa shorte for the two measurements; descros, attribute, and describe the ath unit) end und how the two measurements relate bare the hehe are drectycom- | Sand gern snamemeasurement of | the size of the unit chosen. Fase heights of wo children and an objects the numberof the same scr ids taler'shorter, Size length units that span it with ne 9208 or ovetans. Limit to contents Une the object being measured is Third bya whole number of ength Units with no gaps or overiaps ‘twice Measure the length of an objact AE bylay- | using length units of differen! st units of Estimate lengths using units Of re inches, feet, centimeters, and ME — 4 Measure to determine how much longer one objects han another expressing the length cferencs = terms of a standard length uf Praca en Core Standards for Mathematica, leasure Retrieved tomy soa Schon for Best ficers, "Cam a Naional Governors Association Center : en ee ae eae ah espanaChapter 2 > Teaching and Learning in Developmentally Appropriate Programs 53 Examples of Early Learning Standards in Social and Emotional Development Learning Goals and Definitions | Sample Expectations for Children at 4 Years of Age 1. Relationships with Others 'By 48 months most children wil Children engage in positive ‘© Share and take turns using materials relationships and interactions with | + Initiate play and conversations with other children ather children. * Notice and show concemn for peers'feelings ‘Suggest solutions to conflicts, with adult guidance 2. Sense of Self ‘By 48 months most children will Children develop an awareness |* Describe their own and others’ personal characteristics (e.g, “My hair is red; your hair Of themselves as individuals with | is black”) Unique thoughts, feelings, and |* Understand that other people have different physical characteristics as well as differ- perspectives: tent thoughts, belies, ideas, and feelings 5 + Demonstrate an awareness of own likes and preferences. 3. Self-Regulation By 48 months most children wil Children develop the ability to | + Usually follow classroom rules and expectations Control impulses ‘Adjust to changes in routines and activities Use materials with purpose, safety, and respect Can delay having desires met (e.g., agreeing to the use of a timer to indicate their Use of a computer) ‘Stop an engaging activity to transition to another, less desirable activity with adult {guidance and support ‘Source: Phode sland Depertment of Education. (2019). Rhode island Earl Learning & Development Standards, Socal and Em Ri Auhor Benefits of Standards Well-developed standards can give educators and families valuable information about important concepts, knowledge, and skills children need to know as they make their way up the grades (Alberti, 2013; Seefeldt, 2005). Discussions about standards may lead to deeper understanding of content and create more shared meaning among those consider: ing them. Because standards identify what children may reasonably know and do within a given curriculum area over time, they also provide a way for teachers to determine if certain ghtfully created standards, curricular goals are more or less appropriate to pursue. Thou therefore, can offer teachers and caregivers useful information directly related to their daily classroom work (Illinois State Board of Education, 2013; NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2009) Challenges Standards Pose Children and practitioners benefit when standards are used wisely. However, there are swe have identified certain challenges in using standards that require attention ifthe benef are to be realized (Brady, 2012). + Too Many Standards. There are literally hundreds of standards for educators to consider. Standards encompass a variety of disciplines and developmental domains. They may also exist at multiple evel, ranging fom specific progr ., Head Start performance standards) to individual school districts, to state ‘and national groups. Sometimes these standards duplicate one another, some times they are complementary, and this makes the standards maze a challenge for early childhood professionals to ‘sometimes they contradict one other. All of + Scattered Standards. Currently, there is no one place where 100% of the possible Standards are conveniently cataloged. Even the standards within a given discipline may be spread out over more than one source. This means practitioners often have to check multiple documents and websites to get a handle on the content within a particular discipline. + Some Standards Are Inappropriate for Young Children or an Individual Child. Not every standard is suitable for young children or a particular child. At times, standards are developed by content experts or by committees dominated by indi viduals focused on older children, without input from early childhood educators.8 tee wa} au ed a Pet xx oa x n= Bf 832] 54 Pant» F Early Child As a result, some standards are not age appropriate. For instance, one school dit ict established a science standard that eeererier should i abet 7 cts as the basic units of life, so the children would be “ready” to learn m Ee This standard is too abstract and therefore about children’s cognitive abilities at this some standards underestimate children’s consti such asa standard that put counting to 10 as the expectation for Kndeoaiall When we know that most kindergartners can demonstrate more robust comm ing skills (NGA & CCSSO, 2010; NRC, 2009) Depending on child Srouds, special needs, or experience, even content that seems age appropdll a they oot ft the criteria of individual appropriateness and cultural appropriate that govern DAP. animal life as second graders, unrealistic in light of what we know age. On the other hand laine by many prac Sandards Implemented in Lockstep Fashion. A major complaint by many pl tracts that they are required to cover too many standards too avick 7a thatthey are expected to address standards according toa rigid ‘oc approaches to using standards do not take into account childven’s indivi met OF Yariations in children’s rates of development and learning Addressing the Challenges Although teachers do. not ci als havean obligation to think careful teach today, you should be aware low that fo You work as well asthe children who are inthe age groups th: comer ond seradacde nis eathing-Uhimately, each practioner tas to mae adersens ab a standards to address and how to do so. We ow it to children to make informed decisi An initial step is to become groups. Fat miliar with standards published by relevant groups the Com ontrol all aspects of the ofession rriculum, early childhood profes ge group you sbout standards. No matter what age BFUB {the standards that apply to the children with whol instance, the homepage pre Standards Initiative can be found at wil eel meirdtors. Websites ofnividua dsciinary sovecie ces afc odode devel mein igh lt dina ars, Se Figue 3.3 cen he earl Fracttionesin the United States and Carade ce uld also become familiar with th childhood and grade-level sta S adopted by ther states and provinces beyond oul Teal beat Ths a realy avaiable rg en ee oe 7 WY gontent experts and authorities at the state level. Individual oye me early childhood progr — ned to be familar with ae Sorting through all of these have dane some of thar he cuticular d from most basic to mor rly ch andards developed districts and s ams have their own standards, which thei Standards can be time-consuming. To save you time goals work for ‘ou by using : ronal and tae standards to create EO mane resented in Chapters 9-14, These goals are arranged insea Palleging and define appropriate curriculum content aa addresses expectations f what chldren should know and be able to do from pres rer through grade 2. (pare about how ro use the goals when you read Chapt Planning and Impl fective Small-Group Activities, iate mnaks sure particular standards are enacted in approPti fen, teachers sh 5 (Seefeld ‘ ‘ould ask themselves the following questions (Se No matter the sources, ays for young child 2005, pp. 22 ost heen bos of knowledge addressed by this standard, what seems to te childrens ‘ilenthisage? Whar ig gee ningful for these particu pani 'ge? What is most meaningful f What facet ofthis What do the child Related tot How ‘andard might a be, already know al his standard, what ea an this standard be inte, ing in my classrooms sinner need to know? bout this standar ence? n children learn through firsthand ora rated with what children are already exp The challenge ofthe locke ‘There are m0 easy answe chahe? CuTculum isthe most dificle to address: Answers and eatly childhoo educators sometimes report great stress in havingChapter 2 > nd Learning in Developmentally Appropriate Pr FIGURE 2.3 Where to Find Standards Common Core State Common Core State Found on Common Core State Standards Standards for Mathematics Standards Initiative Initiative website ‘Common Core State Common Gore State Found on Gommon Core State Standards Standards for English Standards Initiative Initiative website Language Arts Science Education Standards Board on Science Education Found on the National Academies of Sciences, Division of Behavioral and Engineering Medicine website Social Sciences Education Social Studies Education National Council for the Social Found on the National Council for the Social Studies Studies website ‘Arts Education Standards Consortium of National Arts. Found on the National Coalition for Core Arts Education Associations Standards website Health Education Joint Committee on National Found on Centers for Disease Control and Health Education Standards Prevention website Technology International Technology Found on the Intemational Society for Technology Education Association in Education (ISTE) website with unrealistic timetables for children’s learning. However, resea ts that teachers who keep in mind