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A Zen Nazi in Wartime Japan - Count Dürckheim and His Sources
A Zen Nazi in Wartime Japan - Count Dürckheim and His Sources
A Zen Nazi in Wartime Japan - Count Dürckheim and His Sources
Brian Victoria
Introductory Note: This is the final article in a conceivably undermine Japan's colonial
three part series on the relationship of D.T. expansion abroad and repressive domestic
Suzuki and other Zen figures in wartime Japan policies at home. Added to this was the fact
to Count Karlfried Dürckheim and other Nazis. that Japan had begun its full-scale invasion of
Part I of this series, "D.T. Suzuki, Zen and the China on July 7, 1937.
Nazis" is available here
(https://apjjf.org/-Brian-Victoria/4019). Part II, Japan's relationship with Germany was in flux
"The Formation and Principles of Count according to the changing political interests of
Dürckheim's Nazi Worldview and his both countries.1 Because of negative
interpretation of Japanese Spirit and Zen" is international reactions to the Anti-Comintern
available here pact of November 1936, resistance against it
(https://apjjf.org/-Karl-Baier/4041). Readers increased in Japan soon after it was made, and
who have not yet done so are urged to read at the Japanese froze their policy of closer ties.
least Part II of this series that provides crucial However, in 1938 it became clear to Japan that
background information for understanding Part the war against China would last longer than
III. expected. Thus, Japanese interest in a military
alliance with Germany and Italy reemerged. On
Introduction the German side, Joachim von Ribbentrop had
become Foreign Minister in February 1938,
By the late 1930s Japan was well on the way to and as he had long been a proponent of closer
becoming a totalitarian society. True, in Japan ties with Japan, negotiations between the two
there was no charismatic dictator like Hitler or countries resumed in the summer of 1938.
Mussolini, but there was nevertheless a
powerful "divine presence," i.e., Emperor
Hirohito. Although seldom seen and never
heard, he occasionally issued imperial edicts,
serving to validate the actions of those political
and military figures claiming to act on his
behalf. At least in theory, such validation was
absolute and leftwing challenges to
government policies, whether on the part of
Communists, socialists or merely liberals, were
mercilessly suppressed. For example, between
1928 and 1937 some 60,000 people were
arrested under suspicion of harboring
"dangerous thoughts," i.e., anything that could
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Count Karlfried Dürckheim´s first Japan trip Dürckheim began his journey to Japan on June
was probably connected with the beginning of 7, 1938 and did not return to Germany until
this thaw in German-Japanese relations. The early 1939. According to his biographer,
birth of "total war" in the wake of World War I Gerhard Wehr, Dürckheim initially received a
and even earlier had demonstrated that victory research assignment from the German Ministry
could not be achieved without the strong of Education that consisted of two tasks: first,
support and engagement of civilian to describe the development of Japanese
populations, one aspect of which was not national education including the so-called
simply knowledge of potential adversaries but social question,2 and second, to investigate the
of one's allies as well. This meant enhanced possibility of using cultural activities to
cultural relations and mutual understanding promote Germany's political aims both within
between the citizens of allied nations. Japan and those areas of Asia under Japanese
influence. 3 Dürckheim arrived by boat and
It was under these circumstances that travelled extensively within Japan as well as
Dürckheim undertook what was portrayed as undertaking trips to Korea, Manchukuo
an education-related mission to Japan, a (Japan's puppet state in Manchuria) and
mission that would impact on him profoundly northern China. During his travels Dürckheim
for the remainder of his life. This was not the remained in close contact with the local NSDAP
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(Nazi) offices and the Japan-based division of he stated. He was the famous
the National Socialist Teachers Association. Suzuki who was here to meet a
certain Mister Dürckheim arriving
from Germany to undertake certain
studies.
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above all a religion of will and willpower; it is them, whatever other faults the wartime
profoundly averse to intellectual philosophy Dürckheim may have had, misunderstanding
and discursive thought, relying, instead, on Suzuki's explication of Zen was not one of
intuition as the direct and immediate path to them.
6
truth.'"
And, significantly, Suzuki was not content in his
book to simply link Zen as a religion of will to
Japanese medieval warriors. He was equally
intent to show that the same self-sacrificial,
death-embracing spirit of the samurai had
become the modern martial spirit of the
Japanese people as a whole:
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thought, for they had long been present. Suzuki's View of Nazi Germany
In any event, the content of the initial There is one vital question that warrants our
conversation between Suzuki and Dürckheim attention, i.e., why had Suzuki accepted an
does suggest why, from the outset, these two invitation to come to a German Embassy so
men found they shared so much in common. firmly under Nazi control? In the context of the
For his part, like "Nordic man" in the preceding times, this may not seem so surprising, but it is
quotation, Suzuki frequently equated Zen with in fact a very surprising turn of events. Very
17
the Japanese character. In other words, within surprising, that is, if one believes the testimony
one of the two major strands of Nazi religiosity, of Satō Gemmyō Taira, a Shin (True Pure Land)
Dürckheim would perhaps have understood, Buddhist priest who, readers of Part I of this
and welcomed, Suzuki as a völkisch proponent article will recall, identifies himself as one of
of a religion, i.e., Zen, dedicated to, and shaped Suzuki's disciples in the postwar period.
by, the Japanese Volk. This may well explain
what initially drew the two men together and Satō claims:
led to their ongoing relationship.
It should also be noted that Suzuki was not the Although Suzuki recognized that
first to recognize affinities between Eckhart the Nazis had, in 1936, brought
and Buddhism. In the 19th century the German stability to Germany and although
philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer had he was impressed by their youth
postulated this connection. He wrote: activities (though not by the
militaristic tone of these activities),
he clearly had little regard for the
If we turn from the forms, Nazi leader, disapproved of their
produced by external violent attitudes, and opposed the
circumstances, and go to the root policies espoused by the party. His
of things, we shall find that distaste for totalitarianism of any
[Buddha] Shākyamuni and Meister kind is unmistakable.19
Eckhart teach the same thing; only
that the former dared to express
his ideas plainly and positively, If, as Satō asserts, Suzuki "opposed the policies
whereas Eckhart is obliged to espoused by the [Nazi] party," etc. why would
clothe them in the garment of the he have agreed to meet a Nazi researcher like
Christian myth, and to adapt his Dürckheim on his arrival in Japan? And why
expressions thereto.18 would he subsequently have continued to meet
him "from time to time"? Still further, why
would the German Embassy have invited a
As for Dürckheim, his interest in Eckhart, as known critic of the Nazis, someone whom Satō
noted in Part II, can be traced back to the claims had publicly expressed his anti-Nazi
1920s when he began to practice meditation views in October 1936, to meet a visiting Nazi
together with his friend Ferdinand Weinhandl, researcher less than two years later? While
the Austrian philosopher who later became a these questions may seem unrelated to
professor in Kiel and another strong proponent Dürckheim's wartime activities in Japan, they
of National Socialism. Additionally, the Swiss do point to a striking parallel between the two
psychologist C. G. Jung identified Eckhart as men in the postwar period, a parallel that will
the most important thinker of his time. become apparent below.
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First, however, it should be noted that there is bears repeating because a similar phenomenon
an alternate narrative that readily explains occurred on the part of those who were close to
Suzuki's willingness to assist a Nazi-affiliated Dürckheim, including his family members.
researcher like Dürckheim. This narrative
begins by noting that in his 1938 book, Zen If in Dürckheim's case it was impossible to
Buddhism and Its Influence on Japanese deny outright his Nazi connection, then the
Culture, Suzuki wrote: least his admirers could do was minimize the
significance of that connection, for example, by
describing his role in wartime Japan as that of a
Zen has no special doctrine or "Kulturdiplomat" (cultural diplomat). This title
philosophy with a set of concepts suggests that Dürckheim did nothing more than
and intellectual formulas, except engage in "cultural activities" during his nearly
that it tries to release one from the eight-year residence in Japan. However, as this
bondage of birth and death and article makes clear, Dürckheim was in fact an
this by means of certain intuitive indefatigable propagandist for the Nazis,
modes of understanding peculiar anything but a mere cultural envoy. This point
to itself. It is, therefore, extremely will be touched upon again below.
flexible to adapt itself almost to
any philosophy and moral doctrine In part, this attempt to disguise Dürckheim's
as long as its intuitive teaching is actions as being cultural in nature can be
not interfered with. explained by the fact that for the Nazis
"culture," like "education," was an all-
It may be found wedded to
embracing concept subsumed into the overall
anarchism or fascism, communism
struggle for a totalitarian society and state.
or democracy, atheism or idealism,
Thus, the primary focus of Dürckheim's
or any political and economical
"cultural activities," including his interest in
dogmatism. It is, however,
Zen, was his mission to promote the cultural,
generally animated with a certain
educational and political policies of the Third
revolutionary spirit, and when
Reich in Japan as a part of the overall struggle
things come to a deadlock which is
to ensure the triumph of National Socialism.
the case when we are overloaded
with conventionalisms, formalism,
As for the frequency of Suzuki's meetings with
and other cognate isms, Zen
Dürckheim during his first visit to Japan we
asserts itself and proves to be a
know relatively little. However, Suzuki did
destructive force.20
include the following entries in his English
language diary: (January 16, 1939), "Special
Given that Suzuki, at least in 1938, claimed delivery to Durkheim (sic), at German
that Zen could be wedded to almost any Embassy";21 (January 17, 1939), Telegram from
political ideology, fascism included, he would Dürkheim"; 22 (January 18, 1939), "Went to
have had no reason for refusing to meet Tokyo soon after breakfast. Called on Graf.
