GEOLOGI MIGAS

(TEG612207 )

Koesoemadinata, R,P., 1980, Geologi minyak dan gas bumi Jilid 1 dan 2 Edisi ke II, ITB, Bandung.

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KONTEN
1. Pendahuluan
2. Cekungan Sedimen
3. Petroleum System
a. Batuan Induk
b. Reservoir
c. Seal
d. Migrasi
e. Mekanisme Penjebakan
4. Geologi Migas Indonesia

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1. Pendahuluan

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In the Petroleum Industry, Petroleum geology is only one aspect of
petroleum exploration and production.

(Selley, 1998)

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Level of petroleum investigation

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Petroleum System Definition
The essential elements and processes and all
genetically - related hydrocarbons that occur in
petroleum shows, and accumulations whose
provenance is a single pod of active source rock.
Elements
Source Rock Processes
Migration Route Generation
Reservoir Rock Migration
Seal Rock Accumulation
Trap Preservation

Magoon & Dow, 1994

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Final Result of Studied Petroleum Geology

Magoon & Dow, 1994)

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2. Cekungan Sedimen

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 SEDIMENTARY BASIN ANALYSIS

1. CRUSTAL STRUCTURE
2. BASIN FORMATION
SUBSIDENCE :
- EXTENSIONAL TECTONIC REGIME
- COMPRESSIONAL TECTONIC REGIME
- STRIKE-SLIP TECTONIC REGIME
TECTONIC BASIN EVOLUTION :
- CONTINENTAL RIFTING
- PASSIVE CONTINENTAL MARGIN
- ACTIVE CONTINENTAL MARGIN
- COLLISION ZONE

3. BASIN FILLING :
ACCOMODATION SPACE
RIFT BASIN FILLING
PASSIVE CONTINENTAL MARGIN FILLING
ACTIVE CONTINENTAL MARGIN FILLING
FORE LAND BASIN FILLING

4. BASIN DEFORMATION

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Sedimentary basin form part of the earth’s crust.

The Oceanic crust is

thin, dense and
topographically low;
Continental crust is
thick, lower density
and higher elevation
over the continent.

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Earth’s crust is composed by a number of plates, where each plate were bounded
by mid-oceanic ridges, trenches and transform boundaries.

Plate boundary formed by plate movement: (A) Divergent, (B) Convergent;

subduction, (C) Convergent margin (collision), (D) Transform fault margin.

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The Wilson Cycle
The Wilson cycle of
oceanic formation and
closure:
a. Continental
extension
b. Creation of a new
oceanic spreading
centre
c. Ocean
enlargement
d. Subduction of
oceanic floor (leads
to closure oceanic
basin)
e. Subduction of
oceanic ridge
f. Continent-continent
collision
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Basin Classification

Einsele, 2000

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Basin Classification

Einsele, 2000

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3. Petroleum System
(Batuan Induk)

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 Source Rock (Batuan Induk)

1. All rock that have ability to generate and expel hydrocarbon in

significant amount to form a petroleum accumulation (Hunt,
1996).

2. Potential SR : immature source rock to produce petroleum in

its natural condition, but will produce petroleum in significant
amount if heated (can be naturally or in laboratory).

3. Effective SR : source rock which already produce and expell

petroleum (to reservoir), can be in form of active SR (still
expelling) or inactive.

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 Source Rock (Batuan Induk)

4. SR ability to produce petroleum depends on :

a. Quantity of kerogen/organic material (Total Organic
Carbon)
Simple indicator : rock color (rich in Corg is darker)
TOC content is higher with the decrease of grain size
b. Quality of kerogen (content of H)
Amount of petroleum produced will be higher if the atomic
ratio of H/C in the organic material is higher
c. Thermal maturity

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 Petroleum vs Hydrocarbon

• Petroleum : complex mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbon compounds

found in rock. Petroleum can range from solid to gas, but the term is generally
used to refer to liquid crude oil. Impurities such as sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen
are common in petroleum. There is considerable variation in color, gravity, odor,
sulfur content and viscosity in petroleum from different areas.

• Hydrocarbon : a naturally occurring organic compound comprising hydrogen

(+/- 13%). Hydrocarbon can be as simple as methane (CH4), but many are
highly complex molecules, and can occur as gases, liquids or solids. The
molecules can have the shape of chains, branching chains, rings or other
structures. Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons. The most common
hydrocarbons are natural gas, oil and coal.

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Elemental Composition of Petroleum

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Origin of Petroleum

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Source Rock Concept

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Geochemical Processes of Petroleum Formation

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Origin of Petroleum

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Organic Matter Deposition

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Organic Matter & Petroleum Formation

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Formation of Organic Matter Rich Sediment

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Kerogen

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Which Organic Matter Act as Significant
Petroleum Source?