all three sides of the effective teaching triangle depicted in Figure 2.1 fare best in coping with this pitfall (Khan, 2013). They are better able to integrate star dards throughout the day and to recognize how learner-entered activities naturally support required curriculum content. This connection between standards and children’s experiences in a typical early childhood activity is illustrated in Table 2.5. In this table we outline stan- area in a preprimary classroom Note how the same dards that are being addressed in the activity and materials can address multiple standards in more than one subject area. Teaching with Standards in Mind Children do not accomplish any standard through a single activity or all in o knowledge and skills as Instead, they gradually approximate more and more accurat the seault of rrany experiences -some childinitiated, some teacherled. For instance, in the Preschool Learning Standards most recently adopted in Illinois (Illinois State Board standards is that children wil of Education, 2013), one of the lean emerging understanding of the alphabet (including rec lowercase letters, especially those in is or her own name might exhibit the following behaviors related to this standard ). Individual children in the class First Steps Toward the Standard: Children show awareness of the ABCs by singing the ABC song or by pointing to letters on a p: not necessarily with accuracy) r ster 4 Making Progress ‘Toward the Standard: Children recognize at least the first letter of Soe eee. nd demonstrate understanding that alphabet letters make up words fe the cnvigonment by referring to signs and labels in the room and by creating tenon signs and labels using afew recognizable letters in the process of writing, ., puzzle, or a toy when asked (but56 Part 1 > Foundat cf Eatly Child Addressing Early Learning Standards in the Art Area Area Standard Experience F Children Children are i“ Visual and Performing Arts | Express themselves through and develop _| Painting atthe easel; admiring each other's workOH an appreciation ofthe visual ats (¢.g, | their own and with support from an adult fed Painting, sculpting, and drawing) Looking at picture books that depict the work of ala tha ous artists cise SociaVEmotional Demonstrate ilave, engagement, and | Using the easel by referring toa large piclograph to Development persistence nearby, selecting materials independent of adul snipe y 9 Ps direction mite 4 ‘ein Desoribing affective elements oftheir artwork, “This oxseh Identity and express feelings the mommy; she looks happy, “This is the angny dod mica Using feeling words to describe their aesthetic expt — ences, “ike blue, “This is fur {ath Salety, and Physical | Develop se-help and personal hygiene Putting on smocks, helping themselves to material — os washing their hands after painting Demonstrating control of the brush to achieve Develop competence and confide desire with the paint; tearing paper foray aciviies that require gross- and fne- | lage; cuttng paper with scissors; using tools SUG eee as cookie cutters and rods to shape the play doug = twisting pipe cleaners and wire to make scUptues Language Arts A er St ankle cent inher enser questions to seek help, | Asking, “Can | paint next?” “Where are the 59 Literacy g2t information, o follow directions Saints with corresponding actons a Depart anareness of pint concepts | when asked to‘Keep the brushes inthe jars OFM ance Seabee matin of cranings dictation, | that match’or Find the picture wit the most CU eS oble writing, eter-strings, orn se Speing to share information during ply cy th their name on it; following acd ee ° aph that includes words inter eading an informational book about mixing pail hereg nd referring o it to guide own paint mixing la Ob 5 their artwork; watching whi fa ng ther names on their artwork; watching ote ts label arwork, making labels and crecions dna step description of = art project a Mathemat ® Bad the Demonstrate an understanding of correspondence between ok — itbrushes or each place at the be saad a int paper: counting art items Ge tial and geometne wy ie cutters, up to 20; recognizing» — tal and geometic sens objects as having “less” OF MOE mt naterials nto piles based on diy butes (such as color, shape, texture, el ing materials from “most” to "least of Ne opr moe attributes; comparing one set of objec aire tes with another, then describing or depictng su aiterena 2s verbally and graphically 4 Wing to and using positional words (6 under between, down, under) while making 8A op mensional or three-dimensional design. Pat peture —= Re chee Observe and in energy Explore changes in mater stoale mater end | Using dora nds of paint ew mete and papers; examining ways to shape play 40% exploring diferent ways to thin paint, observing, 4 changes in materials as paint or glue dies, entity unique charactraia a ___ ee ang mentee | cleo het skin; making body tracings, COMPAL m z ing simiarties and differences among the Portia —— | hepng to dean up, creating visual displays oI To oS Coan a SrtWork, folowing routines for using the €88@1 = cation in 2016 Strderi, optim 2014 os well as roviions aanea Social Studi es, Family an Life Skills ae=e ll ee Chapter 2 > Teaching and Learning in Developmentally Appropriate Programs 57 Accomplishing the Standard: Children recog- | nize and name some of the leters in their names and the names of 3 classmates, as well as other let ’ ters in environmental print, i" such as the job chart, books, puzzles, and toys. Of course, individual children in | the class will likely be at differ | ent phases in this developmen tal sequence. Effective teachers observe children carefully to see what they already know and can do, then they put out materials, set up activities, and provide instuc- tional suppor to help children bros toward asm levelopmentaly appropriate standards and goals. In this case over the course ofthe year and depending on |} ero children’s needs, teachers carry out activities like these: 6\or Bt + Sing the alphabet song. + Talk about and point to letters in books, on puzzles or toys, on the child’s clothing, or elsewhere in the classroom. «+ Provide alphabet posters, books, puzzles, hand stamps, and stickers throughout Consider the ilinois lear the room so children can be exposed to alphabet letters in different contexts. Bo gerrar ener he = Make name cards and name charts to identify helpers for the day or to establish __alphabet that you just read lists for taking turns or for taking attendance. ‘about. What do these signs ‘made by the children dem t + Label children’s cubbies or art storage spaces with their names. eames J Se seihpaterioathing games and gross morr aces in which children ewido? ; hop, slide, or gallop from one letter displayed on the floor to another. + Name the letters of children’s names as they label pictures in the art area or proj- ects in construction and pretend play + Provide alphabet games such as Bingo and Lotto. + Model writing every day as part of a “Morning Message,” in small-group activi ties and one-on-one with children. + Encourage children to write in their journ 2 t s it : o n als, make signs, make lists, and convey es to others in writing, ze of child development and learning and being aware of what al teacher. Another crucial element As you can see, knowle: to teach will be assets in helping you becom will be your ability to carry out effective teaching strategies, ET Check Your Understanding 2.2 Gauge your understanding of the concepts in this section. ES Early Childhood Educators Need to Know How to Teach Children develop and learn in many ways, 50 the strategies that best support their learn- ing vary too. Following are three examples of different approaches to teaching young children,5B Part 1 » Foundations of Early Chidhood Education A teacher plans for 3-year-olds to match plastic the children’s learning, t sand to their lids. To support with a collection of con n size, color, and shape. Because the children are the children carry out the activity with minimal adult direction. However, the teacher stops by the area periodically to describe the size, shape, and color of the lids as she talks to the children about their experiences The kindergartners at Fairview School have been us ing planks to form inclined planes in the block area for several days. They have enjoyed racing their toy cars down the ramps to see how far the cars will go. Capitalizing on their interests, the teacher asks the children to observe predict, and discover ways to make the cars, g0 farther by vary pt the children to engage in these scientific processes, the teacher helps them: recall their past observations of the cars going down the ramp, make predictions about what they think will happen when the ramp ate their predictions. Her teaching 1, listening, paraphrasing, and teacher provides them lids that vary i with the mate the ramp an is changed, and then e strategies include questi recording the ffering informa Today, Mr. R ‘motions to a familiar som hi m his second-grade class met song first, then has the children 1m catch him making mistakes, eee ntly, without watching him Bee mel repetitions will be necessary before om d do then multaneously of ee their own as Fortal In the ities, the teachers carefully considered the teaching stale i Bis they would wse to facia opment and learning. The procedues ir Fg chile petiing oppa en to explore to (2) verbally reine — ing children’s discoveries to (3) imp y-step processes for childce all = Bey uh ths sates varied in and degree of teacher directo ode they were all chosen to match teach aa 2h 7 : = Which Teaching Strategies Are Best? x At one time, educat nught th ain teach ing, questions oF ben having ch certain teaching strategies like asking, 4 : = waned ge a alt modl FT every teaching situation no matte what i app rOp eatt