Dürckheim at the German Embassy. As Part I of [Count] Durkheim at German Embassy, met
this article revealed, Suzuki's staunch Ambassador [Eugen] Otto [Ott], and Dr. [space
defender, Satō Gemmyō Taira, was willing to go left blank] of German-Japanese Institute. Lunch
so far as to fabricate part of his translation of with them at New Grand [Hotel]."23 It is likely
Suzuki's October 1936 newspaper description that this flurry of activity in early 1939 was
of the Nazis in order to make it appear his connected to Dürkheim's impending return to
master was critical of this movement. This Germany. If so, Dürkheim's luncheon invitation
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This incident suggests just how important Then the war started. The day
Dürckheim had already become, at least after [Germany's invasion of
concerning Japanese affairs. Poland on September 1, 1939]
Ribbentrop summoned me and
By the spring of 1940 Germany had achieved said: "We need somebody to
an impressive list of military victories leading maintain contact with scientists in
to the occupation of Denmark, Norway, the Japan." I answered: "Mr. Von
Netherlands, and, most important, France. The Ribbentrop, I can't wait to return
defeat of England seemed to be only a matter to Japan." "OK," he answered,
of time. This led Japan to approach Germany "then come back tomorrow and tell
with the goal of ensuring protection of its own me what you want to have [to carry
sphere of influence in East Asia. As for out this task]." The next day I said
Germany, as it became clear that the defeat of to him: "I want eighty libraries
England would take longer than expected, consisting of one hundred volumes
especially in the face of possible US each." "What do you mean?"
intervention in Europe as well as East Asia. "Eighty libraries with one hundred
Thus, Germany, too, once again became volumes in each is a library for
interested in a military alliance with Japan. This every teacher at German schools
time renewed negotiations bore fruit in the [in Japan]." He said "OK, approved.
form of the Tripartite Pact between Germany, I think this is reasonable."
26
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Among those in the first category is Gerhard (zazen), especially in archery and
Wehr, Dürckheim's biographer and admirer. painting. It is surprising to notice
Wehr acknowledges that his subject eagerly that from the point of view of Zen,
embraced his new duties as a Nazi emissary: the most varied arts have the same
"In the wave of enthusiastic nationalism, purpose, whether it be archery or
Dürckheim saw himself as a useful dance, song or karate, floral
representative of the 'new Germany' for his decoration or aikido, the tea
people and his employers in Berlin, for the ceremony or spear throwing. . . .
Minister of Foreign Affairs Von Ribbentrop, and Done in the spirit of Zen, they are
28
for the Minister of Education, Bernhard Rust." merely different ways aiming
toward the same thing: the
Wehr further states: "And as his biography breakthrough toward the nature of
shows, it was not hard for him to obey the Buddha, toward "Being."
31
Yet, what exactly was this transformational Dürckheim and Eugen Herrigel
"subterranean process" Dürckheim was
undergoing? Wehr introduces a quote from
Dürckheim describing how his spiritual journey
after arriving in Japan led him to practice not
only Zen but also traditional Japanese archery
and painting as well:
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kyūdō [archery], one can say that it shoots" to any of his disciples other than
was only after World War II that Herrigel." 41 How is this possible? Yamada's
kyūdō became strongly associated painstaking research led him to the following
with Zen. To be even more specific, conclusion:
this is a unique phenomenon that
occurred after 1956 when Zen in
the Art of Archery was translated When Herrigel made a good shot,
and published in Japanese. . . . This Awa cried, "That's it!". . . . "That's
suggests that the emphasis on the it" was mistakenly translated to
relationship between the bow and Herrigel [in German] as "'It'
Zen is due to the influence of Zen shoots," and Herrigel understood
36 "It" to mean "something which
in the Art of Archery.
transcends the self." If that is what
happened, then the teaching of "'It'
Yamada reveals moreover that Herrigel himself shoots" was born when an
never underwent any formal Zen training incorrect meaning filled the void
during his five-year stay in Japan from 1924-29. created by a single instance of
Yamada also informs us that Awa "never spent misunderstanding.42
any time at a Zen temple or received proper
instruction from a Zen master." 37 Awa did,
The relevance of this alleged
however, teach something he called
"misunderstanding" to Dürckheim is that the
Daishadōkyō (Great Doctrine of the Way of
latter shared the same misunderstanding,
Shooting) that included a religious dimension
albeit under a different master with only a
he expressed using elements of Zen
tenuous connection to Awa. During an
terminology. Awa's Japanese students noted
interview with German television at the age of
this Great Doctrine consisted of "archery as a
eighty-seven Dürckheim said:
religion" in which "the founder of this religion
38
is Master Awa Kenzō." Herrigel also refers to
the "Great Doctrine" but, as Yamada notes: I still remember the day, in the
"Herrigel offered no explanation of what the presence of the master, when I
"Great Doctrine" might be, so readers of Zen in shot an arrow and it left on its
the Art of Archery had no way of knowing that own. "I" had not shot it. "It" had
this was simply Awa's personal philosophy."39 shot. The master saw this and took
the bow in his hands, then took me
Yet another key component of Herrigel's in his arms (which is very rare in
archery training was the mystical spiritual Japan!) and said: "That's it!" He
experience he claimed to have had, expressed then invited me to tea. That is how
verbally as "'It' shoots" rather than the familiar archery taught me so much, for the
"I shoot (an arrow)." The spiritual connection mastery of a traditional Japanese
came from Herrigel's identification of "It" with technique does not have as goal a
"something which transcends the self." 4 0 performance, but on the contrary
Inasmuch as this expression appears to requires the achievement of a step
resonate with Zen teaching the question must forward on the inner path.43
be asked, what's the problem?
The problem is, as Yamada explains: "There is Dürckheim thus used nearly the same words as
no record of Awa ever having taught: "'It' Herrigel to describe his mystical experience,
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i.e., "'It' had shot." Yet, unlike Herrigel, the fact that Herrigel, in his writings from
Dürckheim did not claim that his archery 1936, promoted a völkisch religious
master had used these words. Instead, he understanding very similar to that of
states that, upon seeing Dürckheim's Dürckheim. Further, Dürckheim was aware of
accomplishment, his archery master said, these 1936 writings before he started his own
"That's it!" Not only does this episode provide practice of archery. This völkisch
strong evidence that Yamada's conclusion is understanding was, however, not the only thing
correct, but it also suggests that, since neither the two men shared in common.
Herrigel nor Dürckheim were fluent in
Japanese, Dürckheim, at least, had the superior A Shared Nazi Past
interpreter.
In a political context, the most important
That said, where had Dürckheim first learned feature Herrigel and Dürckheim shared was
the expression, "'It' shoots" if not from their active allegiance to National Socialism, an
Herrigel's writings? As noted above, Awa did allegiance that was of great benefit to both of
not employ this expression in his teaching their careers. Herrigel joined the Nazi party on
which, in any case, was not based on any Zen May 1, 1937. The following year he became the
training but rather on his own personal vice rector of the University of Erlangen and in
philosophy that included Zen expressions. This 1944 was promoted to rector, a post he held to
forces us to recognize that there was no "Zen" the end of the war. As Yamada notes: "In a
in the "art of archery" other than that first climate where right-minded scholars were
created in Herrigel's mind based on a mistaken leaving the universities in droves, only a person
translation of Awa's words. who had ingratiated himself with the Nazis
could hope to climb as high as rector."47
For his part, Dürckheim subsequently accepted
this mistaken translation at face value. Further, During the Nazi era Herrigel wrote such essays
as we have seen, Dürckheim mistakenly as "Die Aufgabe der Philosophie im neuen
believed his archery master "follow[ed] the Reich" (The Task of Philosophy in the New
44
same tradition as Herrigel." Thus, it can be [Third] Reich) in 1934 and "Nationalsozialismus
said that while Dürckheim had the superior und Philosophie" (National Socialism and
interpreter, there was nothing "superior" or Philosophy) in 1935. In 1944, as an expert on
even "accurate" in either man's understanding Japan, he wrote, "Das Ethos des Samurai" (The
of their practice of archery or its non-existent Ethos of the Samurai). Herrigel's wartime
45
historical relationship to Zen. writings reveal him to have been an
48
enthusiastic Nazi. For example, in 1935
Be that as it may, the importance of this Herrigel described Hitler as follows:
discussion is that the connection of archery to
Zen was not an ancient tradition that Herrigel
encountered while in Japan, nor was the The miracle happened. With a
practice of archery understood as an alternate tremendous drive that made all
form or expression of Zen practice. As Yamada, resistance meaningless, the
himself an accomplished student of archery, German Volk was carried away.