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Nature of Organic Matter - Macerals

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Genesis & Maturity

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Temperature of Petroleum Formation

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Relationship Between Coal Rank, Principal Organic
Maturation Parameters and The Zone of Oil-Gas
Occurrence (Dow, 1997)

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Kerogen Type on Van Krevelen Diagram

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Petroleum Potential Table

Petroleum Organic Matter Bitumen Hydrocarbons

Potential Rock Eval Pyrolysis
TOC (wt. %) S1 S2 Wt % ppm ppm
Poor 0 – 0.5 0 – 0.5 0 – 2.5 0 – 0.05 0 - 500 0 - 300
Fair 0.5 – 1.0 0.5 – 1.0 2.5 – 5.0 0.05 – 0.10 500 – 1000 300 – 600
Good 1.0 – 2.0 1.0 – 2.0 5.0 – 10.0 0.10 – 0.20 1000 – 2000 600 – 1200
Very Good 2.0 – 4.0 2.0 – 4.0 10.0 – 20.0 0.20 – 0.40 2000 – 4000 1200 – 2400
Excellent > 4.0 > 4.0 > 20.0 > 0.40 > 4000 > 2400

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Petroleum (Oil) Maturity Table
Stage of Thermal Maturation Generation
Maturity for Oil
o
Ro (%) Tmax ( C) TAI Bitumen/TOC Bitumen PI
(mg/g Rock) (S1/(S1+S2)
Immature 0.2 – 0.6 < 435 1.5 – 2.6 < 0.05 < 50 < 0.10

Mature
Early 0.60 – 0.65 435 – 445 2.60 – 2.70 0.05 – 0.10 50 – 100 0.10 – 0.15
Peak 0.65 – 0.90 445 – 450 2.70 – 2.90 0.15 – 0.25 150 – 250 0.25 – 0.40
Late 0.90 – 1.35 450 – 470 2.90 – 3.30 - - > 0.40
Post Mature > 1.35 > 470 > 3.30 - - -

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Kerogen Type (Quality) Table

Kerogen Hydrogen S2/S3 Atomic H/C Main Product

(Quality) Index at Peak Maturity

I > 600 > 15 > 1.5 Oil

II 300-600 10-15 1.2-1.5 Oil
II/III 200-300 5-10 1 - 1.2 Oil/Gas
III 50 - 200 1-5 0.7 - 1.0 Gas
IV < 50 <1 < 0.7 None

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3. Petroleum System
(Reservoir)

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Definition
Any rocks in suitable stratigraphic position with possessing
both the porosity and permeability necessary to contain oil,
gas, or both, in commercial quantities. (North, 1985)

Two most fundamental properties of reservoir rocks are :

• Porosity = storage capacity of the rock (for it to be an
effective porosity)
• Permeability = the ability of fluids to pass through a porous
material

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Porosity

Porosity is the pore spaces or voids, within a rocks are

generally filled with connate water, but contain oil or gas
within a field (Selley, 1998).

Porosity (Ф) = Volume of voids

x 100
Total volume of rocks

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 Porosity
Types of porosity :
- Ineffective porosity (closed pore)
- Effective porosity (pores that communicate with
others by more than one throat/pipe passage)
- Catenary pores
- Cul-de-sac pores

(Selley, 1998)

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Porosity

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 Porosity
Based on its genesis, porosity can be classified into two types :
1.Primary porosity : those formed when a sediment is deposited
a. Interparticle : initially present in all sediments (often quickly lost in clays
and carbonate sands due to compaction and cementation)
b. Intraparticle : generally found within the skeletal grains of carbonate
sands (often cul-de-sac pores type)
2. Secondary porosity : those developed in a rock some time after deposition
(often due to solution)
a.Vuggy : porosity due to solution of bulk rocks; cross cut grains, matrices &
cement
b.Moldic : porosity due to solution only matrix or grain (fabric selective)
c. Fracture : important because it may enhance permeability

(Selley, 1998)

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 Porosity
Fracture porosity :
It occurs in brittle rocks in three
geological setting :
- Dilate where strata are subjected
to tension on the crest of
anticline and the nadir of
synclines
- Occurs adjacent to faults, or may
be directly related to a major
fault and its associated fractures
- Found beneath unconformities,
especially in carbonates, where
the fractures may be enlarged by
karstic solution.

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Relationship between porosity and permeability for the different
types of pore system

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Classification of Porosity

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 Permeability
Permeability is the ability of fluids to pass through a porous material.