Evans, 1975), Today, we realize that instruction can be mote instance any Pending on the goals forthe activity and individual children’s needs Fae helping chide Maes promote children's exploratory behavior and are well suited helping children discover the py tory behav 2 rb ey ca ‘Operties of modeling dough, find different ways theY o periment with ho oaches w levers work. However, these same appre as effect for he g 7 c ee the specific pane 0° helping children learn factual content like the names of th = game, Such stenions odin a tornado del or the precise rules for a patti choose will depend or more directive techniques. Which teaching strategies Yu yourself, You want children to learn, For each activity, you must hich strategies are most suitable for meeting the goals and objectives of ths lesson?” When goals, obj benefit. Creating his pt ena teaching strategies are appropriately aligned CSR pri become familia wth naayee "ee teaching goals and teaching methods requires 904 ae “ray of potential teaching strategies. Let's consider 5 Sensory Engagement All Learning begins with ‘onsequently, child & Hendkick, 2014) Boe Perception: seeing, learn best by using al ause most researcher ling: hearing, touching, tasting, and — ll their senses (Medina, 2014; Wels agree about the importance Ofee en int ob ‘8 Chapter 2 > Teaching and Learning in Developmentally Appropriate Programs learning, you might assume that every activity for young children would naturally include a high level of sensory engagement by children. However, we have seen children sit through a 15-minute talk on the color green (with nothing green in sight), watched chil dren listen to a recording of the sound of an oboe (an instrument they had never seen or heard in person), and listened to children read a story about pomegranates (a fruit with which many had no experience). Thus, we can safely say that sensory engagement is not guaranteed without careful planning, “The most effective means of sensory engagement is firsthand experience. you must consider ways to give children direct contact with real objects, peop! ‘events (Armstrong, 2009). If you are teaching children about the color green, provide objects of many shades of green for children to see and handle. If you are teaching children to listen for the sound of an oboe, first show them an oboe and let them touch the instrument, then have someone play the instrument while children watch. If you are teaching about pome- granates, show children real pomegranates and give them opportunities to examine them through taste, touch, and smell. Ifno firsthand experience is possible, seriously reconsider whether the activity is age appropriate. The younger the children, the less you should rely on secondhand experience rather than firsthand involvement. As children mature and express curiosity about people, objects, and events somewhat removed from their immediate exper tence, continue to plan activities that provide the maximum sensory involvement, keeping the following guidelines in mind: This means places, and + Firsthand experiences are best. = Firsthand experiences should precede representational or more abstract exper ences (c.g,, show real fruit prior to pictures of fruit). + Models are more conerete than pictures; pictures are more concrete than words. * Plan activities so that sensory engagement occurs early in the procedure rather than later. Environmental Cues Environmental cues signal children about expectations using objects or symbols rather than verbal instructions (Haron & Hildebrand, 2013). Four chairs around the snack table “tell” children that four children may participate at one time. A sign on the cracker basket with a hand showing three fingers or the numeral 3 indicates that each child may take three crackers. Children can learn to turn on and shut down the computer by refer ting to a pictograph outlining the appropriate steps. Ifsix children are participating in an ar activity in which only two pairs of scissors are available, an unspoken message is that everyone is to have the chance to use them. These non- dence, cooperation, and self children must share the scissors if verbal signals support objectives related to indepe Task Analysis Task analysis involves identifying a sequen: might follow to achieve some multistep behavior, such as setting the table, getting dressed, or completing a long-divi help children gradually accomplish tasks that are too chal- t once. For instance, expecting chil- le in a single lesson is knowledge, skills, of steps a child sion problem (Essa, 2! lenging to master all at dren to learn how to set an entire ta unrealistic. Instead, teachers analyze the and procedures necessary to achieve the table. Then, they create a logical sequence of small steps for children to, pursue over time. This analysis is depicted in Figure 2.4. What should be covered early and what comes later becomes clear in the analysis. The principles of devel nted in Chapter 3 provide a useful opmental direction presen set of criteria for devising logical sequences around which to 59 Firsthand experiences areFIGURE 2.4 Sample Steps in Setting aTable create 4. What's the goat? Set the table, 2, What willthe finished arrangement look lke? J Teachers often use chaining or successive approximation t0 Supp children through the steps they have identified as the result of tail analysis, Both of these strategies consist of building tasks up alii at a time to support a child in learning a complex set of behat (Malote & Trojan, 2014). Chaining involves introducing @ or “chain” of behaviors one at a time. As children master the 3, Wnatare the skis or steps 2. Get out plates, b. Puta plate at each persori place. table, on the first day, a child might start by getting out thepl ¢. Fold napkin, 4. Place napkin to let of each plate 4, What do children need to know? 1. Where to find plates . How to fold napkin ©. Where utensils are posi 5, What part will teach first? good task analysis. Other potential sequences are pal sented in the curriculum portions of this text in Chapters Salil Chaining and Successive Approximation step, a new step is added and then another until they suc demonstrate total completion of a task. In the case of settiig involved? The next day, the child might get out the plates and pul One cach person's place. The third day, napkins could be added 10 Place setting, and so forth until eventually the child sets thew table, Successive approximation consists of shaping behaviol a rewarding children for gradual ting mor pproximating desired goal and more accurate). In setting the tabl + ld ih everything out, but the place settings might be incomplete a items askew, Initially, the teacher might accept this level of bela tor and praise the child for remembering everything and gettil able. Gradually and how all on t child would need to become increasingly precise it job was done to consider the task complete. Scaffolding Scaffolding is the pro children’ learning. During the sca external support ff kis not changed en rake mf easier with assistance. As children ta} g an objective, assistance aa nally withdrawn (Bodoni 2012), For example, Me. Kaye has planned ac ne ng activity. Children seledt anges d s objects inside. As Mr. Kaye works with the en knows the names of the numbers but counts some OBIS ata. He recognizes this a a situation in which scaffolds acess, the original ta how the child participa inthe taskis mad count tC hers ni could be used to enhance Cat teacher might take Cath children, he notice More than once and. ately. In this 356 count objects accurate ‘, hand pointing with her to each object and counting ith eetiion, Mr Kaye will stop counting aloud but coma een point to the objects, Eventually, Cathleen will be a eins with hore ME Kaye physical or verbal assistance, The seafolding Pi for porn ee aot Providing maximum assistance and taking primary cepa leen unt aradually this responsiblity shifts GN mie assisted, The same principles are a6 Hobie’ clas explore the idea that stories recount a SN help Cal lp Ca eto count ea the objective counting). Howey she is able to achieve the objectiv when the children in Mrs, M ae of events. This sequence i s impo: estory’s e teacher used fo ‘0 scafl she chien eat te trys meaning, The eacer * Ido... ou watch + Tdo.... you help + Youdo...Thelp + Youdo Twatch Her scaffolding took pla ‘7 Dok place over more than one day, a folding example in the gegen A St we 2.5 for a In other stuai th niques could bev an Peers may be the source of scaffolding support. Scaffolding “stbal or physical and could include props or not.Chapter 2 > Teaching and L Developmentally Appropriate Programs 61 FIGURE 2.5 Scaffolding in Action Scaffolding in Action ‘The children in Ms. Mobley's class have been talking about storytelling. One idea they have been exploring is that stories describe a sequence of events, The teacher introduces multiple language-based storytelling actvities to address this concept Using teaching strategies that range from more adult support to minimal adult intervention. Greater degree of adult guidance Lesser degree of adult guidance 11do ... You watch 10 ... You help You do....1help You do... . watch ‘Atgroup time, Ms. Mobley The nextday, Ms. Mobley Day three, Ms. Mobley puts Day four, at Morning Meet uses flannel board pieces _invtes the chdren tohelp the flannel board and the _ing, Ms. Mobley announces totell the story of The Big, her tellthe Big, BigTurnip _—_flannel board figures outin_ that the Big, Big Turnip Big Turnip" She asks the | _story.She places the char- the language area. As chi _ flannel board pieces will be children to listen tothe story acter igures atthe bottom of dren come to this learning _available in the language from beginning to end and tothe flannel board in sight, but _ center, the assistant teacher area. She