states, Zen's connection to archery is primarily With unanimous determination it
a postwar "myth" that Herrigel himself endorsed the leader. . . . The fight
promoted.46 for the soul of the German Volk
reached its goal. It is ruled by one
Finally, it is not surprising that Dürckheim will and one attitude and commits
would have also embraced this myth in light of itself to its leader with a kind of
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the same time, the essence of Zen." 56 Given from the Nazis' worldview to that of Zen. In
this, how could any Westerner aspire to fact, he would "have to make a decision," i.e.,
understanding "the essence of Zen" while choosing either Zen or National Socialism. But
lacking "the character of the Japanese people"? did Dürckheim ever make such a choice? On
this crucial point Wehr is silent. The best Wehr
At the same time, given the historical non- could do was to admit: "The quoted
relationship of Zen to archery, the question biographical documents suggest that it was a
must be asked as to what this tells us about very slow process of change."58
Suzuki's own understanding of Zen? That is to
say, did he knowingly participate in what Nevertheless, Wehr goes on to claim that
Yamada described as a postwar "myth"? If so, Dürckheim became such an accomplished Zen
what was his purpose? Interesting as these practitioner that he had an initial
questions may be, they lie beyond the scope of enlightenment experience known as satori. Not
this article to explore. even Herrigel had explicitly claimed this for
himself. Wehr wrote:
Wehr's Defense of Dürckheim
Unsurprisingly, Wehr provides us with none of Toward the end of his stay in
this information about Herrigel let alone about Japan, Dürckheim experienced
any personal relationship Dürckheim may have satori, the aim of Zen: a degree of
had to him. Nor, for that matter, does Wehr illumination of reality. Through
inform us much about Dürckheim's relationship this he achieved the "spiritual
with Suzuki either during or after the war. His break-through toward ultimate
focus is on one thing, weakening Dürckheim's reality." In this way a greater Self
connection to National Socialism while is uncovered, beyond the ordinary
simultaneously strengthening his relationship self. This greater Self, and the
to Zen: destiny linked to it, does not spare
a person on the inner way from
trials. In the following stages of his
Reflections such as these still do life, Dürckheim experienced an
not reveal the distance which imprisonment of a year and a half
Dürckheim is taking vis-à-vis in the prison of Sugamo in Tokyo
National Socialism and his own under the control of the American
concept of nationalist culture. Occupation.59
These two worlds still co-exist for
him. He is attempting to harmonize
his nationalist ideals and his Once again the reader is presented with the
spiritual interests. He does not yet incongruous relationship between a confirmed
realize that he will have to make a Nazi, a suspected war criminal in postwar
decision if he continues his inner Japan, and an enlightened Zen practitioner.
path. He believes that what Zen Yet, when did Dürckheim have his
Buddhism offers him is a gain to enlightenment experience? Was it before, or
his exterior status.57 after, he was imprisoned at war's end? And who
was the Zen master who authenticated
Dürckheim's enlightenment experience as is
Thus, Wehr would have us believe that as required in the Zen school? Did Dürckheim
Dürckheim's understanding of Zen deepened he even train under a recognized Zen master?
was slowly drawn away, if only unconsciously, Wehr once again remains silent.
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Wehr does, however, quote Dürckheim in after is something universally human which
describing his incarceration in the Sugamo comes from our origins and happens to be more
prison: emphasized in eastern practices than in the
western. What interests us is not something
uniquely oriental, but something universally
In spite of everything, it was a very human which the Orient has cultivated over the
fertile period for me. The first centuries and has never fully lost sight of."62
weeks I had a dream almost every
night, some of which anticipated In a conference held in Frankfort, Dürckheim
my future work. In my cell, I was went further:
surrounded by a profound silence.
I could work on myself and that is
when I began to write a novel. My I find it especially shameful that
neighbors simply waited for each people say: the experiences of
day to pass. That time of captivity Being which Dürckheim brings us
was precious to me because I could are imported from the East. No,
exercise zazen meditation and the experience of Being is
remain in immobility for hours.60 everywhere in the world, even if it
is given different names according
to the religious life which has
The fact that Wehr tells us Dürckheim developed there, if we understand
experienced satori "toward the end of his stay by the word "Being" the Divine
in Japan" suggests that Dürckheim had what he Being. All reflection on Being
believed to be satori while in prison, for, as begins with this experience. . .
noted, he was incarcerated for some eighteen .This experience can truly help
months under suspicion of being a Class A war man feel and assist him in living
criminal before finally being released without something contradictory to his
trial and repatriated to Germany. If Dürckheim usual self and his ordinary view of
did experience satori in prison, it would have life, and make him suddenly
been impossible for a Zen master to verify his experience another force, another
experience. Thus, within the norms of the Zen order and another unity. It is
tradition, and without additional clarifying obviously greater, more powerful,
evidence, the authenticity of Dürckheim's claim more profound, richer and vaster
must remain suspect if not denied outright. than anything else he can live
Nevertheless, Wehr ends his description of through.63
Dürckheim's experience in Japan as follows:
"The years in Japan represent a special
formation for Dürckheim's later work as Yet, in another sense, it can be said that
teacher of meditation and guide on the inner Dürckheim claimed to be far more than a mere
path."61 Zen master. That is to say, over the years
Dürckheim came to express his Zen-induced
In fairness to Dürckheim, it should be noted experience of a "breakthrough of Being" as a
that upon his return to Germany he did not breakthrough of Being in Christ. 64 Thus, he
claim to be a "Zen master" although it appears conceived of himself as having incorporated the
there were those around him who regarded him essence of Eastern spirituality as encapsulated
as such. About this, Dürckheim said: "What I in Zen into an esoteric understanding of
am doing is not the transmission of Zen Christianity. Dürckheim states: "Man is in his
Buddhism; on the contrary, that which I seek center when he is one with Christ and lives
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through Christ in the world without ever affiliation as much as possible. He did this by
leaving the voice of the inner master which is replacing his political affiliation to fascism with
Christ and continually calls him toward the a Zen-based narrative of spiritual growth that
center. Here Christ is not only the 'Being of all gradually removed Dürckheim from the world
things,' nor the intrinsic Path in each one of us, of National Socialism even though the latter is
but also Transcendence itself."65 described as having been largely unaware of
his transformation.
In claiming this, Dürckheim placed himself at
the apex of a new, or at least revitalized, But is this description correct?
religious movement that, on the one hand,
enjoyed deep roots within the Christian The Search for Evidence
mystical tradition even while incorporating the
"enlightenment experience" of ancient Eastern In searching for evidence to assess Wehr's
wisdom. Whereas by the modern era Christian description of Dürckheim in Japan, the author
mysticism lacked (or had lost) a clear-cut could but regret how little space Wehr devoted
methodology for achieving Transcendence, the to such things as his relationship to National
Zen school had maintained a meditative Socialism, Zen and Zen figures like Suzuki. It
practice based on zazen and allegedly was just at this time, i.e., June 2011, when
associated arts. Dürckheim could claim to have Hans-Joachim Bieber, Prof. Emeritus of Kassel
combined the best of both worlds, placing him University, sent me an e-mail that ended as
in a unique position among religious teachers. follows:
In a postwar Germany still struggling to free
itself from the bitter legacy of the Nazi era, it is
not surprising that Dürckheim would have been There is one source which could
an attractive figure. probably give more information
about Dürckheim's encounter with
Nevertheless, to the detached observer it can Zen Buddhism and perhaps with
only be a source of amazement that a once D.T. Suzuki personally during his
dedicated and tireless propagandist for an years in Japan: Dürckheim's
utterly ruthless totalitarian ideology could, with diaries. They are unpublished and
a metaphorical flip of the hand, transform belong to the Dürckheim family in
himself in the postwar era into someone who
Germany. They have been used by
embodied the elements of a universal
Dürckheim's first biographer
spirituality. That is to say, he became someone
(Gerhard Wehr, Karlfried Graf
who, claiming to have experienced satori,
Dürckheim, Freiburg
proceeded to incorporate his understanding of
1996). Wehr found out that
Eastern spirituality into a transcendent,
Dürckheim had been a fervent
mystical form of Christianity, all without having
Nazi. For the Dürckheim family
acknowledged, let alone expressed the least
and Dürckheim's students his book
regret for, his Nazi past.
was a shock (despite the fact
As for Wehr, it can be said that, at least by that Wehr basically was an
comparison with Satō who falsified Suzuki's adherent of Dürckheim). And my
opposition to the Nazis, he honestly admitted impression is that since then the
Dürckheim's Nazi past. Yet, having made this family doesn't allow anyone to use
admission, Wehr immediately set about Dürckheim's diaries. At least they
attempting to downplay Dürckheim's Nazi refused my request.66
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In reading this I could not help but empathize doubt about their meaning.
with Wehr and the shock he must have felt
upon learning of Dürckheim's Nazi past. This The diaries show that Suzuki maintained an
author, too, underwent a similar experience ongoing relationship with Dürckheim
when first becoming aware of Suzuki's wartime throughout the war years, beginning with a
writings, having originally believed and been flurry of activity involving Dürckheim in
inspired by Suzuki when he claimed: "Whatever January 1939. There is, further, nothing in
form Buddhism takes in different countries these 1939 entries to suggest that this was the
where it flourishes, it is a religion of first time the two men had met. Thus, it is likely
compassion, and in its varied history it has they had met earlier. In addition, following
never been found engaged in warlike Dürkheim's return to Japan, i.e., on July 14,
67
activities." 1942, Suzuki writes: "Telegram to Graf [Count]
Dürckheim re his invitation to lunch
At the same time the author could not help but
tomorrow,"68 and on February 15, 1943: "Went
admire Wehr, at least to some degree, for
to Tokyo to take lunch with Graf von
having included Dürckheim's Nazi affiliation in 69
his biography of a figure he clearly deeply Dürckheim and stayed some time with him."
admired. The phrase "at least to some degree"
It is noteworthy that Suzuki's contact with
is used because Wehr continually tried to show
Dürckheim distancing himself from National
leading Nazis in Japan was not limited to
Socialism in tandem with his growing interest Dürckheim. As we have already seen, Suzuki
in Zen. lunched with Ambassador (and Major General)
Ott as early as January 18, 1939. Further, on
Further, it was impossible not to empathize February 4, 1943 Suzuki took part in a dinner
with Bieber as well. Just as Bieber had party to honor the ambassador: "Went to
attempted to research Dürckheim's wartime Imperial Hotel to attend dinner party given to
record in Germany, the author sought to Amb. Ott and his staff,"70 and on February 16,
explore Suzuki's relationship to Dürckheim in 1943 Suzuki received "a box of fruits in
Japan. In Bieber's case, the Dürckheim family recognition of my presence at a dinner party in
turned him away, refusing to permit access to honor of Amb. Ott of Germany."