Original work on permeability was carried out by H Darcy (1856) which was
further developed by Muskat & Botset (1931) who resulted a formula for rate
of flow.
K(P1 – P2) A
Q=
µL

Where
Q = rate of flow
K = permeability
(P1-P2) = pressure drop across the sample
A = cross-sectional area of the sample
L = length of the sample
µ = viscosity of the fluids

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Permeability
The unit of permeability is the Darcy, defined as the
permeability that allows a fluid of 1 centipoise (cP) viscosity
to flow at a velocity of 1 cm/s for a pressure drop of 1
atm/cm.

Usually reservoir have permeabilities much less than a

Darcy, the milidarcy (md) is commonly used.

Quality scale of permeability (Koesoemadinata, 1980):

< 5 mD : Ketat (tight)

5 – 10 mD : Cukup (fair)
10 – 100 mD : Baik (good)
100 – 1000 mD : Baik sekali (very good)

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Type of Reservoir Rocks

The reservoir rocks could be :

• Sandstone
• Carbonate rocks
• Other rocks such as shale, volcanic rocks,
fractured basement etc.

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Sandstone
Sedimentary rock containing
dominantly sand-size clastic particles

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Sandstone Classification

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Sandstone Reservoir
Quartz Sandstone
This rocks type is important due to most of sandstone reservoir is
quartz sandstone. It is commonly a very good quality of reservoir
because it has well sorting, rounded grain and less of matrix.

Example of this type in Indonesia:

- Ngrayong member of Tawun Formation in northern East Jawa
- Talang Akar Formation in South Sumatera Selatan and western part
of Java Sea
- Air banakat Formation in South Sumatera
- Tanjung Formation in Barito
- Keutapang Formation in North Sumatra.

Ngrayong Fm

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Sandstone Reservoir
Greywacke sandstone
Greywacke sandstone is commonly composed by various types of
clast including chert, igneous rocks, mafic mineral and others.

Important textural properties posses of greywacke is abundant of

matrix and poorly sorted texture that reduced porosity.

Greywacke commonly occurs in association with turbidit deposits.

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Sandstone Reservoir
Arcosic Sandstone
• This rocks type are commonly composed by quartz and feldspar.
• Usually clean, with less of matrix contain but its grain morphology is
still angular grains with moderately sorted.
• Arkosic sandstone is very common as a result of weathering of
granites.

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Relationship between porosity,
permeability and sedimentary texture
The textural parameters of an unconsolidated sediment
that may effect porosity and
permeability:
-grain shape (roundness & sphericity)
-grain size
-Sorting
-fabric (packing, grain orientation)

Permeability is a function of size, form and distribution of

pores space and type and quantity of fluids, rate fluids
flow, length and cross-section of rocks and pressures drop
along fluidal flows.

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Relationship between porosity,
permeability and grain shape

Fraser (1935): porosity might decrease with spericity, because spherical

grains may be more tightly packed than subspherical ones.

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Relationship between porosity,
permeability and grain shape

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Relationship between porosity,
permeability and grain size
-Theoretically, porosity is independent of grain size for
uniformly packed and graded sand.
-In practice : coarser sands sometimes have higher
porosities than do finer sand (Sneider et al., 1977).
-This disparity may be due to separate but correlative
factors such as sorting and/or cementation.
-Permeability declines with decreasing grain size because
pore diameter decrease and hence capillary pressure
increase.

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Relationship between porosity,
permeability and grain sorting
•Porosity increases with improved sorting.
•As sorting decreases, the pores between
the larger, framework-forming grains are
infilled by the smaller particles.
•Permeability decreases with sorting for the
same reasons

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Relationship between porosity,
permeability and grain packing

Porosity : 47,6% 26%

(Graton & Fraser, 1935)

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Relationship between porosity,
permeability and grain orientation
-The orientation is perhaps more significant to porosity and
permeability than packing is (Selley, 1998)
-It may have little effect on porosity, but a major effect on permeability
-Due to most sediment are stratified, the layering being caused by flaky
sediment such as mica, shells and plant fragment, the vertical
permeability is generaly considerably lower than the horizontal
permeability.