encourages the watch as she puts the char- out of order. invites them to tell the story children total the story on facters upon the boardin he She and the children of the Big, Big Turnip. She__their own or toa friend. She frder in which they appear. | name the figures together. prompts the children to think _ shows them a picture book ‘The teacher tells the The teacher begins teling about the story sequence —_that also depicts the story story with enthusiasm and the story wth, Once upon aby asking. “What happened _ that they can refer to in expression, using he flannel time"She asks the children next” or, “Then what” checking the sequence figures, She introduces tohelp herfigure out which The adult and children She invites the children the characters one at a character comes fist.As compare their sequence _to tell the story as the author time (keeping the rest hid- children make suggestions, with the one they recorded planned and then to “mix den behind the board unt she places the figure on the Day one using the IPad. She _it up" to see how the story needed). She names each board (without emphasizing asks, “How is this similar might turn out differently Character and uses word | right or wrong), repeating ‘to... ? What seems differ: ‘Adults stop into the area prompts such as ‘frst’ thes process fom the begin- _ent?"The teacher records __ periodically throughout then’ “next and inally’ ning to “The End” the children's observations the morning to support the to signal the sequence of ‘fhe teacher and children using a marker and pri- children’s participation and Treterattnesndottne, | compare their sequence fo _ing the children's ideas on a__to observe their degree of Story aol the characters are | the sequence recorded the large pece of easel paper. understanding the story Upenithetiannel board in day belore. Regardess ct The paperis posted inthe sequence. Adults do not sequence thecutcome, the chidren language area for everyone correct the children's story MMs. Mobley and the chi- and teacher talk about how_to see. but they may comment, Tel dren talk about the story. the story stayed the same or me about..." or, ‘What happens in this story? Ms, Mobley leaves the Big, Big Turnip book and the flannel pieces in a plastic bag where children can get to them for the next few weeks. During this time, she also introduces new sequence” stories for the children to explore at group time, in the language center, at the art table, in the pre: play area, in the blocks center, and outdoors. ‘Then the children name the changed depending on when characters as they appear on _ the characters appeared the board. Ms. Mobley takes a picture with an iPad to record the correct order. Source: Heroman & Cope "National sociation or he Ei eam G Watch this video about scaffolding children’s learning provided for how you may scaffold children's learning and you, jeo Example 2.3 g. Note at least three teaching tips as they interact with the materials hrtps:/iwww.youtube.comwatch?v=ShWDbSx_kdo LT————=<—— tet chapter 2 > Teaching and Learningin Developmental Appropriate Programs Situation: Two children are matching lids to jars, Adult “You two are working together: (Or*Each of you has found a lid to match a jar; Mareesa, your lid is square. Kyoko, your lid is round. You both found different-shaped lids’) Behavior reflections help draw children’s atten- tion to certain aspects of an experience that they may only faintly perceive and expose them to vocabulary that describes their experience. Such reflections also summarize children's actions in a way that is infor- native without being intrusive. For instance, chil dren acting on materials might hear their teacher say» “You're stirring the pudding gently, you're making little bubbles” or “When you turned the puzzle piece around, Fe aoe noe interrupt children’ actions Children do not have ro stop what they are doing to artend tothe lesson. However, they do prompt childfen 1 fect specifically on Seine tGians, which in turn help them to recognize and internalize these cto Behavior reflections may also induce children to explore additional ways of sti" the pudding or furning other pieces in the puzzle to make them fit. Used cis ways behavior reflections fit.” Summarizations increase children’s self-awareness and understanding, Paraphrase Reflections Siler in form to behavior reflections, paraphrase reflections are resratemclt” your a ree edng the child has sid These nonevaluative commen 4° S205 words ai te ot eibal expansions or activ listening (Kostelnik eta 2018). Using slightly different from those spoken by the child paraphrasc reflections broaden children's sae ae tary and grammatical structures. At tims, such reflections also prompt children to expand on what they are saying Verbal expansion he's them to refine and clarify key Concepts and messages. When children respond to Your reflections, you also gain valuable insights into their thinking, Such insights will influence how you proceed with the activity aa ae anrlp shape the direction of furure planning. Finally, because paraphrase reflec Bane allow children to take the lead in adult-child conversa) children interpret their vice ne a eigeal of adul interest and caring. Such feelings enbancs the learning climate in carly childhood classrooms. Situation: Outdoors child is sorting leaves into two ples. He says, “These leaves are pointy. These leaves are round Adult astound two Kinds of leaves” (Or either ofthe Iolowg ‘You noticed thatthe edges of the leaves made them look deter from each tines Youre sorting the leaves according to a shape.’) Child pointing 1 thee leaves on the side) have Nore Adult Tess (pera special pile just for leaves with holes. You have three piles altogether: eee reer terripleey Maolkit feature to learn bow tp use Yo phone or a tablet devie to help you monitor your own use of the te aching strat Modeling and Demonstrating Children learn many things by imitating orhers (Bandura, 1989; Willis, 2009). Watching Sirona play a game, seeing the weacherwse a SUPEDE Oe a certain way, listening tO 4 peer *think aloud” about how to solve a math problem, and observing how one person What behavior reflections could enhance these children’s learning? 6364 Part 1 » Foundations of Ealy Childhood Education Breets another are all lessons from which children may profit. Even though much of what children imitate is unplanned, teachers can enhance the effectiveness of classroom activities when they deliberately use modeling to help children learn new or appropriate behaviors. | For example, when Ms. Pritchard holds a snake gently, she is modeling a positive atti tude toward snakes that she hopes the children will adopt for themselves. Likewise, when) | Mrs. Levine visits the pretend re Staurant, she models being a customer by siting down and saying things to the children such as, “Hmm, now what will I have? Do you have a. ment ‘Oh, that sounds good. I'd like a salad and a milkshake. How much will that cost?” Her: ‘modeling provides children with examples of how a customer might behave. When Mf, Petricic models looking up information he does not know, he is conveying to children ways of using reference materials to answer questions. Models such impact when their behaviors obvious tothe children. Thu a model with whom they can interact or whose behavior is al., 2018). Self-descriptions, such as “I'm not sure to look that up,” are useful sign | models are highlighted when tea Way to use the pz as these have the greatest us, children are best able to imitate pointed out to them (Kostelnik et how many stomachs a cow has, I'll hav als of the modeling that is about to occur. Similarly, pet chers say, for example, “Look, John has discovered a neW aint” or “Natalie found another way to add three columns of numbers Technology Toolkit: Seeing Yourself in Action | Saal with your phone n. Cr ur skills. ASK i and then eet make three S-minu@ f p.View most? J Nhat Effective Praise People often assume : d raise automaticaly promotes children’s positive behaviors an ges children to persist at tasks. Unforrunach tower children’s selconfidence and inhibie they isa ff some pi has the potential to iller, 2016). Thus, there tive praise. Ineffective praise is general s children, compares them with one another if id tends to interrupe their work and com specifi, acknowledges children’s actions mance, It links their success to effort an and the situation, and is nonintrusive. The differ and effective praise ae illustrated in Table 2.6. achievement vine. It evaluat links thee ion. On the other and compares thei ith the fg their past perf ability, is individualized to ft the chil nee ences between ineffective pai Tepetitive, and not unfavorable ways, Telling, Explaining, and Informing During their field trip to the animal who is le eading the tour, “Whe The man answ vers, x barns, Jonathan points to a Hama and asks the man at's that2* That's called a Il Jonathan repeats the new word, “ama The children are full such heavy coatsi™ “llama,” of questions: "Where do llamas Do big llamas have baby lamas? ‘ome from?" “Why do they have How big is the biggest llama in—— Chapter 2 > Teaching and Learning in Developmentally Approprate Programs 65 ea acca eeu aici Ineffective Praise Effective Praise | Good job. Nicely done. You spent a lot of time on this story. You looked up some important | information that made the setting more excting. | —_— —— a | You are a great writer You found a way to surprise the reader at the end. Look at Rodney Everyone should try to write as neatly | In ths story, you used two words that you never wrote before, as he does. ‘You were lucky to come up with such a good idea. The time you spent editing paid off. You were able to come up with | just the right words to finish your story. | Mary, good job. Mary, you usad a lot of animal sounds