71
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When I came to Japan, I did not those of Dürckheim. For example, we now
know anything about Zen. Very know that between 1938 and 1944 Suzuki met
soon I met the Zen-master Suzuki, with five Imperial Navy Admirals (Mori, Yamaji,
the greatest Zen-scholar of our Yamanashi, Nomura and Sato) on eight
time. I heard many of his lectures, occasions.77 Moreover, Suzuki was in contact or
and through him I discovered dined with Count Makino Nobuaki on forty-four
Zen.75 occasions between 1930 and 1945 (thirty-one
times between 1936-45). The extremely
rightwing Makino was one of Emperor
Dürckheim's Zen study with Suzuki appears to Hirohito's closest advisors, having served him
have consisted of a number of personal as Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal from 1925 to
meetings punctuated with attendance at 1935. As late as February 1945 Makino met
Suzuki's lectures on Zen at German venues. Hirohito together with six former prime
Needless to say, simply listening to lectures ministers and, despite Germany's impending
about Zen does not constitute Zen practice. In defeat, urged him to continue the war, saying
fact, an academic understanding of Zen sans "the ultimate priority is to develop an
practice is often castigated as the very epitome advantageous war situation."78
of a mistaken approach to Zen, relying, as it
does, on conceptual thought. Suzuki's connection to someone as close to the
emperor as Makino is indicative of Suzuki's
In the postwar period Dürckheim was access to Imperial Court circles.79 Additionally,
specifically asked about this: "With which Zen it raises the question of Suzuki's own attitude
exercise did you start your Zen practice? Zen is to the emperor, especially as references to the
a kind of practice which one has to learn, isn't emperor, either positive or negative, are all but
it?" To which Dürckheim responded: "My absent from his published writings in either
76
access was through archery." English or Japanese. Some Suzuki supporters
have interpreted this absence as a sign that he
Suzuki's luncheon with Dürckheim and
was either opposed, or at least critical, of the
Ambassador Ott on January 18, 1939 took place
Imperial system and the ultra-nationalism
just two months after the massive, coordinated
associated with it.
attack on Jews throughout the German Reich
on the night of November 9, 1938. This anti- Fortunately, there is one wartime report on
Jewish violence, known as Kristallnacht, or Suzuki's view of the emperor supplied,
"Night of Broken Glass," was accompanied by interestingly enough, by yet further wartime
the torching of hundreds of synagogues German visitors to Japan. The visitors in
together with their Torah scrolls. Although question were not themselves Nazis but,
Kristallnacht was widely condemned by despite having once come under suspicion by
governments, newspapers and radio the Gestapo, were nevertheless given
commentators throughout the world, and permission to travel on Christian mission-
despite his many contacts in the English- related business in both China and Japan.
speaking world, Suzuki was undeterred from These missionary visitors were Gerhard
maintaining his contacts with Dürckheim and Rosenkrantz and his wife who visited Japan in
the German embassy either then or for the 1939. They requested a meeting with Suzuki
remainder of the war. and met him in the library of what was then
Otani College where he was teaching:
Thanks to the publication of Suzuki's diaries, it
can be argued that we have a more detailed
picture of Suzuki's wartime actions than we do "We Buddhists," Suzuki told them,
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he talked about the principles and forms of with Yasutani thanks to Hashimoto Fumio, a
national socialist education and the difference former higher school teacher of German, who
between the national socialist understanding of served as Dürckheim's interpreter and
freedom and a liberal conception of it. translator at the German embassy in Tokyo.
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order to serve the public [good]' Buddhism was a religion that forbids killing.
(messhi hōkō); the determination Don't both Buddhist laity and clerics undertake
to transcend life and death in to abstain from taking life?" Yasutani did, in
order to reverently sacrifice fact, recognize this as a problem but asserted
oneself for one's sovereign; the nonetheless:
belief in unlimited life as
represented in the oath to die
seven times over to repay [the debt At this point the following question
of gratitude owed] one's country; arises: What should the attitude of
reverently assisting in the holy disciples of the Buddha, as
enterprise of bringing the eight Mahāyāna Bodhisattvas, be toward
corners of the world under one the first precept that forbids the
roof; and the valiant and devoted taking of life? For example, what
power required for the should be done in the case in
construction of the Pure Land on which, in order to remove various
this earth. evil influences and benefit society,
it becomes necessary to deprive
Within Japanese Buddhism it is the birds, insects, fish, etc. of their
Buddha Dharma of Zen Master lives, or, on a larger scale, to
Dōgen, having been directly sentence extremely evil and brutal
inherited from Shākyamuni, that persons to death, or for the nation
has emphasized the cultivation of to engage in total war?
the people's spirit, for its central
focus is on religious practice, Those who understand the spirit of
especially the great duty of the Mahāyāna precepts should be
reverence for the emperor. 8 6 able to answer this question
immediately. That is to say, of
course one should kill, killing as
Interestingly, among other nations, Yasutani many as possible. One should,
excludes even wartime allies, Germany and fighting hard, kill everyone in the
Italy, from sharing in the uniquely Japanese enemy army. The reason for this is
"Spirit of Japan." Given this, the reader might that in order to carry [Buddhist]
suspect Dürckheim would have been somewhat compassion and filial obedience
alienated by Yasutani's words. In fact, as we through to perfection it is
have seen, the Nazis readily recognized that necessary to assist good and
every Volk had their own unique spirit and punish evil. However, in killing
culture. Thus, it was self-evident that the [the enemy] one should swallow
equally unique "German Spirit" (G. Deutscher one's tears, bearing in mind the
Geist) propagated by the Nazis would have truth of killing yet not killing.
excluded the Spirit of Japan. Nevertheless,
there was nothing to prevent the unique spirits Failing to kill an evil man who
of the three peoples from working closely ought to be killed, or destroying an
together, not least of all against common enemy army that ought to be
enemies, while simultaneously learning and destroyed, would be to betray
sharing with one another. Dürckheim mirrored compassion and filial obedience, to
this close collaboration. break the precept forbidding the
taking of life. This is a special
By this point readers may be asking, "I thought characteristic of the Mahāyāna
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more urgent than the clarification that for Dürckheim among the most attractive
of the true Dharma of Zen Master features of Yasutani's teaching was both his
Dōgen, thereby extolling the great embrace of a militarism based on "no-self" and
duty of reverence for the emperor, his virulent antipathy to Jews.
and, at the same time, rectifying
numerous unsound ideas, And, of course, one should not forget the claim
cultivating proper belief among the made by Dürckheim's interpreter and
Japanese people as leaders of the translator, Hashimoto Fumio, that Dürckheim
Orient, one hundred million had been drawn to Yasutani due to "the
[people] of one mind, equipped greatness of this master" and the fact that
with a resolute and immovable Yasutani was unlike Zen scholars who "had
attitude. never properly done zazen or realized
enlightenment." Thus, one cannot help but ask
In this connection I have provided what Yasutani's alleged "enlightenment"
a brief and simple outline of Zen 90
consisted of? And further, what was the
Master Dōgen's Buddha Dharma. nature of Dürckheim's self-proclaimed
Nothing could bring me greater joy experience of satori in light of his training
than, if through the dissemination under Yasutani?
of this book, the true Dharma
becomes known once again, In the postwar era, Philip Kapleau introduced
resulting in the total and complete Yasutani to the West in his widely acclaimed
exaltation of the Spirit of Japan book, The Three Pillars of Zen, as the very
and benefitting both the state and model of an enlightened Zen master even while
humanity. the latter continued his rightwing activities.
For example, in 1951 Yasutani established a
Moreover, I am convinced this will journal known as Gyōshō (Awakening Gong) as
become the spiritual foundation for a vehicle for his religious and political views.
the establishment of the Greater Typical of his postwar political views is the
East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, following:
the standard for cultural activities,
and the pillar for the construction
of a new world order.89 It goes without saying the leaders
of the Japan Teachers' Union are at
the forefront of the feebleminded
In his conclusion, Yasutani manages to combine [in this country]. . . .They, together
the Buddhist teachings of Zen Master Dōgen, with the four Opposition political
the Spirit of Japan and the militarist "Greater parties, the General Council of
East Co-Prosperity Sphere" into one indivisible Trade Unions, the Government and
and fanatical whole. Thus, if only for a period of Public Workers Union, the
a few days, Dürckheim trained under the Association of Young Jurists, the
guidance of one of Japan's most virulently Citizen's League for Peace in
militarist and anti-Semitic of all Zen masters. Vietnam, etc. have taken it upon
And as Hashimoto informs us, Dürckheim knew themselves to become traitors to
exactly what Yasutani stood for inasmuch as the nation. . . .
the former had translated all of Yasutani's book
into German on Dürckheim's behalf. Since anti- The universities we presently have
Semitism was not typical of wartime Zen must be smashed one and all. If
masters, it is difficult to escape the conclusion that can't be done under the
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death. No special reason for this bettered the entire Japanese people, the SS
except that your mind is thus made would set and was setting the example for the
101
up and ready to see to the rest of Germany."
business. Some may say that if you
die without attaining the object, it Himmler was so taken with the samurai that he
is a useless death, dying like a dog. commissioned a booklet on their history and
But when you are at the parting of values to be written and handed out to every
the ways, you need not plan for SS member. The booklet was entitled Die
attaining the object. We all prefer Samurai, Ritter des Reiches in Ehre und Treue
life to death and our planning and (The Samurai, Knights of the Empire in Honor
reasoning will be naturally for life. and Loyalty). The booklet's author was Heinz
If then you miss the object and are Corraza who wrote at length about the
alive, you are really a coward. This importance of the samurai as the leading force
is an important consideration. In in Japan's rise to world power status. For his
case you die without achieving the part, Himmler wrote the booklet's introduction
object, it may be a dog-death – the in which he emphasized the parallel role the SS
deed of madness, but there is no was expected to play in Germany. He claimed
reflection here on your honor. In readers would come to "the recognition that it
Bushido honor comes first.