(Selley, 1998)

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Diagenesis
• Diagenesis (≈ lithification) includes the full range of
alterations sediments undergo after deposition, at relatively
low temperatures and pressures (gradational to
metamorphism)
• Lithification may occur simultaneously with deposition (in
several carbonates, evaporites, and volcaniclastics)
• Physical and chemical diagenetic processes constitute
compaction and cementation, respectively
• Diagenesis commonly leads to a reduction of porosity
and permeability

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Diagenesis
diagenesis is any chemical,
physical, or biological change
undergone by sediments after
its initial deposition and during
and after its lithification,
exclusive of surface alteration
(weathering) and
metamorphism.

sediment is covered by successive layer of younger sediment; increased

temperature and pressure leading to consolidation and lithification of the
sediment into sedimentary rocks

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Diagenesis
Compaction

Compaction is the result of overburden pressure during sediment

burial, resulting in a decrease of volume and an increase of density
• Compaction is extremely important in organics and muds, but less
important in sands, gravels, and reefal carbonates
• Compaction is accompanied by the expulsion of groundwater and a
reduction of porosity
Differential compaction is important when sediments exhibit a high
spatial variability

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Diagenesis
Cementation
Dissolution commonly occurs without high pressures, and
subsequent precipitation results in the formation of cement (authigenic
minerals)
• Calcium carbonate (sparry or micritic)
• Silica (commonly microquartz)
• Clay minerals
Cementation reduces both the porosity and the permeability

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Carbonate Reservoir
• Principal minerals: calcite, aragonite (unstable), and
dolomite (diagenetic)
• Principal rocks: limestone (>50% CaCO3) and dolomite
(dolostone) (CaMg(CO3)2)
• Formation of carbonate sediments and rocks occurs by
means of two main processes:
• Biomineralization of CaCO3 by organisms
• Direct chemical precipitation

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Carbonate Reservoir
• Biogenic carbonate formation occurs by a wide range of organisms
(e.g., molluscs, corals, forams, algae, bacteria, and many others)
• Most organisms initially form unconsolidated carbonate sediments
• Coral reefs and microbial mats (e.g., stromatolites) are examples of
more solid carbonate structures
• Chemical precipitation produces non-skeletal carbonate grains of
various sizes (e.g., ooids, pisoids, micrite)

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Carbonate Reservoir
• Carbonate sand usually consists either of (fragmented)
skeletal remains or non-skeletal grains
• Carbonate mud (micrite) is commonly the product either
of chemical precipitation or algal/bacterial activity

• Three classifications of carbonate rocks that commonly

used by geologist area:
-Grabau (1904)
-Dunham (1962)
-Folk (1962)

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Carbonate Reservoir
Grabau Classification (1904)
Grabau G abau divided limestone into five types that are :
1. Calcirudite is for limestone with dominant grain size
bigger than sandy size (>2 mm).
2. Calcarenite is for limestone with dominant grain size
equal to sandy size (1/16 – 2 mm).
3. Calcilutite is for limestone with dominant grain size
smaller than sandy size (<1/16 mm).
4. Calcipulverite is for limestone resulted by chemical
precipitation, such as crystalline limestone.
5. Organic limestone is for limestone resulted by insitu
organic growth, such as coral and stromatolite.

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Carbonate Reservoir

Dunham classification of carbonate rocks:

•Texturally-based subdivision (cf. clastics):
mudstone, wackestone, packstone,
grainstone, rudstone
•Organically bound framework during
formation: boundstone

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Carbonate Rock Classification

(Dunham, 1962)

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Carbonate Rock Classification

(Folk, 1962)

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Carbonate Rock Classification

(Embry & Klovan, 1971)

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Limestone Characteristics
POROSITY
Shortly after deposition, sand sized sediments 50%, lime mud 80%.
Reduced through cementation, compaction & pressure dissolution.

Gained through dissolution, dolomitization & tectonic fracturing (Tucker,

1991).
Example of maximum porosity at deposition (Scoffin, 1987):
Lagoonal muds 70%, Pelagic oozes 70%, Reef framework 60%, Reef
debris 60%, Ooid grainstone 40%.

Porosity is devided into :

-Primary (depositional)
-Secondary (diagenetic-tectonic)

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Limestone Characteristics
To preserve primary porosity, sediment has to :
1. Have good initial porosity
2. Avoid early total cementation
3. Avoid mechanical and chemical compaction
Secondary porosity can be created when :
1. Unstable mineral dissolve to leave moulds
2. Tensional phase causes the opening of fractures or
suture seam
3. There are mineralogical changes in volume to become
denser mineral, create voids (mainly dolomitization)

(Scoffin, 1987)

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Limestone Characteristics
8 porosity types (Scoffin, 1987) :
1. Intraparticle
2. Interparticle
3. Enhanced primary
4. Intercrystalline
5. Mouldic
6. Vuggy-channeling-cavern
7. Fracture/breccia
8. Stylolites

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Permeability and porosity trends for various rock types
(Keelan and Marschall, 1989)

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