in your story. Gari, good job. Carl, you added a joke to your story to make it funny. ‘ously, he the world?” The tour guide answers each question simply and directly. Sirmult: draws the children’s attention to the sights, sounds, and smells associated with the llamas Anyone who wants to may touch the animal’s coat, look into the lama’s feed trough, and handle some of the feed pellets. When Jonathan sees his mom at the end of the day, the first thing b what we saw today? A llama! And they get real big and people use their ha Obviously, Jonathan is pleased with his newly acquired knowledge. ys is, “Guess to make hats. On their trp to the bam, children discovered that the llama’s coat was thick by looking at and touching it. However, they could not discover the name of the animal in the same Wray they hadgo be told itwas a llama. Information such as the names for things, historical ‘ned through social transmission. That is, people tell facts, and customary behaviors are you either direetly through verbal communication or indirectly through books, television, oF computer technology, In any case, important informatio is conveyed to children through telling and explaining i ifective explanations build on children’s firsthand experiences and take place within a context that iz meaningful to them (Bjorklund, 2012; Epstein, 2015). For instance, it note tcaningful to explain how to peel a porao with areal potato in hand as children are able soup than to try to explain it only in words with no potato to show ‘explanations build on what they already know. This is why Jy familiar to the childrer Ms. Lampley introduces a new game by referring to one a “Jason and Zach, remember how we make pairs when we p wil be making pairs, too, Only now the cards wil be rurned over and weil have fo ee een eats on the table. Lets ty it.” By explaining new concepts in relation incorporate relevant information into the on yy lotto? In this memory game, to familiar skills and situations, you can conversations you have with children each day Trem chjdlhood programs, most information is introduced on a just in-time basis. bs children demonstrate a need to know something, the appropriate infonniten’ S offered. For instance, children in the pretend grocery store get into a squabble over the cash FoR > Children wane to “work in the store, buethere is only one register. The te acher observes to ceeschocherthe children can resolve the difficulty themselves; however they seer stumped, “The only jab they know about isthe cashier's job. The teacher devides that the time is ripe Fee any io tae a oformation, She enters the store saying, “Hello, Tm the disrcr man agec Have you done an inventory yet? One of the jobs for people who work at the grocery ae cou ac crs, Anothe job t0 makes each ea has a | price tag, Who will make the price tags for our store?” Armed swith this new informatio the children’s play resumes, and the children have a broader idea of the possible roles they might play aera, shat they.wantro seach children corti infor Nee ee iry be beacd on intcces previously expressed by children, or |66 Part » Foundations of fay Childhood Education they may be dictated by social expectations such as how to wash your hands properly or how to behave during a fire drill. In any case, teachers plan activities to teach children specific vocabulary, facts, or routines. Teachers convey such information through telling, explaining coupled with modeling, and including some form of hands-on involvement by the children Inall of these examples, telling, explaining, and informing involves more than merely reciting facts (Epstein, 2015). Information is tied to children’s experiences and requires involvement that goes beyond simply listening. Effective teachers look at each activity in terms of the explanations or information that may be necessary to support children’s learn- ing. Teachers also make sure they have sufficient background to answer children’s questions accurately Do-It Signals Simple directions to children, such as “Look here,” “Tell me what you sce,” “Put together the leaves that are alike,” “Find a key that doesn’t fit,” and “Guess how many are in the jan” are called do-it signals, Beginning with a verb, do-it signals are short statements that prompt children to “do” something. When children follow the do-it direction, their actions demonstrate to the teacher what children do and do not understand. For instance, if, aS part of a lesson aimed at examining the parts of fruits, the teacher gives a do-it signal to aboy in her class to show her the rind and he hands her a sced, the child’s action tells the teacher the child may not know the difference. The teacher would respond with additional | experiences and information as appropriate Do-itsignals should not be phrased as questions, such as “Can you count to 5 for me?” or “Who can count to 5 for me?” Queries like these fail to lead children into action. The appropriate do-it signal would be, “Count to S for me.” These kinds of positive statements give children a clear idea of what to do Challenges “Show me how tall you can be.” *Make a collag: “Figure out two ways to make this wooden boat sink.” of do-it signals th five different art materials.” Challenges are open variations ‘ notivate children to create their own solutions to teacher suggested tasks (Epstein, 2015), In this way, challenges and adults to control activity outcomes. Adults shape the initial direction of the activity and children determine its application. Challenges can be made in every learning center. In Figure 2.6 are some examples for the block area (Neuman & Roskos, 2007), owt Yatton on the basic challenge occurs when adults challenge children to think about something a ay. For example, Flliot has divided a set of keys the ee us: One group includes all the round gold keys, a second group has all the ang Mi Kev and a third group includes all he silver keys, Having observed sf yonks the teacher approaches with a round copper-colored key and says, “I lust found this key. Show me where it belongs with the keys that you've sorted,” Elliot ‘snow faced with the challenge of reconsidering his groupings to accommodate a new ide shared opportunities for children in a new or different FIGURE 2.6 Sample Challenges Using Blocks BLOCK CHALLENGES Build the tallest tom fF you can buld using 10 blocks, Bul the most stable bung that you can buld using 12 blocks. Make a al bung using only blocks that are tangles, (or pyramids), . Mate 2 patom using Becks. Aska endo make a models ke yours,ne Chapter 2 > Tea Jopmentally Appropriate Programs 67 Ing and Learning i hildren are faced with a similar challenge when ighters, A few days later, the teacher invites a clement that does not exactly fit. Th they declare that only men can be firef female firefighter to visit the class and talk about her work. Again, the children are chal lenged to reconsider their thinking in light of new evidence that does not match their previous conceptions Effective teachers carefully observe and listen to children as they participate in activi ties. On the basis of the information gleaned directly from the children, teachers plan challenges to stretch children’s thinking beyond their current perceptions. As part of the challenge, teachers talk with children, encouraging them to put their thinking into words Throughout this process, teachers are careful not to expect children to accomplish every challenge during a single activity or to change their thinking immediately simply because they are faced with conflicting information. Questions Questions are basic instructional tools common to every early childhood classroom. How- ever, the kinds of questions you ask dictate the quality of children’s answers. Effective ‘questions share important characteristics. They are: + Purposeful (tied directly to the objectives you are trying to teach) + Thought provoking (go beyond the obvious to stimulate higher levels of thinking) + Clear (understandable) * Brief (to the point) Questions that meet these standards gain children’s attention and help them learn Those that do not may actually inhibit communication. For example, children stop Vistening when we ask perfunctory questions just to fill the silence or if we ask rhe torical guestions for which no real answer is possible ("How many times have I told you to stop pushing?) If our questions are long and rambling or if we ask too many questions in a row, children’s answers become increas altogether (Kostelnik, Onaga, Rhode, & Whiren, 2002). None ‘of these reactions leads to more advanced learning. short and sometimes stop co consider about questions is whether they are closed or i questions have in common. Besides quality, another th open (Epstein, 2015). Consider what the followi The teact children = Have you eaten yet? * What color is your shirt? * Did you remember to bring ways to cuta line, Answer: Each word or with a yesino response questions. Closed questions are most appropriate in functional site Epstein, 2015 tions in which critical thinking is not necessary “They keep responses short and are meant ro get a speed rep They are not intended to promote higher levels of thinking or expand language development. That is the job of open gust tions, Open questions have more than one possible answer They prompt children to offer opinions or co think in new and different-ways (Charlesworth & Lind, 2013). Such avestions cannot be answered in a single words instead, they invire 0 ‘erastion Beene open questions encouree chile 1 think deeply and to use complex language, they are the questo erences atgctaeeTable 2:7 ofr severe) categories of open questions for you to incorporate into Your instruction.68 Part» Foundations of Early Childhood Education on eur isc Sample Questions Observe What do you see/near/smelltastestee!? You Plan to Enhance Children’s Ability Reconstruct previous experiences | What do you remember about the people at the pizza place? What happened the last time we put the rock in the sunshine? Relate cause and ettet What can you do to make it happen? | What happens wherit you do _? = Predict | What do you think wi happen next? Evaluate What happened? You thought _ would happen? How did that compare with what actually happened? Which poem is your favorite? Why? | How wil you know the art area is clean enough? ag Generalize ‘Now that you saiv what we found when we cut open the lemon, what do you think we wil find when we cut open this orange? = Compare How are they alkelaitferent? Which things go together? 