100 is mostly minorities of the highest worth who
give to the people a life that, in earthly terms,
is eternal."102
The last sentence would no doubt have had a
special resonance for members of the SS
inasmuch as their motto was "Meine Ehre heißt
Treue" (My honor means loyalty.) The SS is, of
course, infamous for having run the Nazis'
concentration camps. Note, however, that the
emphasis on honor and loyalty in both the SS
and the allegedly Zen-inspired Bushidō code is
not coincidental, for on November 1, 1935
Heinrich Himmler received permission from
Adolf Hitler to model the SS on the Japanese
samurai. Himmler's ultimate goal was that in a
victorious Germany the SS would form an elite
force that would rule the country as the
samurai once had.
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For example, in a lengthy article that appeared A translation of the entire article, entitled
in the June 1941 issue of the Imperial Army's ""Makujiki Kōzen" (Rush Forward Without
officer's journal, Kaikō-sha Kiji (Kaikō Hesitation)" is available here
Association Report), Suzuki wrote: (https://apjjf.org/-Brian-Victoria/3973).
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The sword has thus a double office die with Zen, yet he ends his booklet with the
to perform: the one is to destroy following explanation of the relationship
anything that opposes the will of between Germany and Japan:
its owner, and the other is to
sacrifice all of the impulses that
arise from the instinct of self- National Socialist Germany is in
preservation. The former relates the best position to understand
itself with the spirit of patriotism Japan. We and the other nations of
or militarism, while the other has a the Axis are fighting for the same
religious connotation of loyalty and goals that Japan is fighting for in
self-sacrifice. In the case of the East Asia, and understand the
former very frequently the sword reasons that forced it to take
may mean destruction pure and action. We can also understand the
simple, it is then the symbol of driving force behind Japan's
force, sometimes perhaps devilish. miraculous rise, for we National
It must therefore be controlled and Socialists also put spirit over the
consecrated by the second material.
function. Its conscientious owner
has been always mindful of this There can be no doubt that throughout his book
truth. For then destruction is Suzuki also "put spirit over the material."
turned against the evil spirit. The Similarly, there can now be no doubt that
sword comes to be identified with Handa Shin had a basis for his claim in
the annihilation of things which lie November 1941 that "Dr. Suzuki's writings are
in the way of peace, justice, said to have strongly influenced the military
progress, and humanity. It stands spirit of Nazi Germany." Just how strong the
for all that is desirable for the influence of his writings was, of course, is
spiritual welfare of the world at debatable. It would perhaps be more accurate
large.105 to say that paralleling the military alliance
between Germany and Japan was an attempt to
Albrecht repeatedly informed his readers, as form a völkisch religious alliance in which both
did Suzuki, that the modern Japanese soldier is Suzuki and Dürckheim, among others, played
filled with the spirit of his ancient samurai leading roles. Once again, just how effective or
forbearers: "The spirit of the samurai lives meaningful this religious alliance was in terms
today with the same force that enabled Japan's of its impact on military affairs is debatable,
army, an army of the whole people, to fight its but, at the very least, the attempt on the part of
many recent battles. The first requirement of both men, and those like them, is clear.
the samurai is a readiness to give his life." Or
as Suzuki expressed it, "the samurai's
willingness to give his life away at any moment.
. . .[for] when the Unconscious is tapped it rises
above individual limitations. Death now loses
its sting altogether, and this is where the
samurai training joins hands with Zen."
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were a source of inspiration for Dürckheim. In is to say, promoting a form of a Zen shorn of its
1949 he wrote that the kamikaze pilots proved ethical roots in Buddhism, most especially the
"that already in life there is a dying of man that first precept proscribing the taking of life. It
is not only a dying of life, but of death, too."
114
was, moreover, a form of martial spirituality
And in a conversation shortly before his death that few if any of the disciples and students of
he called kamikaze pilots an example of a state these teachers either seriously questioned or
of mind "beyond all duality" (G. jenseits aller took the time to research carefully.
Dualität).115
Many Zen practitioners in the US and other
Needless to say, possession of a state of mind Western countries reject the charge that the
"beyond all duality" is tantamount to claiming unity of Zen and the sword is not a Buddhist
that these typically teenage pilots were fully teaching. Well-known Zen figures Gary Snyder
enlightened and ignoring the pressure they and Nelson Foster, for example, claim that
were under from their commanders to sacrifice when Suzuki spoke of the sword in relationship
their young lives. Nevertheless, this claim was to Zen, "he [Suzuki] was speaking
by no means unique to Dürckheim. For metaphorically, not of tempered steel and
example, in May 1945 the Sōtō Zen scholar- bloody death but of a figurative sword and the
priest Masanaga Reihō described these pilots revivifying, transformative experience of 'body
as follows: "The source of the spirit of the and mind falling away.' When the sword plays
this sort of role in human life, obviously it is not
Special Attack Forces [kamikaze] lies in the
a weapon of self-defense or an instrument of
denial of the individual self and the rebirth of 117
killing."
the soul, which takes upon itself the burden of
history. From ancient times Zen has described
Inasmuch as Westerners were unaware of
this conversion of mind as the achievement of
Suzuki's wartime writings, it is not surprising
complete enlightenment."116 that they accepted Suzuki's postwar
explanation of the manner in which Zen
The monumental death and suffering that
metaphysics infused the body of
accompanied World War II (aka the Pacific War
swordsmanship. Nevertheless, there were a
in Japan) cannot be attributed to Zen any more
few critics who refused to hold Suzuki
than it can to Christianity. Yet, the Zen school's
blameless for his conflation of Zen and the
centuries-long connection to Japan's traditional
sword. In 1959 Suzuki defended himself in the
warriors allowed wartime Zen leaders, Suzuki
publication of an enlarged edition of his
included, to play a leading role in support of
original 1938 work, now renamed Zen and
Japanese militarism and fascism even though it Japanese Culture:
was only one of many sects of Buddhism (and
Shinto) to have done so. When taken as a
whole, it is hardly surprising that, as noted Inasmuch as Zen is a form of
above, Hitler would lament, "Why didn't we Buddhism and Buddhism is
have the religion of the Japanese who regard professedly a religion of
sacrifice for the Fatherland as the highest compassion, how can Zen endorse
good?" the profession of the swordsman?
This is a criticism we frequently
Although Hitler is long gone, it is astonishing hear from the readers of my books.
that even in the postwar period both But I hope they now have come to
Dürckheim and Suzuki, not to mention understand what lies underneath
Yasutani, succeeded so well in promoting the swordsmanship and how this is
"unity of Zen and the sword" in the West. That related to the training of Zen. For
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Hakugen described Suzuki, starting as early as Let me begin by expressing my deep and
the first Sino-Japanese of 1894-5, as follows: sincere appreciation to Professor Karl Baier of
the University of Vienna. His research on the
völkisch nature of one major strand of Nazi
[Suzuki] considered the Sino- religiosity as it related to Count Karlfried
Japanese War to be religious Dürckheim has been a true revelation to me,
practice designed to punish China one that has provided an invaluable prism
in order to advance humanity. This through which to view not only Nazi but
is, at least in its format, the very Japanese wartime spirituality as well. I can only
same logic used to support the hope that readers share my appreciation of
fifteen years of warfare devoted to Prof. Baier's insights as expressed in Part II of
"The Holy War for the Construction this series.
of a New Order in East Asia."
Suzuki didn't stop to consider that WW II, in all its manifestations, was the
the war to punish China had not greatest bloodletting in recorded history, with
started with an attack on Japanese an estimated death toll of some 60 million
soil, but, instead, took place on the human beings or 2.5% of the world's
continent of China. Suzuki was population. Of this number, Germany's invasion
unable to see the war from the of the Soviet Union caused the death of
viewpoint of the Chinese people, somewhere between 22 to 30 million Russians
whose lives and natural while Japan's invasion of China took the lives of
environment were being 10 to 20 million Chinese. Additionally, German
devastated. Lacking this reflection, dead amounted to between 7 and 9 million
he considered the war of soldiers and civilians while Japan lost a total of
aggression on the continent as approximately 3 million of its people.
religious practice, as justifiable in
the name of religion. . . . In pointing this out, it is not the author's intent
to suggest that Count Karlfried Dürckheim or
The logic that Suzuki used to D.T. Suzuki, let alone any of the other Zen-
support his "religious conduct" was related persons featured in this series, were
that of "the sword that kills is directly responsible for this unprecedented
identical with the sword that gives carnage. None of these persons killed so much
life" and "kill one in order that as a single human being in this conflict. Yet,
many may live." It was the this does not mean they were innocent either.
experience of "holy war" that
spread this logic throughout all of Both the Nazi and Japanese military leadership
Asia.121 were deeply aware of the importance of what
the Japanese called shisō-sen or "thought war."
In his writings, Suzuki noted that Zen had long
And in perhaps the greatest irony, it was "passively sustained" the samurai in battle, i.e.,
Dürckheim's letter of introduction to Suzuki in by enhancing their mental concentration and
postwar Japan that directly launched the "unity facilitating their acceptance of death. It was
of Zen and the sword" into the American this readiness to die that Suzuki, together with
mainstream. In Europe, Dürckheim had his own his many fellow Zen leaders, sought to
contribution to make. inculcate in Japan's modern soldiery and,
through his translated writings, among the
Series Conclusion Nazis as well.
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For his part, Dürckheim might well be in Suzuki's assertion. However, he failed to
described as Suzuki's "alter ego" among the recognize the immense suffering of the
Nazis, promoting the Japanese warrior's Chinese, Korean and other Asian peoples who
embrace of death as an ideal model for German had endured Japanese invasion and colonial
soldiery. At the same time, within Japan, rule.
Dürckheim tirelessly sought to strengthen the
bonds of unity and mutual support between the In words written for the consumption of others,
wartime allies. there is always the danger they may be
directed more toward pleasing the writer's
In the midst of the massive destruction their audience than as an expression of the author's
countries faced at war's end, not to mention the own true feelings. Consider this terse entry in
horrendous destruction their countries inflicted Suzuki's diary on August 15, 1945, i.e., the
on others, how did these two men react? In the formal date of Japan's surrender: "The
midst of defeat, were they filled with remorse? meaningless war has thus dramatically [been]
Or bitterness? Or disillusionment? Did they 124
brought to an end." What was it that made
recognize or repent of the contribution each of the war "meaningless"? Was it because Japan
them had made to the outcome? had lost the war? Or because Japan should
never have started the war? Or because it had
In Dürckheim's case, he wrote the following to been a mistake to attack such a powerful nation
a friend in the last days of the war: "The as the U.S.?
immeasurable suffering of Germany will bring
the German people to a higher level and help Or perhaps Suzuki meant it was a "senseless"
give birth to a better, less materialistic war in that so many people had died for
nation."122 One wonders whether the nothing. Readers must decide this for
"immeasurable suffering" Germany imposed on themselves, for we simply don't know Suzuki's
others, especially the people of the Soviet inner thoughts. That said, Suzuki does provide
Union, not to mention Jews, was of any concern a bit more insight into his war-related thinking
to him. As for the German people, Dürckheim in a series of diary entries in March 1945
appears to believe they found themselves in describing the near daily, relentless incendiary
their abject position due to having been overly bombing of Tokyo and other major Japanese
"materialistic," a condition that, thanks to the cities by hundreds of B-29s. On March 13,
war, they would now be able to overcome 1945, i.e., some five months before the end of
despite, or perhaps due to, the immeasurable the war, he writes:
suffering they had experienced.
As for Suzuki, in the months and years [March] 13 Tu. / 40°-55° Overcast
following the war he, too, would discover an all day. / Mostly reading. / Rei
admirable dimension to Japan's wartime came in morning in response to my
actions. In his 1947 book, Nihon no Reiseika telegram. Reported about heart-
(The Spiritualization of Japan), he wrote: rending sights in Tokyo and
"Through the great sacrifice of the Japanese extents of ruins caused by the
people and nation, it can be said that the fires. / Mrs Okamoto (Mitsu-ko)
various peoples of the countries of the Orient dropped in wishing to get
had the opportunity to awaken both information about Tokyo. They
economically and politically."123 To the extent both stayed to lunch. / Sad stories
that Western colonialism in Asia was weakened of the suffer[er]s heard on every
as a result of the war, there is a degree of truth side, is this war worth all that?125
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As Japan's cities turned to ashes, accompanied scale invasion of China in July 1937, we know
by massive loss of mostly civilian life, Suzuki nothing since entries for the first 196 days of
was no doubt but one of many Japanese asking 1937 are, for whatever reason, missing from
this same question. Yet, had Japan been the Matsugaoka-published version of his
winning the war, instead of losing it, would the wartime diaries. 128 It is clear, however, that
war have then been "worth all that"? While Suzuki was aware of Japan's invasion and the
Suzuki does not address this question he does linkage being made to Zen-Bushidō ideology. In
add in the same entry: "The war caused by his 1938 book Suzuki writes:
ambitions of ignorant and power-thirsty
126
militarists."
There is a document recently
Suzuki's supporters will no doubt point to these talked very much about in
words as proof of his longstanding opposition connection with the military
to World War II. If so, the question must be operations in China. It is known as
asked what Suzuki's reaction was to the the Hagakure which literally
outbreak of the war between Japan, the U.S. means "Hidden under the Leaves,"
and England four years earlier? At the time of for it is one of the virtues of the
Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, i.e., December samurai not to display himself, not
8, 1941 (Japan time), Suzuki confided to his to blow his horn, but to keep
diary: himself away from the public eye
and be doing good for his fellow-
beings. To the compilation of this
[December] 8 Mo./47°- 64°/ Fine book, which consists of various
weather. / Japanese-American notes, anecdotes, moral sayings,
conference reported failure. State etc., a Zen monk had his part to
of war between Japan and America contribute.129
and England declared in the
Western parts of the Pacific. All
things move along a line of the While these comments don't prove Suzuki
inevitable. Human powers supported the invasion, they do suggest that
altogether helpless to shape their Suzuki had no objection to the linkage being
own course of action. / Makino, made. And if only in hindsight, it is almost
grandson of Count Makino and grotesque to even intimate that the Japanese
student of the Peer's school called. soldier in China was "doing good for his fellow-
. .127 beings."
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men, and many others like them, were indeed Eugen Herrigel: " The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol.
"kindred spirits." 12, Issue 3, No. 2, January 20, 2014.
This is the third in a three part series. _____. Die wunderbare Katze und andere
Zentexte. Weilheim: Wilhelm Barth Verlag,
I. Brian Daizen Victoria, D.T. Suzuki, Zen and 1964.
the Nazis (https://apjjf.org/-Brian-Victoria/4019)
_____. Japan und die Kultur der Stille. Munich-
II. Karl Baier, The Formation and Principles of Planegg: O. W. Barth-Verlag, 1949.
Count Dürckheim's Nazi Worldview and his
interpretation of Japanese Spirit and Zen _____. Mein Weg zur Mitte. Freiburg, Basel,
(https://apjjf.org/-Karl-Baier/4041) Wien: Herder TB, 1991.
See also _____. Der Weg ist das Ziel: Gespräch mit Karl
Schnelting in der Reihe "Zeugen des
Brian Daizen Victoria, Zen as a Cult of Death in Jahrhunderts." Göttingen: Lamuv, 1992.
the Wartime Writings of D.T. Suzuki
(https://apjjf.org/-Brian-Victoria/3973) Emery, Erin. "A place to find peace," The
Denver Post, October 30, 2007. Available on
Recommended citation: Brian Victoria, A Zen the Web at:
Nazi in Wartime Japan: Count Dürkheim, and http://buddhistmilitarysangha.blogspot.jp
his Sources-D.T. Suzuki, Yasutani Haku'un and (accessed December 30, 2013).
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Foster, Nelson and Gary Snyder. "The Fog of Maltarich, Bill. Samurai and Supermen:
World War II -- Setting the Record Straight on National Socialist Views of Japan. Oxford: Peter
D.T. Suzuki Lang, 2005.
(http://www.tricycle.com/feature/fog-world-war-
ii?page=0,0)," tricycle, summer 2010. Available Rochman, Bonnie. "Samurai Mind Training for
on the Web. (accessed December 29, 2013). Modern American Warriors
(http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8
Goettman, Alphonse. Dialogue on the Path of 599,1920753,00.html)," Time, September 6,
Initiation: The Life and Thought of Karlfried 2009. Available on the Web. (accessed
Graf Durckheim December 29, 2013).
(http://www.centre-bethanie.org/compression/d
Rosenberg, Alfred. The Myth of the Twentieth
ialogue.pdf). Translated by Theodore and
Century
Rebecca Nottingham. Electronically published
(http://aryanism.net/downloads/books/alfred-ros
by Nottingham Publishing, 1998. Available on
enberg/myth-of-the-twentieth-century.pdf).
the Web. (accessed on 17 September 2013).
First published in German in 1930 as Der
Mythus des zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts. English
Herrigel, Eugen. Zen in the Art of Archery.
translation available on the Web for download.
Translated by Richard F.C. Hull with a
foreword by D.T. Suzuki and a preface by Satō , Kemmyō Taira in collaboration with
Eugen Herrigel. New York: Pantheon Books, Thomas Kirchner. "D. T. Suzuki and the
1953. Question of War
(http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/Critical
_____. "Die Aufgabe der Philosophie im neuen
Zen/Suzuki_and-Question_of-War.pdf)." The
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Eastern Buddhist, No. 39/1: pp. 61–120.