4 Reason How did you decide those went together? 2 Diserminate among objects and events | Which one does not belong? Wi isnot an cak tree? 4 clve problems. What can we do to find out how many marbles are in the jar? Quantity How many? How long? How far? 4 Propose alternatives How else could you group these obj Utilize ual knowledge Where do you suppose we could find ‘tm at this time of yea Become aware oftheir thinking processes | How dd you know ...7 What made you deci ...? ‘Make decisions What do you think we should do now Communicate ideas H an you show tememberishar ers what you didlearned? Besides considerin ality and whether questions are closed or open, you should think about a few other factors as well (Marzano, 2013} Limit amount. nly one question at a time. Plan your questions carefully Provide time. Give children enough time to respond to your questions. Wait several seconds for children to answer. Do not appear ‘patient or undermine their thinking by answering your own questions. Use do‘ signals. Phrase some of your questions as dot signals to add variety jell me what happened when we put the snowball in the hot water? Ask all Phrase questions othe ene group of chien, not only to individuals: “Lets al thin k ofthe ways these two piles of leaves 410 alike. Jake, you begin i . Listen and reflect.eee CChapter2 » Teachi Developmentally Appropriate Programs 69 Redirect Ifa child’s answer seems wrong or off track, follow up by say ing, ‘What made you think .. . 2" or “Tell us more about Children sometimes make connections that are less obvious to ‘grown-ups. Address If the child's answer to a question indicates a true miscon- misconceptions. ception, handle the situation matter-ot-actly. Paraphrase the child's idea and then offer more accurate information: “You thought this was an apple because itis red, This is a tomato. Tomatoes are sometimes red, too.” Silence Six children are in the block area. They have used almost every block for an elaborate building that stretches from one side of the rug to the other. They are laughing and talking to one another, sharing materials, and taking on the roles of construction workers. Mr. Moon observes silently from nearby, noting that Keisha has become part of the group. Today isthe first time she has moved into a learning center involving more than one or two children. He writes a quick anec dotal record to remind himself of this milestone. Mr. Moon also notices that the children are sustaining the activity well. He does not interrupt but remains nearby to provide support if needed. The children and their teacher are inves 2 large horseshoe crab shell one of the children brought back from a week at the beach. The teacher says, “Tell me what you notice about this big shell.” She remains silent for several seconds to give the children a chance to answer. Coral and Ali are engaged i determining the distinguishing characteristics of each character. They are deeply absorbed in their discussion. Their teacher listens attentively for a feu moments and then moves to anot of children. The gir their activity in which they are fer grou ontinue In each of these situations, the teacher used silence to support children’s learning, Remain when it is coupled with attentive tive teaching strategy, especially and the context in which they are functioning (Kostelnik et al., adult talk at the wrong time hers have documented ing quiet can be an observation of childeen 2018). Too much adult talk, inappropriate adult talk, detracts from a positive learning environment. For instance, rese that many teachers are too quick to respond to their own questions or too swift to m from one child to the next when a child fails to respond immediately to a question or a do-it signal (Mayer, 2011), Children need at least 3-5 scconds to process what has been said and to formulate a response. Getting into “wait time” is an effective use of silence. Likewise, childres ment as more supportive when teachers refrain from insert of every interaction and when they avoid interrupting children who are deeply engag dren interpret the adult’s silence as a habit of giving children a few seconds of .n perceive the learning environ hemselves into the center din communicating with one another. In these cases, child sign of warmth and respect a (© You're the Observer 2.1 Watch the video of children talking al teachers use some of the teaching strate learning. Se bout birds with thei teachers. Observe how the ges described in this chapter to expand children’seer eee Part 1 Foundations of Eatly Childhood Ed 79 We opened this section on tea ching strategies by asking, “Which teaching strategies are best?” As you can see, there are many options from which to choose, and more than one Sratefy may come to mind in various situations, Considering the strategy alone does not Provide enough information to make the most appropriate choice. What makes a strategy _best”ishow well it supports children’s learning from thee first glimmers of avarenesety more advanced applications. We talk more about this next. ES Check Your Understanding 2.3 Your understanding of the concepts in this section, Early Childhood Educators Need to Know When to Apply What They Know A naturalist was visiting the Prai ‘e View After School Program to show the children some varieties of turtles that liv " their state. He showed box turtles, painted turtles, «and red-eared sliders. The children were intr Penny: Those a Can I touch one? [The nods yes, and guides the child's hand to gently touch a small box turtl San What’ that? Whats that bole in his head? Can water get in there? Naturaust: That’ his ear, Ti lon't have any outside parts. Nothing Hacks out. That helps them swim faster. The water doesn't go inside Cou: We have turtles in our pond. T ike the on at home. That one is of those be Cuiste Do they bite? Do they e Pea No, they ist eat fruit and stuff—you know, it falls off the trees and they eat it The children spent the next s talking about what they saw child brough several minutes watchi and knew. Listening ht some prior knowledge accurate, everyone came to the activi erence to the turtles, live in water. Collin h turtle from another: ( People. The teac ng the turtles, asking questions, and carefully, the teacher noticed that each to the experience, While not all information was. with a backlog of concepts that they used in ref ny had a concept of animals. Sam was aware that turtles might with turtles and could distinguish one kind of me animals needed to eat. Pearl knew that turtles didn’t eat State te ae that the children had different degr ate Some Were just becoming aware of turtles, others could ey aeaUite more information about tales others had knowledge that they could generalize from one setting (home ‘o another (the center). All ofthese observations sights into the children's fandings and where they were in iad prior experience eleste knew Fees of understanding reby children B2ining new knowledge and skil igh the cycle may take d: ‘move from initial awareness s that they apply effectively on their own. _sz months, or even years, depending on the ts of five phases, each supporting and leading “ton, Practice, and generalization (Bredekamp ases ate represented in Figure 2.7,CChapter 2 > Teaching and Learning in Developmentally Appropriate Programs 71 Awareness FIGURE 2.7 Cycle of Learning The first step in learning anything i to become aware that something exists and that it is worth knowing about. In the early childhood years, children become aware of many new things as they interact with people and objects ae in their daily lives. Adults mediate this awareness through the environments & they create and the opportunities they provide for children to experience a Sf variety of events, objects, and people Exploration Once they are aware of something, children need opportunities to explore the things that capture their attention. The exploration phase is atime of | 9) self-discovery and occurs as children spontaneously manipulate objects | %) and engage in informal interactions with peers and adults. As children y explore, they Observe, touch, taste, smell, and hear Talk about their experiences Ask questions Acquistio™ Collect information Relate current experiences to prior learning Make discoveries Propose explanations + Compare their thinking with the thinking of others * Construct new understandings * Create personal meanings and develop understandings that lead them to want to know or do more Knowledge grows as children mentally organize and reorganize the information they glean from their experiences. Adults facilitate rather than direct the learning process during this child-centered period. Teachers support children’s explorations by providing plenty Of time and opportunities to experiment and “play around” with objects and materials before asking children to use things in prescribed ways, Acquisition Once children have thoroughly explored a phenomenon, they display signs of being ready co move to the acquisition phase of learning, Children signal this when they ask, “How do you play this game?” “What comes next?” or “Where do turtles live?” Using