[Third] Reich). Pfilzische Gesellschaft zur
Available on the web. (accessed on 17
Förderung der Wissenschaften, 1934, pp. September 2013).
26-32.
_____. "Brian Victoria and the Question of
_____. "Nationalsozialismus und Philosophie." Scholarship
Unpublished typescript, 1935 (kept in the (http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/Critical
university library of the University Erlangen- Zen/Question_of_Scholarship.pdf)." The Eastern
Nürnberg). Buddhist, No. 41/2, pp. 139–166. Available on
the web. (accessed on 17 September 2013).
_____. "Nationalsozialismus und Philosophie"
(National Socialism and Philosophy), 1935. Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and
Collection of Universitätsbibliotek Erlangen- Representation (Die Welt als Wille und
Nürnberg. Feldpostbriefe der Philosophischen Vorstellung), Vol 2, 1844.
Fakultät 3, 1944, pp. 2-14.
Sharf, Robert H., "The Zen of Japanese
_____. "Das Ethos des Samurai" (The Ethos of Nationalism
the Samurai), 1944. (http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/Historic
alZen/Zen_of_Japanese_Nationalism.html)."
Kapleau, Philip. The Three Pillars of Zen. Available on the Web.
Tokyo: Weatherhill, 1965.
_____. "Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited
Kraft, Kenneth, ed. Zen Teaching, Zen Practice. (http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/Critical
Tokyo: Weatherhill 2000. Zen/whose%20zen_sharf.pdf)." Available on the
46
APJ | JF 12 | 3 | 2
Sueki, Fumihiko. "Daisetsu hihan saikō," _____. Zen War Stories. London:
Matsugaoka Bunko Kenkyū Nenpō, No. 24, RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
2010.
_____. "Zen as a Cult of Death in the Wartime
_____. "Nihon Bukkyō to Sensō--Suzuki Daisetsu Writings of D.T. Suzuki
o chūshin toshite." Paper presented at the (https://apjjf.org/-Brian-Victoria/3973)." The
Kankoku Nihon Shisō-shi Gakkai on November Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 11, Issue 30, No. 4, 5
29, 2008. August 2013. Available on the Web. (accessed
on 17 September 2013).
Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro. "Rain kahan no ichigū
kara" (From a Spot on the Banks of the Rhine). Wehr, Gerhard. Karlfried Graf Dürckheim.
Chūgai Nippō (newspaper), 3, 4, 6, 11, and 13, Leben im Zeichen der Wandlung. Munich:
October 1936. Aktualisierte und gekürzte Neuausgabe, 1996.
_____. "A Buddhist View of War." Light of _____. "The Life and Work of Karlfried Graf
Dharma 4, 1904. Durckheim
(http://www.stillnessspeaks.com/assets/books/1
_____. Zen Buddhism and Its Influence on /Karlfried%20Graf%20Durkheim%20Becoming
Japanese Culture. Kyoto: Eastern Buddhist %20Real.pdf)" in Becoming Real: Essays on the
Society, 1938. Teachings of a Master, Alphonse and Rachel
Goettmann, ed. Translated by Theodore J.
_____. Zen and Japanese Culture. Princeton:
Nottingham. Electronically published by
Princeton University Press, 1959.
Nottingham Publishing, 1998. Available on the
_____. Zen und die Kultur Japans. Trans. Otto Web. (accessed on 23 October 2013).
Fischer. Stuttgart, Berlin: Deutsche Verlags-
R. J. Zwi Werblowsky, "Some Observations on
Anstalt, 1941.
Recent Studies of Zen," in Studies in Mysticism
_____. "A Reply from D. T. Suzuki," Encounter and Religion Presented to Gershom G.
17, No. 4, 1961. Scholem, edited by E. E. Urbach, R. J. Zwi
Werblowsky, and Ch. Wirszubski (Jerusalem:
_____. Nihon no Reiseika. Kyoto: Hōzōkan, Magnes Press, Hebrew University, 1967), pp.
1947. 317-35.
_____. Nihonteki reisei. Tokyo: Daitō Yamada, Shoji. Shots in the Dark: Japan, Zen
shuppansha, 1944; English translation by and the West. Translated by Earl Hartman.
Norman Waddell as Japanese Spirituality. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2009.
Tokyo: Japan Society for the Promotion of
Science and Japanese Ministry of Education, _____. "The Myth of Zen in the Art of Archery
1972. (http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/2726)' in the
Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, No.
_____. "English Diaries," Matsugaoka Bunko 28/1-12, 2001. Available on the Web. (accessed
Kenkyū Nenpō, No. 26, 2012. on 17 September 2013).
47
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Yasutani, Ryōkō (better known as Yasutani, %20Real.pdf)." Available on the Web. (accessed
Haku'un). Dōgen Zenji to Shūshōgi (Zen Master October 23, 2013).
Dōgen and the Shūshōgi). Tokyo: Fuji Shobō,
6
1943. Wehr, Karlfried Graf Dürckheim. Ein Leben im
Zeichen der Wandlung, p. 96.
_____. "Glückwunsch zum 70. Geburtstag von
7
Graf Dürckheim von seinem Weggefährten" in Suzuki, Zen Buddhism and Its Influence on
Maria Hippius (ed.), Transzendenz als Japanese Culture, p.35
Erfahrung. Beitrag und Widerhall. Festschrift
8
zum 70. Geburtstag von Graf Duerckheim. Ibid., pp. 34-37.
Weilheim: Wilhelm Barth Verlag, 1966. 9
Ibid., pp. 64-65.
Notes 10
Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p.96.
1
For the development of the political 11
relationship between Germany and Japan, see Suzuki, "English Diaries," No. 25, 2011, p.
Krebs, Gerhard. "Von Hitlers Machtübernahme 60.
zum Pazifischen Krieg (1933-1941)" in Krebs, 12
Rosenberg, The Myth of the Twentieth
Gerhard / Martin, Bernd (ed.): Formierung und
Century, p. 55.
Fall der Achse Berlin-Tokyo. München:
Iudicium 1994, pp. 11-26. 13
Rosenberg, The Myth of the Twentieth
2 Century, frontispiece.
The term "social question" usually refers to all
of the social wrongs connected to the industrial 14
Quoted in Victoria, Zen War Stories,
revolution, especially the emergence of class
frontispiece. See Otto Tolischus, Tokyo Record.
struggles that threaten the unity of a society. In
Germany, the concept of "Volksgemeinschaft" 15
Quoted in Victoria, Zen at War, p. 25.
(a community of the people) was promoted as
the Nazi alternative to deep divisions within 16
Suzuki, "A Buddhist View of War." Light of
modern society. Thus, the Nazis were Dharma 4, 1904, pp. 181–82.
interested in learning how their Anti-Comintern
partner Japan dealt with this issue. 17
See, for example, Suzuki's frequent
references to the identity of Zen and Japanese
3
Wehr, "The Life and Work of Karlfried Graf character in "Zen as a Cult of Death in the
Durckheim Wartime Writings of D.T. Suzuki
(http://www.stillnessspeaks.com/assets/books/1 (http://www.japanfocus.org/-Brian-Victoria/397
/Karlfried%20Graf%20Durkheim%20Becoming 3)." Available on the Web.
%20Real.pdf)." Available on the Web. (accessed
October 23, 2013). 18
Schopenhauer, The World as Will and
Representation, Vol 2, Ch. XLVIII.
4
Goettmann, The Path of Initiation: An
Introduction to the Life and Thought of 19
Satō , "Brian Victoria and the Question of
Karlfried Graf Durckheim, p. 29. Scholarship," p. 150.
5
Wehr, "The Life and Work of Karlfried Graf 20
Suzuki, Zen Buddhism and Its Influence on
Durckheim Japanese Culture, pp. 36-37.
(http://www.stillnessspeaks.com/assets/books/1
21
/Karlfried%20Graf%20Durkheim%20Becoming Suzuki, "English Diaries," No. 26, 2012, p. 3.
48
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22 37
Ibid., p. 3. Ibid., p. 66.
23 38
Ibid., p. 3. Ibid., p. 65.
24
Wehr, Karlfried Graf Dürckheim. Ein Leben 39
Ibid., p. 65.
im Zeichen der Wandlung p. 97.
40
Quoted in Yamada, p. 33.
25
Dürckheim Der Weg ist das Ziel, pp. 41-42.
41
26
Ibid., p. 49.
Ibid., p. 40.
42
27
Ibid., p. 53.
See Dürckheim: Der Weg ist das Ziel.
Gespräch mit Karl Schnelting in der Reihe 43
Wehr, "The Life and Work of Karlfried Graf
"Zeugen des Jahrhunderts," pp. 41-42. Durckheim
28 (http://www.stillnessspeaks.com/assets/books/1
Wehr, "The Life and Work of Karlfried Graf
/Karlfried%20Graf%20Durkheim%20Becoming
Durckheim
%20Real.pdf)." Available on the Web. (accessed
(http://www.stillnessspeaks.com/assets/books/1
October 22, 2013).
/Karlfried%20Graf%20Durkheim%20Becoming
%20Real.pdf)." Available on the Web. (accessed 44
Ibid., p. 13.
October 23, 2013).
45
29 In terms of Zen's alleged connection to the
Ibid., p. 11.
"martial arts," the historical reality is that Zen
30
Ibid., p. 10. (Ch. Chan) was introduced to Japan as an
independent strand of Buddhist practice in the
31
Ibid., p. 12. 13th century just when the warrior or samurai
class had wrested political power away from
32
Wehr, 'The Life and Work of Karlfried Graf the emperor and aristocracy. For reasons that
Durckheim D.T. Suzuki and others have elaborated, Zen
(http://www.stillnessspeaks.com/assets/books/1 practice appealed to the warrior class and, as a
/Karlfried%20Graf%20Durkheim%20Becoming result, was patronized by them. Warriors
%20Real.pdf).' Available on the Web. (accessed especially looked to Zen training as a method of
October 22, 2013). overcoming their fear of death. Thus, Zen's true
33 connection was to a specific social class whose
Ibid., p. 13. Note that Awa Kenzō had died in
occupation was fighting (and dying in) the wars
1939 after a prolonged illness. Thus it would
of their feudal lords, wars typically involving
have been impossible for Dürckheim to have
the use of the sword. To the extent that Zen has
received instruction from him.
a connection to the "martial arts" it is a
34
Dürckheim, Der Weg ist das Ziel, pp. 43-44. connection to fostering a mental attitude
allowing one to wield the sword without fear or
35
Yamada Shoji shared this information with hesitation.
the author in a personal interview with the
46
author in the common room of the International For further discussion of this topic see
Research Center for Japanese Studies on Yamada Shōji's article, "The Myth of Zen in the
October 18, 2013. Art of Archery."
36 47
Yamada, Shots in the Dark, pp. 44-45. Yamada, Shots in the Dark, p. 95.
49
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48 65
Herrigel's enthusiasm is also attested to by Ibid., p. 18.
my collaborator, Karl Baier, who has had the
66
opportunity to review his wartime essay, "Die Contained in an e-mail to the author from
Aufgabe der Philosophie im neuen Reich." Hans-Joachim Bieber on June 15, 2011.
49 67
Herrigel, "Nationalsozialismus und Suzuki, Zen Buddhism and Its Influence on
Philosophie," p. 8. Japanese Culture, p. 34.
50 68
Quoted in Goettmann, Dialogue on the Path Suzuki, "English Diaries," No. 21, 2007, p.
of Initiation: The Life and Thought of Karlfried 114.
Graf Durckheim, p. 14.
69
Suzuki, "English Diaries," No. 23, 2009, p. 6.
51
Ibid., p. 11.
70
Suzuki, "English Diaries," No. 23, 2009, p. 4.
52
Quoted in Sharf, "The Zen of Japanese
71
Nationalism," p. 1. Ibid., p. 6.
53 72
Quoted in Yamada, Shots in the Dark, p. 207. Suzuki, "English Diaries," No. 25, 2011, p.
60.
54
Ibid., p. 208.
73
55
Ibid., p. 63.
Ibid., p. 208.
74
56
Suzuki, "English Diaries," No. 23, 2009, pp.
Quoted in Victoria, "Zen as a Cult of Death in 30-40 inclusive.
the Wartime Writings of D.T. Suzuki." Available
on the Web at: 75
Dürckheim, Der Weg ist das Ziel: Gespräch
http://www.japanfocus.org/-Brian- mit Karl Schnelting in der Reihe "Zeugen des
Victoria/3973. Jahrhunderts," p. 43.
57
Wehr, "The Life and Work of Karlfried Graf 76
Ibid., p. 43. Since the question of archery as
Durckheim." Available on the Web at: a form of Zen practice has already been
http://www.stillnessspeaks.com/assets/books/1/ addressed, it is unnecessary to repeat it here.
Karlfried%20Graf%20Durkheim%20Becoming
%20Real.pdf (accessed October 23, 2013). 77
See related entries in Suzuki, "English
58
Diaries," Nos. 21, 23, 25, 26.
Wehr, Karlfried Graf Dürckheim – Ein Leben
im Zeichen der Wandlung, p. 120. 78
Quoted in Bix, Hirohito and the Making of
59 Modern Japan, p. 488.
Ibid., p. 14.
79
60 For a discussion of Suzuki's earliest approach
Ibid., p. 14.
to both the emperor and Count Makino, see
61
Ibid., p. 14. Victoria, "The 'Negative Side' of D. T. Suzuki's
Relationship to War," pp. 113-14.
62
Ibid., p. 15. 80
Quoted in Victoria, "Zen as a Cult of Death in
63
Ibid., p. 15. the Wartime Writings of D.T. Suzuki." Available
on the Web at:
64
Ibid., p. 16. http://japanfocus.org/-Brian-Victoria/3973.
50
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81
Arai, "Shūsenzen tainichi doitsujin no taiken," Weggefährten," pp. 475-478.
p. 112.
96
Suzuki, "English Diaries," No. 25, 2011, p. 68.
82
Quoted in Victoria, Zen War Stories, pp.
97
88-89. Suzuki, "English Diaries," No. 26, 2012, p. 3.
83 98
Ibid., p. 89. Suzuki, Zen und die Kultur Japans, p. 9.
84 99
Ibid., p. 89. Suzuki, Zen Buddhism and Its Influence on
Japanese Culture, p. 47. The quoted material
85
Quoted in Victoria, Zen War Stories, pp. extends to the bottom of p. 50 in the English
69-70. edition. In the German edition, Zen und die
86
Kultur Japans, the quoted material begins on
Ibid., p. 70. the middle of p. 60 and extends through the top
87 of p. 63. I also wish to extend my appreciation
Ibid., pp. 71-72.
to Sarah Panzer at the University of Chicago
88
Ibid., p. 73. who made me aware of this article and
provided the newspaper clipping.
89
Ibid., p. 74. 100
Suzuki, Zen Buddhism and Its Influence on
90
Interestingly, this question has been Japanese Culture, p. 49.
discussed in recent years by Kubota Ji'un, then
101
abbot of the Zen organization Yasutani created Maltarich, Samurai and Supermen: National
in the postwar era, i.e., the Sanbō-kyōdan Socialist Views of Japan, p. 155.
(Three Treasures Association). This discussion 102
is available on the Web at: Quoted in ibid., p. 226.
http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZ 103
Albrecht, Das Geheimnis japanischer Kraft.
en/Apology.html.
All quotations taken from this booklet appear in
91
Quoted in Victoria, Zen at War, p. 168. the partial, non-paginated English translation
available on the Web at:
92
Ibid., p. 168. http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/japan.
htm (accessed October 16, 2013).
93
Dürckheim, "Fukan-Zazen-Gi. Ein Text des
104
Zen-Meisters Dōgen, erläutert von Meister Suzuki, Zen Buddhism and Its Influence on
Hakuun Yasutani, übersetzt aus dem Japanese Culture, p. 35
Japanischen von Fumio Hashimoto," pp. 73-91,
105
and "Über die Übung des Zen. Vorlesungen von Ibid., pp.66-67.
Zen-Meister Hakuun Yasutani Roshi, englische
106
Übersetzung von Philipp Kapleau, aus dem Koestler, The Lotus and the Robot, p. 271.
Englischen übertragen von G. von Minden," pp. 107
93-118. Werblowsky, "Some Observations on Recent
Studies of Zen," p. 321.
94
Wehr, Karlfried Graf Dürckheim: Ein Leben
108
im Zeichen der Wandlung, p. 217. Sharf, "Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism
Revisited." Available on the Web at:
95
Yasutani, "Glückwunsch zum 70. Geburtstag http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZ
von Graf Dürckheim von seinem en/whose%20zen_sharf.pdf.
51
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109 119
Sharf, "The Zen of Japanese Nationalism." Ibid., p. 132.
Available on the Web at:
121
http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZ Ibid., pp. 132-34.
en/whose%20zen_sharf.pdf.
122
Quoted in Victoria, Zen at War, p. 167.
110
Suzuki, "A Reply from D. T. Suzuki,"
123
Encounter 17, No. 4, 1961, p. 44. Wehr, Karlfried Graf Dürckheim: Ein Leben
im Zeichen der Wandlung, p. 120.
111
Sharf, "The Zen of Japanese Nationalism."
123
Available on the Web at: Suzuki, Nihon no Reiseika, p. 7.
http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZ
124
en/whose%20zen_sharf.pdf. Suzuki, "English Diaries," No. 23, 2009, p.
101. For a summary of Suzuki's postwar
112
Wehr, Karlfried Graf Dürckheim – Ein Leben comments on the war see Victoria, Zen at War,
im Zeichen der Wandlung, p. 129. pp. 147-52.
125
113
Ibid., p. 86.
Dürckheim, Hara (audio version).
126
114 Ibid., p. 86.
Dürckheim, Japan und die Kultur der Stille,
p. 51. 127
Suzuki, "English Diaries," No. 21, 2007, p.
115 86.
Dürckheim: Mein Weg zur Mitte, p. 122.
128
116 See Suzuki, "English Diaries," No. 25, 2011.
Quoted in Victoria, Zen at War, p. 139.
Had I received permission to visit Matsugaoka
117
Foster and Snyder, "The Fog of World War II Bunkō, the whereabouts of this missing half-
-- Setting the Record Straight on D.T. Suzuki year plus of Suzuki's diary is one of many
(http://www.tricycle.com/feature/fog-world-war- questions I would have liked to ask. Japan's full-
ii?page=0,0)," tricycle, summer 2010. Available scale invasion of China resulted from an
on the Web. (accessed December 29, 2013). incident that began on evening of July 7, 1937.
118 129
Suzuki, Zen and Japanese Culture, pp. Suzuki, Zen Buddhism and Its Influence on
160-61. Japanese Culture, pp. 45-46.
52