a variety of instructional strategies, teachers respond to children’s cues. In doing so, they help children refine their understanding, guide children’s attention, and help children make new connections. The outcome of acquisition take some form of action (€.8 is that children do something count, point ro something, wrtea word, draw a map, compar two similar objects). Throughout the acquisition phase, adults “tune in” to the children’s learning needs, offering support as children seem to need or desire it. Practice After children acquire new knowledge and skills, they enjoy Practicing what they have learned. During the practice phase ofthe learning cycle, children use the new behavior or know lly ances, We see this edge repeatedly and in a variety of circumst in the child who, having learned to play Risk, wants to play repeatedly, enjoying rather than tiring of the repetitions. Children who have just learned to dribble a basketball try it out in the hall, on the playground, in the gym, and on the Sidewalk, In most cases, the child's practice is self motivated and self-initiated. This is how children eventually gain mas- tery. Teachers facilitate children’s practice when they allow These children are enjoy practicing a new g Elastics or Chinese Jump Flope with their frends, ing ronov22 Part > Foundations of Ealy Childhood Education FIGURE 2.8 Raymond Learns to Play Lotto ‘Awareness Raymond has observed his older sister Over the course of a few weeks, the playing board games with her friends. teacher puts out diferent Lotto games Raymond notices a Lotto game on the for children to play, such as animal Lotto shettin his childcare program and and transportation Lotto. takes it out to look atthe pieces Generalization Raymond applies what he knows about Exploration Raymond handles the pieces, looks at finging identical pairs to creating funo- the different pictures on the Lotto cards, tional pairs (e.9., cup to saucer, ham= and discovers that some cards are ‘mer to nail) in a new Lotto game. identical Raymond discovers that he can make Acquisition Raymond asks,"How do you play functional pairs in the pretend play this amo?” area, too. He becomes intrigued with The childcare provider explains the the variety of ways he can make func- purpose of the game, shows Raymond tional pairs with objects throughout the how to make matches among the room. In the process of matching shoes cards, and talks about taking turns as to socks, he notices that difterent shoes part of the play, have diferent fasteners and begins to Raymond plays a game with the adult experiment with al these closures. His and then another wih the adult and two new awareness and explorations signal ther children. his reentry into the cycle of learning Practice Raymond plays Lotto over and over with a new idea in mind. ‘again for several days, children plenty of time to play out the same scenarios repeatedly, when they follow chil dren’s lead in repeating activities more than once, and when they vary the practice condi- tions from one time to the next. Generalization Eventually, children have enough grounding to apply their newly devel or skills to novel (but similar) situations. When this happens, they enter the tion phase of learning. Wit ped knowledge neraliza- n this phase, children apply what they have learned in many ways and adjust their thinking to fit new circumstances or demands. This is exemplified by the child who uses the bal-handling skills she acquired and practiced earlier to invent a Variation on the traditional basketball seneralization when they provide children with meaningful opportunities to apply what -amned in a me. Teachers promo! they have i he process of generalizing their newfound Knowledge sil cilien often make discoveries that prompt them to reenter the exsle of earing atthe awareness phase. Take a moment to consider how Raymond proceeds through the cycle of learning while playing lotto, as depicted in Figur variety of ways and in new circumstances. In Inclusion » Accommodating the Needs of Individual Children ae Broced rom awareneso exploration to acquisition to practice t0 Be inal reals of leaming aesthetic, affective, cognitive, lam shat, Befial and socal. Where they are inthe learning cycle depends on Teer ol experinces and understandings aswell asthe learning oppor Ta Mare glable 0 them. Therefore, each chiles progress within the cycle Fama Ta farious threads within each domain aswell as from domain £0 omain. In other words, children are notin any one phase of saznioe for everything simultaneously. Instead, chldeen ma Ne stsing be aware of or explore some concepts, _ Acquiring, practicing, or generalizing others.ne Chapter 2 > Teaching and Learning in Developmentally Appropriate Programs 73 Likewise, in making an activity available to a group of children, it is important to remember that each child will differ as to which phase ofthe learning cycle is occupying his or her attention. For instance, when learning about ladybugs, one child might be involved ar the awareness level because he has not previously encountered ladybugs. Other children may have a general awareness of ladybugs but need time to explore and investigate them. Another child, who has had contact with ladybugs in the past, may be ready to learn some facts about these insects. Ths child is at the acquisition phase of learning, Yet another child, who knows many facts about ladybugs, may want to practice identifying and temporarily catching the insects outdoors. Other children may know so much about ladybugs that they begin applying what they know to better understand other flying insects. These children are at the generalization phase of learning about ladybugs. To accommodate such differences within and among children, the te: and teaching must be flexible enough to address all five phases of the learning cycle. Teach ers do this by providing children with broad-based, open-ended activities. From these, children extrapolate experiences that correspond to the phase of the cycle of learning most relevant to them. Thus, several children working with puzzles may use them for differ- ent purposes—exploration, practice, and so forth, Repeating activities is also a good idea because children need many opportunities to progress through the cycle of learning, Further- more, teachers must support children in whatever phase of learning they are in for a given activity. They do this by using different instructional strategies as necessary 1's planning + Inviting children’s interest in something new + Providing varied materials for exploration * Offering feedback, providing information, or asking questions as appropriate in the acquisition phase + Giving children chances to practice what they have leaned under different conditions + Encouraging children to generalize what they have earned to new situations In Table 2.8, you will find sample teaching strategies that typically support each phase of the eycle of learning. Learning Phase | Teaching Strategies ‘Awareness | Sensory engagement, environmental ues, nitions, Notice, perceive, respond | modeling and demonstrating nmental eves invitations, behavior | Observe, touch, smell, taste, hear, exam ine, talk about, ask questions, colle information, make discoveries, compare ‘own thinking with the thinking of | revise old ideas, construct new meanings Exploration | Sensory engagement, envi | and paraphrase reflections, silence Conjunction with your task analysis, silence Practice Sensory engagement, environmental cues, Channa and suc- Rehearse, repeat ‘adapt, revise, elabo- Seem ceca | Bonet an peapwnn testo colenaes pn queso | Tan rre(s eoseion mezaton | Simian ns garcia Sen” | mepeceannenawareasrores |) escheat reentry into the learning cycle SRR Nenigite | eel cnet4 Part» Foundations of Ealy Chidhood Education a G Video Example 2.4 The photograph on page 71 shows children playing a game called Chinese Jump Rope. Watch this video of children learning to play that game at their school. Watch at least two groups of children practicing. Notice how the teachers have set up the learning environ- ‘ment to support children in the practice phase of the learning cycle. Based on strategies outlined in Table 2.8, what might you say to encourage children to keep trying? hutps/Avww.youtube.com/watch?v=Gdt47Mu8Gbl a Timing of Instruction Children need time to become aware of new ideas and to explore before moving to the acquisition phase of learning. For instance, children who have had few chances to explore flowers in real life will have difficulty learning facts about them immediately. Exploration can take place on previous occasions as well as immediately prior to encountering fac- tual information. The decision to move into acquisition is often signaled by the children (eg,, “Teacher, what's this?” or “How does the water get in the leaves?”). When children start to ask questions about an experience or when they can describe or show some basic understanding of a phenomenon, they are ready to acquire new knowledge and skills In the acquisition phase, teachers or peers provide instruction, and children do things t© demonstrate understanding. After a small amount of instruction has been offered, children practice what they have learned prior to moving on to something else. Eventually, children will generalize or apply what they have learned from one situation to a new one. Often, children’s generalization activities occur spontaneously (e.g., children generalize what they have learned about flowers in the g den to blossoms they sce growing on trees). At other times, teachers set up experiences that make such generalizations more likely to happen In any case, hers recognize that individual children will not progress from awareness to generalization in a single lesson. For this reason, they make sure a variety of activities are available throughout the ye and across the curriculum, Teachers support children’s progress through the cycle of leaming by carefully observ- ing the knowledge and skills children bring to and demonstrate within each activity. Then, beginning where children are developmentally, teachers provide the supports necessary for children to stretch their performance slightly beyond their current levels of functioning. This is called teaching in the zone of proximal development. Teaching in the Zone of Proximal Development The dif we between what children can do alone and what they can do while working. collaboratively with others or with support from a pecr or adult mentor represents the Zo" of proximal development (Bodrova & Leong, 2012; Vygotsky, 1979). Every child can do ‘things with assistance that he ot she cannot do solo, and what a child can do while working, with others on one occasion, that same child eventually will be able to do with less help OF ‘no help in the future (MeCleod, 2012), Because of the developmental principle of penal principle of mastery and ch chapter, children learn best when teachers provide experien can do on their own but within what they skills are greater This forward momentum, allenge presented earlier in this es just beyond what children can do with assistance from someone whose arr oa represents higher-order learning. For instance, ae ee in worword phrases (¢, "Big cookie”) In conversations with Irma, than Iced expands the childs sentenees, adding more language and grammar Ti the mrowadee tently produce (“You havea big cookie” or “You ike tha big cookie”)- Hom ee et’ “lesson” i too far beyond Irma’s understanding, Irma will not take it in- odes a ema can simply “stretch” her thinking to encompass the new language, higher Seiler has Possible. Under these conditions, she wil gradually expand her language ligher level of mastery than she would have been able to’ manage independently.eee Chapter 2 > Te 75 Teaching and Learning in Developmentally Appropriate Progrems FIGURE 2.9 Teaching in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) WHAT IRMA CANDO. 3- and 4-word “have abig cookie” ia aes (2 yaraphrase reflections. N ie a i \ "You have a big cookie.” o \ | “You lke that big cookie” es. | INDEPENDENTLY utterances: eR The relation between Irma’s performance and her provider's teaching within the zone of proximal development is depicted in Figure 2.9. Educators who understand the zone of proximal development recognize that simply giving children access to a variety of experiences is not sufficient to foster optimal learning. Adults monitor activities to ensure that they are manageable for children. They also provide the assistance necessary to prompthigher-order learning. A child who is overwhelmed may be tunable to understand or apply knowledge gained, regardless of how potentially useful it may be. In contrast, children who experience no challenge beyond their current level of function ing will fail to progress in their understandings and abilities. Thus, learning is most likely to flourish when children feel both successful and stimulated. To support this kind of learning, teachers use the strategy of scaffolding described carlier in this chapter. That is, they utilize ‘one or more teaching strategies to support children and then gradually remove those supports a8 children demonstrate an increasing ability to perform a task or function on their own. Check Your Understanding 2.4 Gauge your understanding In this chapter, we described the foundations of teaching and learning within a developmentally appropriate frame- work. Three areas of teaching effectiveness were ident fied: (1) knowledge of child development and learning, (2) knowledge of appropriate content, and (3) knowledge of effective teaching strategies. Activities and routines, mate: rials, the physical environment, classroom managements methods of parental involvement, and assessment proce dures are all influenced by these three facets of the effective teaching triangle. In terms of child development and learning, certain principles will influence your teaching. These include: of the concepts in this section. children develop holistically, development occurs in orderly sequence, and children develop at varying rates. In addition, children learn best when they feel safe and secure, They are active learners, who learn through a combination of physical experience, social interaction and reflection as well as through challenge and mastery Although children’s learning styles vary, all children learn much through play The second side of the effective teaching triangle involves appropriate content knowledge. Content is com- monly addressed through standards derived at local, state, ‘and national levels. Standards describe the outcomes of what% Part 1 Foundations of Ealy Chidhood Education children are expected to know and do as a result of their «education experiences. In this book, standards are addressed in the goals associated with each developmental domain. Because children learn in many ways, the teaching, strategies that support their learning vary accordingly. Five ‘common teaching strategies are ensuring children’s sensory involvement, performing task analysis, chaining and succes sive approximation, scaffolding, and guided practice and repetition. These strategies influence activity design and the ‘ways in which tasks are presented to children. Verbal strat- egies that support children’s learning include invitations; behavior and paraphrase reflections; modeling and demon: strating; effective praise; telling, explaining, and informing; dori signals; challenges; and questions Silence can also be an effective teaching strategy when it is done to deliberately facilitate children’s peer interactions and self-discoveries. Some teaching strategies are more appropriate in cer- tain situations than are others. Which strategies you use depends on the phase of the learning cycle in which chil- dren are engaged. The learning cycle begins with awareness and continues through exploration, acquisition, practice, and, finally, generalization. In this last phase, children often become aware of new things, beginning the cycle again. Now that you know more about teaching and learn- ing in the early childhood classroom, you are ready to set the stage for children’s learning. The first step in that pro- cess involves planning effective activities for children, That topic is discussed in Chapter 3. 1. Discuss Sdect two principles of development and learning that you believe are most important for people untrained in ‘arly childhood education to know about. Explain your choices and what you would do to emphasize each one Think about something you know a lot about ot some hing you do well. Refer to Figure 2.7 1 progressed throug achieve you Rosemary teaches 3 and discuss how cach phase ofthe eee of learn and 4-earold children ina child grocery store, they don’t seem ar ow wha do with ly argue over the cartons from the shelves, 0 the floor. Their play lacks and they seldor talk to o tend role. another fr real o in ape and the children simply drift Rosemary wants to nredu 1g before the area isa m- the children to other pos aching strategies Rosemary could use « he children’s ear ide examples Observe hoa csr child developmen and leaning ouincd the ab b. Observe a teacher carrying out an activity with one orm _ children. Identify three teaching strategies described in this chapter that you see. Provide example Carry ou an activity + Revew able 22th add one more DAP satay to . Create a bunper lke that ate th te foe OF the principles of development and learning describe in this chapter, “ ot oon «. Refer to Table 21. Lentify which ofthe eight ine gents dstbed thee mt clncy ma eno learn best. Refer to the teaching strategies outlined in this chapter, Make a lise of the strategies that seem to best match your learning profile and provide a short ale about why Refer to Fi fe 2.7. Think of something you have leaned to do, sacha playing a guitar or riding bike Describe haw you proseedd through the cycle of lea Review writen information describing an early childhood gamis writen philosophy ad prog sm description, discuss ro what extent the p sgruent withthe content described in this chapter: Create something for your portfolio a, Selecta fundamental belief ‘opment and learnin, and about the ag you have about child devel- Think about children in the childre ou are working, volunteering, or doing a practicum. Describe how the belie you chose would affect the fol lowing program dimensions: the children’s program, staff, materials, physical space, budget, and family involvement. Identify practices that would be incompat with the belief you chose mneral ‘Add to your journal a. Reflect on the extent to which the teaching strategies described inthis chapter correspond to what you have ‘observed inthe field. What is your reaction to any dis erepancies you perceive? '. Inwhat ways have you used the eyele of learning in your work with children? What goals do you Yyourselfin this regard? fave for Consult the standards 4 Obtain the early childhood leaning standards devel: oped for your state. Identify where you found them. List three standards that seem appropriate for the children swith whom you will be working ', Talk toa teacher about how he or she uses state sta= dards while teaching © Obiain the academic standards (other than math and ‘eading/language) for three states. Compare the stan dards a single category suchas art or socal develop ‘ment and describe how the standards are similar or different across the states.Setting the Stage for Learning Planning and Implementing Para Reece er tL PRT UCD Cuca ete gc RS Creu eS en DE ry eek eu Childhood Classrooms Perea eu Ru) Children’s Learning CHAPTER 8 ne ee auc cal Programs Through Family Engagement